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KASILAG, Mary Joy COTEOK, Monina DONES, Michelle MACARAMPAT, Norhanisah

PH1-01 General Psychology Mr. Del Rosario

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR Heredity transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring Environment anything that affects the individual (physical or psychological) THE NERVOUS SYSTEM - The nervous system is the bodys electrochemical communication circuitry. Important Characteristics of the brain and nervous system: 1. Complexity From the word complex itself, the brain is composed of billions of nerve cells that allow people to talk, think, etc. 2. Integration the brain pulls information together. 3. Adaptability the brain and the nervous system together serve as our agent to adapting to the world. 4. Plasticity denotes the brains special capacity for modification and change. 5. Electrochemical Transmission the brain and the nervous system function essentially as an information processing system, powered by electrical impulses and chemical messengers. Thus, when neurons communicate with each other, they use chemicals. Three pathways of decision making in the nervous system: 1. Afferent nerves sensory nerves that transport information to the brain. 2. Efferent nerves motor nerves that carry the brains output. 3. Neural networks clusters of neurons that are interconnected to process information DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Central Nervous System (CNS) is made up of the brain and spinal cord. More than 99% of the nerve cells in our body are located here. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the network of nerves that connects the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body. The functions of the PNS are to bring information to and from the brain and spinal cord and to carry out the commands of the CNS to execute various muscular and glandular activities. It has two major divisions: 1. Somatic Nervous System (Voluntary) consists of sensory nerves whose function is to convey information to the CNS, and motor nerves, whose function is to transmit information to the muscles. 2. Autonomic Nervous System (Involuntary) communicates with the bodys internal organs. It has two divisions: a. Sympathetic Nervous System Arouses the body b. Parasympathetic Nervous System Calms the body

KASILAG, Mary Joy COTEOK, Monina DONES, Michelle MACARAMPAT, Norhanisah

PH1-01 General Psychology Mr. Del Rosario

NEURONS -

Neurons are cells that specialize in processing information. They make up the communication network of the nervous system. Glial cells perform supportive and nutritive functions for neurons. There are three main parts of the neuron:

1. Cell body contains the nucleus, which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for growth and maintenance. 2. Dendrite receives and orients information toward the cell body; most neurons have numerous dendrites. 3. Axon carries information away from the cell body to other cells; each neuron has only one axon. Myelin Sheath is the layer of fat cells that encases and insulates most axons and also speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses. The Pathway of Message A neuron sends information along its axon in the form of brief electric impulses, or waves. Resting potential is the stable, slightly negative charge of an inactive neuron. When the electrical signals exceed a certain activation threshold, positively charged sodium ions rush into the neuron. The brief wave of electrical charge that sweeps down the axon is called the action potential. The neuron returns to a resting potential as positively charged potassium ions move out of it, returning the neuron to a negative charge. The action potential abides by the all-or-none principle: Its strength does not change during transmission. To go from one neuron to another, information must be converted from an electrical impulse to a chemical messenger called a neurotransmitter. At the synapse where neurons meet, neurotransmitters are released into the narrow gap that separates them. There some neurotransmitter molecules attach to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, where they stimulate another electrical impulse. Neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on the nature of the neural impulse. Neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, GABA, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins. Most drugs that influence behavior do so mainly by mimicking neurotransmitters or interfering with their activity. Neural networks are clusters of neurons that are interconnected to process information. BRAIN Levels of Organization in the Brain 1. Hindbrain The lowest level of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons. 2. Midbrain located between the midbrain and forebrain, a region in which many nerve-fiber systems ascend and descend to connect the higher and lower portions of the brain. a. Reticular formation a midbrain system that consists of a diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotypical behaviors, such as walking, sleeping, or turning to attend a sudden noise.

KASILAG, Mary Joy COTEOK, Monina DONES, Michelle MACARAMPAT, Norhanisah

PH1-01 General Psychology Mr. Del Rosario

b. Brain stem the region of the brain that includes most of the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the midbrain. 3. Forebrain the highest level of the brain. Key structures in the forebrain are the limbic system, thalamus, basal, ganglia, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex. a. Limbic system a loosely connected network of structures including the amygdala and hippocampus that plays important roles in memory and emotion. b. Thalamus forebrain structure that functions as a relay station to sort input and direct it to different areas of the cerebral cortex. It also has ties to the reticular formation. c. Basal ganglia located above the thalamus and under the cerebral cortex, these large clusters of neurons work with the cerebellum and the central cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements. d. Hypothalamus forebrain structure involved in regulating eating, drinking, and sex; directing the endocrine system through the pituitary gland; and monitoring emotion, stress, and reward. CEREBRAL CORTEX The outermost layer of gray matter making up the superficial aspect of the cerebrum. Responsible for higher mental functions, such as thinking and planning. The wrinkled surface of the cerebral cortex is divided into hemispheres. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes: occipital, temporal, frontal, and parietal. Occipital center for vision, processing, integration, interpretation. Temporal center for hearing and smell, organization or comprehension of language Frontal center for motor functions, speech perception, memory formation, emotions, decision making/reasoning, and personality Parietal center for sensory functioning, spatial awareness and perception (Proprioception awareness of body/ body parts in space and in relation to each other)

KASILAG, Mary Joy COTEOK, Monina DONES, Michelle MACARAMPAT, Norhanisah

PH1-01 General Psychology Mr. Del Rosario

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The endocrine system is a set of glands that regulate the activities of certain organs by releasing hormones into the bloodstream.

Endocrine Glands scattered masses of tissue found in various parts of the body Hormones chemical messengers manufactured by the endocrine glands. Pituitary gland an important endocrine gland at the base of the skull that controls growth and regulates other glands. Anterior Lobe - regulates the activity of the thyroid, adrenals, and reproductive glands Hormones it produces: y growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues and plays a role in the body's handling of nutrients and minerals y prolactin, which activates milk production in women who are breastfeeding y thyrotropin, which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones y corticotropin, which stimulates the adrenal gland to produce certain hormones Additions: o secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the nervous system to reduce sensitivity to pain o secretes hormones that signal the ovaries and testes to make sex hormones o controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women Posterior Lobe releases antidiuretic hormone, which helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidneys and urine output releases oxytocin, which triggers the contractions of the uterus that occur during labor

KASILAG, Mary Joy COTEOK, Monina DONES, Michelle MACARAMPAT, Norhanisah

PH1-01 General Psychology Mr. Del Rosario

Adrenal gland important endocrine glands that are instrumental in regulating moods, energy level, and the ability to cope with stress. Adrenal Cortex - outer part; produces hormones called corticosteroids that influence or regulate salt and water balance in the body, the body's response to stress, metabolism, the immune system, and sexual development and function Adrenal Medulla inner part; produces catecholamine, such as epinephrine also called adrenaline, which increases blood pressure and heart rate when the body experiences stress Thyroid Gland located in the front part of the lower neck, is shaped like a bow tie or butterfly and produces the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine, controlling the rate at which cells burn fuels from food to produce energy. As the level of thyroid hormones increases in the bloodstream, so does the speed at which chemical reactions occur in the body. plays a key role in bone growth and the development of the brain and nervous system

*The production and release of thyroid hormones is controlled by thyrotropin, which is secreted by the pituitary gland Parathyroids four tiny glands attached to the thyroid gland; release parathyroid hormone, which regulates the level of calcium in the blood with the help of calcitonin, which is produced in the thyroid Pineal Gland located in the middle of the brain; secretes melatonin, a hormone that may help regulate the wake-sleep cycle Pancreas releases glucagon and insulin that are responsible for raising or lowering the blood sugar Gonads - main source of sex hormones Male (testes) - located in the scrotum - secrete hormones called androgens, the most important of which is testosterone; - these hormones regulate body changes associated with sexual development, including enlargement of the penis, the growth spurt that occurs during puberty, and the appearance of other male secondary sex characteristics such as deepening of the voice, growth of facial and pubic hair, and the increase in muscle growth and strength - Working with hormones from the pituitary gland, testosterone also supports the production of sperm by the testes. Female (ovaries) - located in the pelvis - produce eggs and secrete the female hormones estrogen and progesterone

KASILAG, Mary Joy COTEOK, Monina DONES, Michelle MACARAMPAT, Norhanisah

PH1-01 General Psychology Mr. Del Rosario

Estrogen is involved in the development of female sexual features such as breast growth, the accumulation of body fat around the hips and thighs, and the growth spurt that occurs during puberty Both estrogen and progesterone are also involved in pregnancy and the regulation of the menstrual cycle

BRAIN HEMISPHERES Left -

controls the right side of the body (e.g. right-handed people) governs our ability to express ourselves in language controls our logic, our reasoning, and our analytical thought processes. It can focus on details; however it has difficulty comprehending the whole picture.
y y y y y

Language Logic Critical thinking Numbers Reasoning

Right - controls the left side of the body (e.g. left-handed people) - more specialized for the analysis of space and geometrical shapes and forms, elements that are all present at the same time (not so sequential like language) - the creative half, it can "see" the whole out of parts, thus allowing us to connect puzzle parts together - plays an important role in the comprehension of emotion
y y y y y y y y

Recognizing faces Expressing emotions Music Reading emotions Color Images Intuition Creativity

* In an experiment where subjects were shown pictures of a faces with strong facial expression, the right hemisphere was able to discern the expression more accurately than the left hemisphere * In addition, an experiment was done where subjects listened to verbal messages said with different emotions. The messages were presented to each ear separately. When presented to the left

KASILAG, Mary Joy COTEOK, Monina DONES, Michelle MACARAMPAT, Norhanisah

PH1-01 General Psychology Mr. Del Rosario

hemisphere, the subject was more accurate with regards to the verbal content of the message. However the right hemisphere was more accurate at identifying the emotional tone of the voice. Hemisphere Thinking Cognitive style Language Left Abstract, linear, analytic Rational, logical Rich vocabulary, good grammar and syntax; pose Introspection, will, initiative, sense of self, focus on trees Reading, writing, arithmetic, sensory-motor skills; inhibits psi Sequentially ordered, measured Relatively poor Right Concrete, holistic Intuitive, artistic no grammar, syntax; prosody, poor vocabulary metaphoric, verse Low sense of self, low initiative, focus on forest Three i's, music, rich dream imagery, good face and pattern recognition, open to pressure "Lived" time, primitive time sense Superior, also for shapes, wire figures Primary process, dream-work, free assoc. hallucinations Plato, Dionysian mode, Nietzsche, Jung Koestler's Yogi

Executive capacity Specialized functions

Time experience Spatial orientation

Psychoanalytic aspects Secondary process, ego functions, consciousness; superego Ideal prototype Aristotle, Appollonian mode, Marx, Freud, Koestler's Commissar SPLIT BRAINS -

it denotes complete sectioning of the corpus callosum which connects the right and left hemispheres Split-brain patients have undergone surgery (normally in the treatment of epilepsy) to cut their corpus callosum, which normally joins the two hemispheres and allows an exchange of information from one to the other. While the surgery may relieve the suffering, it has a major side-effect in that the two hemispheres become functionally separate Says our brain can contain two minds, two personalities, "two separate spheres of consciousness" it is possible that all people have two consciousness but that each is only aware of itself

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