TRANSFERENCIA DE CALOR

ENTRE DOS FLUIDOS

El intercambio de calor entre los fluidos es una parte esencial en la mayora de los
procesos qumicos. Los equipos destinados para este fin son los intercambiadores de
calor. La palabra intercambiador realmente se aplica a cualquier tipo de equipo en el cual
el calor es intercambiado, pero frecuentemente es usado en forma especfica para denotar
equipos en donde se intercambia calor entre corrientes de proceso.












Fig. 2.1 Mecanismo de transferencia de calor entre dos fluidos
Como lo muestra la Fig.2.1, para que se produzca la transferencia de calor entre dos
fluidos sin que se mezclen, estos deben estar separados por una pared de material buen
conductor del calor. Luego matemticamente la cantidad de calor que se transfiere entre los
dos fluidos se puede escribir:
dQ = h
A
dA
A
(T
2
T
3
) conveccin a travs de la pelcula de fluido A
dQ = h
dA
dA
dA
(T
3
T
4
) escamas en el lado de fluido A
dQ = k dA
prom
(T
4
T
5
) conduccin a travs de la pared del material
dQ = h
dB
dA
dB
(T
5
T
6
) escamas en el lado del fluido B
dQ = h
B
dA
B
(T
6
T
7
) conveccin a travs de la pelcula de fluido B
Como dQ es constante, al eliminar las temperaturas T
3
, T
4
, T
5
y

T
6
, y aproximando
T
1
= T
2
y

T
7
= T
8
se tiene:
dQ =
B B dB dB prom dA dA A A
dA h dA h kdA
x
dA h dA h
T T
1 1 1 1
8 1
+ + + +

(2.1)
si dA = dA
A
= dA
dA
= dA
prom
= dA
dB
= dA
B
(2.2)
la Ec. 2.1 se puede escribir como:
dQ = U dA (T
1
T
8
) (2.3)
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
T
6
T
7
T
8
Fluido B
(frio)
Fluido A
(caliente
)
Q
Pelcula
de
fluido A




Pelcula
de
fluido B




Escama
s
Escama
s
Pared
donde:
B dB dA A
h h k
x
h h U
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
(2.4)
La cantidad de calor transferido es una funcin de la diferencia de temperatura entre
los dos fluidos. Si esta funcin es lineal se tiene al integrar la Ec. 2.2 entre los limites 1 y 2
que pueden ser el inicio (entrada al equipo) y el trmino (salida del equipo):
Q = UA
sal
ent
sal ent
T
T
T T

ln
(2.5)
Q = UA

L
T
(2.6)
Si la transferencia de calor se efecta a travs de paredes tubulares, no se cumple la
igualdad dada por la Ec. 2.2 por lo que se tiene que hacer una correccin para el
coeficiente total de transferencia de calor dado por la Ec. 2.4 y se tiene:

B dB m
o
i
o
dA i
o
A
h h D
D
k
x
D
D
h D
D
h U
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
(2.7)
Nomenclatura:
Q = carga total de calor o calor transferido : W (Btu/h)
U = coeficiente total de transferencia de calor : W/m
2
.C (Btu/h.pie
2
.F)
A = rea de transferencia de calor : m
2
(pies
2
)

L
T
= diferencia de temperaturas media logartmica ; C (F)
h
A
, h
B
= coeficientes de pelcula individuales para el fluido A y B respectivamente :
W/m
2
.C (Btu/h.pie
2
.F)
h
dA
, h
dB
= coeficientes de incrustacin (deposicin) para el fluido A y B
respectivamente: W/m
2
.C (Btu/h.pie
2
.F)
D
0
= dimetro exterior de la pared del tubo: m (pies)
D
i
= dimetro interior de la pared del tubo: m (pies)
x = espesor de la pared del tubo, (D
0
D
i
)/2 : m (pies)
k = conductividad trmica del material que separa los fluidos: W/m.C (Btu/h.pie.F)
D
m
= dimetro medio de la pared del tubo, m (pies)
- para tubos con espesor de hasta 3/8 de pulgada, D
m
=(D
0
+D
i
)/2
- para tubos con espesores mayores de 3/8 de pulgada, D
m
=
i
o
i o
D
D
D D
ln

x


Fig. 2.2 Pared de un tubo
D
i
D
0
Para las Ecs. Anteriores se tienen en la bibliografa valores para las caractersticas de
la pared del material, conductividades, coeficientes de pelcula individuales, coeficientes
totales aproximados, coeficientes de incrustacin, etc. Para un diseo preliminar se pueden
usar estos valores, dependiendo la exactitud del diseo de la experiencia para usar estos
valores. Para diseos rigurosos se deben calcular los coeficientes de pelcula individuales y
tomar los dems valores de la bibliografa. Los coeficientes de pelcula individuales
dependen del tipo de operacin (con o sin cambio de fase), de las propiedades fsicas del
fluido y de la velocidad con que se muevan las partculas del fluido, siendo afectado
directamente por la velocidad de su movimiento. En muchos textos se tienen tabulados
valores inversos a los coeficientes de incrustacin o deposicin, a los cuales se les
denomina resistencias a la incrustacin y se relacionan por:
r =
d
h
1
: (W/m
2
.C)
-1
(Btu/h.pie
2
.F)
-1
(2.8) ,
con lo cual las Ecs. 2.3 y 2.6 se pueden escribir como:
B
B A
A
h
r
k
x
r
h U
1 1 1
+ + + +
(2.9a) .
B
B
m
o
i
o
A
i
o
A
h
r
D
D
k
x
D
D
r
D
D
h U
1 1 1
+ + + +
(2.9b)
Diseo de Intercambiador de Doble Tubo
Se desea enfriar 2 700 kg/h de tolueno desde 82 C hasta 38 C, para tal efecto se debe
emplear agua como medio de enfriamiento la cual est disponible a 27 C. En la planta se
dispone de tubos de aleacin Cu-Ni de 2 x 1 IPS # 40. Especificar las caractersticas
del intercambiador a usar.
t
2
= ?
Tolueno
T
1
= 82 C T
2
= 38 C
Agua de enfriamiento
t
1
= 27 C
Solucin
1. Propiedades fsicas de los fluidos
Asumiendo que la temperatura de salida del agua de enfriamiento t
2
= 45 C
La temperatura de salida del agua en intercambiadores en lo posible debe ser como
mximo 50
o
( 120
o
F)
Tolueno : T
m
=
2
38 82 +
= 60 C Agua: t
m
=
2
45 27 +
= 36 C
= 865 kg/m
3
= 1000 kg/m
3
C
P
= 2,84 kJ/kg C C
P
= 4,2 kJ/kg C
INTERCAMBIADOR
k = 0,155 W/m K k = 0,62 W/m K
= 0,43 mN s/m
2
= 0,75 mN s/m
2
2. Caractersticas de los tubos
INTERCAMBIADOR IPS
Areas de flujo
D
e Anillo: a
a
Tubo interior: a
t
mm. pulg. Cm
2
. pulg
2
cm
2
. pulg
2
cm. pulg.
50 x 32 2 x 1 7,67 1,19 9,67 1,50 2,32 0,915
Tubo interior:
D
0
= D
1
= 42 mm D
m
=
2
0 i
D D +
= 38 mm
D
i
= 35 mm
x
w
= 7 mm
k
w
= 50 W/m K
Tubo exterior:
Di = D
2
= 5,25 mm
Longitud, L = 4,88 m (16 pies)
3. Carga de calor
Q = m x C
P
x T (se tiene informacin para el tolueno)
Q =
3600
2700
x 2,84 x (82 38) = 93,72 kW
Diferencia de temperaturas: T =
L T
Considerando flujo en contracorriente

L T
=
) 27 45 (
) 37 82 (
ln
) 27 45 ( ) 37 82 (

= 29 C
4. Curso de los fluidos
Cantidad de agua de enfriamiento:
m =
t C
Q
P

=
) 27 42 ( 2 , 4
3600 72 , 93

= 4 462 kg/h
Luego, el curso de los fluidos ser:
Por el tubo interior : a
t
= 9,67 cm
2
se enva el agua, 4 463 kg/h
Por el anillo : a
a
= 7,67 cm
2
se enva el tolueno, 2 700 kg/h
5. Coeficientes individuales de pelcula
5.1. Tubo interior h
t
Usando la Ec. 5.5

G
t
=
t
t
a
m
=
3600 10 67 , 9
4463
4


= 1282 kg/s m
2
R
e
=

i
vD
=

i t
D G
R
e
=
3
3
10 75 , 0
10 35 1282

= 59826
P
r
-
62 , 0
10 75 , 0 10 2 , 4
3 3

= 5,08
Despreciando
) / (
w

L/d
i
= L/D =
35
10 88 , 4
3

= 139
De la Fig. 5.16 J
H
= 3,4 x 10
-3
h
i
= 3,4 x 10
-3

,
_

3
10 35
62 , 0
x 59826 x 5,08
0,33
= 6160 W/m
2
C
5.2. Lado del anillo h
a
Usando la Ec. 5.5

G
a
=
a
a
a
m
=
3600 10 67 , 7
2700
4


= 977 kg/s m
2
R
e
=

e
vD
=

e t
D G
R
e
=
3
3
10 43 , 0
10 23 977

= 52258
P
r
-
155 , 0
10 43 , 0 10 84 , 2
3 3

= 7,87
Despreciando
) / (
w

L/d
i
= L/D =
23
10 88 , 4
3

= 212
De la Fig. 5.16 J
H
= 3,3 x 10
-3
h
0
= 3,3 x 10
-3

,
_

3
10 23
155 , 0
x 52258 x 7,87
0,33
= 2295 W/m
2
C
6. Resistencias a la incrustacin
6.1. Lado del tubo (agua), r
t
= 0,00033 (W/m
2
C)
-1
6.2. Lado del anillo (tolueno), r
a
= 0,00020 (W/m
2
C)
-1
7. Coeficiente total de transferencia de calor Ec. 2.9b

s
s
m
o
i
o
t
i
o
t
h
r
D
D
k
x
D
D
r
D
D
h U
1 1 1
+ + + +


6160
1 1

U 35
42
+ 0,00033
35
42
+
38 50
42 10 7
3

+0,00020+
2295
1
U = 723 W/m
2
C
8. Calcular el rea necesaria para la operacin Ec.2.6 a
A
o
=
L T U
Q

=
29 723
10 72 , 93
3

= 4,47 m
2
9. Longitud total del intercambiador
L
t
=
l
a
A
0
=
0
0
D
A

=
3
10 42
47 , 4

= 33,67 m
A
l
= x D
0
= x 42 x 10
-3
= 0,132 m
2
/metro lineal
Nmero de Horquillas: N
H
=
L
L
t
2
=
88 , 4 2
67 , 33

= 3,45 Horquillas
Se usarn 4 Horquillas
rea de diseo: A
d
= N
H
x 2 x L x a
l
= 4 x 2 x 4,88 x 0,132 = 5.15 m
2
Exceso =
47 , 4
47 , 4 15 , 5
x 100 = 15 por ciento
Este exceso est dentro del rango permitido para compensar las prdidas de calor
10.Cadas de presin P para cada fluido.
10.1. Lado del tubo: Usando la Ec. 5.18
u
t
=

t
G
=
1000
1282
= 1,28 m/s
De la Fig. 5.17; para Re = 59817
f = 3,2 x 10
-3

Despreciando el trmino de correccin para la viscosidad, en la Ec.5.18 se tiene
P
T
= 8 x 3,2 x 10
-3

3
10 35
88 , 4 2 4

2
28 , 1 1000
2

= 23392 N/m
2
= 23,39 kPa (3,57 psi)
10.2. Lado del anillo
Cada de presin en la parte recta del anillo, P
a.
De la Ec. 5.19
u
a
=

a
G
=
865
977
= 1,13 m/s
De la Fig. 5.17; para Re = 52258
f = 3,3 x 10
-3

Despreciando el trmino de correccin para la viscosidad, en la Ec.5.18 se tiene
P
T
= 8 x 3,3 x 10
-3

3
10 23
88 , 4 2 4

2
13 , 1 865
2

= 24747 N/m
2
= 24,74 kPa (3,78 psi)
Cada de presin en las entradas y salidas, P
e,s

-
Se evala a partir de la Ecuacin
(5.20)
P
e,s
= 4
1
]
1

865 3600 2
977
2
2
= 0.0
Luego: P
A
= P
a.
+ P
e,s
= 24,74 kPa (3,78 psi)
La cada de presin est dentro de los lmites permisibles.
11. Tamao de los acoplamientos: Usando la Ec. (5.21) dada para acero al carbono, tanto
para el tubo interior como para el anillo:
11.1. Tubo interior
m = 4463/3600 = 1,239 kg/s
D
c
= 282 (1,239)
0,52
(1000)
-0,37
= 24,47 mm (25 mm)
11.2. Anillo
m = 2700/3600 = 0,75 m/s
D
c
= 282 (0,75)
0,52
(865)
-0,37
= 19,88 mm (20 mm)
Se deben seleccionar los acoplamientos con dimensiones estndar alrededor de los
valores obtenidos.
----O0O----
EVAPORADORES PRIMARY DESIGN PROBLEMS
Heat Transfer: This is the most important single factor in evaporator design, since the
heating surface represents the largest part of evaporator cost. Other things being equal, the
type of evaporator selected is the one having the highest heat-transfer cost coefficient
under desired operating conditions in terms of J/sK (British thermal units per hour per
degree Fahrenheit) per dollar of installed cost. When power is required to induce
circulation past the heating surface, the coefficient must be even higher to offset the cost of
power for circulation. Vapor-Liquid Separation This design problem may be important for
a number of reasons. The most important is usually prevention of entrainment because of
value of product lost, pollution, contamination of the condensed vapor, or fouling or
corrosion of the surfaces on which the vapor is condensed. Vapor-liquid separation in the
vapor head may also be important when spray forms deposits on the walls, when vortices
increase head requirements of circulating pumps, and when short circuiting allows vapor or
unflashed liquid to be carried back to the circulating pump and heating element.
Evaporator performance is rated on the basis of steam economy kilograms of solvent
evaporated per kilogram of steam used. Heat is required (1) to raise the feed from its initial
temperature to the boiling temperature, (2) to provide the minimum thermodynamic energy
to separate liquid solvent from the feed, and (3) to vaporize the solvent. The first of these
can be changed appreciably by reducing the boiling temperature or by heat interchange
between the feed and the residual product and/or condensate. The greatest increase in
steam economy is achieved by reusing the vaporized solvent. This is done in a multiple-
effect evaporator by using the vapor from one effect as the heating medium for another
effect in which boiling takes place at a lower temperature and pressure. Another method of
increasing the utilization of energy is to employ a thermocompression evaporator, in which
the vapor is compressed so that it will condense at a temperature high enough to permit its
use as the heating medium in the same evaporator. Selection Problems Aside from heat-
transfer considerations, the selection of type of evaporator best suited for a particular
service is governed by the characteristics of the feed and product. Points that must be
considered are crystallization, salting and scaling, product quality, corrosion, and foaming.
In the case of a crystallizing evaporator, the desirability of producing crystals of a definite
uniform size usually limits the choice to evaporators having a positive means of
circulation. Salting, which is the growth on body and heating-surface walls of a material
having a solubility that increases with increase in temperature, is frequently encountered in
crystallizing evaporators. It can be reduced or eliminated by keeping the evaporating liquid
in close or frequent contact with a large surface area of crystallized solid. Scaling is the
deposition and growth on body walls, and especially on heating surfaces, of a material
undergoing an irreversible chemicalreaction in the evaporator or having a solubility that
decreases with an increase in temperature. Scaling can be reduced or eliminated in the
same general manner as salting. Both salting and scaling liquids are usually best handled in
evaporators that do not depend on boiling to induce circulation. Fouling is the formation of
deposits other than salt or scale and may be due to corrosion, solid matter entering with the
feed, or deposits formed by the condensing vapor.
Product Quality Considerations of product quality may require low holdup time and low-
temperature operation to avoid thermal degradation. The low holdup time eliminates some
types of evaporators, and some types are also eliminated because of poor heat-transfer
characteristics at low temperature. Product quality may also dictate special materials of
construction to avoid metallic contamination or a catalytic effect on decomposition of the
product. Corrosion may also influence evaporator selection, since the advantages of
evaporators having high heat-transfer coefficients are more apparent when expensive
materials of construction are indicated. Corrosion and erosion are frequently more severe
in evaporators than in other types of equipment because of the high liquid and vapor
velocities used, the frequent presence of solids in suspension, and the necessary
concentration differences.
EVAPORATOR TYPES AND APPLICATIONS
Evaporators may be classified as follows:
1. Heating medium separated from evaporating liquid by tubular heating surfaces.
2. Heating medium confined by coils, jackets, double walls, flat plates, etc.
3. Heating medium brought into direct contact with evaporating liquid.
4. Heating by solar radiation.
By far the largest number of industrial evaporators employ tubular heating surfaces.
Circulation of liquid past the heating surface may be induced by boiling or by mechanical
means. In the latter case, boiling may or may not occur at the heating surface.
Forced-Circulation Evaporators (Fig. 11-122 a, b,c) Although it may not be the most
economical for many uses, the forced-circulation (FC) evaporator is suitable for the widest
variety of evaporator applications. The use of a pump to ensure circulation past the heating
surface makes possible separating the functions of heat transfer, vapor-liquid separation,
and crystallization. The pump withdraws liquor from the flash chamber and forces it
through the heating element back to the flash chamber. Circulation is maintained
regardless of the evaporation rate; so this type of evaporator is well suited to crystallizing
operation, in which solids must be maintained in suspension at all times. The liquid
velocity past the heating surface is limited only by the pumping power needed or available
and by accelerated corrosion and erosion at the higher velocities. Tube velocities normally
range from a minimum of about 1.2 m/s (4 ft/s) in salt evaporators with copper or brass
tubes and liquid containing 5 percent or more solids up to about 3 m/s (10 ft/s) in caustic
evaporators having nickel tubes and liquid containing only a small amount of solids. Even
higher velocities can be used when corrosion is not accelerated by erosion.
Highest heat-transfer coefficients are obtained in FC evaporators when the liquid is
allowed to boil in the tubes, as in the type shown in Fig. 11-122a. The heating element
projects into the vapor head, and the liquid level is maintained near and usually slightly
below the top tube sheet. This type of FC evaporator is not well suited to salting solutions
because boiling in the tubes increases the chances of salt deposit on the walls and the
sudden flashing at the tube exits promotes excessive nucleation and production of fine
crystals. Consequently, this type of evaporator is seldom used except when there are
headroom limitations or when the liquid forms neither salt nor scale.
By far the largest number of forced-circulation evaporators are of the submerged-tube type,
as shown in Fig. 11-122b. The heating element is placed far enough below the liquid level
or return line to the flash chamber to prevent boiling in the tubes. Preferably, the
hydrostatic head should be sufficient to prevent boiling even in a tube that is plugged (and
hence at steam temperature), since this prevents salting of the entire tube. Evaporators of
this type sometimes have horizontal heating elements (usually two-pass), but the vertical
single-pass heating element is used whenever sufficient headroom is available.
The vertical element usually has a lower friction loss and is easier to clean or retube
than a horizontal heater. The submerged-tube forcedcirculation evaporator is relatively
immune to salting in the tubes, since no supersaturation is generated by evaporation in the
tubes. The tendency toward scale formation is also reduced, since supersaturation in the
heating element is generated only by a controlled amount of heating and not by both
heating and evaporation.
The type of vapor head used with the FC evaporator is chosen to suit the product
characteristics and may range from a simple centrifugal separator to the crystallizing
chambers shown in Fig. 11-122b and c. Figure 11-122b shows a type frequently used for
common salt. It is designed to circulate a slurry of crystals throughout the system. Figure
11-122c shows a submerged-tube FC evaporator in which heating, flashing, and
crystallization are completely separated. The crystallizing solids are maintained as a
fluidized bed in the chamber below the vapor head and little or no solids circulate through
the heater. (HAY QUE TRADUCIR ESTA PARTE)
EJERCICIOS:
Una disolucin acuosa de un coloide orgnico se ha de concentrar desde el 10% hasta el
40% en un evaporador simple a razn de 15000 kg/h. El vapor de calefaccin es vapor de
agua saturado a 2 at. y se abandona la cmara de condensacin a la temperatura de
condensacin. En la cmara de evaporacin se mantiene una presin absoluta de 150 mm
Hg. El calor de dilucin y las prdidas de calor al exterior por conveccin y radiacin son
despreciables. El coeficiente integral de transmisin de calor vale 2000 kcal/m
2
*h*C y el
calor especfico de la alimentacin es 0.90 kcal/kg*C. La disolucin puede entrar en el
evaporador a 20C, 50C 80C. Determnese para cada una de las condiciones de
entrada:
a) Consumo de vapor vivo.
b) Superficie de calefaccin.
c) Economa del proceso.
SOLUCIN:
a) El B/M aplicado a la cmara de evaporacin da:
Total Slido Lquido
Solucin diluida 15000 1500 13500
Solucin concentrada 3750 1500 2250
Agua evaporada 11250 11250
En tablas de presin de vapor encontramos que la presin de 150 mm Hg, a la
temperatura de ebullicin de 60C; el calor latente a esta temperatura es 563
kcal/kg. Para el vapor saturado a 2 at la temperatura de condensacin es 119.6C y
el calor latente 526 kcal/kg. De acuerdo con la ecuacin:
Y para las tres posibles temperaturas tenemos:
b) El rea de superficie de calefaccin se determina de acuerdo con la ecuacin:


c) La economa de evaporacin se define por el cociente entre la cantidad de agua
evaporada y el vapor de calefaccin suministrado. Los valores encontrados para las
distintas temperaturas de entrada son:
E
20
= 0.861
E
50
= 0.915
E
80
= 0.976
EJERCICIO:
En un evaporador simple se concentran 20000 kg/h de una disolucin del el 10%
hasta el 50% en peso. EL vapor de calefaccin es vapor saturado a 1.6 at y en la
cmara de evaporacin se mantiene una presin absoluta de 450 mm Hg. Para la
disolucin del 50% el incremento en el punto de ebullicin es de 10C, y el calor
especfico de la disolucin diluida es 0.85 kcal/kg*C. Considerando despreciables los
efectos trmicos de dilucin, hidratacin, etc., determnese el consumo horario de
vapor y la superficie de calefaccin necesaria, si la disolucin entra en el evaporador a
25C y el coeficiente integral de transmisin de calor es 1800 kcal/m
2
*h*C. DATOS:
calor latente de vaporizacin a 86C = 547 kcal/kg, y la entalpa de vapor procedente
de la disolucin referida a 86C y teniendo en cuenta los 10 C de recalentamiento ser
He=547+0.46*10. El calor especfico del vapor de agua = 0.46 kcal/kg.C. EL vapor
saturado a 1.6 at condensa a 112.7C, y el calor de condensacin es 530.6 kcal/kg