RF Planning Guide

CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF
Planning Guide
CDMA/CDMA2000 1X
English
Mar 2002
68P09248A69A
Notice
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Copyright 1998, 2002 Motorola, Inc.
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REV012501
SPECIFICATIONS SUBJECT TO CHANGE WITHOUT NOTICE
i CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Table of Contents
CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide
1 How to Use This Guide
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 3
1.2 Quick Guide to Contents of Each Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 4
2 Basic CDMA Spectrum Planning
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 3
2.2 North American and International Frequency Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 3
2.3 CDMA Channel Spacing - General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 5
2.3.1 Minimum Spacing Between CDMA Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 5
2.3.2 Maximum Spacing Between CDMA Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 8
2.3.3 Multiple Market Spectrum Planning Considerations. . . . . . . . . . 2 - 11
2.3.4 Multiple Carrier Overlay Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 11
2.3.4.1 IS-2000 1X New Carrier Overlay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 14
2.3.4.2 IS-2000 1X Shared Carrier Overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 15
2.3.5 Guard Band Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 15
2.3.5.1 AMPS Guard Band Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 17
2.3.5.2 2nd CDMA Carrier with AMPS Guard Band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 17
2.3.5.3 Greater Than Two CDMA Carriers with AMPS Guard Band . . . . 2 - 18
2.4 Channel Spacing and Designation - 800 MHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 19
2.4.1 Segregated Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 20
2.5 Channel Spacing and Designation - 1900 MHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 23
2.6 Dual-Mode vs. Dual-Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 25
2.7 Spectrum Clearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 25
2.8 Background Noise Measurements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 26
2.8.1 Suggested Measurement Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 27
2.8.1.1 Test System Functional Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 27
2.8.1.2 Test System Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 28
2.8.2 Test Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 29
2.8.3 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 30
2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 30
ii CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Table of Contents - continued
3 CDMA Capacity
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 5
3.2 Reverse Link Pole Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 5
3.2.1 Data Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 11
3.2.2 Median E
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3.2.3 Voice or Data Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 13
3.2.4 Cell Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14
3.2.5 Sectorization Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 15
3.2.6 Power Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 17
3.3 Reverse Link Soft Blocking Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.1 Conventional Blocking Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.2 CDMA Soft Blocking Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.2.1 Assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 19
3.3.2.2 Theoretical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 19
3.3.2.3 Single Cell Case. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 22
3.3.2.4 Multiple Cell System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 23
3.4 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 32
3.4.1 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 32
3.4.2 Reverse Noise Rise Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 33
3.4.3 Probability Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 35
3.4.4 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation Examples . . . . . . 3 - 37
3.4.4.1 Example #1: Voice Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 37
3.4.4.2 Example #2: Voice and Data Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 38
3.4.5 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimates for IS-2000 1X. . . 3 - 41
3.4.5.1 Noise Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 41
3.4.5.2 F-factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 42
3.4.5.3 Average E
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3.4.5.4 E
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Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 43
3.4.5.5 Processing Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 44
3.4.5.6 Activity Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 44
3.4.5.7 Traffic Mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 45
3.4.5.8 Throughput Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 45
3.4.5.9 IS-2000 1X Reverse Noise Rise Capacity Analysis Results . . . . . 3 - 46
3.5 Forward Link Pole Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 52
3.5.1 Forward Link Load Factor Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 52
3.5.2 Forward Link Pole Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 53
3.6 Forward Link Fractional Power Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 54
iii CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
3.7 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 57
3.7.1 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 58
3.7.2 Forward Noise Rise Capacity Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 59
3.7.3 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation Examples . . . . . . 3 - 60
3.7.3.1 Example #1: Voice Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 61
3.7.3.2 Example #2: Voice and Data Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 62
3.7.4 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimates for IS-2000 1X . . 3 - 65
3.7.4.1 Noise Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 65
3.7.4.2 I-factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 66
3.7.4.3 Average E
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3.7.4.4 E
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Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 67
3.7.4.5 Processing Gain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 67
3.7.4.6 Activity Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 68
3.7.4.7 Orthogonality Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 69
3.7.4.8 Traffic Mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 69
3.7.4.9 Throughput Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 69
3.7.4.10 IS-2000 1X Forward Noise Rise Capacity Analysis Results . . . . . 3 - 70
3.8 Forward vs. Reverse Link Capacity Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 76
3.9 EIA/TIA Specifications and RF Air Interface Limitations. . . . . . . . . . 3 - 80
3.9.1 IS-95 Forward Channel Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 80
3.9.2 IS-95 Reverse Channel Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 81
3.9.3 IS-2000 1X Forward Channel Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 82
3.9.3.1 IS-2000 Forward Channels (Motorola Implementation) . . . . . . . . . 3 - 83
3.9.3.2 IS-2000 Forward Link Radio Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 86
3.9.3.3 IS-2000 Walsh Code Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 88
3.9.4 IS-2000 Reverse Channel Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 91
3.9.4.1 IS-2000 Reverse Channels (Motorola Implementation) . . . . . . . . . 3 - 91
3.9.4.2 IS-2000 Reverse Link Radio Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 92
3.10 Handoffs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 94
3.10.1 Soft Handoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 94
3.10.2 Inter-CBSC Soft Handoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 95
3.10.3 Hard Handoffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 95
3.10.3.1 Anchor Handoff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 95
3.10.3.2 IS-95 to IS-2000 Hand-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 95
3.10.3.3 IS-2000 to IS-95 Hand-down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 96
3.10.3.4 Packet Data Handoffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 96
3.10.3.5 Inter-Carrier Hand-across . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 96
3.11 Budgetary Estimate of Sites for Capacity (Voice Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 96
3.11.1 Required Parameters for Initial System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 97
3.11.1.1 Busy Hour Call Attempts and Completions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 97
3.11.1.2 Average Holding Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 97
3.11.1.3 Erlangs per Subscriber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 97
iv CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
3.12 IS-95 and IS-2000 Simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 102
3.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 104
4 Link Budgets and Coverage
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 3
4.2 Radio Frequency Link Budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 4
4.2.1 Propagation Related Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 6
4.2.1.1 Building Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 6
4.2.1.2 Vehicle Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 9
4.2.1.3 Body Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 9
4.2.1.4 Ambient Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 9
4.2.1.5 RF Feeder Losses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 9
4.2.1.6 Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 12
4.2.2 CDMA Specific Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 14
4.2.2.1 Interference Noise Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 14
4.2.2.2 Soft Handoff Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 18
4.2.2.3 E
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4.2.3 Product Specific Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 20
4.2.3.1 Product Transmit Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 20
4.2.3.2 Product Receiver Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 24
4.2.4 Reliability (Shadow Fade Margin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 29
4.2.5 Example Reverse (Uplink - Subscriber to Base) Link Budget. . . 4 - 36
4.2.6 RF Link Budget Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 40
4.3 Propagation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 41
4.3.1 Free Space Propagation Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 41
4.3.2 Hata Propagation Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 43
4.3.3 COST-231-Hata Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 44
4.3.4 Additional Propagation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 45
4.4 Forward Link Coverage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 46
4.4.1 BTS Equipment Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 47
4.4.2 CDMA Signal Power Distribution Characteristics and PA Sizing 4 - 51
4.4.3 General Power Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 51
4.4.4 Design Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 53
4.4.4.1 Comparison to Average Rated Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 53
4.4.4.2 Comparison to High Power Alarm Rating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 54
4.4.4.3 Comparison to Walsh Code Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 54
4.4.5 General Power Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 54
4.4.5.1 Minimum ARP Based on LT-AVG Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 55
4.4.5.2 Minimum HPA Based on VST-AVG Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 56
4.4.5.3 Exceeding the High Power Alarm Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 56
4.4.5.4 Carrier Load Management Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 57
v CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
4.4.6 Power Allocation in Mixed Mode Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 58
4.4.7 Government Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 65
4.5 CDMA Repeaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 65
4.5.1 CDMA Repeater Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 66
4.5.1.1 Coverage Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 66
4.5.1.2 Cascaded Noise Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 69
4.5.1.3 Interference and Capacity Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 73
4.5.1.4 Filtering Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 73
4.5.2 CDMA Repeater Installation Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 74
4.5.2.1 Antenna Isolation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 74
4.5.2.2 Repeater Antenna Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 77
4.5.2.3 Repeater Gain Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 78
4.5.3 CDMA Repeater Optimization Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 79
4.5.3.1 Timing Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 79
4.5.3.2 Optimization Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 81
4.5.4 CDMA Repeater Maintenance Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 81
4.5.4.1 Future Expansion Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 82
4.5.4.2 Environmental Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 83
4.5.4.3 Operations and Maintenance Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 83
4.6 Theoretical vs. Simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 83
4.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 85
5 PN Offset Planning and Search Windows
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 3
5.2 Number of Pilot Offsets per CDMA Frequency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 3
5.3 PN Offset Planning - General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 3
5.3.1 Consequences and Sources of Offset Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 3
5.3.2 PN Offset Planning - Parameters and Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 5
5.3.3 Converting Between Chips and Time or Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 8
5.3.4 Search Windows and Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 9
5.3.5 Search Windows and Scan Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 11
5.4 PN Offset Planning - Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 12
5.4.1 Mitigating Adjacent Offset Interference - General . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 12
5.4.1.1 Adjacent Offset Interference Protection Based on Timing . . . . . . . 5 - 12
5.4.1.2 Adjacent Offset Interference Protection Based on Signal Strength 5 - 14
5.4.2 Protection Against Co-Offset Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 15
5.4.3 Incorrect Identification of an Offset by the Base Station. . . . . . . 5 - 18
5.4.4 PILOT_INC and the Scan Rate of Remaining Set Pilots. . . . . . . 5 - 19
5.4.5 Summary of Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 20
vi CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
5.4.6 Guidelines for Assigning Offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 22
5.4.7 Guidelines for Changing PILOT_INC
at Inter-CBSC Boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 25
5.5 Reuse Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 26
5.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 27
6 RF Antenna Systems
6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 3
6.2 CDMA Cell Site Antenna Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 3
6.2.1 Antenna Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 3
6.2.2 Antenna Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 4
6.2.3 Antenna Beamwidth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 6
6.2.4 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 6
6.2.5 Return Loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 6
6.2.6 Power Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 7
6.2.7 Front to Back Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 7
6.2.8 Side Lobes & Back Lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 7
6.2.9 Antenna Downtilting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 8
6.2.10 Antenna Height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 8
6.3 CDMA Antenna Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 9
6.3.1 Antenna Isolation Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 9
6.3.1.1 CDMA/AMPS Transmit/Receive Antenna Isolation Requirements 6 - 10
6.3.1.2 Measuring Port-to-Port Antenna Isolation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 13
6.3.1.3 Reducing the Required Antenna Isolation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 13
6.3.1.4 Typical Antenna Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 14
6.3.1.5 CDMA Antenna Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 14
6.3.2 Antenna Diversity (Spacial) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 15
6.3.2.1 Horizontal Antenna Diversity and Recommended Separation . . . 6 - 16
6.3.2.2 Vertical Antenna Diversity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 16
6.4 CDMA Antenna Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 17
6.4.1 Multiple Frame Antenna Sharing with 800 MHz BTS Products . 6 - 17
6.4.2 Multiple Carrier Cavity Combining
With 1900 MHz BTS Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 20
6.4.2.1 Output Power Without Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 20
6.4.2.2 Type of Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 20
6.4.2.3 Multiple Carrier Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 21
6.4.3 Duplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 22
6.4.3.1 Pre-Engineered Kits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 23
6.4.3.2 Duplexers and Intermodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 23
6.4.3.3 Proper Installation and Maintenance of Duplexed Antennas . . . . 6 - 24
vii CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
6.5 CDMA Antenna Sharing With Other Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 28
6.5.1 SC9600 BTS/HDII Shared Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 28
6.5.1.1 Common Transmit Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 29
6.5.1.2 Common Receive Antenna(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 32
6.5.2 Duplexed AMPS/CDMA Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 39
6.6 GPS Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 41
6.7 Ancillary Antenna System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 41
6.7.1 Directional Couplers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 41
6.7.2 Surge (Lightning) Protectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 41
6.7.3 Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 42
6.7.3.1 RF Performance of Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 42
6.7.3.2 Physical Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 42
6.7.3.3 Choice of Transmission Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 43
6.7.4 Transition Feeder Cables (Jumper Cables). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 43
6.8 RF Diagnostic System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 44
7 RF Antenna Systems - Advanced Topics
7.1 Dual Polarized Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 3
7.1.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 3
7.1.1.1 Dual Polarization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 3
7.1.1.2 Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 4
7.1.1.3 Diversity Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 5
7.1.1.4 Cross-Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 7
7.1.2 Isolation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 11
7.1.3 Performance Impacts - Industry and Motorola Findings . . . . . . . 7 - 12
7.1.4 Antenna Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 14
7.1.4.1 Dual Polarized Antennas versus Singularly Polarized Antennas . . 7 - 14
7.1.4.2 Antenna Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 15
7.1.5 Transmission at 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 15
7.1.6 Incorporation of Dual Polarized Antennas into a Link Budget . . 7 - 16
7.1.7 Dual Polarized Antenna Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 17
7.2 In-Building Distributed Antenna Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 18
7.2.1 In-Building System Architecture Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 19
7.2.2 Coaxial Cable System Design Using A Link Budget. . . . . . . . . . 7 - 20
7.2.2.1 Design Procedure Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 20
7.2.2.2 Gathering Building Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 21
7.2.2.3 Determining the Base Station Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 23
7.2.2.4 Estimating the Antenna Placement within the Building . . . . . . . . . 7 - 24
7.2.2.5 Selecting the Antenna Type: Omni vs. Directional . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 24
7.2.2.6 Choosing the Base Station Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 25
viii CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
7.2.2.7 Choosing the Cable Topology: Splitters, Couplers, and Taps . . . . 7 - 25
7.2.2.8 Estimating Cable Lengths from the Base Station to the Antennas 7 - 30
7.2.2.9 Selecting the Coaxial Cable Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 30
7.2.2.10 Link Budgets For In-Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 32
7.2.2.11 Evaluating the First Pass and Iterating the Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 38
7.2.3 Active Coaxial Cable System Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 38
7.2.3.1 Downlink Amplifier Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 39
7.2.3.2 Uplink Amplifier Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 40
7.2.3.3 Optimizing Amplifier Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 45
7.2.4 Fiber Optics for In-Building Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 47
7.2.4.1 Fiber Optic Distribution System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 47
7.2.4.2 When To Use Fiber Optics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 47
7.2.4.3 Fiber Optic System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 48
7.2.5 In-Building Antenna Systems Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 49
7.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 50
8 Synchronization of the CDMA System
8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 3
8.2 Base Station Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 3
8.3 Synchronization Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 5
8.3.1 Global Positioning System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 5
8.3.2 Low Frequency Receiver (LFR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 6
8.3.3 High Stability Oscillator (HSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 7
8.4 Synchronization Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 7
8.5 Synchronization Source Antenna Planning and Installation . . . . . . . . 8 - 8
8.5.1 GPS Antenna/Preamplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 9
8.5.1.1 Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 9
8.5.1.2 Cabling Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 10
8.5.1.3 Multiple Frame GPS Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 10
8.5.2 Remote GPS Antenna/Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 11
8.5.2.1 RGPS Receiver Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 13
8.5.2.3 Multiple Frame RGPS Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 15
8.5.3 LFR Antenna / Preamplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 16
8.5.3.1 Specifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 17
ix CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
9 Inter-System Interference (ISI)
9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 3
9.2 Cellular/PCS Inter-System Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 3
9.2.1 Intra-Band Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 4
9.2.1.1 AMPS Cells to CDMA Subscribers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 6
9.2.1.2 AMPS Subscribers to CDMA Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 9
9.2.1.3 CDMA Cells to AMPS Subscribers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 9
9.2.1.4 CDMA Subscribers to AMPS Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 9
9.2.2 Inter-Band Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 10
9.2.2.1 Preventative Measures: BS-to-BS Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 13
9.2.2.2 Preventative Measures: Subscriber-to-Subscriber Interference . . . 9 - 27
9.3 PCS and Microwave Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 28
9.3.1 PCS to Microwave Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 28
9.3.1.1 Coordination Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 29
9.3.1.2 Propagation Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 30
9.3.1.3 Power Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 34
9.3.1.4 Microwave Receiver Interference Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 35
9.3.1.5 PCS to Microwave Interference Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 37
9.3.2 Microwave to PCS Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 38
9.3.2.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 38
9.3.2.2 Calculation of Nominal Noise Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 38
9.3.2.3 Calculation of Effective Interference Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 39
9.3.2.4 Calculation of Effective Noise Figure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 39
9.3.2.5 Microwave to PCS Interference Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 40
9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 40
APPENDICES:
I Terms and Acronyms
I.1 Terms and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I - 3
II Glossary
II.1 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II - 3
III Watts to dBm Conversion Table
III.1 Watts to dBm Conversion Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III - 3
IV Complementary Error Function Table
IV.1 Complementary Error Function Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV - 3
x CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
NOTES
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xi CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
List of Figures
Figure 1-1: Radio Sub-System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 3
Figure 2-1: 3G Spectrum Allocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 5
Figure 2-2: Minimum Spacing Between 800 MHz CDMA Channels . . . . . . . 2 - 6
Figure 2-3: Minimum Spacing Between 1900 MHz CDMA Channels . . . . . . 2 - 6
Figure 2-4: Adjacent Channel Interference Reverse Rise Estimates . . . . . . . . 2 - 7
Figure 2-5: Total Channel Numbers Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 9
Figure 2-6: Assign Guard Band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 9
Figure 2-7: Assign 1st and Last CDMA Carries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 10
Figure 2-8: Equally Distribute Remaining CDMA Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 10
Figure 2-9: 1-to-1 Overlay Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 12
Figure 2-10: Non 1-to-1 Overlay Examples (NOT Recommended). . . . . . . . . . 2 - 12
Figure 2-11: Service Acquisition Issues Due To Uneven Carrier Coverage . . . 2 - 13
Figure 2-12: New IS-2000 1X Carrier Deployment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 14
Figure 2-13: Second IS-2000 1X Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 14
Figure 2-14: IS-2000 1X Shared Carrier Overlay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 15
Figure 2-15: Calculation of Spectrum Required for a CDMA Carrier . . . . . . . . 2 - 17
Figure 2-16: Calculation of Minimum Spectrum Required
for Two CDMA Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 17
Figure 2-17: 2
nd
CDMA Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 18
Figure 2-18: 3
rd
CDMA Carrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 18
Figure 2-19: AMPS Frequency Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 20
Figure 2-20: Segregated Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 22
Figure 2-21: Suggested CDMA Noise Floor Measurement System. . . . . . . . . . 2 - 28
Figure 3-1: Impact of E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) on the Number of Users. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 12
Figure 3-2: Impact of Voice or Data Activity on the Number of Users . . . . . . 3 - 13
Figure 3-3: Impact of Other Cell Interference on the Number of Users . . . . . . 3 - 14
Figure 3-4: Impact of Sectorization Gain on the Number of Users (3 Sector) . 3 - 16
Figure 3-5: Impact of Imperfect Power Control on the Number of Users . . . . 3 - 17
Figure 3-6: Values of the Integral and
with Various Path Loss Slope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 26
Figure 3-7: Probability of Blocking vs. Erlangs per CDMA Sector with
Various Path Loss Slope Values with Rate Set 1 Vocoder . . . . . . 3 - 28
Figure 3-8: Probability of Blocking vs. Erlangs per CDMA Sector with Various
Power Control Standard Deviations with Rate Set 1 Vocoder. . . . 3 - 29
Figure 3-9: Probability of Blocking vs. Erlangs per CDMA Sector with
Various Path Loss Slope Values with Rate Set 2 Vocoder . . . . . . 3 - 30
I , ( ) I 2 , ( )
xii CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
List of Figures - continued
Figure 3-10: Probability of Blocking vs. Erlangs per CDMA Sector with Various
Power Control Standard Deviations with Rate Set 2 Vocoder . . . . 3 - 31
Figure 3-11: Rise versus Percent of Pole Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 33
Figure 3-12: Standard Normal Distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 35
Figure 3-13: Rise and Radius versus Loading Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 36
Figure 3-14: Reverse Link Rise vs. Throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 49
Figure 3-15: Reverse Link Rise vs. Erlangs for Different Data Rates . . . . . . . . 3 - 50
Figure 3-16: Reverse Link Total Erlangs & Throughput vs.
Data Activity Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 51
Figure 3-17: Forward Link Rise vs. Throughput. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 73
Figure 3-18: Forward Link Rise vs. Erlangs for Different Data Rates . . . . . . . . 3 - 74
Figure 3-19: Forward Link Total Erlangs & Throughput vs.
Figure 3-20: Forward and Reverse Link Rise vs.
Throughput - 95% Probability Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 76
Figure 3-21: Forward and Reverse Link Rise vs.
Erlangs for Different Data Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 77
Figure 3-22: Forward and Reverse Link Erlangs & Thruput vs.
Figure 3-23: Alternate Forward and Reverse Link Erlangs & Thruput vs.
Figure 3-24: Example of IS-95 Forward CDMA Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 80
Figure 3-25: Example of IS-95 Reverse CDMA Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 82
Figure 3-26: Example of IS-2000 Forward CDMA Channels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 83
Figure 3-27: QPCH to PCH Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 85
Figure 3-28: IS-2000 Walsh Code Tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 89
Figure 3-29: Walsh Code Allocation Tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 90
Figure 3-30: Walsh Code Allocation Tree. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 90
Figure 3-31: Example of IS-2000 Reverse CDMA Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 91
Figure 3-32: Subscriber Distribution of Chicago Metropolitan Area . . . . . . . . . 3 - 98
Figure 4-1: Percentage of Cells Based on dB Changes to the Link Budget . . . 4 - 4
Figure 4-2: RF Link Budget Gains & Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 5
Figure 4-3: In-Building Propagation Scenarios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 6
Figure 4-4: Preferred FWT Locations Without External Antennas. . . . . . . . . . 4 - 8
Figure 4-5: Typical Components in the RF Feeder Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 11
Figure 4-6: Rise (dB) at the cell of interest versus
X (% load) at the cell of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 18
Figure 4-7: Example of Two Different Receive Path Configurations . . . . . . . 4 - 27
Figure 4-8: Impact of Fade Margin on Reliability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 30
Figure 4-9: Edge Reliability vs. Fade Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 32
Figure 4-10: Area Reliability vs. Fade Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 33
Figure 4-11: Area Reliability as a Function of Shadow Fade Margin. . . . . . . . . 4 - 35
Figure 4-12: Edge Reliability as a Function of Shadow Fade Margin . . . . . . . . 4 - 36
Figure 4-13: Impact of dB Trade-off to Number of Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 41
xiii CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Figure 4-14: Typical Repeater Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 66
Figure 4-15: Repeater Range Analysis Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 67
Figure 4-16: Alternate Repeater Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 68
Figure 4-17: Cabled Cascaded Noise Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 69
Figure 4-18: Base Station & Repeater Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 70
Figure 4-19: Repeater Cascaded Noise Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 71
Figure 4-20: Multiple Repeater Cascaded Noise Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 72
Figure 4-21: Alternate Repeater Antenna Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 75
Figure 4-22: Horizontal Separation Using a Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 75
Figure 4-23: Micro-wave Linked Repeater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 76
Figure 4-24: Fiber Linked Repeater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 76
Figure 4-25: Potential Range Reduction Due to Repeaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 78
Figure 5-1: PN Offset Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 5
Figure 5-2: Short PN Sequence w/PILOT_INC = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 5
Figure 5-3: Subscriber Location Relative to Search Window. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 9
Figure 5-4: Search Windows in Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 10
Figure 5-5: Minimum Distance for Adjacent Offset Interference . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 13
Figure 5-6: Active Window Interference Timing Criteria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 15
Figure 5-7: Neighbor Window Interference Timing Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 16
Figure 5-8: Active and Neighbor Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 17
Figure 5-9: Phase Measurement Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 18
Figure 5-10: Adjacent Sector and Adjacent Site
Offset Assignment Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 22
Figure 5-11: Inter-CBSC PILOT_INC Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 25
Figure 6-1: dBd vs. dBi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 5
Figure 6-2: The Relationship of Antenna Height to Number of Cell Sites. . . . 6 - 9
Figure 6-3: Antenna Placement - Shared Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 14
Figure 6-4: Antenna Placement - Separate Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 15
Figure 6-5: SC4812T to SC4812T Expansion Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 17
Figure 6-6: SC2450 to SC4812T Expansion Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 18
Figure 6-7: SC2400 ELPA to SC4812T Expansion Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 19
Figure 6-8: SC9600 SIF to SC4812T Expansion Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 19
Figure 6-9: SC9600 SIF & LPA with SC4812T Modem Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 20
Figure 6-10: 2 Carrier Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 21
Figure 6-11: 8 Carrier Configuration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 22
Figure 6-12: Duplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 22
Figure 6-13: Two Tone IM Test Set Up (800 MHz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 27
Figure 6-14: SC9600 LPA Used by HDII Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 29
Figure 6-15: HDII LPA Used by SC9600 CDMA Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 30
Figure 6-16: HDII LPA Used by SC9600-D CDMA Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 31
Figure 6-17: SC9600-D CDMA-AMPS Configuration,
Shared Sector HDII Multicoupler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 33
Figure 6-18: SC9600-D CDMA-AMPS Configuration,
Shared Omni HDII Multicoupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 34
xiv CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Figure 6-19: SC9600 CDMA-AMPS Configuration,
Figure 6-23: SC4812T CDMA-AMPS Configuration,
Figure 6-24: SC4812T CDMA-AMPS Configuration,
Figure 6-25: CDMA-AMPS Config., Shared SC9600 SIF frame,
AMPS/NAMPS Sector Rx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 38
Figure 6-26: CDMA-AMPS Config., Shared SC9600 SIF Frame,
AMPS/NAMPS Omni Rx. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 38
Figure 6-27: CDMA Duplexing Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 39
Figure 7-1: Dual Polarization Antenna Element Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 4
Figure 7-2: Probability Distribution SNR for
M-branch Selection Diversity System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 7
Figure 7-3: Rayleigh Probability Density Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 8
Figure 7-4: Reception of Highly Correlated Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 8
Figure 7-5: Reception of Uncorrelated Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 9
Figure 7-6: Correlated Signal Diversity Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 10
Figure 7-7: Uncorrelated Signal Diversity Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 10
Figure 7-8: Uncorrelated Signal Diversity Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 11
Figure 7-9: Theoretical Model for Base Station Polarization Diversity . . . . . . 7 - 11
Figure 7-10: Tx, Rx and Diversity Rx Antenna Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 16
Figure 7-11: Coaxial Cable Design Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 19
Figure 7-12: Fiber Optic Design Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 20
Figure 7-13: Coax Design Flow Chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 21
Figure 7-14: "Bow Tie" Antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 25
Figure 7-15: Schematic Diagram of a Power Tap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 26
Figure 7-16: Typical Tap Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 27
Figure 7-17: Diagram of a Power Splitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 27
Figure 7-18: Schematic of a Directional Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 28
Figure 7-19: Parallel Power Distribution Using a Power Splitter . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 29
Figure 7-20: Series Power Distribution Using Directional Couplers . . . . . . . . . 7 - 29
Figure 7-21: Radiating Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 31
Figure 7-22: Radiating Cable Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 31
Figure 7-23: Radiating Cable Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 32
Figure 7-24: Link Budget Block Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 33
Figure 7-25: Maximum Coverage Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 34
Figure 7-26: Multiple Floor Coverage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 34
xv CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Figure 7-27: Logarithmic Path Loss Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 35
Figure 7-28: Linear Path Loss Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 36
Figure 7-29: Measurement System Test Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 37
Figure 7-30: Bi-Directional Amplifier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 38
Figure 7-31: Uni-Directional Uplink Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 39
Figure 7-32: Downlink Amplifier Gain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 40
Figure 7-33: Effect of a 10 dB Noise Figure Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 41
Figure 7-34: Noise Figure of a Lossy Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 41
Figure 7-35: Cascaded System Noise Figure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 42
Figure 7-36: Uplink Amplifier Gain Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 43
Figure 7-37: Noise Summing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 44
Figure 7-38: Amplifier Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 45
Figure 7-39: Amplifier Performance vs. Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 46
Figure 7-40: Fiber Optic Star Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 47
Figure 7-41: Fiber Uplink Noise Summing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 49
Figure 8-1: CDMA Cell site Synchronization Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 5
Figure 8-2: Single and Multi-Frame RF GPS Configurations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 11
Figure 8-3: Single and Multi-Frame Remote GPS Configurations . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 13
Figure 8-4: BTS to RGPS Cable Connector Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 15
Figure 8-5: Remote GPS Distribution Box Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 16
Figure 9-1: Intra-Band Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 4
Figure 9-2: Example of a (1:3) Overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 5
Figure 9-3: AMPS System with a Larger CDMA Site Overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 7
Figure 9-4: Required CDMA Signal Strength vs.
Interfering AMPS Signal Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 8
Figure 9-5: Inter-Band Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 10
Figure 9-6: AMPS/TACS/GSM Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 11
Figure 9-7: DCS 1800 and PCS 1900 Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 12
Figure 9-8: Transmitter Spectral Mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 16
Figure 9-9: Interfering Transmit Carrier and Sideband Emission Spectrum. . . 9 - 16
Figure 9-10: Transmitter IM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 19
Figure 9-11: Interfering Transmit Carriers and Intermodulation Spectrum . . . . 9 - 20
Figure 9-12: Receiver IM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 21
Figure 9-13: Victim Receiver Out-of-Band Intermodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 22
Figure 9-14: External IM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 23
Figure 9-15: Victim Receiver Out-of-Band Desensitization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 24
Figure 9-16: The PCS Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 28
Figure 9-17: Example Coordination Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 30
Figure 9-18: Propagation Curves for High PCS Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 33
Figure 9-19: Propagation Curves for Low PCS Antennas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 33
Figure 9-20: Example Aggregated Service Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 34
Figure 9-21: Example C/I Curves for a 10 MHz Microwave Receiver. . . . . . . . 9 - 35
xvi CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
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xvii CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
List of Tables
Table 1-1: Quick Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 4
Table 2-1: Some Common World-Wide Frequency Bands
for Cellular and PCS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 3
Table 2-2: CDMA Channel Spacing and Designation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 19
Table 2-3: Channel Numbers and Frequencies for Band Class 0
and Spreading Rate 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 19
Table 2-4: CDMA Channel Number to
CDMA Frequency Assignment Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 20
Table 2-5: 7 Cell (120), 21 Channel Spacing, "B" Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 21
Table 2-6: Band Class 1 System Frequency Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 23
Table 2-7: CDMA Channel Number to CDMA Frequency Assignment. . . . . 2 - 23
Table 2-8: Channel Numbers and Frequencies for Band Class 1
Table 2-9: Preferred Set of Frequency Assignments for Band Class 1
Table 3-1: Samples of Various f Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14
Table 3-2: Propagation Path Loss in Different Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 24
Table 3-3: Probability Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 36
Table 3-4: Interference Rise Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 41
Table 3-5: F-factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 42
Table 3-6: IS-2000 1X Average E
b
/N
o
Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 44
Table 3-7: Traffic Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 45
Table 3-8: Reverse Capacity per Sector
for Various Probabilities of Rise - Pedestrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 47
Table 3-9: Reverse Capacity per Sector
for Various Probabilities of Rise - Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 48
Table 3-10: Example of Parameter Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 55
Table 3-11: Interference Rise Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 65
Table 3-12: I-factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 66
b
/N
o
Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 68
Table 3-14: Traffic Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 69
Table 3-15: Forward Capacity per Sector
for Various Probabilities of Rise - Pedestrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 71
Table 3-16: Forward Capacity per Sector
for Various Probabilities of Rise - Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 72
Table 3-17: IS-2000 Forward Link Radio Configurations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 86
Table 3-18: Forward Link Radio Configuration Support for CBSC Release 16 3 - 87
xviii CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
List of Tables - continued
Table 3-19: Forward Link Channel Element Resource Requirement . . . . . . . . 3 - 88
Table 3-20: IS-2000 Reverse Link Radio Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 93
Table 3-21: Reverse Link Radio Configuration Support for CBSC Release 16 3 - 93
Table 3-22: Reverse Link Channel Element Resource Requirement . . . . . . . . . 3 - 94
Table 3-23: Subscriber Distribution of Chicago Metropolitan Area . . . . . . . . . 3 - 99
Table 3-24: Chicago Metropolitan Area Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 101
Table 4-1: Example Building Penetration Losses (800 & 1900 MHz) . . . . . . 4 - 7
Table 4-2: Example of Main Transmission Line Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 10
Table 4-3: Processing Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 24
Table 4-4: Receive Path Noise Figures and Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 27
Table 4-5: Link Budget Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 28
Table 4-6: Example of an IS-95 CDMA Reverse RF Link Budget . . . . . . . . . 4 - 37
Table 4-7: Example of an IS-2000 1X CDMA RF Link Budget . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 39
Table 4-8: PA Ratings for Some BTS Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 47
Table 4-9: BTS Pilot Power Adjustment Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 49
Table 4-10: Relative Tx & Rx Link Difference Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 79
Table 5-1: Search Window Size vs. Neighbor Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 11
Table 5-2: Distance/Timing Restriction on Adjacent Interference . . . . . . . . . 5 - 13
Table 5-3: Pilot Sequence Offset Index Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 14
Table 5-4: Estimates of Reuse Distance and Cluster Size Based on Timing. . 5 - 16
Table 5-5: Calculation of Reuse Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 18
Table 5-6: Summary of PN Offset Planning Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 20
Table 5-7: Offset Groupings for PILOT_INC = 2 (also 4, 6, 8, and 12) . . . . . 5 - 23
Table 5-8: Offset Groupings for PILOT_INC = 3 (also 6 and 12). . . . . . . . . . 5 - 23
Table 5-9: Reuse Pattern Coordinates, i & j, and Cluster Size, N, and D/R . . 5 - 26
Table 6-1: CDMA Carrier Frequency Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 4
Table 6-2: PCS Carrier Frequency Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 4
Table 6-3: Degradation to Sensitivity Based on Noise Level Below kTBF . . 6 - 11
Table 6-4: Antenna Isolation Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 13
Table 6-5: Duplexer Frequency Response Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 23
Table 6-6: Minimum IM Orders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 24
Table 6-7: Possible Duplexed Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 39
Table 6-8: Transmission Line Performance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 43
Table 6-9: Transition Cable Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 44
Table 7-1: Motorola Data Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 14
Table 7-2: Building Topology Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 23
Table 7-3: Estimated Coverage Radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 24
Table 7-4: Typical Values for Power Splitters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 28
Table 7-5: Path Loss Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 35
Table 7-6: Average Floor Loss Attenuation Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 36
Table 8-1: BTS to RGPS Cable Wiring Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 15
Table 9-1: Cellular Spectrum Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 11
Table 9-2: Inter-Band Interference Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 12
Table 9-3: Example IM Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 18
xix CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Table 9-4: Partial Example of Base Station Transmitter Specifications . . . . . 9 - 25
Table 9-5: DCS 1800 Base Station Transmitter Specifications (GSM 05.05). 9 - 25
Table 9-6: Partial Example of Base Station Receiver Specifications . . . . . . . 9 - 26
Table 9-7: In-Band GSM Base Station Receiver Blocking
Specifications (GSM 05.05) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 26
Table 9-8: Out-of-Band GSM Base Station Receiver Blocking
Specifications (GSM 05.05) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 26
Table 9-9: Inter-Band Interference Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 27
Table III-1: Watts to dBm Conversion Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III - 3
Table IV-1: Complementary Error Function, Q(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV - 3
xx CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
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Foreword
Mar 2002
xxi
Scope of manual
This manual is intended for use by cellular telephone system
craftspersons in the day-to-day operation of Motorola cellular system
equipment and ancillary devices. It is assumed that the user of this
information has a general understanding of telephony, as used in the
operation of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), and is
familiar with these concepts as they are applied in the cellular
mobile/portable radiotelephone environment. The user, however, is not
expected to have any detailed technical knowledge of the internal
operation of the equipment.
This manual is not intended to replace the system and equipment
training offered by Motorola, although it can be used to supplement or
enhance the knowledge gained through such training.
Text conventions
The following special paragraphs are used in this manual to point out
information that must be read. This information may be set-off from the
surrounding text, but is always preceded by a bold title in capital letters.
The four categories of these special paragraphs are:
Presents additional, helpful, non-critical information that
you can use.
NOTE
Presents information to help you avoid an undesirable
situation or provides additional information to help you
understand a topic or concept.
IMPORTANT
*
Presents information to identify a situation in which
equipment damage could occur, thus avoiding damage to
equipment.
CAUTION
Presents information to warn you of a potentially
hazardous situation in which there is a possibility of
personal injury.
WARNING
Foreword continued
CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
xxii
The following typographical conventions are used for the presentation of
software information:
S In text, sans serif BOLDFACE CAPITAL characters (a type style
without angular strokes: i.e., SERIF versus SANS SERIF) are used
to name a command.
S In text, typewriter style characters represent prompts and the
system output as displayed on an operator terminal or printer.
S In command definitions, sans serif boldface characters represent
those parts of the command string that must be entered exactly as
shown and typewriter style characters represent command output
responses as displayed on an operator terminal or printer.
S In the command format of the command definition, typewriter
style characters represent the command parameters.
Changes to manual
Changes that occur after the printing date are incorporated into your
manual by Cellular Manual Revisions (CMRs). The information in this
manual is updated, as required, by a CMR when new options and
procedures become available for general use or when engineering
changes occur. The cover sheet(s) that accompany each CMR should be
retained for future reference. Refer to the Revision History page for a list
of all applicable CMRs contained in this manual.
Receiving updates
Technical Education & Documentation (TED) maintains a customer
database that reflects the type and number of manuals ordered or shipped
since the original delivery of your Motorola equipment. Also identified
in this database is a key individual (such as Documentation
Coordinator or Facility Librarian) designated to receive manual updates
from TED as they are released.
To ensure that your facility receives updates to your manuals, it is
important that the information in our database is correct and up-to-date.
Therefore, if you have corrections or wish to make changes to the
information in our database (i.e., to assign a new key individual),
please contact Technical Education & Documentation at:
MOTOROLA, INC.
Technical Education & Documentation
1 Nelson C. White Parkway
Mundelein, Illinois 60060
U.S.A.
Phone:
Within U.S.A. and Canada 800-872-8225 . . . . .
Outside of U.S.A. and Canada +1-847-4355700 . .
FAX: +1-847-4355541 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foreword continued
Mar 2002
xxiii
Reporting manual errors
In the event that you locate an error or identify a deficiency in your
manual, please take time to write to us at the address above. Be sure to
include your name and address, the complete manual title and part
number (located on the manual spine, cover, or title page), the page
number (found at the bottom of each page) where the error is located,
and any comments you may have regarding what you have found. We
appreciate any comments from the users of our manuals.
24-hour support service
If you have any questions or concerns regarding the operation of your
equipment, please contact the Customer Network Resolution Center for
immediate assistance. The 24 hour telephone numbers are:
Arlington Heights, IL 800-433-5202 . . . . . . . . . .
Arlington Heights, International +1847-632-5390 . .
Cork, Ireland 441793565444 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Swindon, England 441793565444 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Safety
xxiv
Remember! . . . Safety
depends on you!!
The following general safety precautions must be observed during all
phases of operation, service, and repair of the equipment described in
this manual. Failure to comply with these precautions or with specific
warnings elsewhere in this manual violates safety standards of design,
manufacture, and intended use of the equipment. Motorola, Inc. assumes
no liability for the customers failure to comply with these requirements.
The safety precautions listed below represent warnings of certain dangers
of which we are aware. You, as the user of this product, should follow
these warnings and all other safety precautions necessary for the safe
operation of the equipment in your operating environment.
Ground the instrument
To minimize shock hazard, the equipment chassis and enclosure must be
connected to an electrical ground. If the equipment is supplied with a
three-conductor ac power cable, the power cable must be either plugged
into an approved three-contact electrical outlet or used with a
three-contact to two-contact adapter. The three-contact to two-contact
adapter must have the grounding wire (green) firmly connected to an
electrical ground (safety ground) at the power outlet. The power jack and
mating plug of the power cable must meet International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) safety standards.
Do not operate in an explosive
atmosphere
Do not operate the equipment in the presence of flammable gases or
fumes. Operation of any electrical equipment in such an environment
constitutes a definite safety hazard.
Keep away from live circuits
Operating personnel must:
S not remove equipment covers. Only Factory Authorized Service
Personnel or other qualified maintenance personnel may remove
equipment covers for internal subassembly, or component
replacement, or any internal adjustment.
S not replace components with power cable connected. Under certain
conditions, dangerous voltages may exist even with the power cable
removed.
S always disconnect power and discharge circuits before touching them.
Do not service or adjust alone
Do not attempt internal service or adjustment, unless another person,
capable of rendering first aid and resuscitation, is present.
General Safety continued
Mar 2002
xxv
Use caution when exposing or
handling the CRT
Breakage of the CathodeRay Tube (CRT) causes a high-velocity
scattering of glass fragments (implosion). To prevent CRT implosion,
avoid rough handling or jarring of the equipment. The CRT should be
handled only by qualified maintenance personnel, using approved safety
mask and gloves.
Do not substitute parts or
modify equipment
Because of the danger of introducing additional hazards, do not install
substitute parts or perform any unauthorized modification of equipment.
Contact Motorola Warranty and Repair for service and repair to ensure
that safety features are maintained.
Dangerous procedure
warnings
Warnings, such as the example below, precede potentially dangerous
procedures throughout this manual. Instructions contained in the
warnings must be followed. You should also employ all other safety
precautions that you deem necessary for the operation of the equipment
in your operating environment.
Dangerous voltages, capable of causing death, are present in this
equipment. Use extreme caution when handling, testing, and
adjusting.
WARNING
Revision History
xxvi
Manual Number
68P09248A69A
Manual Title
Version Information
The following table lists the manual version, date of version, and
remarks on the version.
Version
Level
Date of Issue Remarks
O December 1998 CDMA RF Planning Guide GA Release
A March 2002 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide
Cellular Manual Revision
Information
The following table lists Cellular Manual Revision (CMR) number, date
of CMR, and remarks on the CMR.
Revision
Level
Date of Issue Remarks
CMR No. NOV 2000

Patent Notification
Mar 2002
xxvii
Patent numbers
This product is manufactured and/or operated under one or more of the
following patents and other patents pending:
4128740 4661790 4860281 5036515 5119508 5204876 5247544 5301353
4193036 4667172 4866710 5036531 5121414 5204977 5251233 5301365
4237534 4672657 4870686 5038399 5123014 5207491 5255292 5303240
4268722 4694484 4872204 5040127 5127040 5210771 5257398 5303289
4282493 4696027 4873683 5041699 5127100 5212815 5259021 5303407
4301531 4704734 4876740 5047762 5128959 5212826 5261119 5305468
4302845 4709344 4881082 5048116 5130663 5214675 5263047 5307022
4312074 4710724 4885553 5055800 5133010 5214774 5263052 5307512
4350958 4726050 4887050 5055802 5140286 5216692 5263055 5309443
4354248 4729531 4887265 5058136 5142551 5218630 5265122 5309503
4367443 4737978 4893327 5060227 5142696 5220936 5268933 5311143
4369516 4742514 4896361 5060265 5144644 5222078 5271042 5311176
4369520 4751725 4910470 5065408 5146609 5222123 5274844 5311571
4369522 4754450 4914696 5067139 5146610 5222141 5274845 5313489
4375622 4764737 4918732 5068625 5152007 5222251 5276685 5319712
4485486 4764849 4941203 5070310 5155448 5224121 5276707 5321705
4491972 4775998 4945570 5073909 5157693 5224122 5276906 5321737
4517561 4775999 4956854 5073971 5159283 5226058 5276907 5323391
4519096 4797947 4970475 5075651 5159593 5228029 5276911 5325394
4549311 4799253 4972355 5077532 5159608 5230007 5276913 5327575
4550426 4802236 4972432 5077741 5170392 5233633 5276915 5329547
4564821 4803726 4979207 5077757 5170485 5235612 5278871 5329635
4573017 4811377 4984219 5081641 5170492 5235614 5280630 5339337
4581602 4811380 4984290 5083304 5182749 5239294 5285447 D337328
4590473 4811404 4992753 5090051 5184349 5239675 5287544 D342249
4591851 4817157 4998289 5093632 5185739 5241545 5287556 D342250
4616314 4827507 5020076 5095500 5187809 5241548 5289505 D347004
4636791 4829543 5021801 5105435 5187811 5241650 5291475 D349689
4644351 4833701 5022054 5111454 5193102 5241688 5295136 RE31814
4646038 4837800 5023900 5111478 5195108 5243653 5297161
4649543 4843633 5028885 5113400 5200655 5245611 5299228
4654655 4847869 5030793 5117441 5203010 5245629 5301056
4654867 4852090 5031193 5119040 5204874 5245634 5301188
Patent Notification continued
xxviii
Notes
1 - 1 Mar 2002
Table of Contents
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 3
1.2 Quick Guide to Contents of Each Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 4
Chapter
1
How to Use This Guide
1 - 2 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
1
Chapter 1: How to Use This Guide
NOTES
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1
1.1 Introduction
The purpose of this document is to provide systems engineers/planners with a basic set of
guidelines required to properly design a high quality Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) RF
System. The demarcation point for this guide is primarily at the antenna connectors of the Base
Transceiver Station (BTS) equipment. The CDMA RF Planning Guide (RFPG) commences at
these antenna connectors and incorporates the RF antenna system as well as the RF link. In general,
most of the content provided in this planning guide can be applied to any CDMA system design.
In some instances, specific RF planning information unique to Motorolas CDMA BTS product is
also provided. The following figure pictorially represents the area within a wireless network that
this document is focused.
Figure 1-1: Radio Sub-System
Most of the information in this planning guide can be applied to both the IS-95 and IS-2000 CDMA
air interface specifications. Where it is appropriate, IS-95 specific and/or IS-2000 specific
information will be provided.
General RF considerations for CDMA system designs are addressed as well as 800 MHz and 1900
MHz specific considerations. Some basic spectrum planning guidelines including channel
assignments and designations for both 800 MHz and 1900 MHz are located in Chapter 2. Chapter
6 addresses some RF antenna system issues that differ between 800 MHz and 1900 MHz.
Throughout this document the terms 800 MHz and cellular may be used interchangeably, as well
as 1900 MHz and PCS may also be used interchangeably.
Terms and acronyms are located in Appendix I. Appendix II is a glossary of terms which are
referred to in Chapter 5. An understanding of these terms and acronyms is recommended prior to
reading this document.
Radio Sub-System
BTS
CDMA Air
Interface
Fixed Portable
Mobile
Core Network
1
1.2 Quick Guide to Contents of Each Section
The CDMA RF Planning Guide is a collection of fairly independent chapters covering various
aspects of CDMA system RF design and implementation.
The table below outlines the key features of each Chapter.
Table 1-1: Quick Guide
Chapter
Number
Chapter title Use it to
1 How to Use this Guide Understand the contents of this document.
2 Basic CDMA Spectrum
Planning
Learn how to allocate spectrum for multiple CDMA carriers
including channel spacing and guard band considerations,
which bands are used for different technologies (world-wide),
and the importance of performing background noise
measurements, spectrum clearing, and following Federal
Rules and Regulations.
3 CDMA Capacity Learn several different approaches on how to estimate the
maximum capacity of a CDMA carrier for the forward or
reverse link as a function of system parameters. Understand
the importance of performing system simulations. Identify
some of the limitations of the air interface. Determine an
estimate of the number of CDMA cells required to support a
given traffic load.
4 Link Budgets and
Coverage
Understand the parameters that comprise the CDMA RF Link
Budget. Learn about some of the basic propagation models.
Understand some of the power amplifier considerations as
they pertain to forward link coverage. Learn some of the
issues and considerations of CDMA repeater usage.
5 PN Offset Planning and
Search Windows
Understand how to perform PN offset planning and how to
properly set the search window parameters.
6 RF Antenna Systems Learn some of the basic antenna parameters. Discuss some of
the issues involved with antenna placement. Understand how
to share antennas with other CDMA equipment as well as
with AMPS equipment. Establish guidelines for the
installation of CDMA systems antennas.
7 RF Antenna Systems -
Advanced Topics
Discuss some of the issues surrounding the usage of dual
polarized antennas. Learn some useful information in the area
of in-building antenna system design.
8 Synchronization of the
CDMA System
Learn about the strength and weakness of various
synchronization strategies. Determine the requirements to
provide adequate signals to synchronize the CDMA system.
9 Inter-System
Interference
Study interference issues with co-location of CDMA with
other technologies.
1
I Terms and Acronyms Learn some of the various terms and acronyms.
II Glossary Understand some of the various terms used.
III Watts to dBm
Conversion Table
Convert from watts to dBm and from dBm to watts.
IV Complimentary Error
Function Table
Determine the complimentary error function.
Table 1-1: Quick Guide
Chapter
Number
Chapter title Use it to
1
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Table of Contents
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 3
2.2 North American and International Frequency Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 3
2.3 CDMA Channel Spacing - General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 5
2.3.1 Minimum Spacing Between CDMA Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 5
2.3.2 Maximum Spacing Between CDMA Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 8
2.3.3 Multiple Market Spectrum Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 11
2.3.4 Multiple Carrier Overlay Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 11
2.3.4.1 IS-2000 1X New Carrier Overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 14
2.3.4.2 IS-2000 1X Shared Carrier Overlay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 15
2.3.5 Guard Band Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 15
2.3.5.1 AMPS Guard Band Recommendation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 17
2.3.5.2 2nd CDMA Carrier with AMPS Guard Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 17
2.3.5.3 Greater Than Two CDMA Carriers with AMPS Guard Band . . . . 2 - 18
2.4 Channel Spacing and Designation - 800 MHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 19
2.4.1 Segregated Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 20
2.5 Channel Spacing and Designation - 1900 MHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 23
2.6 Dual-Mode vs. Dual-Band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 25
2.7 Spectrum Clearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 25
2.8 Background Noise Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 26
2.8.1 Suggested Measurement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 27
2.8.1.1 Test System Functional Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 27
2.8.1.2 Test System Calibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 28
2.8.2 Test Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 29
2.8.3 Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 30
2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 30
Basic CDMA Spectrum
Planning
Chapter
2
2
Chapter 2: Basic CDMA Spectrum Planning
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2
2.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a set of general guidelines that can be used to properly allocate spectrum for
1.23 MHz CDMA systems (IS-95A/B and IS-2000 Spreading Rate 1), including issues relating to
the co-location of CDMA and AMPS systems. Spectrum planning information for IS-2000
Spreading Rate 3 and for Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) for Universal
Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) will not be covered in this document. Unless
otherwise noted, all references to IS-2000 in this document will imply a Spreading Rate of 1. The
information is specific to spectrum allocation based on U.S. and International Standards. Issues
regarding technological impacts to capacity will be addressed in Chapter 3. In this chapter,
"channels" refer to frequency allocation and not conversation channels. As a result, a CDMA
channel reference is the same as a CDMA carrier and the two terms can be interchanged for this
chapter.
To design a system adequately, RF system engineers will need to work closely with the customer
and carefully follow government codes. To optimize CDMA, the signal to noise ratio must be
balanced. The goal is to minimize the noise which will maximize the capacity.
Common world-wide frequency bands for cellular, PCS, and 3G are introduced in the chapter
along with a general discussion on CDMA channel spacing, multiple carrier guidelines, and guard
band considerations. Specifics are given on CMDA channel designations (North American) for
800 MHz and how to segregate the spectrum with existing 800 MHz technologies. PCS (North
American) channel designations are listed, followed by a short discussion of dual-mode and dual-
band. The topic of spectrum clearing and background noise measurements appears last; however,
it is perhaps one of the most important and challenging aspects to the CDMA system design
engineer. References include standards and FCC web page locations.
2.2 North American and International Frequency Blocks
The manner in which the frequency spectrum is allocated in some countries imposes some
limitations on where CDMA may be implemented. It is difficult to predict the amount of available
spectrum or the frequency band which international operators might be considering for their
CDMA systems. With this in mind, prior to designing a CDMA system, the CDMA system design
engineer should obtain the frequency spectrum information from the operator and then determine
the appropriate BTS products to use based on the desired application and the operating frequency.
The table below highlights some of the more common frequency bands which are currently being
utilized for cellular, PCS, and other technologies in adjacent spectrum throughout the world.
Table 2-1: Some Common World-Wide Frequency Bands for Cellular and PCS
Block Designator
Transmit Frequency Band (MHz)
Personal Station Base Station
SMR (US) 816-821 861-866
AMPS / EAMPS 824-849 869-894
2
The technology evolution of wireless communication systems are migrating from the 1st
generation (1G) voice only services, to the 2nd generation (2 or 2.5G) voice and low to medium
speed data services, and then to the 3rd generation (3G) voice and multimedia, high speed data
services. To accommodate the evolution to 3G, the International Telecommunications Union -
Radio Communication (ITU-R) standardization sector developed specifications for International
Mobile Telecommunications - 2000 (IMT-2000). As an output of the standardization effort, several
countries throughout the world have agreed to allocate new spectrum for 3G deployments. The
chart in Figure 2-1 highlights some of the common world-wide 3G spectrum allocations.
TACS / ETACS 872-915 917-960
DCS 1800 1710-1785 1805-1880
GSM 890-915 935-960
PCS (Korea) 1750-1780 1840-1870
ARDIS (Pan America) 806-824 851-869
RAM Mobitex
(Pan America)
896-901 935-940
PCS
(U.S. / Pan America)
1850-1910 1930-1990
FPLMTS 1885-2025 2110-2200
FPLMTS (satellite) 1980-2010 2170-2200
PDC 900 940-956 810-826
PDC 1500
(Malaysia / Moscow)
1477-1501 1429-1453
Japan Marinet 887-889 832-834
Japan Analog 898-901, 915-925 843-846, 860-870
DECT (TDD Systems) 1880-1900 1880-1900
PHS (TDD Systems) 1895-1918 1895-1918
Table 2-1: Some Common World-Wide Frequency Bands for Cellular and PCS
Block Designator
2
Figure 2-1: 3G Spectrum Allocations
2.3 CDMA Channel Spacing - General
CDMA (IS-95A/B and IS-2000 Spreading Rate 1) is a broadband technology which utilizes 1.2288
MHz bandwidth per CDMA Channel (this is often rounded off to 1.23 MHz). In order to deploy
an initial CDMA channel, spectrum must be allocated for the CDMA channel and the guard bands
that are required on each side of the channel. In order to deploy a second CDMA channel, the
channel spacing between the CDMA channels must be determined. Prior to deploying the first
CDMA channel, long term spectrum planning should be performed in order to maximize the
capacity of a multiple carrier CDMA block of spectrum. This section provides information on
CDMA channel spacing, multiple carrier guidelines, and guard band considerations.
In this section, "channel" is defined as each 1.2288 MHz carrier and not as a conversation path. For
AMPS, each frequency (carrier) corresponds to one conversation path. Therefore, a channel could
be used to discuss conversational paths or the number of carriers. For CDMA, each carrier can
support many conversation paths and therefore the term "channel" can take on different meanings
based upon the context in which it is used.
2.3.1 Minimum Spacing Between CDMA Carriers
As the number of the CDMA subscribers increases, there may be a need to add additional CDMA
carrier frequencies to the system. If the first and second carrier frequencies are to be adjacent to
one another, then the channel spacing between CDMA carriers (center to center) needs to be
determined. For 800 MHz IS-95A/B and IS-2000 based systems with a 30 kHz channel increment,
the minimum recommended channel spacing separation between CDMA channels is 1.23 MHz
(see Figure 2-2).
2
Figure 2-2: Minimum Spacing Between 800 MHz CDMA Channels
Note: For the example in Figure 2-2, the second CDMA channel (whether it is ubiquitous or
non-ubiquitous) must be co-located with the first CDMA channel in a 1-to-1 overlay
approach throughout the second CDMA channel deployment area (see Section 2.3.4).
For 1900 MHz IS-95A/B and IS-2000 based systems with a 50 kHz channel increment, the
minimum recommended channel spacing separation between CDMA channels is 1.25 MHz (see
Figure 2-3).
Figure 2-3: Minimum Spacing Between 1900 MHz CDMA Channels
Note: For the example in Figure 2-3, the second CDMA channel (whether it is ubiquitous or
non-ubiquitous) must be co-located with the first CDMA channel in a 1-to-1 overlay
approach throughout the second CDMA channel deployment area (see Section 2.3.4).
The minimum channel spacing places the broadband carriers adjacent to one another and allows
the sidebands of each to intrude into the band of the other. The adjacent channel interference for
this minimum channel separation will slightly reduce the capacity of both CDMA carriers. A
CDMA channel with adjacent CDMA channels on both sides will have an even greater reduction
in capacity. If system noise, non-linearities, or other imperfections increase the energy in the skirts
of the carriers, then an increased capacity reduction may be experienced.
A reverse link adjacent channel interference analysis was performed in an attempt to estimate and
compare the capacity impact of a 1.26 MHz and a 1.23 MHz channel spacing. The analysis
estimates the noise rise for a single carrier configuration (i.e. no adjacent carriers), for the center
1.23 MHz
1
st
CDMA Channel
1.23 MHz
2
nd
CDMA Channel
1.23 MHz
Guard Band Guard Band
1.25 MHz
1
st
CDMA Channel
1.23 MHz
2
nd
CDMA Channel
1.23 MHz
Guard Band Guard Band
2
carrier of a three carrier configuration with a 1.26 MHz channel separation, and for the center
carrier of a three carrier configuration with a 1.23 MHz channel separation. The results of this
analysis where all of the carriers are loaded equally is shown in Figure 2-4. (Note: The capacity
results shown in Figure 2-4 should not be used to estimate the actual capacity of a CDMA carrier.
They are for comparison purposes only.)
Figure 2-4: Adjacent Channel Interference Reverse Rise Estimates
One method of analyzing the impact is to compare the number of users at a fixed maximum noise
rise level. Choosing 6 dB to be the maximum noise rise level, the following results can be
extrapolated from the chart in Figure 2-4.
23.5 Users with 0 Adjacent Carriers
22.6 Users with 2 Adjacent Carriers @ 1.26 MHz
21.8 Users with 2 Adjacent Carriers @ 1.23 MHz
The capacity loss from 0 Adjacent Carriers to 2 Adjacent Carriers with 1.26 MHz spacing is
approximately 0.9 users. The capacity loss from 2 Adjacent Carriers with 1.26 MHz spacing to 2
Adjacent Carriers with 1.23 MHz spacing is approximately 0.8 users.
Another method of analyzing the impact is to compare the noise rise increase at a fixed maximum
number of users. Choosing 23 users to be the maximum number of users, the following noise rise
results can be extrapolated from the chart in Figure 2-4.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
# of Users
R
i
s
e

-
d
B
0 Adjacent Carriers
2 Adjacent Carriers @ 1.23 MHz
2 Adjacent Carriers @ 1.26 MHz
2
5.7 dB noise rise with 0 Adjacent Carriers
6.2 dB noise rise with 2 Adjacent Carriers @ 1.26 MHz
6.7 dB noise rise with 2 Adjacent Carriers @ 1.23 MHz
The noise rise increase from 0 Adjacent Carriers to 2 Adjacent Carriers with 1.26 MHz spacing is
approximately 0.5 dB. The noise rise increase from 2 Adjacent Carriers with 1.26 MHz spacing to
2 Adjacent Carriers with 1.23 MHz spacing is approximately 0.5 dB.
The results of this analysis show a minimal impact going from 1.26 to 1.23 MHz channel spacing.
Ultimately, the system operator must decide whether the modest capacity impact of using the
minimum channel spacing is worth the marginal gain in frequency spectrum.
2.3.2 Maximum Spacing Between CDMA Carriers
With the allocations of new spectrum for 3G applications through-out the world, a new opportunity
for deploying CDMA systems has been created. There are many different considerations that may
impact the spectrum planning for a CDMA system (total spectrum available, government rules and
regulations, adjacent spectrum guard band requirements, amount of spectrum that is clear and
available for use, etc.). For certain applications, there may be some capacity benefits in reducing
the adjacent spectrum guard band requirements in order to increase the guard band between the
CDMA carriers. This approach will typically be applied towards the deployment of new spectrum
allocations (i.e. 3G deployments). An appropriate adjacent spectrum guard band analysis must be
performed to justify an adjacent spectrum guard band reduction in order to increase the guard band
between the CDMA carriers.
Since the minimum channel spacing recommendation does have some impact on capacity, the
optimal channel spacing may not always be the minimum channel spacing recommendation stated
in Section 2.3.1. The optimal channel spacing from a CDMA capacity perspective is to maximize
the channel spacing within the total contiguous bandwidth available for the CDMA channels (after
all of the spectrum planning considerations for guard band and other requirements have been taken
into account). For those applications where there is flexibility in performing spectrum planning,
the following spectrum planning example of an entire block of spectrum (including guard band
requirements) can be performed in order to determine the maximum channel spacing which
maximizes capacity. The following multiple carrier, maximum channel spacing example can be
applied from a general perspective towards both IS-95A/B and/or IS-2000 1X carrier systems.
Example Assumptions:
5 MHz "D" block of 1900 MHz full duplexed spectrum (5 MHz for Tx, 5 MHz for Rx)
Channel increment is 50 kHz
Guard band requirements for each end of the spectrum is 290 kHz per side
(Note: The 290 kHz guard band value was arbitrarily chosen for this example. It does not
represent an actual guard band recommendation. See Section 2.3.5 for more information
regarding a guard band analysis and considerations.)
Government rules and regulations allow the following spectrum planning assignments
2
1. Determine the total number of channel numbers (i.e. 30 kHz channel increments for 800
MHz systems, or 50 kHz channel increments for 1900 MHz systems) that are available
within the allocated bandwidth.
Example: 5 MHz / 0.05 MHz = 100 "D" block channel numbers (see Figure 2-5).
Figure 2-5: Total Channel Numbers Available
2. Allocate and assign the guard band channels to each end of the spectrum. Calculate the
minimum number of channel numbers to satisfy the guard band requirements by
dividing the guard band by the channel increment and rounding up to the nearest integer.
Example: 290 kHz / 50 kHz = 5.8 = 6 channel numbers per side. See Figure 2-6.
6 channels x 50 kHz = 300 kHz per side
300 kHz x 2 = 600 kHz = 0.6 MHz total guard band
Figure 2-6: Assign Guard Band
3. Use the following equation to calculate the total number of 1.23 MHz CDMA channels
(N
c
) for the allocated bandwidth.
N
c
= [EQ 2-1]
Where:
represents the integer value of X (or floor value of X)
BW is the total bandwidth allocated for CDMA channels
GB is the total guard band requirements
FS is the minimum frequency spacing (1.23 for 800 MHz, 1.25 for 1900 MHz)
Example: BW = 5 MHz, GB = 0.6 MHz, FS = 1.25 MHz
N
c
= = 3 CDMA channels
100 Channel Increments x 50 kHz = 5 MHz
300-399
Guard
300-305 394-399
Band
Guard
Band
306-393
BW GB ( ) FS
X
5 0.6 ( ) 1.25
2
4. Determine the minimum number of channel numbers to allocate for each CDMA
channel.
For 30 kHz channel spacing systems (800 MHz systems) use 41 channel numbers
1.23 MHz / 0.03 MHz = 41 channel numbers
For 50 kHz channel spacing systems (1900 MHz systems) use 25 channel numbers
1.25 MHz / 0.05 MHz = 25 channel numbers
Example: 25 channel numbers for each carrier
5. Assign the minimum number of channels for the 1st and last CDMA carriers next to
each of the adjacent spectrum guard bands.
Example: Assign 25 channel numbers for the F1 and F3 CDMA carriers next to each
adjacent spectrum guard band. See Figure 2-7.
Figure 2-7: Assign 1st and Last CDMA Carries
6. Equally distribute the remaining CDMA carriers while maximizing the spacing between
each carrier.
Example: Assign 25 channel numbers for the single remaining CDMA carrier (F2) as
close to the center of the remaining spectrum as possible. See Figure 2-8.
Figure 2-8: Equally Distribute Remaining CDMA Carriers
Note: For the "D" block example shown above, channels 318 and 381 are conditionally valid
channel numbers according to the IS-95/IS-2000 standards (see Table 2-8). As stated
previously, an appropriate guard band analysis must have been performed to justify a
guard band reduction in order to utilize these conditional channel numbers.
Guard
CDMA Carrier F1
300-305 306-330 331-368 369-393 394-399
Band
Center Freq. Channel = 318
CDMA Carrier F3
Guard
Band
Guard
CDMA Carrier F1
300-305 306-330 331-337 338-362 363-368 369-393 394-399
Band
CDMA Carrier F2
CDMA Carrier F3
Guard
Band
Excess
Band
Excess
Band
2
2.3.3 Multiple Market Spectrum Planning Considerations
Prior to finalizing a spectrum planning design for an individual market, there are various inter-system
operation aspects between multiple markets which may need to be considered. Inter-system
references in this section can be applied towards different systems (or markets) under the control of a
single operator (or corporation) or under the control of different operators (or corporations). In either
case, a multiple market spectrum planning perspective may need to be considered. There are two
major categories of inter-system operation services that will be considered; inter-system handoffs and
inter-system automatic roaming.
An inter-system handoff refers to the general provisions by which a call in progress on a traffic
channel under the control of one system may be automatically transferred to another traffic channel
under the control of a different system without interruption to the ongoing communication. Inter-
system handoffs can be inter-vendor (i.e. via IS-41 or GSM MAP) or intra-vendor handoffs. The inter-
system intra-vendor handoffs can take the form of soft or hard handoffs. If adjacent markets will need
to perform inter-system handoffs to each other, the channel numbers selected between the adjacent
markets may need to be coordinated. For example, if inter-system soft handoffs are to be
implemented, then the channel numbers between the inter-system handoff boundaries must be the
same.
Inter-system automatic roaming refers to the general provisions for automatically providing cellular
services to the subscribers which are operating outside their home service area, but within the
aggregate service area of all participating systems. Inter-system roaming can be inter-vendor (i.e. via
IS-41 or GSM MAP) or intra-vendor automatic roaming. If different systems will need to perform
inter-system automatic roaming to each other, the channel numbers selected between the different
systems may need to be coordinated. For example, the channel numbers on a preferred roaming list
must be coordinated to accommodate all of the roaming markets.
As a result, a spectrum planning design for an individual market may need to be considered from a
multiple market spectrum planning perspective depending upon the inter-system services that will be
supported.
2.3.4 Multiple Carrier Overlay Guidelines
As the capacity demand of a system increases, the deployment of additional CDMA carriers will
eventually be necessary. The capacity demand may or may not require a ubiquitous deployment of a
new carrier throughout the underlying carrier region. When a new carrier is deployed (either
ubiquitous or non-ubiquitous), the new carrier should be deployed with a 1-to-1 co-location overlay
with the underlying carriers (refer to Figure 2-9 for overlay examples) and should also be deployed
with the same coverage area as the underlying carrier.
2
Figure 2-9: 1-to-1 Overlay Examples
For the examples in Figure 2-9, an F2 carrier must be co-located with every F1 site within the new
carrier region. It is important to note that F1 micro-cells located in the new carrier region should
also be co-located with F2 micro-cells.
Examples of non 1-to-1 overlays are provided in Figure 2-10. These examples are similar to those
provided in Figure 2-9, but are NOT recommended.
Figure 2-10: Non 1-to-1 Overlay Examples (NOT Recommended)
There are two main reasons for requiring a 1-to-1 co-location overlay of a new carrier with the
same coverage area.
To overcome adjacent channel interference causing a near/far interference effect
To overcome a potential service acquisition issue created by uneven coverage between
CDMA carriers
If a 1-to-1 co-location overlay deployment is NOT implemented, a near/far interference effect is
created from the adjacent CDMA carriers. This will create coverage holes near the sites that are
not co-located with the underlying carriers. See Section 2.3.5 for more details regarding the near/
far effect.
F1 & F2 Sites F1 Only Sites
Non-Ubiquitous 1-to-1 Overlay Ubiquitous 1-to-1 Overlay
All Sites have F1 & F2
Non-Ubiquitous Non 1-to-1 Overlay
Ubiquitous Non 1-to-1 Overlay
2
If a 1-to-1 co-location overlay deployment is NOT implemented, a service acquisition issue may
be created by the uneven coverage between the CDMA carriers. A diagram to help explain the
service acquisition issue is shown in Figure 2-11.
Figure 2-11: Service Acquisition Issues Due To Uneven Carrier Coverage
There are two different types of service acquisition issues which can be created as a result of
uneven carrier coverage as shown in Figure 2-11.
At point A, the primary carrier (F1) of Cell 1 is transmitting the channel list message
containing channel numbers for both F1 and F2. With 2 channels input into the hashing
algorithm, half of the subscribers at point A should hash to F2. Since the coverage of F2
is too weak to acquire service, those same subscribers will fall back to the primary
carrier and attempt to reread the channel list message. These same subscribers will again
try to hash to F2 and again fail to acquire service. This cycle will repeat itself until those
subscribers move to a location where both F1 and F2 coverage from Cell 1 is acceptable.
At point B, the primary carrier (F1) of Cell 1 is transmitting the channel list message
containing channel numbers for both F1 and F2. With 2 channels input into the hashing
algorithm, half of the subscribers at point B should hash to F2. Since the coverage of F2
is provided by Cell 2 which uses a different PN offset, those subscribers will not be able
to decode the synchronization and paging channels and the service acquisition attempt
will fail. As a result, those same subscribers will fall back to the primary carrier and
attempt to reread the channel list message. These same subscribers will again try to hash
to F2 and again fail to acquire service. This cycle will repeat itself until those
subscribers move to a location where both F1 and F2 coverage is provided by the same
cell.
As a result, a new carrier should always be deployed with a 1-to-1 co-location overlay with the
underlying carriers and should also be deployed with the same coverage area as the underlying
carriers. Also, if a new cell site is deployed into an existing multiple carrier region, then all of the
carriers in this region should be implemented at the new cell site and the coverage area for each
carrier should be made the same.
Cell 1
Cell 2
B
A
F1&F2
F2
Cell 1 F1
Cell 1 - F1 & F2 Coverage
Cell 2 - F2 Coverage
Cell 1 - F1 Coverage
F1 is primary carrier
2
2.3.4.1 IS-2000 1X New Carrier Overlay
The multiple carrier overlay guidelines described in Section 2.3.4 apply to both IS-95A/B and IS-
2000 1X CDMA carriers. Figure 2-12 shows an example of a new IS-2000 1X carrier being
deployed in a system with existing IS-95A/B carriers.
Figure 2-12: New IS-2000 1X Carrier Deployment
A new IS-2000 1X overlay carrier being deployed into an existing IS-95A/B system would have
to be implemented in a 1-to-1 co-location overlay with the underlying IS-95A/B carriers and
should also be deployed with the same coverage area as the underlying IS-95A/B carriers. For
some applications, a new IS-2000 1X carrier may be deployed to support 1X data applications
only. Without the burden of the co-existing voice capacity, an IS-2000 1X data only carrier can
support higher data rates with improved data capacity. From an overall data performance
perspective, a dedicated 1X data only carrier should provide the best data performance results.
With IS-2000 1X, higher data rates can be achieved with smaller radius cell sites. The link budget
improvements from a smaller radius cell site can be applied towards producing higher average data
rates. As a result, one option is to cell split an area (i.e. deploying more cells in the same area) in
order to improve the chances of achieving higher data rates. In a mixed IS-95A/B and IS-2000
system, a new cell site being deployed to improve 1X data performance must also deploy the
existing IS-95A/B carriers at the new cell site.
Another method to improve 1X data performance is to deploy a second IS-2000 1X carrier to an
area that already has 1X deployed (see Figure 2-13).
Figure 2-13: Second IS-2000 1X Carrier
This is an effective approach to alleviate system loading and also increase end user 1X data
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
4
IS-95A/B IS-2000
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
4
IS-95A/B IS-2000
F
5
2
performance. This approach also offers a simple and cost effective solution to improve 1X data
performance, since an additional 1X carrier can be easily implemented by adding extra 1X MCC
and BBX cards to the existing 1X cell sites (assuming the existing 1X cell sites are not populated
to their maximum carrier capacity).
2.3.4.2 IS-2000 1X Shared Carrier Overlay
As an alternate approach to deploying a new CDMA channel frequency, the Walsh code
orthogonality between the IS-95A/B and IS-2000 air interfaces will allow a new IS-2000 1X carrier
to share the carrier frequency with an existing IS-95A/B carrier (see Figure 2-14).
Figure 2-14: IS-2000 1X Shared Carrier Overlay
For initial 1X deployments with low 1X subscriber penetration rates, this may be a viable option
to choose, but it is not recommended if the existing IS-95A/B carrier capacity is already near its
maximum limit. With the burden of the co-existing IS-95A/B traffic capacity, an IS-2000 1X
carrier will be limited in its data performance. High data rate 1X usage will introduce load that may
result in bursty performance degradation of the underlying IS-95A/B voice. On the other hand, the
IS-95A/B voice users may end up restricting the high data rate 1X users. To protect the IS-95A/B
voice users, it is recommended to limit the high data rate application usage on the 1X carrier for a
shared carrier overlay type of deployment. Since one of the main reasons for deploying a 1X carrier
is to provide high data rate service, limiting the high data rate usage on the 1X carrier may actually
defeat the purpose of deploying the 1X carrier in the first place. As a result, the benefit of using
this type of deployment may be somewhat limited.
2.3.5 Guard Band Considerations
General spectrum planning guidelines require the use of a guard band between adjacent spectrum
being used for different operator systems or for different air interface technologies. The guard band
is required to minimize the intra-band and inter-band interference to and from the adjacent
spectrum. The determination of a proper guard band involves a detailed analysis of the forward and
reverse links for both systems being analyzed. Guard band planning may need to take into account
the adjacent spectrum, which is geographically along the border of the system, as well as that which
is geographically co-located with the system. Cooperation between neighboring system operators
is essential to minimize interference problems. All of the possible interference scenarios from both
systems perspectives must be considered in the analysis. The more common interference scenarios
F
1
F
2
F
3
IS-95A/B IS-2000
2
between two systems are listed below.
System A subscriber(s) interfering with System B base station
System A base station interfering with System B subscriber(s)
System B subscriber(s) interfering with System A base station
System B base station interfering with System A subscriber(s)
Depending upon the particular interference scenario, there are four predominant interference
mechanisms that may need to be analyzed.
Transmitter sideband emissions interfering with the adjacent band receiver
Transmitter intermodulation (IM) products interfering with the adjacent band receiver
Receiver desensitization from an interfering transmit carrier
Receiver intermodulation from two or more interfering transmit carriers
Additional details regarding the above interference scenarios and interference mechanisms are
provided in Chapter 9. A detailed analysis of the guard band requirements may need to take into
account the following factors:
Interference Geometries
geographic and/or geometric properties of the interference location
antenna orientation (height, azimuth, downtilt)
total path loss (propagation loss, antenna discrimination, and obstruction losses)
Interference Characteristics (for desired and interference signals)
air interface technologies being used
antenna gain and feeder line losses
transmit power, duty cycle, and power spectral density
transmit and receive frequencies being used
transmit and receive filter characteristics
receiver noise threshold and other receiver performance characteristics
A potential interference problem, known as the near/far effect, is created by the geometric
relationship between a subscriber and base station. This effect is produced when a subscriber is
located far from its serving base station, but near an interfering base station. Under these
circumstances, the strength of the desired signal is low while the strength of the interfering signal
is high. A guard band analysis may need to take into account any near/far effects that may be
present.
The guard band analysis utilizes all of the relevant parameters from the subscriber/base station
geometries and characteristics to calculate the desired signal strength, receiver noise, and the
received interfering signal strength. The net value should include all of the relevant effects of
transmit powers, transmit power spectral densities, path loss, filtering, duty cycles, and summation
over multiple interferers. Depending upon the air interface technology that is being analyzed, a
degradation metric is selected (i.e. C/I, noise floor rise, receiver sensitivity, Eb/No, BER, FER,
etc.) to determine how these net values will impact the performance of the receiver, and whether
2
this impact is acceptable or not. Ultimately, the guard band that is selected should provide an
acceptable performance value from the degradation metric. Interference improvement mechanisms
(i.e. adjustments to base station transmit powers, adding extra filtering, increasing isolation, etc.)
should also be considered in the guard band analysis determination.
2.3.5.1 AMPS Guard Band Recommendation
For an 800 MHz system with a 30 kHz channel spacing, it has been determined through a guard
band analysis that the minimum recommended guard band between a CDMA channel and an
AMPS channel is 0.27 MHz. The initial introduction of CDMA will require a band segment of 1.77
MHz. The band segment consists of the 1.23 MHz required for the CDMA carrier bandwidth plus
0.27 MHz of AMPS guard band on both sides of the CDMA carrier. The minimum frequency
separation required between any CDMA carrier and the nearest AMPS carrier is 900 kHz (center
to center).
The CDMA carrier width (1.23 MHz) is the result of the chip rate chosen for the Pseudorandom
Noise (PN) spreading sequence. The guard band between CDMA and analog systems is defined as
the minimum frequency separation required such that the level of interference caused by one FM
subscriber is less than a predetermined threshold. The threshold is taken to be the thermal noise
level in each receiver.
Figure 2-15: Calculation of Spectrum Required for a CDMA Carrier
2.3.5.2 2nd CDMA Carrier with AMPS Guard Band
The following figure summarizes the additional and total number of AMPS channels removed to
free up spectrum for the second CDMA channel for an 800 MHz system with a 30 kHz channel
spacing.
Figure 2-16: Calculation of Minimum Spectrum Required for Two CDMA Channels
CDMA Channel = 1.23 MHz = 1.23MHz

/ 30kHz
a
= 41 AMPS Channels
CDMA Guard = 0.27 MHz/side = 0.54MHz / 30kHz
a
= 18 AMPS Channels
Totals 1.77 MHz 59 AMPS Channels
a. One AMPS Channel = 30 kHz
CDMA Spacing= 1.23 MHz = 1.23MHz

/ 30kHz
a
= 41 AMPS Channels
CDMA Channel = 1.23 MHz = 1.23MHz

/ 30kHz
a
= 41 AMPS Channels
CDMA Guard = 0.27 MHz/side = 0.54MHz / 30kHz
a
= 18 AMPS Channels
Totals 3.00 MHz 101 AMPS Channels
a. One AMPS Channel = 30 kHz
2
The difference between the 1
st
CDMA carrier and the 2
nd
CDMA carrier is equal to the channel
spacing. Minimal channel spacing is 1.23 MHz (41 AMPS channels). The following figure
represents the frequency requirements for 2
nd
carrier implementation.
Figure 2-17: 2
nd
CDMA Carrier
2.3.5.3 Greater Than Two CDMA Carriers with AMPS Guard Band
Additional carriers can be added as outlined in Section 2.3.4. See Figure 2-18 for a 3-carrier
example for an 800 MHz system with a 30 kHz channel spacing. CDMA carriers must be at least
1.23 MHz apart with guard bands on each end. The governing body controlling the frequency
allocations will dictate the amount of spectrum available for each operator. This spectrum will limit
the number of carriers allowed per block.
Figure 2-18: 3
rd
CDMA Carrier
1.23 MHz
1
st
CDMA Channel
1.23 MHz
2
nd
CDMA Channel
1.23 MHz
AMPS Guard AMPS Guard
0.27 MHz 0.27 MHz
1.23 MHz
1
st
CDMA Channel
1.23 MHz
2
nd
CDMA Channel
1.23 MHz
AMPS Guard AMPS Guard
1.23 MHz
3
rd
CDMA Channel
1.23 MHz
0.27 MHz 0.27 MHz
2
2.4 Channel Spacing and Designation - 800 MHz
The Primary and Secondary CDMA Channel will be assigned as indicated in Table 2-2. The
information presented in Table 2-3 is taken directly from the IS-95A/B and IS-2000 standards that
outline the channel allocations shared by CDMA and AMPS technologies (Note: information
provided applies only to Spreading Rate 1 for IS-2000).
Table 2-2: CDMA Channel Spacing and Designation
Table 2-3: Channel Numbers and Frequencies for Band Class 0 and Spreading Rate 1
a. The valid channel numbers provided in this table were taken directly from the IS-95 standard.
Before using a valid channel number that is near the band edge, an analysis is required to verify
proper guard band and FCC emission compliance with the adjacent band.
b. The spectrum allocated to the A band is not sufficient for a CDMA carrier.
A Band B Band
Primary 283 384
Secondary 691 777
a
a. In the United States due to proximity of 800 MHz Air-Ground Radiotelephone Service,
channel 777 has interference considerations associated with it. Use of this channel should
require determination of sufficient isolation prior to implementation.
System
Designator
CDMA
Channel
Validity
Analog
Channel
Count
CDMA
Channel
Number
Transmitter Frequency Band (MHz)
Subscriber Base
A"
(1 MHz)
Not Valid 22 991 - 1012 824.040-824.670 869.040-869.670
Valid
a
11 1013 - 1023 824.700-825.000 869.700-870.000
A
(10 MHz)
Valid
a
311 1 - 311 825.030-834.330 870.030-879.330
Not Valid 22 312 - 333 834.360-834.990 879.360-879.990
B
(10 MHz)
Not Valid 22 334 - 355 835.020-835.650 880.020-880.650
Valid
a
289 356 - 644 835.680-844.320 880.680-889.320
Not Valid 22 645 - 666 844.350-844.980 889.350-889.980
A
(1.5 MHz)
Not Valid 22 667 - 688 845.010-845.640 890.010-890.640
Valid
b
6 689 - 694 845.670-845.820 890.670-890.820
Not Valid 22 695 - 716 845.850-846.480 890.850-891.480
B
(2.5 MHz)
Not Valid 22 717 - 738 846.510-847.140 891.510-892.140
Valid
a
39 739 - 777 847.170-848.310 892.170-893.310
Not Valid 22 778 - 799 848.340-848.970 893.340-893.970
2
In Table 2-3, the center frequency (in MHz) corresponding to the channel number is calculated as
shown in Table 2-4, where N represents the channel number.
Table 2-4: CDMA Channel Number to CDMA Frequency Assignment Correspondence
A visual depiction of the CDMA frequencies is shown in Figure 2-19.
Figure 2-19: AMPS Frequency Allocation
2.4.1 Segregated Spectrum
When the CDMA carrier is deployed where another technology already exists, the system spectrum
must be split into two frequency bands. One band is for the existing technology and the other band
is for digital frequency bands. This concept is shown in the following B band frequency chart
(see Table 2-5). Note that the digital band includes a single primary CDMA carrier.
Transmitter CDMA Channel Number Center Frequency (MHz)
Subscriber Station 1 < N < 799 0.030 * N + 825.000
991 < N < 1023 0.030 * (N-1023) + 825.000
Base Station 1 < N < 799 0.030 * N + 870.000
991 < N < 1023 0.030 * (N-1023) + 870.000
A
A
Wireline
Non-Wireline
AMPS
A
EAMPS
B
EAMPS
691
777
384
283
1
st
A Band CDMA
B
AMPS
2
nd
ary A Band CDMA
1
st
B Band CDMA
2
nd
ary B Band CDMA
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
1
6
7
1
7
3
3
3
3
3
4
9
9
1
1
0
2
3
1
7
9
9
EAMPS
1
st
refers to the primary channel.
2
nd
ary refers to the secondary channel. Not to be confused with a second carrier.
2
Any advanced technology (NAMPS, TDMA or CDMA) that must co-exist with AMPS/EAMPS
in the available spectrum requires implementation of segregated spectrum. Transition from AMPS
to CDMA consists of effectively replacing AMPS channels with CDMA channels. In such a mixed
system, co-channel interference is minimized by dividing the available cellular spectrum into two
parts as depicted in Figure 2-20. The segregated spectrum approach also requires the system to be
partitioned into three distinct geographic areas. This technique ensures the physical separation
needed to permit reuse of AMPS channels from the CDMA band.
There are two benefits to segregated spectrum planning. First, spectrum division reduces concern
over introducing interference as each CDMA carrier is implemented. Second, it will allow for
independent AMPS and CDMA planning.
The three distinct geographic areas created are identified as follows:
Core Zone - The region in which CDMA carriers are deployed. The core will operate CDMA
channels in the CDMA band and AMPS channels in the AMPS band. The existing AMPS
frequency plan is modified to delete AMPS channels in the CDMA band.
Table 2-5: 7 Cell (120), 21 Channel Spacing, "B" Band
A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1 A2 B2 C2 D2 E2 F2 G2 A3 B3 C3 D3 E3 F3 G3
334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354
355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375
376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396
397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417
418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438
439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459
460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480
481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501
502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522
523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543
544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564
565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585
586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606
607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627
628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648
649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 - - -
- - - - - 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732
733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753
754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774
775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795
796 797 798 799
cyan CDMA Channel (364 through 404)
yellow CDMA Guard Band (355 through 363 and 405 through 413)
2
Perimeter Zone - The outermost area contains those cells that are located at an adequate distance
from the CDMA core such that it is acceptable to assign AMPS channels that are in the CDMA
band. This physical separation serves to maintain acceptable interference levels.
Transition Zone - The transition zone (also known as the guard zone) is located between the core
and the perimeter. AMPS channels in the CDMA band should not be assigned in the transition
zone. This zone should not be confused with the transition cell hand-down capability.
Figure 2-20: Segregated Spectrum
The grade-of-service (blocking) should be checked for all cells to make sure it is acceptable,
particularly in the transition zone. In the event that the grade of service is unacceptable and all
channels have been assigned, certain design options can be exercised to resolve this problem. The
first option that may be considered is to replace the AMPS channels with CDMA channels. The
cell would then become a core cell. A second option would be to sectorize or cell split the AMPS
cell. A third option would be to reduce the size of the CDMA core to the point that this cell would
then be considered a perimeter zone cell.
Segregated spectrum may be implemented in various configurations: uniform, non-uniform and
homogenous. Uniform deployment consists of a single core area surrounded by a single transition
and perimeter zone. Non-uniform implementation may establish multiple CDMA core and
transition zones. A homogeneous implementation occurs when the entire system consists of
CDMA and there are no transitions or perimeter zones. Homogeneous system composition may be
considered by isolated systems or systems adjacent to another CDMA system operating in the same
frequency spectrum.
Perimeter Zone
Core
Transition
Core
CORE
CORE
Option # 3 - Homogeneous
Option # 1 - Uniform
Option # 2 - Non-Uniform
Requires Isolated system or
adjacent CDMA systems
Zone
2
2.5 Channel Spacing and Designation - 1900 MHz
The block designators for the personal and base station frequencies are as specified in Table 2-6.
Table 2-6: Band Class 1 System Frequency Correspondence
The channel spacing, CDMA channel designations and transmit center frequencies are specified in
Table 2-7.
Table 2-7: CDMA Channel Number to CDMA Frequency Assignment
Transmission on conditionally valid channels is permissible if the adjacent block is allocated to the
licensee or if other valid authorization has been obtained. Valid CDMA Channels Numbers are
identified in Table 2-8.
Block Designator
A 1850-1865 1930-1945
D 1865-1870 1945-1950
B 1870-1885 1950-1965
E 1885-1890 1965-1970
F 1890-1895 1970-1975
C 1895-1910 1975-1990
Transmitter CDMA Channel Number Center Frequency (MHz)
Personal Station 0 < N < 1199 1850.000 + 0.050 * N
Base Station 0 < N < 1199 1930.000 + 0.050 * N
2
Table 2-8: Channel Numbers and Frequencies for Band Class 1 and Spreading Rate 1
Table 2-9: Preferred Set of Frequency Assignments for Band Class 1 and Spreading Rate 1
Block
Designator
Valid CDMA
Frequency
Assignments
CDMA
Channel
Number
A
(15 MHz)
Not Valid
Valid
Cond. Valid
0 - 24
25 - 275
276 - 299
1850.000 - 1851.200
1851.250 - 1863.750
1863.800 - 1864.950
1930.000 - 1931.200
1931.250 - 1943.750
1943.800 - 1944.950
D
(5 MHz)
Cond. Valid
Valid
Cond. Valid
300 - 324
325 - 375
376 - 399
1865.000 - 1866.200
1866.250 - 1868.750
1868.800 - 1869.950
1945.000 - 1946.200
1946.250 - 1948.750
1948.800 - 1949.950
B
(15 MHz)
Cond. Valid
Valid
Cond. Valid
400 - 424
425 - 675
676 - 699
1870.000 - 1871.200
1871.250 - 1883.750
1883.800 - 1884.950
1950.000 - 1951.200
1951.250 - 1963.750
1963.800 - 1964.950
E
(5 MHz)
Cond. Valid
Valid
Cond. Valid
700 - 724
725 - 775
776 - 799
1885.000 - 1886.200
1886.250 - 1888.750
1888.800 - 1889.950
1965.000 - 1966.200
1966.250 - 1968.750
1968.800 - 1969.950
F
(5 MHz)
Cond. Valid
Valid
Cond. Valid
800 - 824
825 - 875
876 - 899
1890.000 - 1891.200
1891.250 - 1893.750
1893.800 - 1894.950
1970.000 - 1971.200
1971.250 - 1973.750
1973.800 - 1974.950
C
(15 MHz)
Cond. Valid
Valid
Not Valid
900 - 924
925 - 1175
1176 - 1199
1895.000 - 1896.200
1896.250 - 1908.750
1908.800 - 1909.950
1975.000 - 1976.200
1976.250 - 1988.750
1988.800 - 1989.950
Block
Designator
Preferred Set Channel Numbers
A 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 225, 250, 275
D 325, 350, 375
B 425, 450, 475, 500, 525, 550, 575, 600, 625, 650, 675
E 725, 750, 775
F 825, 850, 875
C 925, 950, 975, 1000, 1025, 1050, 1075, 1100, 1125, 1150, 1175
2
2.6 Dual-Mode vs. Dual-Band
Dual-mode subscriber units can support two air-interfaces using a common frequency band (i.e.
CDMA and analog at 800 MHz). In a mixed digital and analog system, normally the registration
request will be attempted first to the digital service then to the analog service. Dual-mode allows
the digital service provider the option to redirect traffic to a different air-interface where resources
are available, for capacity control or emergency hand down. Dual-mode phones also allow the
subscriber unit to roam outside of its home network (assuming service is provided).
Dual-band subscriber units are designed to allow a subscriber to utilize two frequency spectrums,
such as PCS frequency spectrum and the cellular bands. Handoffs are supported between CDMA
providers of different bands (much like dual-mode) and also supported between CDMA, NAMPS
and AMPS. With dual-mode phones, the service provider has the option to redirect the subscriber
unit to a different air interface; however, dual-band providers redirect the subscriber unit to a
different part of the frequency spectrum. An example for dual-mode would be a subscriber unit that
is capable of operating on a CDMA 800 MHz system or could be redirected to an AMPS 800 MHz
system, assuming resources are available. An example for dual-band operation would be a
subscriber unit that is capable of operating on a CDMA PCS (1900 MHz) system and also being
able to operate on an AMPS 800 MHz system.
The goal in developing dual-mode and dual-band subscriber units is to ease transition from one
technology to a second (such as 800 MHz AMPS to 800 MHz CDMA), allow a single subscriber
unit to roam outside of the providers service area, and eventually to have a subscriber unit which
will work everywhere (domestic and international) thus providing "seamless" coverage.
"Seamless" coverage does not necessarily imply a single service provider.
2.7 Spectrum Clearing
Spectrum clearing is a topic which is especially important to CDMA systems. The CDMA
technology bases its capacity on a signal to noise balance (uplink and downlink). Adequate
spectrum must be cleared to optimize a system to its greatest capacity. Although there are many
approaches to testing the airways for clearance, it is advised that drive tests are performed (i.e. with
a spectrum analyzer) to verify that the spectrum is clear, and/or locate possible spectrum violators.
For new spectrum allocations or for spectrum that is being reallocated for telecommunication
systems (i.e. 3G spectrum allocations), spectrum measurements may be necessary to verify that the
spectrum is clear of any previous users of the spectrum (see Section 2.8 for more information).
In the cellular bands, CDMA bandwidth is created by removing the appropriate number of AMPS
channels. This should be done in cells within the core and transition zones. For the 1
st
CDMA
carrier, 59 AMPS (30 kHz) channels would need to be cleared.
Cells for the transition (or guard) zone can be identified either by predictive RF propagation or
actual noise floor measurements. The coverage area needing spectrum clearing will vary
depending upon transmission signal strength, base station height, terrain variation, foliage, and
reflection from buildings, hills or the atmosphere. The zone or area of cells to be cleared is related
2
to the reuse distance needed to achieve acceptable C/I levels. The area needing clearing for CDMA
may be reduced by controlling interference. Examples of how to control interference include:
utilizing directional antennas, increasing or decreasing antenna heights and downtilts, careful
adjustment of power applied to pilot and voice channels, or by using geographic elements for
isolation.
Because all transmission equipment has the capacity to block or disrupt signalling, each country
has laws governing transmission of signals. Many countries have adopted the United States Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) standards. However, do NOT assume these standards are
international. In the United States, Codes of Federal Regulations must be strictly adhered to. The
U.S. government divides these codes into what are called "Titles". Each Title covers a specific
topic. For instance, Title 7 covers Agriculture codes, Title 15 covers Commerce and Foreign Trade.
The Telecommunication Code of Federal Regulations is listed in Title 47. Title 47 is subdivided
into "Volumes" which contain "Parts" or chapters explicitly defining each code. The FCC World-
Wide Web Page contains a search engine which can locate specific regulations. For example,
regulations governing licensing and use of frequencies in the 806-824, 851-869, 896-901, and 935-
940 MHz bands are located under CFR 47, Part 90.
Specific codes for PCS exist under CFR 47, Part 24. Great detail is given to rules and restrictions
within CFR 47, Part 24. One rule for example, under paragraph 24.236 gives the field strength
limits: "The predicted or measured median field strength at any location on the border of the PCS
service area shall not exceed 47 dBuV/m unless the parties agree to a higher field strength."
Rules can be very specific. For instance, regulations are given for items such as antenna mast
heights, antenna location, what maximum radiated power is allowed at each frequency, how to
divide spectrum, who is responsible for clearing spectrum and what is the allotted time frame. It is
important to clearly understand the regulations of the government for which the system will be
deployed. Large fines can be assessed to the customer and/or Motorola.
Although Federal Regulations take priority, each state and town/city may have additional codes or
zoning regulations.
For non-U.S. regulations, please contact the governing agency of that country.
2.8 Background Noise Measurements
Capacity and coverage in CDMA systems (IS-95 & IS-2000) are, in part, a function of the
background thermal and man-made interference noise levels. For the 1.23 MHz CDMA channel,
the background thermal noise is approximately -113 dBm. Man-made interference includes
automobile ignition noise and spurious emissions from radio and other electronic equipment.
The background man-made noise will vary from site to site depending on the number of
interference sources and their proximity to the cell. In order to insure the optimal operation of each
of the CDMA cell sites, Motorola recommends that noise floor measurements are considered as a
part of the site selection process for CDMA systems. These noise floor measurements can also be
used to make adjustments to the noise margin parameter for a particular link budget analysis (see
section 4.2.1.4).
2
It is anticipated that CDMA systems may be deployed in the same geographical areas where
another technology once occupied the current CDMA systems spectrum. It is also possible for
adjacent band signals from other systems that are in the same geographical areas with the CDMA
system to cause interference with the CDMA system. As a result, noise floor measurements are
also recommended to be used to identify any in-band or out-of-band interference sources. Once an
interference source has been identified, an evaluation of the interference source can be performed
to determine the impact to the CDMA system. If the impact is determined to be significant, then
proper actions can be taken to reduce the source of interference to an appropriate level.
2.8.1 Suggested Measurement Method
Interference is random in nature, with amplitude and frequency varying over time. Some of the
interference sources are thermal noise, environmental noise, and noise from other systems (i.e.
AMPS/EAMPS, CDMA, GSM, iDEN, ANSI-136, point-to-point microwave, public safety, land
mobile, private mobile, air-to-ground airphone service, etc.). Out of band sources can create
interference through intermodulation (IM).
Due to the random nature of the background noise, Motorola suggests that a data logging system
be employed to measure the noise floor over some period of time. Statistical analysis of the
collected data can then be performed to determine an average and cumulative distribution function
of the noise floor rise. The cumulative distribution function indicates the amount of time the
background noise rise exceeds some specified limit.
2.8.1.1 Test System Functional Description
A possible configuration of a noise floor test system is shown in Figure 9-1. The test measurement
calibration point (cal point) is at the feedline entrance of a separate antenna or an unused port of
the receiver multicoupler. The band-pass filter is used to attenuate out-of-band signals, which
otherwise could create in-band intermodulation products. The low noise amplifiers are used to
improve the system noise figure and provide enough gain to allow for the measurement of very low
level signals. The step attenuator between the amplifiers is used to limit the system gain, again, to
reduce the level of possible intermodulation products. The output of the final amplifier is then split
using a two-way splitter. The two equal outputs of the splitter are used as inputs to two spectrum
analyzers. Spectrum analyzer 1 operates in the manual mode. This spectrum analyzer is equipped
with a tracking generator which is used for the system gain calibration. This spectrum analyzer is
also used to make noise floor plots and to investigate the nature of interference as it appears on the
screen. Spectrum analyzer 2 is under computer control. Measurement traces are collected with this
spectrum analyzer and are stored to disk for later processing. Up to two spectrum analyzer traces
per second can be recorded for the described system. The noise source is used to measure the
system noise figure. The measured system noise figure is used when processing the collected data
into the desired cumulative distribution plots.
2
Figure 2-21: Suggested CDMA Noise Floor Measurement System
2.8.1.2 Test System Calibration
The test system gain and noise figure must be measured before data collection begins. The
measured gain and noise figure are used to make adjustments to the collected data during the data
analysis operation. The system gain is measured using the tracking generator provided in spectrum
analyzer 1. The system noise figure is determined by first measuring the noise floor with the system
Calibration Point (input) terminated in 50 ohms and then measuring the noise floor with the system
Calibration Point connected to the calibrated noise source. The noise figure is then calculated as
follows:
[EQ 2-2]
Where:
ENR Equivalent noise ratio of the calibrated noise source (linear ratio)
P
on
Noise floor measurement with the noise source connected to the system input
(Watts)
x
Cal
Point
Bandpass
Filter
Plotter
Amplifier
NF = 1 dB
G = 15 dB
IPi = 4 dBm
Amplifier
NF = 2 dB
G = 25 dB
IPi = 0 dBm
+28 vdc
+28 vdc
+28 vdc
Step
Atten.
Spectrum
Analyzer 1
NF = 26 dB
IP=16 dBm
w/tracker
Spectrum
Analyzer 2
NF = 26 dB
IP = 21 dBm
PC
50 ohm
termination
Noise
Source
ENR = 15 dB
IEEE
488
NF 10
ENR
Pon
Poff 1
--------------------
,
_
-------------------------
,

_
log =
2
P
off
Noise floor measurement with the system input terminated in 50 ohms (Watts)
NF System noise figure (dB)
2.8.2 Test Procedures
If the CDMA system is deployed in an area where another technology currently exists, there are
two proposed methods of co-existence. One method is to clear all co-channels from the other
system within the CDMA band on a system wide basis. Another possibility is to only clear the co-
channels from cells which are near the CDMA cells. Co-channels to the CDMA band are then
reused at distant cells. Before noise floor testing can begin, co-channel clearing, per the chosen
implementation plan, must be completed. This is necessary because co-channels within the CDMA
band will appear as interference in the collected data.
After clearing the spectrum, preliminary tests should be run without band select filtering to identify
uncleared channels, out of band large signals, and spurious emissions, and to measure any co-
located technology antenna isolation. It is best to perform these tests during the busy hour as more
uplink and downlink channels will be in use, and recorded by the tests.
Plot the system downlink band to identify possible uncleared co-channels, external sources of
downlink interference, and to verify Tx-Rx isolation with any co-located cell sites.
Plot the uplink band to identify receive isolation with any co-located cell sites and to identify any
possible sources of uplink interference.
Examine the plot of the adjacent system frequencies for out of band or spurious emissions from the
other systems in the adjacent bands.
With a co-located cell site configuration, transmitter IM can be a source of interference with a
duplexed antenna. If this configuration exists, all of the channels from the co-located site should
be keyed up in the sector, and the spectrum should be scanned for IM and cross modulation
products. This can effectively raise the noise floor 10 to 20 dB. It can be caused by connector
breakdown in the RF path, and decreased isolation due to the duplexed configuration.
It may also be prudent to perform spot checks to identify possible interference causing conditions.
If available, make a call on the competitors system and note the subscriber power level at the
CDMA cell site. A maximum subscriber power level near the CDMA cell site may create
interference issues.
Once the system has been cleared of analog co-channels, noise floor testing can proceed. For best
results, the data should be logged at various times of the day and night at each cell site. This is
necessary because varying traffic patterns throughout the day will effect the noise levels present at
the cell site. It is recommended that at least 2000 traces be collected in each site.
2
2.8.3 Data Analysis
The collected data must be scaled to account for the measurement system gain, noise figure, and
bandwidth before the statistical analysis is performed. Once the data is properly scaled, a statistics
software package can be used to calculate the average noise floor rise and cumulative distribution
functions. The noise floor rise cumulative distribution plots can then be used to make a judgement
on the effect of background interference to CDMA performance at each cell site. Plots can also be
produced which show the amplitude and frequency of interferers as a function of time. These plots
can be used to help identify the source of interferers, which can lead to methods of interference
reduction.
2.9 References
1 TIA/EIA/IS-95-A, Mobile Station - Base Station Compatibility Standard for Dual-Mode
Wideband Spread Spectrum Cellular Systems, 1995, Sections 2.1.1.1, 2.2.1.1, 3.1.1.1,
3.2.1.1, 6.1.1.1, 6.2.1.1, 7.1.1.1, Tables 2.1.1.1-1, 6.1.1.1-1, 6.1.1.1-2.
2. ANSI J-STD-008, Personal Station-Base Station Compatibility Requirements for 1.8 to
2.0 GHz Code Division Multiple Access Personal Communications, March 24, 1995,
Section 2.1.1.1, Tables 2.1.1.1-1, 2.1.1.1-2, 2.1.1.1-3 and 2.1.1.1-4.
3. CFR 47 (Telecommunications), Office of the Federal Register National Archives and
Records Administration, October 1, 1997.
4. FCC Web Page (Wireless Telecommunications Bureau): http://www.fcc.gov/wtb/
National Archives and Records Administration (CFR Search Engine): http://
www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/index.html
5. TIA/EIA/IS-2000-2, Physical Layer Standard for cdma2000 Spread Spectrum Systems
6. TIA/EIA TSB-84A, Licensed PCS to PCS Interference, Version 1.7, June 9, 1998
7. Dennis Schaeffer (Motorola), "Adjacent Channel Interference Impact In CDMA
Systems", August 20, 1999
8. Asia Pacific Telecom Carrier Solutions Group (Motorola), "cdma2000 1X System
Planning Guide", Version 0.1, November 7, 2000
9. Motorola, CDMA Uplink Noise Survey Procedure, Version 0.4.
10. Motorola, RF Logger User Guide, January 2000
Table of Contents
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 5
3.2 Reverse Link Pole Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 5
3.2.1 Data Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 11
3.2.2 Median E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 12
3.2.3 Voice or Data Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 13
3.2.4 Cell Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 14
3.2.5 Sectorization Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 15
3.2.6 Power Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 17
3.3 Reverse Link Soft Blocking Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.1 Conventional Blocking Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.2 CDMA Soft Blocking Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 18
3.3.2.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 19
3.3.2.2 Theoretical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 19
3.3.2.3 Single Cell Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 22
3.3.2.4 Multiple Cell System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 23
3.4 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 32
3.4.1 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 32
3.4.2 Reverse Noise Rise Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 33
3.4.3 Probability Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 35
3.4.4 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation Examples . . . . . . 3 - 37
3.4.4.1 Example #1: Voice Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 37
3.4.4.2 Example #2: Voice and Data Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 38
3.4.5 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimates for IS-2000 1X. . . 3 - 41
3.4.5.1 Noise Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 41
3.4.5.2 F-factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 42
3.4.5.3 Average E
b
/N
o
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 43
3.4.5.4 E
b
/N
o
Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 43
3.4.5.5 Processing Gain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 44
3.4.5.6 Activity Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 44
3.4.5.7 Traffic Mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 45
3.4.5.8 Throughput Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 45
3.4.5.9 IS-2000 1X Reverse Noise Rise Capacity Analysis Results . . . . . . 3 - 46
Chapter
CDMA Capacity 3
3
Chapter 3: CDMA Capacity
3.5 Forward Link Pole Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 52
3.5.1 Forward Link Load Factor Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 52
3.5.2 Forward Link Pole Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 53
3.6 Forward Link Fractional Power Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 54
3.7 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 57
3.7.1 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 58
3.7.2 Forward Noise Rise Capacity Estimation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 59
3.7.3 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation Examples . . . . . . 3 - 60
3.7.3.1 Example #1: Voice Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 61
3.7.3.2 Example #2: Voice and Data Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 62
3.7.4 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimates for IS-2000 1X . . 3 - 65
3.7.4.1 Noise Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 65
3.7.4.2 I-factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 66
3.7.4.3 Average E
b
/N
o
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 66
3.7.4.4 E
b
/N
o
Standard Deviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 67
3.7.4.5 Processing Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 67
3.7.4.6 Activity Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 68
3.7.4.7 Orthogonality Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 69
3.7.4.8 Traffic Mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 69
3.7.4.9 Throughput Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 69
3.7.4.10 IS-2000 1X Forward Noise Rise Capacity Analysis Results. . . . . 3 - 70
3.8 Forward vs. Reverse Link Capacity Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 76
3.9 EIA/TIA Specifications and RF Air Interface Limitations. . . . . . . . . . 3 - 80
3.9.1 IS-95 Forward Channel Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 80
3.9.2 IS-95 Reverse Channel Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 81
3.9.3 IS-2000 1X Forward Channel Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 82
3.9.3.1 IS-2000 Forward Channels (Motorola Implementation) . . . . . . . . 3 - 83
3.9.3.2 IS-2000 Forward Link Radio Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 86
3.9.3.3 IS-2000 Walsh Code Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 88
3.9.4 IS-2000 Reverse Channel Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 91
3.9.4.1 IS-2000 Reverse Channels (Motorola Implementation) . . . . . . . . 3 - 91
3.9.4.2 IS-2000 Reverse Link Radio Configurations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 92
3.10 Handoffs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 94
3.10.1 Soft Handoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 94
3.10.2 Inter-CBSC Soft Handoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 95
3.10.3 Hard Handoffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 95
3.10.3.1 Anchor Handoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 95
3.10.3.2 IS-95 to IS-2000 Hand-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 95
3.10.3.3 IS-2000 to IS-95 Hand-down. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 96
3.10.3.4 Packet Data Handoffs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 96
3.10.3.5 Inter-Carrier Hand-across . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 96
3
3.11 Budgetary Estimate of Sites for Capacity (Voice Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 96
3.11.1 Required Parameters for Initial System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 97
3.11.1.1 Busy Hour Call Attempts and Completions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 97
3.11.1.2 Average Holding Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 97
3.11.1.3 Erlangs per Subscriber. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 97
3.12 IS-95 and IS-2000 Simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 102
3.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 104
3
NOTES
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3
3.1 Introduction
Capacity of a wireless network (for mobile or fixed subscribers) is defined as the number of users
that a given cell site can support while maintaining a certain QoS/GOS criteria. With the
introduction of various data related services (facilitated by IS-95B or IS-2000), the capacity of a
given cell site can also be represented by the number of users along with the associated data
throughput and a QoS criteria. The amount of RF spectrum available has a direct relationship on
the capacity that can be provided. The air interfaces which make efficient use of the allocated
spectrum will offer greater capacity. In AMPS or TDMA systems, blocking occurs when all voice
frequencies or time slots are fully occupied by other users in the system. In Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) systems, all users in the system share a common wideband spectrum over the time
they are active.
Capacity of a CDMA system depends upon the amount of interference in the system. Additional
users accessing the system will increase the system interference level. In order to maximize the
capacity, steps need to be taken to minimize the total power transmitted so as to reduce the total
interference in the system. An adjustment to this power will also make an adjustment to the
capacity. Blocking in CDMA is defined to occur when the total interference density reaches a
predetermined level above the background noise density. This is a soft blocking condition. The
blocking probability can be relaxed by allowing the maximum tolerable interference level to
increase.
In this chapter, several different capacity equations are provided which can be used to estimate the
average cell site capacity under various conditions and assumptions. The capacity of a CDMA
system is dependent upon the RF environment (i.e. path loss, delay spread, cell site layout, etc.).
There is no single capacity number but a range of values over an environment. With the
introduction of various data related services, the capacity will also depend upon the mixture of
voice and data traffic models. A capacity equation analysis is a simplistic approach as it assumes
uniform loading across all cells. However, in a live network, such a scenario would be rare. Thus,
there is no simple formula that can calculate the actual capacity that a live CDMA cell site will be
able to support. Though some equations will be provided to allow the approximation of the number
of users and data throughput that could be supported, these equations will demonstrate that the
capacity of a CDMA carrier varies with many factors. As a result, the capacity equations provided
in this chapter should be used for budgetary purposes only. A more sophisticated CDMA
simulation program, such as Motorolas NetPlan tool, should be used for a live CDMA system to
model the forward and reverse links for thousands of subscribers in a realistic system environment
with different voice and data traffic mixes. The NetPlan tool provides detailed simulations of both
the forward and reverse links which produces a more accurate and realistic system capacity and
coverage prediction.
3.2 Reverse Link Pole Capacity Estimation
In digital systems (i.e. IS-95A/B or IS-2000) the energy per bit needs to be a certain level above
the total interference density in order to detect the transmitted bit. (Note: the following section can
be applied towards both IS-95 and IS-2000 systems.) This is referred to as E
b
/I
o
. Energy is
equivalent to power times time or to power divided by the rate. Therefore, the energy per bit can
3
be expressed as the received power divided by the maximum bit rate:
[EQ 3-1]
Assuming:
P denotes the received power from each subscriber at the base station antenna
R denotes the data rate (9600 bps for Rate Set 1, 14400 bps for Rate Set 2)
Power control is perfect
Subscribers are transmitting just enough power to be received
Uniform subscriber distribution
The total interference power density assuming N users, can be expressed as
[EQ 3-2]
Where:
Bandwidth of the channel
Using Equation 3-1 and Equation 3-2, the energy per bit to the total interference density can be
determined.
[EQ 3-3]
Solving for N yields:
[EQ 3-4]
It should be pointed out that some papers approximate N-1 with N.
The above equation is an ideal case or can be referred to as a first order capacity estimate. The
capacity (N) can additionally be impacted by interference from other cell sites, the voice or data
activity associated with the users, and the effect of thermal noise. Including these other factors into
Equation 3-2 will yield:
[EQ 3-5]
E
b
P
R
--- =
I
o
N 1 ( )P
W
--------------------- =
W
E
b
I
o
------
P R
N 1 ( )P
W
---------------------
----------------------
W R
N 1
------------ - = =
N 1
W R
E
b
I
o
-------------- N =
I
o
N
o
+
N 1 ( )P 1 f + ( )
W
----------------------------------------- N
o
+ =
3
Where:
Interference power density impacted by other cells, and the number of users with
an average voice or data activity rate
Ratio of out of cell (inter-cell) interference power to in cell (intra-cell)
interference power. This factor is used to adjust the capacity of a single cell to
account for the interference generated by other users in a multiple cell system.
Average voice or data activity factor
Thermal noise
Using this new value of I
o
, Equation 3-3 can be rewritten as follows:
[EQ 3-6]
The pole capacity is defined as the maximum capacity that can be achieved under a given set of
conditions. At pole capacity, the rise over the thermal noise will approach infinity. This can be
calculated from the power rise over thermal rise.
[EQ 3-7]
[EQ 3-8]
As the denominator in Equation 3-8 approaches zero, the power rise over thermal rise will
approach infinity. Solving the denominator to be equal to zero will result in the maximum pole
capacity.
[EQ 3-9]
Solving for the number of users (N) yields:
I
o
f
N
o
E
b
N (
o
I
o
) +
-----------------------
P R
N 1 ( )P 1 f + ( )
W
----------------------------------------- N
o
+
------------------------------------------------------
W
R
-----
P
N
o
W
-----------
N 1 ( ) 1 f + ( )P
N
o
W
----------------------------------------- 1 +
--------------------------------------------------- = =
P
N
o
W
-----------
E
b
N (
o
I
o
) +
-----------------------
R
W
---- -
N 1 ( ) 1 f + ( )P
N
o
W
----------------------------------------- 1 + =
P
N
o
W
-----------
E
b
N (
o
I
o
) +
-----------------------
R
W
-----
1
E
b
N (
o
I
o
) +
-----------------------
R
W
----- N 1 ( ) 1 f + ( )
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
E
b
N (
o
I
o
) +
-----------------------
R
W
---- -
N 1 ( ) 1 f + ( ) 1 =
3
[EQ 3-10]
As mentioned previously, sometimes N-1 is approximated to be only N.
Two additional items can be taken into account to further refine the number of users that can be
supported. They are a reduction factor due to imperfect power control and a factor to account for
sectorization. In Equation 3-10, the f factor accounts for interference coming from other cell sites.
The sectorization factor will account for the impact of interference leakage between sectors.
To approximate the reverse pole capacity point for CDMA (which can be applied to both IS-95 and
IS-2000), the following equation can be used.
[EQ 3-11]
Where:
Total received signal and noise power spectral density
Thermal noise power spectral density
Energy per bit
Ratio of Signal energy per bit to the sum of interference and noise adjusted for
imperfect power control
Data rate
Processing gain
Ratio of out of cell (inter-cell) interference power to in cell (intra-cell)
interference power. This factor is used to adjust the capacity of a single cell to
account for the interference generated by other users in a multiple cell system.
Average voice or data activity factor
Sectorization gain
N 1
W R
1 f + ( )
E
b
N (
o
I
o
) +
-----------------------
----------------------------------------------- N =
ReversePoleCapacity N
W R
E
b
N
o
I
o
+
-----------------
adjust
-----------------------------------
1
1 f +
-----------
,
_
1
---
,
_
G
s
= =
I
o
N
o
E
b
E
b
N
o
I
o
+
--------------------
adj ust
W
R
W R
f
G
s
3
The adjusted E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) requirement to account for imperfect power control (power control
deviation) can be determined by:
[EQ 3-12]
Where:
Signal / (Interference plus noise) ratio requirement under perfect power control
Standard deviation in imperfect power control
Constant value equal to ln(10)/10
Some reverse link pole equations may use the term F, where F is defined as the ratio of in cell
(intra-cell) interference power to the sum of out of cell (inter-cell) interference power and in cell
(intra-cell) interference power. F is related to f by the following equation.
[EQ 3-13]
Substituting F into Equation 3-11 results in the following equation (which also can be applied to
both IS-95 and IS-2000).
[EQ 3-14]
Assuming the following values for the various parameters, the reverse link pole capacity for an IS-
95 Rate Set 2 site would be 19 users or roughly 12.3 Erlangs per sector (assuming an Erlang B
model with 2% grade of service) for a three sector site (57 users per site). This value represents the
pole capacity or the point at which no more users can be added without seriously degrading the
quality of the system.
Bandwidth of the channel (only one CDMA Channel) 1228800 Hz
Data rate 14400 bps
Ratio of out of cell (inter-cell) interference power to in cell 0.7
Average voice or data activity factor 0.4
E
b
N
o
I
o
+
-----------------
adjust
E
b
N
o
I
o
+
-----------------
e

e
( )
2
2
=
E
b
N
0
I
0
+
-----------------
F
InCell
InCell OutCell +
--------------------------------------------
1
1
OutCell
InCell
--------------------- +
------------------------------
1
1 f +
----------- = = =
W R
E
b
N
o
I
o
+
-----------------
adjust
----------------------------------- F
1
---
,
_
G
s
= =
W
R
f

3
Sectorization gain per sector for a three sector site 2.4/3
Signal / (Interference plus noise) ratio requirement under
perfect power control 6.5 dB
Standard deviation in imperfect power control 2.5
Constant value ln(10)/10
[EQ 3-15]
[EQ 3-16]
Several variations of a reverse link capacity equation exist. The various equations may not be
exactly the same as Equation 3-11 or Equation 3-14, but many, if not all, of the items within the
equations will be represented: processing gain, E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) (may also include a factor to account
for imperfect power control or power control impact may be its own term), other cell interference,
voice or data activity factor, and impact of sectorization. When discussing capacity, it is important
to mention all of the factors which are being considered and the assumed value for each factor. For
instance, 19 users shown above can easily turn into 32 users, if the calculation does not account for
any inter-cell interference (f=0). The capacity results are also highly dependent upon the values that
are used for the capacity equation. Even if the equations are similar, the values used may be
different which leads to different capacity claims from different sources. Some values are more
optimistic, thus leading to more users.
The E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) performance parameter, used as an input to the equations provided above
(Equation 3-11 or Equation 3-14), is usually specified for a particular data rate (along with other
assumptions; i.e. flat fading, mobile environment with a 30 kmph worst case speed, 1% FER,
diversity, and perfect decorrelation). Although the reverse pole capacity equations can be applied
towards both IS-95 and IS-2000 systems, they are typically applied towards analyzing a system
utilizing a single data rate. As such, they may be more appropriate in estimating the capacity of an
IS-95 system, where it is common to support a single data rate (i.e. Rate Set 1 or Rate Set 2). For
IS-2000 systems which utilize multiple data rates, the reverse pole capacity equations can be used
to analyze the capacity of each individual data rate. They are not recommended to analyze a
mixture of data rates, unless an appropriate average E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) performance parameter can be
produced to correlate with an associated average data rate.
Another point to be made is that these equations are for pole capacity. In designing a CDMA
system, the system designer should not assume that the system pole capacity will be achieved. The
system designer should plan that the reverse link capacity will not exceed 75% of the pole capacity.
From the above example, this would correspond to about 14 users or 8.2 Erlangs. Note that this is
G
s
E
b
N
o
I
o
+
-----------------
E
b
N
o
I
o
+
-----------------
adjust
10
6.5 10 ( )
e
0.23 2.5 ( )
2
2
5.27 7.22dB = = =
1228800 ( ) 14400
10
7.22 10 ( )
--------------------------------------------
1
1 0.7 +
----------------
,
_
1
0.4
-------
,
_
2.4
3
-------
,
_
19 = =
3
for the reverse link, the forward link may actually not allow this amount of Erlangs to be provided.
In analyzing Equation 3-11, the following relationships can be observed:
The reverse pole capacity value is greater for the lower data rate vocoder (i.e. Rate Set 1
at 9600 bps will provide greater reverse link capacity than Rate Set 2 at 14400 bps).
The reverse pole capacity value is increased if the E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) requirement is reduced.
The reverse pole capacity value is increased if the average voice or data activity is
reduced.
The reverse pole capacity value is increased if the inter-cell to intra-cell interference
ratio is reduced.
The reverse pole capacity value is increased if the sectorization gain can be increased
(i.e. choosing antennas with better front to back ratios and also antennas that have a
quick rolloff from their half power point to the back of the antenna).
The reverse pole capacity value is increased if the power control standard deviation is
reduced.
The following set of graphs demonstrates the six points just made. Only one of the parameter
values was varied for each graph with the other parameter values being left to the values given in
Equation 3-16. The intent of the graphs is to demonstrate the sensitivity a parameter value has on
the capacity of site or system.
3.2.1 Data Rates
The capacity of a CDMA carrier is dependent upon the data rate being used. Referring to
Equation 3-11, it can be seen that R (the data rate) has an inverse relationship to the reverse pole
capacity. Figure 3-1 through Figure 3-5 will show curves for both Rate Set 1 at 9.6 kbps (which is
the air interface data rate used for the 8 kbps vocoder) and Rate Set 2 at 14.4 kbps (which is the air
interface data rate used for the 13 kbps vocoder).
3
3.2.2 Median E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
)
Figure 3-1 shows that lower values for E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) result in more users being supported. BTS
infrastructure enhancements that decrease the required E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) value is one area Motorola is
researching to improve the capacity of the reverse link.
Figure 3-1: Impact of E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) on the Number of Users
For a mobile environment, a 7 to 7.5 dB E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) value is deemed acceptable. For a fixed system,
the E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) requirement can be as low as 3 to 4 dB for some situations. Fixed units installed
indoors with a whip antenna will require E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) values similar to the mobile environment,
whereas fixed units installed with outdoor directional antennas will require lower E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
)
values. Further advancements in chipsets and the algorithms employed in those chipset may reduce
the E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) requirement and thus smaller values than these previously listed will be acceptable.
For example, the values above are reasonable for an IS-95 site, but new chipsets are being used (i.e
IS-95 Motorola EMAXX chipset and IS-2000 chipset) which improve upon the E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
)
requirement. From the graph above, a 3 dB advantage of a fixed system over a mobile system will
yield a pole capacity of approximately twice the number of users (considering just the impact of
E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
)).
3
3.2.3 Voice or Data Activity
As a means to minimize interference, the transmission rate and power can be reduced when the
voice or data activity is absent or lessened. This reduction in transmission rate or power reduces
the average signal power of all users and thereby reduces the interference seen by each user. This
following figure depicts that as the voice or data activity increases, fewer users can be supported.
Figure 3-2: Impact of Voice or Data Activity on the Number of Users
The typical voice activity factor is 40%.
For some IS-2000 data services applications, a higher data rate coupled with a higher data activity
factor may be required. From the results in Figure 3-2, it can be seen that both of these factors will
reduce the capacity that can be supported by a CDMA carrier.
3
3.2.4 Cell Interference
The capacity of a cell depends on the total interference it receives from other cells. The level of
power that is received at the base station from different sources is dependent upon the laws of
propagation. The following figure shows that when the out of cell interference is increased with
respect to the in cell interference that the capacity will degrade.
[EQ 3-17]
Figure 3-3: Impact of Other Cell Interference on the Number of Users
The following table shows several f values that were obtained from simulations assuming a
specific propagation model (path loss slope, standard deviation, and correlation).
Table 3-1: Samples of Various f Factors
Note: path loss slope converts to path loss dB/decade by
multiplying the slope by a factor of 10
Path loss
slope
Standard
Deviation Correlation f Factor
4.0 6.5 0.9 0.43
4.0 8.0 0.5 0.55
3.5 6.5 0.5 0.69
3.5 8.0 0.5 0.76
3.5 10 0.1 1.68
f
OutCell
InCell
--------------------- =
3
The terms of the propagation model correspond to the path loss slope, the shadowing standard
deviation and the site to site correlation value. As shown by the above table, higher propagation
exponents (the path loss slope) will reduce the f factor and lower exponents will increase the value
of f.
For a system that is only comprised of a single cell (for example a fixed system in a remote area),
there will be no out of cell interference and therefore the pole capacity will be higher. Similarly,
cell sites positioned along a highway to provide only highway coverage will not see much
interference from other sites and therefore the f value will be lower for these sites than for a site in
the middle of a cluster of sites. In addition the f value will be lower for systems that are only
comprised of a few sites than for a system with many sites. As the number of sites increases there
is a greater occurrence of interference from other cells which will increase the f value as shown by
Equation 3-17.
3.2.5 Sectorization Gain
Sectorization gain can be somewhat of a misleading term. The sectorization gain is actually more
of a reduction factor. For an omni site, the sectorization gain is one. For a sector site, one approach
may be to multiply the resulting capacity of an omni site (or single sector) by the number of sectors
for the sector site (i.e. a three sector site would support three times the number of users than an
omni site and a six sector site would support six times the number of users than an omni site). This
is not the case though. The additional sectors are considered to be other locations generating
interference to the desired sector. The other cell interference factor accounts for just that,
interference generated by other sites. The sectorization gain is the adjustment for the other sectors
at the local site causing increased levels of interference. The reason it is referred to as a
sectorization gain is that for a given physical site location, this site location is able to support many
more users when it is sectorized than if it stayed omni.
The sectorization gain can be improved by selecting antennas which have a good front to back ratio
and which also exhibit a quick rolloff past the half power points (3 dB down from main lobe). For
instance, using a 90 antenna in place of a 120 antenna for a three sector site would decrease the
amount of energy (interference) going into adjacent sectors, thus increasing the sectorization gain
and thereby improving upon the number of users which could be supported. It is important to note
that decreasing the horizontal beamwidth too much can also have a negative impact on the
coverage (signal strength) within the cell sites coverage area. As the sectorization gain increases,
the number of users will increase (as seen from the graph in Figure 3-4).
The sectorization gain value which is commonly used is 0.8 per sector or 2.4 for a three sector site
(0.8 time 3). This 0.8 sectorization gain can be thought of as a 1 dB impact to the capacity of the
site due to other sectors interference.
3
Figure 3-4: Impact of Sectorization Gain on the Number of Users (3 Sector)
The above figure would apply only to a three sector site. The sectorization gain shown is for an
entire site. For instance, a sectorization gain of 2.4 corresponds to 0.8 per each sector (= 2.4/3). For
an omni site the sectorization gain would be 1. If the sectorization per sector for a six sector site is
considered to be similar to that of a three sector site, then the sectorization gain for the site would
be 6 times the per sector value (for instance, 6 * 0.8 = 4.8).
3
3.2.6 Power Control
Traffic capacity of CDMA systems is increased by implementing an appropriate power control
scheme to equalize the performance of all subscribers in the system. The appropriate power control
scheme reduces the interference to the other adjacent cells. The less interference generated in the
spectrum, the more users the CDMA system can support. As previously mentioned, the inaccuracy
in power control is roughly a log-normal distributed function. Under different path loss situations,
the average required E
b
/(N
o
+I
o
) tends to fluctuate around the mean to maintain a desirable Frame
Erasure Rate. The power control standard deviation varies according to the extent of fluctuations.
Figure 3-5: Impact of Imperfect Power Control on the Number of Users
This graph shows that improving the accuracy of power control can provide some increase to the
number of users.
At relatively slow speeds or in static conditions (fixed), power control is effective in counteracting
slow fades, whereas at high speeds, power control is not as effective in counteracting fast fading.
At higher speeds, the effects of interleaving become increasingly beneficial.
3
3.3 Reverse Link Soft Blocking Capacity Estimation
3.3.1 Conventional Blocking Analysis
In AMPS and TDMA systems, voice/traffic channels are assigned to users as long as they are
available. Given the required offered traffic, the Erlang B model is used to determine the number
of traffic channels required to provide a predetermined grade of service. The Erlang B model is
based upon a model of serving without queuing. In other words, all blocked calls are cleared.
Traffic load is the product of call rate and call holding time. It is a dimensionless quantity measured
in Erlangs. One Erlang is the traffic intensity of a traffic channel which is continuously occupied.
Grade of service is a term used to quantify the extent to which congestion occurs in any trunking
system and is typically expressed as the probability of finding blocking. Blocking in AMPS and
TDMA is defined to occur when all voice frequencies (for AMPS) or time slots (for TDMA) have
been assigned to other subscriber stations.
The values quoted for traffic load and grade of service for cellular systems are usually taken during
the busy hour. Busy hour is defined as the continuous one-hour period in the day during which the
highest average traffic density is experienced by the system. The Erlang B formula is given by:
[EQ 3-18]
Where:
A is the offered traffic
C is the number of available servers
Assumptions of the Erlang B Model:
1. The number of potential users is infinite
2. Intervals between originations are random
3. Call set up time is negligible
3.3.2 CDMA Soft Blocking Capacity Estimation
Unlike the traditional analog design, balanced uplink and downlink cannot be achieved in CDMA
because of the differences in waveform design on both links. Originally it was considered that the
reverse link (subscriber to base) would usually be the capacity limiting path. However with the
Rate Set 2 vocoder and other real world situations, the forward link (base to subscriber) may be the
limiting path. With new higher data rate services being introduced (via IS-95B or IS-2000), it is
P
Blocking
A
C
C!
------
A
K
K!
------
K 0 =
C
------------------ =
3
expected that the forward link will require higher data downloads than the reverse link. As a result,
the forward link is also expected to be the limiting path from a capacity perspective. Even though
the forward link may be the limiting factor of capacity for some systems, the reverse link capacity
estimates provided in this document can still be used to approximate the capacity under the given
assumptions and conditions. In many instances, the capacity analysis results of the reverse link can
sometimes provide an adequate estimate. Simulations should be used (i.e. using NetPlan) to obtain
more accurate capacity estimations. For more detailed results, simulations can take into account
many variable elements for which a general reverse or forward link capacity equation cannot
adequately model (i.e. non uniform traffic and speed distributions, non uniform cell site layouts,
propagation characteristics for a specific area, multiple subscriber classes with various call models,
combined forward and reverse link analysis, etc.).
Soft blocking in CDMA systems is defined to occur when the total collection of users both within
the serving cell/sector and in other neighbor cells introduce an amount of interference density so
great that it exceeds the background noise spectral density by a predefined amount. Under the
assumption that the system is not hardware limited, the following analysis applies this soft
blocking concept to calculate the Erlang capacity of a CDMA system. The concept of soft blocking
will be explained in details in the following paragraphs.
3.3.2.1 Assumptions
1. The number of active calls is a Poisson random variable with mean ( )
2. Each user is active with probability and inactive with probability (1- )
3. Each users required energy per bit-to-interference density ratio (E
b
/I
o
) is varied
according to propagation conditions to achieve the specified Frame Erasure Rate (FER).
The FER is usually taken as 1% (0.01) to provide satisfactory transmission.
4. All the sectors have the same number of users.
5. The users are uniformly distributed over each sector.
3.3.2.2 Theoretical Analysis
In mathematical form, the definition of blocking can be restated as follows:
Interference from the + Interference from + Thermal Noise = Total Interference
serving cell other cells
Blocking occurs when
[EQ 3-19]
---

i
i 1 =
k
E
bi
R v
i
j ( )E
bi
j ( )R N
0
W I
0
W > +
i 1 =
k
j
othercells
+
3
Where:
k is the number of simultaneous users per sector. By assumption [1], k is a Poisson
random variable with mean which is the offered traffic
W is the spread spectrum bandwidth allocated to a CDMA channel
R is the data rate
E
b
is energy per bit
N
o
is the background thermal noise density
I
o
is the total allowable interference density
is the voice or data activity and is a binomial random variable with = Pr ( =1),
which is the gate on probability.
The voice or data activity factor ( ) is defined as:
= Probability ( =1) [EQ 3-20]
Defining = E
b
/I
o
, which is known as the Bit Energy to Interference Density Ratio, and dividing
by I
o
R, the inequality [Equation 3-19] can be written as follows:
[EQ 3-21]
Where:
W/R is known as the processing gain
is the predefined threshold
Hence, the probability of blocking for CDMA is defined as the probability that the above condition
holds true.
P
blocking
= Probability {Z = } [EQ 3-22]
Notice that the blocking probability for CDMA is determined by the system E
b
/I
o
performance,
voice or data activity factor, the spread spectrum bandwidth, the data rate, and the maximum
---
i
i 1 =
k

i
v
i
j ( )
i
j ( )
i 1 =
k
j
othercells
+ 1 ( ) >
W
R
---- -
N
o
I
o
------ =
i
i 1 =
k

i
v
i
j ( )
i
j ( )
i 1 =
k
j
othercells
+ 1 ( ) >
W
R
---- -

3
allowable interference level. The probability of blocking can be relaxed by allowing the maximum
tolerable interference level (I
o
/N
o
) to increase. In this case, the system is forced to accommodate
more simultaneous users by degrading its service quality. This phenomenon is called soft
blocking. The threshold value for the maximum allowable interference shall be defined in the call
processing software by the operator.
To evaluate the blocking probability, the distribution of Z has to be determined which, in turn,
depends on the following random variables: voice or data activity ( ), bit energy to interference
ratio ( ), the total number of users in the sector (N
s
), and the number of active users per sector (k).
The voice or data activity ( ), is a binomial random variable with = Pr ( =1), which is the gate
on probability. The distribution is given by:
P( =k) = [EQ 3-23]
The distribution of k is Poisson and is given by:
P
k
= [EQ 3-24]
Where:
and are the arrival and service rates and is the offered traffic
The distribution of E
b
/N
o
depends on the power control mechanism in the system. Power control
allows the system to equalize the transmit power of all subscribers within the system. In a trial test,
the E
b
/N
o
performance was measured with a fixed system Frame Erasure Rate (FER) for a fully
loaded CDMA cell. The data showed the overall E
b
/N
o
was a log-normal distribution. Hence the
distribution of can be written as:
[EQ 3-25]
Where:
x is a Gaussian Random Variable with mean m and standard deviation
The first and second moment of are given by:
E( ) = E[ ] = [EQ 3-26]
N
s
1
k ,
_

k
1 ( )
Ns k 1

---
,
_
k
k!
----------- exp

------
,
_
---
10
x 10
=
exp x ( ) exp
( )
2
2
--------------
exp m ( )
3
E( ) = E[ ] = [EQ 3-27]
Where:
=
3.3.2.3 Single Cell Case
For the single cell case, the second summation term in Equation 3-22 is zero (i.e. no interference
for other cells). Since Z is the sum of k random variables, where k is the number of simultaneous
users in the system, the Central Limit Theorem can be applied for the approximation for Z. The
central limit theorem states that the probability density function for the sum of a number of
independent random variables with arbitrary one-dimensional probability density function
approaches a Gaussian Distribution. Hence the probability of blocking can be rewritten as:
Probability of Blocking = [EQ 3-28]
Where:
E( ) is the expected value
STD( ) is the standard deviation
A = and Q(x) =
The expected value and standard deviation of can be computed as follows. Since Z is the sum
of k random variables and k is a Poisson random variable;
Let =
E( )= E(k) E( ) = [EQ 3-29]
2
exp 2x ( ) exp 2 ( )
2
[ ] exp 2m ( )
ln 10 ( )
10
----------------
Q
A E Z ( )
STD Z ( )
----------------------
Z
Z
exp m ( )
---------------------- =
W R
exp m ( )
----------------------
1 ( )
1
2
----------
e
x
xp

2
2
--------
,
_
d
Z

exp m ( )
---------------------------
Z

---
,
_
exp
( )
2
2
--------------
,
_

3
VAR( ) = E(k) VAR ( ) + VAR(k) [E( )]
2
= VAR(k) [E( )]
2
= E(k) [E( )]
2
= [E( )] E[ ]
VAR( ) = [EQ 3-30]
STD( ) = [EQ 3-31]
Thus, the probability of blocking for a CDMA single cell system can be formulated as in
Equation 3-32.
Although the Single Cell Probability of Blocking equation (Equation 3-32) can be applied towards
both IS-95 and IS-2000 systems, it is typically applied towards analyzing a system utilizing a single
data rate. As such, it may be more appropriate in estimating the capacity of an IS-95 system, where
it is common to support a single data rate (i.e. Rate Set 1 or Rate Set 2). For IS-2000 systems which
utilize multiple data rates, the Single Cell Probability of Blocking equation can be used to analyze
the capacity of an individual data rate. It is not recommended to analyze a mixture of data rates.
Section 3.4 will introduce an analytical approach more suitable for systems serving multiple data
rates.
3.3.2.4 Multiple Cell System
In a multiple-cell system the interference created by users in the serving cell and cells other than
the serving cell needs to be considered. The path loss characteristics and the overhead capacity for
soft handoffs need to be taken into account.
3.3.2.4.1 Path Loss Characteristics
Power control is crucial to CDMA system performance. Assuming that the path loss depends only
on the subscriber-to-base distance, the subscribers will be power controlled by the nearest cell. The
generally accepted theoretical path loss model is to introduce an attenuation which is the product
of, the subscriber-to-base distance to the power , and, a log-normal random variable with zero
mean and dB standard deviation.
Z
---
2
2
Z

---
,
_
exp 2 ( )
2
[ ]
Z

---
,
_
exp 2 ( )
2
[ ]
Q
W R
exp m ( )
---------------------- 1 ( )

---
,
_
exp
( )
2
2
--------------
,
_

,
_
---
,
_
exp 2 ( )
2
[ ]
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
,

_

3
In Mathematical form, the path loss between the subscriber and the cell site is proportional to
[EQ 3-33]
Where:
r is distance from subscriber to cell site
is a Gaussian random variable with standard deviation and zero mean
The path loss can be expressed as
[EQ 3-34]
Where:
r and are the base-subscriber distance and the reference distance respectively
When plotting the signal strengths at a given radio path distance, the deviation from the local mean
values is approximately 8 dB. This standard deviation of 8 dB is roughly true in many different
areas. The path loss curves can be obtained by collecting data from different drive runs in different
environments. As long as the subscriber-to-base distance for each run is the same, the signal
strength data measured at that particular subscriber-to-base distance can be used for determining
the local mean values for the path loss at that distance.
Measurements of path loss have been made in several major cities. Some of the typical values are
tabulated as shown in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2: Propagation Path Loss in Different Areas
a
a. William C. Y. Lee, "Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems", McGraw-Hill Book Company, Sec-
ond Edition 1995, figure 4.3, p. 110.
Propagation Area
1 Mile Intercept Point (P
o
)
in dBm
Path Loss Slope ()
dB/decade
Free Space -45.0 20.0
Open Area -49.0 43.5
Suburban -61.7 38.4
Philadelphia -70.0 36.8
Newark -64.0 43.1
New York City -77.0 48.0
Tokyo, Japan -84.0 30.5
10
10
------
,
_
r

PL
r
r
0
----
,
_
log =
r
0
3
Since the main concern about propagation at far distances is for coverage purposes, path loss
measurements typically use a 1 mile (or 1 km) intercept point as a starting point for path loss
curves. This also tends to eliminate some of the near-field effects of near-by surroundings and
vertical beam width shadowing. Although different areas may have different path loss slopes,
Table 3-2 also shows that an area-to-area prediction is represented by two parameters, the 1 mile
intercept point (P
o
, the power received at a distance of 1 mile from the transmitter) and the path
loss slope (). Differences in area-to-area prediction curves are primarily due to the differences in
man-made structures. When the base station is located in a city environment, then the 1 mile
intercept signal level could be very low, but the slope is flattened out, as shown by the Tokyo data.
When the base station is located outside the city, the intercept signal level could be much higher,
but the slope is larger, as shown by the Newark data. Due to differences in structure density
(average separation between buildings), the 1 mile intercept could be high or low, with the path
loss slope still at a typical level of about 40 dB/dec (i.e. compare data of open area to Newark).
3.3.2.4.2 Interference from Other Cells
The normalized interference density from other cells can be written as:
J
o
= I
oc
/ I
o
= Total Interference from other cells / I
o
W
J
o
= [EQ 3-35]
Where:
r
m
Distance from any subscriber to its own cell not power controlled by the serving
cell
r
0
Distance from any subscriber to the serving cell not power controlled by the
serving cell
Path loss exponent
Voice or data activity
I
oc
Other cells interference density
I
o
Total allowable interference density
W Spread bandwidth
E
b
*R Bit energy * data rate, which is the received power at the base station for any user,
assuming power control is applied
Defines the path loss characteristics and is Gaussian random variables with zero
means and standard deviation of
User density = 2 * users per sector / *sectorization gain
r
m
r
0
-----
,
_
10
10
------

r
0
r
m
-----
,
,
_
E
b
R
I
o
W
-----------------
,

_
dA
allcells

3
3
= 1, if
= 0, otherwise
By calculating the expected value and standard deviation J
o
and , the probability of blocking for
a CDMA multiple cell system can be formulated as follows.
E(J
0
) =
E(J
0
) = [EQ 3-36]
VAR(J
0
) =
VAR(J
0
) = [EQ 3-37]
The following figure provides the values of the numerical integration of the integral and
versus various log-normal path loss slopes with a standard deviation of 8 dB.
Figure 3-6: Values of the Integral and with Various Path Loss Slope

r
0
r
m
-----
,
,
_
r
m
r
0
-----
,
_
10
10
------
1
z
E ( )

---
,
_
r
m
r
0
-----
,
_
exp ( )
2
[ ] 1 Q
10
2
2
------------ -
r
0
r
m
-----
,
_
2
2
,
_
log

' ;

dA
allcell

E ( )

---
,
_
I , ( ) [ ]
E
2
( )

---
,
_
r
m
r
0
-----
,
_
2
exp ( )
2
[ ] 1 Q
20
2
2
------------ -
r
0
r
m
-----
,
_
2
2
,
_
log

' ;

dA
allcell

E
2
( )

---
,
_
I 2 , ( ) [ ]
I , ( )
I 2 , ( )
I , ( ) I 2 , ( )
50 45 40 35 30
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
I(alpha,sigma=8dB)
I(2alpha,sigma=8dB)
Path Loss (dB/dec)
V
a
l
u
e
s

o
f

t
h
e

I
n
t
e
g
r
a
l
s
3
Combining [EQ 3-36]and [EQ 3-37] with [EQ 3-29] and [EQ 3-30], the moments of the total
normalized interference variable including the interference from outer cells is obtained.
[EQ 3-38]
[EQ 3-39]
P
blocking
with outer cell interference = [EQ 3-40]
Where:
[EQ 3-41]
[EQ 3-42]
Note: A Complementary Error Function Q(x) table is provided in Appendix IV.
Z
E Z ( )

---
,
_
exp
( )
2
2
--------------
,
_
1 I r , , ( ) + [ ] =
STD Z ( )

---
,
_
exp 2 ( )
2
[ ] 1 I 2 r , , ( ) + [ ] =
Q
A E Z ( )
STD Z ( )
----------------------
A
W R
exp m ( )
---------------------- = 1 ( )
Q x ( )
1
2
---------- = e
x
xp

2
2
--------
,
_
d
Q
W R
exp m ( )
---------------------- 1 ( )

---
,
_
exp
( )
2
2
--------------
,
_
1 I r , , ( ) + [ ]
,
_
---
,
_
exp 2 ( )
2
[ ] 1 I 2 r , , ( ) + [ ]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
,

_
3
Using Equation 3-32 and Equation 3-43, the probability of blocking is plotted against the Erlang
capacity per CDMA sector in different situations. A list of parameters is included at the bottom of
each plot.
Figure 3-7: Probability of Blocking vs. Erlangs per CDMA Sector with Various Path Loss
Slope Values with Rate Set 1 Vocoder
Note: The figure above is for demonstration purposes, as it is only valid for the assumptions
applied and for the following parameters:
Parameters:
Mean E
b
/N
o
= 7 dB
Pwr Ctrl Std Dev = 2.5 dB
Voice or Data Activity Factor = 0.4
Spread Bandwidth = 1.23 MHz
Data Rate = 9600 bps (Rate Set 1)
Total Interference Density to Background Noise Level (I
o
/N
o
) = 10 dB
Shadowing Standard Dev = 8 dB
3
Figure 3-8: Probability of Blocking vs. Erlangs per CDMA Sector with Various Power Control
Standard Deviations with Rate Set 1 Vocoder
Parameters:
Mean E
b
/N
o
= 7 dB
o
/N
o
) = 10 dB
Path Loss Slope = 40 dB/dec
Shadowing Std Dev = 8 dB
3
Figure 3-9: Probability of Blocking vs. Erlangs per CDMA Sector with Various Path Loss
Slope Values with Rate Set 2 Vocoder
Parameters:
Mean E
b
/N
o
= 7 dB
Pwr Ctrl Std Dev = 2.5 dB
o
/N
o
) = 10 dB
Shadowing Standard Dev = 8 dB
3
Figure 3-10: Probability of Blocking vs. Erlangs per CDMA Sector with Various Power
Control Standard Deviations with Rate Set 2 Vocoder
Parameters:
Mean E
b
/N
o
= 7 dB
o
/N
o
) = 10 dB
Path Loss Slope = 40 dB/dec
Shadowing Std Dev = 8 dB
The Multiple Cell Probability of Blocking equation shown in Equation 3-43 can be applied towards
both IS-95 and IS-2000 systems. Since, it is typically applied towards analyzing a system utilizing
a single data rate, it may be more appropriate in estimating the capacity of an IS-95 system, where
it is common to support a single data rate (i.e. Rate Set 1 or Rate Set 2). For IS-2000 systems which
utilize multiple data rates, the Multiple Cell Probability of Blocking equation can be used to
analyze the capacity of an individual data rate. It is not recommended in analyzing a mixture of
data rates. Section 3.4 provides an approach more suitable for systems serving multiple data rates.
3
3.4 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation
The amount of noise rise (interference) that can be tolerated by the CDMA base station will place
a limit upon how many users can be supported by the reverse link. As the number of users served
by the reverse link is increased, the level of noise rise seen by the base station will also be
increased. The cell capacity is determined by calculating the number of users required to produce
a maximum accepted noise rise.
This section provides a method of estimating the noise rise for a particular user type. The
estimating approach will also allow the calculation of the total noise rise for multiple user types.
As a result, the noise rise estimation approach provided in this section is better suited to estimate
the capacity of a system which utilizes multiple user types (i.e. multiple data rates). Although this
capacity estimation approach can be applied towards both IS-95 and IS-2000 systems, it may be
more appropriate in estimating the capacity of an IS-2000 system, where it is more common to
support different user type profiles utilizing different data rates.
For IS-2000 systems, it is important to note that the capacity estimation calculation provided in this
section does not account for the dynamic resource allocation capabilities of an IS-2000 1X packet
data user. Within the IS-2000 1X infrastructure, the subscriber will be assigned supplemental
channel resources based upon several criteria (e.g. the demand requirements for the amount of data
to be transmitted, RF capacity availability, Walsh code resource availability, etc.). The allocation
of these IS-2000 1X supplemental channel resources are also dynamically adjusted throughout the
duration of the packet data call. The capacity estimation calculation provided in this section treats
a packet data user more like a circuit data user. The capacity formulas provided imply a fixed
resource allocation where there are X users at 9.6 kbps, Y users at 19.2 kbps, Z users at 38.4 kbps,
etc. As a result, the capacity obtained from the capacity estimation approach will differ from that
of an actual IS-2000 1X system. For a more accurate estimation of packet data services, it is
recommended to utilize a simulation tool which simulates the dynamic resource allocation
capabilities of an IS-2000 1X system. The time-sliced simulation function of the NetPlan tool can
be used for this purpose. See Section 3.12 for more information on the simulation capabilities of
the NetPlan tool.
3.4.1 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Limit
The reverse link pole capacity is considered to be the point where an additional user will cause the
noise rise within the cell to increase exponentially. This will create an unstable situation where user
connections may be lost and the network grade of service will be severely degraded. The reverse
link noise rise pole capacity can be represented by the following equation:
[EQ 3-44]
Where:
X Percent of reverse link pole capacity, traffic loading factor
Z Noise Rise (dB)
Z 10 Log
10
1
1 X
------------
,
_
10 Log
10
1 X ( ) = =
3
Refer to Section 4.2.2.1 for a derivation of Equation 3-44. A graph of the reverse noise rise pole
capacity equation (Equation 3-44) is shown in Figure 3-11.
Figure 3-11: Rise versus Percent of Pole Capacity
In order to estimate the capacity from a number of users perspective, a reverse noise rise capacity
limit must be selected. For CDMA RF system designs (for both IS-95A/B and IS-2000), a peak
noise rise of 10 dB is recommended to be the maximum that a system should tolerate. The average
noise rise would be several dB below this peak value. It is important to note that the 10 dB noise
rise limit is a peak value which is associated with a certain probability factor (see Equation 3-48
and Section 3.4.3). The recommended probability factors associated with the 10 dB peak noise rise
recommendation are as follows.
10 dB noise rise with a 90% probability factor (for aggressive capacity results)
10 dB noise rise with a 95% probability factor (for moderate capacity results)
10 dB noise rise with a 98% probability factor (for conservative capacity results)
Although the above recommendation provides some flexibility in selecting a probability factor, the
10 dB noise rise with a 95% probability factor is the typical limit that is normally recommended.
3.4.2 Reverse Noise Rise Capacity Estimation
To approximate the number of users that could be supported by a site while staying below a desired
noise rise limit, the following reverse link capacity equations can be utilized.
A multi-service traffic loading factor, X, can be expressed as follows:
0
5
10
15
20
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Loading Factor, X
I
n
t
e
r
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

R
i
s
e
,

Z

(
d
B
)
3
[EQ 3-45]
The mean value for the multi-service traffic loading factor, X, is expressed as:
[EQ 3-46]
The variance for the multi-service traffic loading factor, X, is expressed as:
[EQ 3-47]
The following equation provides the distribution of the noise rise, Z, for the multi-service traffic
loading factor, X:
[EQ 3-48]
Where:
M Number of different service-types
Traffic load of the m
th
service-type (in Erlangs)
The energy-per-bit to total-interference-density target of the m
th
service-type
LN(10)/10
Average E
b
/N
o
(dB) of the m
th
service-type
E
b
/N
o
standard deviation, in dB of the m
th
service-type (to account for
inaccuracies in power control)
Activity Factor of the m
th
service-type
Mean Square of Activity Factor of the m
th
service-type (variance = 0.1)
F A measure of the in-cell to total interference density (own cell plus other cell)
Processing gain (Bandwidth/Information rate) of the m
th
service
X L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )
F P
G m ( )
------------------------
E
b m ( )
N
T
-------------
=
E X [ ] L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )
F P
G m ( )
------------------------
m ( )
m ( )
( )
2
2
--------------------- + exp =
Var X ( ) L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )

m ( )
( ) +
2
F P
G m ( )
( )
2
----------------------------------- 2
m ( )
2
m ( )
( )
2
+ [ ] exp =
Z 10 Log
10
1 Pa Var X ( ) E X [ ] ( ) =
L
m ( )
E
b m ( )
N
T
-------------
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
P
G m ( )
3
Z Interference rise (expressed in dB)
Pa Probability factor (inverse of the standard normal cumulative distribution) with a
distribution having a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 (see Figure 3-12)
Briefly looking at Equation 3-46 and Equation 3-47, the average and variance of the loading factor
will increase as the number of users increases. Additionally, as the average and variance values
increase, so does Z, as reflected by Equation 3-48.
In a scenario with multiple services, the equations are a bit more complex than for a single service.
Basically, an average and variance needs to be determined for each service offered. The net rise,
Z, will need to account for all of the users being handled by each service.
3.4.3 Probability Factor
The probability factor (Pa) in Equation 3-48 is used to calculate a percentile noise rise. The
percentile noise rise is used as the interference margin within the RF link budget calculation of cell
range. Therefore, scenarios with different traffic mixes and rise probabilities but with a constant
percentile noise rise will all maintain the same cell range. However, the mean noise rise and cell
capacity (throughput and Erlangs) will vary depending upon the mix of the different services for
the given scenario.
The probability factor is calculated as the inverse of the standard normal cumulative distribution
with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. Figure 3-12 shows the relationship of the
probability factor with the Probability Density Function (PDF) and the Cumulative Distribution
Function (CDF) for a standard normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
Figure 3-12: Standard Normal Distribution
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Probability Factor (Pa)
D
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n
50%ile
75%il
85%ile
95%ile
98%ile
CDF
PDF
3
Table 3-3 provides the probability factor values for some common percentile probability
percentages.
The rise curves in Figure 3-13 show the 50
th
(average) and 95
th
percentile noise rise against cell
loading in terms of the number of users. It can be seen that the 95
th
percentile noise rise curve rises
faster than the 50
th
percentile (average) noise rise curve and at the 95
th
percentile noise rise of 10
dB for the example provided in Figure 3-13 below, the 50
th
percentile (average) noise rise is
approximately 5 dB. The relationship between a given percentile rise curve and the average rise
curve will be dependent upon what percentile is being represented and also upon the particular call
model traffic mix.
Figure 3-13: Rise and Radius versus Loading Example
applied for the scenario portrayed (i.e. 30 kmph, 100% voice, etc.).
Figure 3-13 also shows how the relative cell range decreases with the increasing number of users.
Table 3-3: Probability Factors
Percentile
Probability
Probability
Factor (Pa)
50% 0
75% 0.6745
85% 1.0364
90% 1.2816
95% 1.6448
98% 2.0537
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Users
R
i
s
e

(
d
B
)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

R
a
d
i
u
s
% of Radius
95%ile Rise
50%ile (Avg.) Rise
3
A relative range impact of 50% corresponding to a 10 dB 95
th
percentile noise rise can be observed
from this figure.
3.4.4 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation Examples
The following section provides two examples of how to use the reverse link noise rise capacity
estimation equations provided in Section 3.4.2. The first example estimates the noise rise for a
single service type of traffic load of voice users only. The second example provides the calculations
required to estimate the noise rise for a multiple service type of traffic load with a mixture of voice
and data users.
3.4.4.1 Example #1: Voice Only
The following example calculates the noise rise for, on average, 20 IS-2000 1X voice users at 9600
bps, in a 3-sectored system with a 95% probability factor. Additional assumptions are provided
below.
Traffic Load:
20 Voice users (average) at 9600 bps
General Assumptions:
0.45 = F-factor (3 sector cell site assumed)
1.64 = probability factor for 95% (Pa)
0.23 = Beta value LN(10)/10 ( )
Traffic Load Assumptions: Voice @ 9600 bps
20 = number of average users at 9600 bps ( )
21.1 dB = Processing gain ( ) or 1228800/9600 = 128 linear
3.6 dB = average E
b
/N
o
for 1% FER with vehicular fading at 30 kmph ( )
2.5 dB = E
b
/N
o
standard deviation ( )
0.713 = voice activity factor ( )
0.1 = mean square of activity factor ( )
The first step is to calculate the mean value of the traffic loading factor, X, for the 20 average voice
users by using Equation 3-46 (repeated below for reference).
Using the input variables from the assumptions above, E[X] is calculated as follows:
L
m ( )
P
G m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
E X [ ] L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )
F P
G m ( )
------------------------
m ( )
m ( )
( )
2
2
--------------------- + exp =
E X [ ] 20
0.713
0.45 128
------------------------- 0.230259 ( ) 3.6 ( )
0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
2
--------------------------------------------------- + exp =
3
The next step is to calculate the variance for the traffic loading factor, X, for the 20 average voice
The final step is to calculate the noise rise, Z, for the 20 average voice users by using Equation 3-
48 (repeated below for reference).
dB
3.4.4.2 Example #2: Voice and Data Users
The following example calculates the noise rise for a multiple service type traffic load environment
consisting of, on average, 6 IS-2000 1X voice users at 9600 bps, 3 IS-2000 1X data users at 19200
bps, and 1 data user at 38400 bps. Additional assumptions are provided below.
Traffic Load:
3 Data users (average) at 19200 bps
1 Data user (average) at 38400 bps
0.45 = F-factor (3 sector cell site assumed)
0.23 = Beta value LN(10)/10 ( )
E X [ ] 0.247569 0.994617 [ ] exp 0.247569 2.703690 0.669351 = = =
Var X ( ) L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )

m ( )
( ) +
2
F P
G m ( )
( )
2
----------------------------------- 2
m ( )
2
m ( )
( )
2
+ [ ] exp =
Var X ( ) 20
0.1 0.713 ( ) +
2
0.45 128 ( )
2
---------------------------------- 2 0.230259 ( ) 3.6 ( ) 2 0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )

2
+ [ ] exp =
Var X ( ) 0.001650 2.320605 [ ] exp 0.001650 10.181831 0.016803 = = =
Z 10 Log
10
1 Pa Var X ( ) E X [ ] ( ) =
Z 10 Log
10
1 1.644848 0.016803 0.669351 ( ) =
Z 10 Log
10
0.117432 ( ) 9.30 = =

3
3.6 dB = average E
b
/N
o
2.5 dB = E
b
/N
o
Traffic Load Assumptions: Data @ 19200 bps
3.0 dB = average E
b
/N
o
2.5 dB = E
b
/N
o
1.0 = data activity factor ( )
2.4 dB = average E
b
/N
o
2.5 dB = E
b
/N
o
The first step is to calculate the mean value of the traffic loading factor for the 6 average voice users
at 9600 bps by using Equation 3-46. Using the input variables from the assumptions above,
E[X]
9600
is calculated as follows:
Now, calculate the mean value of the traffic loading factor for the 3 average data users at 19200
bps by using Equation 3-46. Using the input variables from the assumptions above, E[X]
19200
is
calculated as follows:
Now, calculate the mean value of the traffic loading factor for the 1 average data user at 38400 bps
L
m ( )
P
G m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
L
m ( )
P
G m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
L
m ( )
P
G m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
E X [ ]
9600
6
0.713
0.45 128
-------------------------
0.230259 ( ) 3.6 ( )
0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
2
--------------------------------------------------- + exp =
E X [ ]
9600
0.074271 0.994617 [ ] exp 0.074271 2.703690 0.200805 = = =
E X [ ]
19200
3
1
0.45 64
---------------------- 0.230259 ( ) 3.0 ( )
0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
2
--------------------------------------------------- + exp =
E X [ ]
19200
0.104167 0.856462 [ ] exp 0.104167 2.354815 0.245293 = = =
3
by using Equation 3-46. Using the input variables from the assumptions above, E[X]
38400
is
Finally, calculate the total loading factor E[X]
Total
for all user types by summing together all of the
individual results.
The next step is to calculate the variance for the traffic loading factor for the 6 average voice users
Var(X)
9600
Now, calculate the variance for the traffic loading factor for the 3 average data users at 19200 bps
by using Equation 3-47. Using the input variables from the assumptions above, Var(X)
19200
is
Now, calculate the variance for the traffic loading factor for the 1 average data user at 38400 bps
38400
is
E X [ ]
38400
1
1
0.45 32
---------------------- 0.230259 ( ) 2.4 ( )
0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
2
--------------------------------------------------- + exp =
E X [ ]
38400
0.069444 0.718307 [ ] exp 0.069444 2.050957 0.142428 = = =
E X [ ]
Total
0.200805 0.245293 0.142428 0.588526 = + + =
Var X ( )
9600
6
0.1 0.713 ( ) +
2
0.45 128 ( )
2
----------------------------------
2 0.230259 ( ) 3.6 ( ) 2 0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
+ [ ] exp =
Var X ( )
9600
0.000495 2.320605 [ ] exp 0.000495 10.181831 0.005041 = = =
Var X ( )
19200
3
0.1 1 ( ) +
2
0.45 64 ( )
2
------------------------------
2 0.230259 ( ) 3.0 ( ) 2 0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
+ [ ] exp =
Var X ( )
19200
0.001790 2.044294 [ ] exp 0.001790 7.723704 0.013828 = = =
Var X ( )
38400
1
0.1 1 ( ) +
2
0.45 32 ( )
2
------------------------------ 2 0.230259 ( ) 2.4 ( ) 2 0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )

2
+ [ ] exp =
Var X ( )
38400
0.002387 1.767983 [ ] exp 0.002387 5.859025 0.013986 = = =
3
Finally, calculate the total variance Var(X)
Total
individual results.
The final step is to calculate the noise rise, Z, for the total traffic load using a 95% probability factor
by using Equation 3-48 (as shown below).
dB
3.4.5 Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimates for IS-2000 1X
In order to calculate the capacity supported by the air interface in an IS-2000 1X system, it is
important to determine the values of the various factors that affect the capacity. The IS-2000 1X
reverse link capacity estimates (throughput and Erlangs) provided in this document are based on
the reverse link noise rise capacity estimation equations provided in Section 3.4.2 and utilizing the
parameter value assumptions that follow.
The following are the assumptions for the various IS-2000 1X parameter values to be applied to
the reverse link noise rise capacity estimation equations.
3.4.5.1 Noise Rise
For the purpose of determining capacity estimates, a 10 dB maximum noise rise value was selected.
Additionally, each rise has a probability factor, Pa, associated with it. The following table provides
some of the recommended noise rise values and probability factors used for this exercise.
Since the probability factor is associated with a normal distribution, the 50% probability factor
implies an average noise rise value. Therefore, for the scenarios where the probability factor is
greater than 50%, the average noise rise will be less than the rise value shown. This can be
illustrated further through Figure 3-12, where the 50% probability factor is associated with the
average point in the normal distribution curve. However, a higher probability factor would be
Table 3-4: Interference Rise Scenarios
Percentile
Probability (Pa)
Associated
Noise Rise (Z)
90% 10 dB
95% 10 dB
98% 10 dB
Var X ( )
Total
0.005041 0.013828 0.013986 0.032856 = + + =
Z 10 Log
10
1 Pa Var X ( )
Total
E X [ ]
Total
( ) =
Z 10 Log
10
1 1.644848 0.032856 0.588526 ( ) =
Z 10 Log
10
0.113327 ( ) 9.46 = =
3
associated with a value that is greater than the average value.
The capacity tables shown in Section 3.4.5.9 provide both the capacity (in Erlangs and throughput)
and the average rise values associated with a 10 dB peak noise rise for the 90%, 95%, and 98%
probability factors. Typical RF designs should strive to keep the peak percentile probability reverse
noise rise value less than 10 dB.
Various probability factors were used in scenarios to estimate the capacity for aggressive (90%),
moderate (95%), or conservative (98%) cases. Additionally, a rise value of less than 10 dB can be
used to demonstrate the impact on capacity, in order to trade capacity for increased reverse link
coverage.
In all of the test cases, the cell loading is considered uniform in each sector (homogeneous network)
and as such the rise is the same across each cell. In practice, the non-homogeneous nature of cell
loading will mean that an individual cell may be able to cope with a peak load higher than the
homogeneous case.
3.4.5.2 F-factor
F-factor is the ratio of own cell interference to own cell plus other cell interference. Simulations
have shown that the F-factor varies with the antenna types and propagation index. For this exercise,
the following F-factors have been assumed:
In looking at Equation 3-46 and Equation 3-47, the number of users is proportional to the F-factor
in order to maintain the same average and variance load factors. That is, an increase to the F-factor
(out of cell interference is reduced compared to own cell interference) will result in an increase in
the number of users. A decrease to the F-factor, implying out of cell interference is more prevalent,
will result in a decrease to the number of users.
1
Table 3-5: F-factor
Site Type F-factor
Omni 0.60
3-Sector 0.45
6-Sector 0.40
1. Additional information showing the relationship of the F-factor to the antenna type and propagation index
can be found in the following references.
a. R.H. Owen, Phil Jones, Shirin Dehgan, Dave Lister, "Uplink WCDMA capacity and range as a function of
inter-to-intra cell interference: theory and practice", pp. 298-302, VTC 2000.
b. Szu-Wei Wang and Irving Wang, "Effects of Soft Handoff, Frequency Reuse and Non-Ideal Antenna Sec-
torization on CDMA System Capacity", pp. 850-854, IEEE 1993.
3
3.4.5.3 Average E
b
/N
o

E
b
/N
o
is defined as energy per bit to the noise spectral density. The appropriate value for the
required E
b
/N
o
is such that the desired bit, block, or frame erasure rate of the received signal is
achieved. This gives an indication of the lowest signal strength that the receiver can detect above
a certain noise level. Such items as the subscriber speed, the propagation environment, and power
control impact the required E
b
/N
o
.
The E
b
/N
o
numbers used for each data rate in this document are typical numbers that are used for
dimensioning purposes. The E
b
/N
o
values were obtained from reverse link level simulations. The
E
b
/N
o
values used for this exercise are shown in Table 3-6.
The link level simulations used to generate the E
b
/N
o
values utilized the following assumptions:
Two receive antennas
E
b
/N
o
values are per antenna
The power control bit error rate of 4% used
1900 MHz
In looking at Equation 3-46 and Equation 3-47 again, the number of users is inversely proportional
to the E
b
/N
o
in order to maintain the same average and variance load factor. That is, an increase in
the E
b
/N
o
will result in a decrease in the number of users. A decrease to the E
b
/N
o
will result in an
increase to the number of users.
3.4.5.4 E
b
/N
o
Standard Deviation
A standard deviation of 2.5 dB on the E
b
/N
o
is assumed for each rate. This standard deviation for
the E
b
/N
o
is used to adjust the average E
b
/N
o
to compensate for imperfect power control in the real
world environment.
The number of users is inversely proportional to the E
b
/N
o
standard deviation in order to maintain
the same average and variance load factor. That is, an increase in the E
b
/N
o
standard deviation will
result in a decrease in the number of users. A decrease to the E
b
/N
o
standard deviation will result
in an increase to the number of users.
The E
b
/N
o
standard deviation has been assumed to be the same for each data rate. In a real world
situation this may not be the case, but for an estimate of the capacity (as used for this exercise), one
value has been assumed for all services.
3
3.4.5.5 Processing Gain
The processing gain is the ratio of the chip rate to the bit rate. For IS-2000 1X, the chip rate is equal
to 1.2288 x 10
6
chips/s. The calculation of the processing gain in linear and in dB units are provided
below.
Processing Gain
linear
=
Processing Gain
db
=
Where:
W Bandwidth (1.2288 Mcps for IS-2000 1X)
R Information rate
The following table provides a summary of the E
b
/N
o
, E
b
/N
o
Standard Deviation, and the
processing gain values used for the various data rates that were analyzed.
Recall that the E
b
/N
o
values shown in the above table were obtained from reverse link level
simulations and represent typical values that are used for dimensioning purposes. The E
b
/N
o
values
will vary based on the subscriber speed, propagation conditions, percent FER, etc. For detailed
capacity and coverage results, Motorola recommends using the NetPlan simulation tool. This
simulation tool incorporates a family of E
b
/N
o
curves as opposed to only a few E
b
/N
o
values.
The bearer rate data in Table 3-6 represents a data link layer rate from the subscribers perspective.
It does not include any overhead (RLP, framing, etc.). The bearer rates in Table 3-6 are used in the
calculation of the throughput capacity (see Section 3.4.5.8).
3.4.5.6 Activity Factor
The activity factor is defined as the percentage of time that a user transmits on an active traffic
channel. With IS-95, a typical industry accepted voice activity factor was 40%. This roughly
equated to 32% of the time the user was at full rate and 68% of the time the user was at eighth rate.
With IS-2000 1X, the voice activity factor needs to be adjusted to account for the reverse pilot
b
/N
o
Values
Bearer Rate
(bits/s)
Data Rate
(bits/s)
FER E
b
/N
o
(dB) E
b
/N
o
Std.
Dev. (dB)
Proc. Gain
(dB)
3 kmph 30 kmph
8600 9600 1% 2.56 3.60 2.5 21.1
14400 19200 5% 0.76 3.00 2.5 18.1
32000 38400 5% 0.12 2.40 2.5 15.1
64000 76800 5% -0.36 2.24 2.5 12.0
128800 153600 5% -0.65 1.40 2.5 9.0
W R
10 Log
10
W R ( )
3
channel and for CRCs being sent at eighth rate. The following calculation provides the adjustment
for these factors.
For IS-2000 1X, the extra CRC bits being sent produces an effective eighth rate of 1500 bps. The
(0.68/6.4) term accounts for the extra CRC bits (where 9600/1500 = 6.4). The (0.68 x 10
(-3.75/10)
)
term accounts for the reverse pilot overhead channel.
It should be noted that this adjusted activity factor is utilized in the capacity equation as a means
to derate the capacity due to the reverse pilot overhead channel and CRC bits. In converting the
voice users to an equivalent throughput, the voice activity factor of 40% (0.4) is used.
For the capacity results provided in this section, two different data activity factors (0.9 and 0.2) are
assumed to show the impact of a high and low data activity factor user type.
The number of users is inversely proportional to the activity factor in order to maintain the same
average and variance load factor. That is, an increase in the activity factor will result in a decrease
in the number of users. A decrease to the activity factor will result in an increase to the number of
users.
3.4.5.7 Traffic Mix
Four different traffic mix scenarios were analyzed as reflected in the following table.
The percentage of users can be interpreted, for example, as follows. In Scenario A, 100% of the
users are voice users at 8.6 kbps. In this scenario, all users in the network are continuously
transmitting at the relevant voice activity and at the required power to reach their respective E
b
/N
o
value. For Scenario C, 50% of the users are voice users at 8.6 kbps, 40% of the users are using 64
kbps, and the remaining 10% of the users are at 128.8 kbps.
3.4.5.8 Throughput Capacity
With multiple rate high-speed data services being introduced into the call model traffic mix, the
capacity of a cell/sector should now be quantified with a throughput value in addition to the number
of Erlangs. For the capacity analysis results provided below, the estimated throughput capacity is
Table 3-7: Traffic Mix
Scenario Bearer Service
Voice (8.6 kbps) 64 kbps 128.8 kbps
A 100% - -
B 80% 20% -
C 50% 40% 10%
D 10% 60% 30%
0.32 0.68 6.4 0.68 10
3.75 10 ( )
0.713 = + +
3
calculated by multiplying the bearer rate, the activity factor, and the number of supported users
(continuously transmitting users) together.
For a single data rate user example, consider scenario A with a rise of 10 dB and a probability factor
of 95% (see Table 3-8). The voice rate assumed is 8.6 kbps and as such, approximately 27 Erlangs
at the pedestrian speed can be supported in a single sector of a 3-sectored cell. This corresponds to
a throughput capacity of approximately 93 kbps / sector (8.6 kbps x 0.40 AF x 27 Erlangs). As
stated previously (see Section 3.4.5.6), an adjusted activity factor is utilized in the capacity
equation as a means to derate the capacity due to the reverse pilot overhead channel and extra CRC
bits. In converting the voice users to an equivalent throughput capacity, the non-adjusted voice
activity factor of 40% (0.4) is used for the throughput calculation, instead of the adjusted activity
factor of approximately 71.3% (as calculated in Section 3.4.5.6).
For a multiple data rate mixture of users, the throughput capacity is calculated for each individual
data rate user type and then summed together. For example, consider traffic mix scenario C with a
probability of 95% and a data activity factor of 20%. From the results in Table 3-8, an estimated
19.3 Erlangs at the pedestrian speed can be supported in a single sector of a 3-sectored cell with a
total throughput of 182 kbps. The traffic distribution for scenario C is 50% for 8.6 kbps voice users,
40% for 64.0 kbps data users, and 10% for 128.8 kbps data users. According to the traffic
distribution of scenario C, the throughput capacity is calculated as follows.
8.6 kbps Voice User Thruput = 8.6 kbps x 0.4 AF x (19.3 x 0.5) Erlangs = 33.2 kbps
64.0 kbps Data User Thruput = 64.0 kbps x 0.2 AF x (19.3 x 0.4) Erlangs = 98.8 kbps
Total Throughput = 181.7 kbps
3.4.5.9 IS-2000 1X Reverse Noise Rise Capacity Analysis Results
The following two tables provide capacity values (expressed as kbps throughput and Erlangs) per
sector for the various scenarios assuming an interference rise limit of 10 dB but with varying levels
of probability. For the traffic mix scenarios which include data users (Scenarios B, C, and D),
capacity results for two different Data Activity Factors (AF) are provided. A 90% Data AF is used
to estimate the results of high data activity factor users such as a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) user.
A 20% Data AF is used to estimate the results of lower data activity factor users such as a Low
Speed Packet Data (LSPD) or a High Speed Packet Data (HSPD) user. All of the traffic mix
scenarios in Table 3-8 below assume pedestrian (3 kmph) E
b
/N
o
values.
3
Table 3-8: Reverse Capacity per Sector for Various Probabilities of Rise - Pedestrian
Scenario Rise
Probability
Data
AF
Avg Rise
(dB)
Throughput (kbps/Sector) Erlangs/Sector
Omni 3-Sector 6-Sector Omni 3-Sector 6-Sector
A 98% N/A 4.7 117 88 78 33.6 25.2 22.4
95% N/A 5.3 124 93 83 35.7 26.8 23.8
90% N/A 5.9 131 98 88 37.7 28.3 25.1
B 98% 90% 3.3 209 156 139 14.6 10.9 9.7
98% 20% 4.2 163 122 109 30.5 22.9 20.3
95% 90% 3.8 232 174 154 16.2 12.1 10.8
95% 20% 4.8 175 132 117 32.8 24.6 21.9
90% 90% 4.5 254 191 170 17.8 13.3 11.9
90% 20% 5.4 187 140 125 35.0 26.3 23.4
C 98% 90% 2.6 234 176 156 6.4 4.8 4.3
98% 20% 3.4 220 165 147 23.3 17.5 15.5
95% 90% 3.1 268 201 179 7.4 5.5 4.9
95% 20% 3.9 243 182 162 25.8 19.3 17.2
90% 90% 3.8 303 227 202 8.3 6.2 5.5
90% 20% 4.6 266 200 177 28.2 21.1 18.8
D 98% 90% 2.3 241 181 161 3.5 2.6 2.3
98% 20% 2.8 266 200 177 16.9 12.7 11.3
95% 90% 2.9 279 210 186 4.0 3.0 2.7
95% 20% 3.4 301 226 201 19.1 14.3 12.7
90% 90% 3.5 320 240 213 4.6 3.4 3.1
90% 20% 4.0 336 252 224 21.4 16.0 14.2
3
All of the traffic mix scenarios in Table 3-9 below assume vehicular (30 kmph) E
b
/N
o
values.
The results in Table 3-8 and Table 3-9 show the capacity estimates for an IS-2000 1X reverse link
under the stated configurations, assumptions, and parameter values. As shown above, the capacity
estimate can vary greatly depending upon the parameter values that are chosen. Although the
stated assumptions and parameter values used for this exercise are deemed to be realistic, the
accuracy of the capacity estimate is highly dependent upon the accuracy of the assumptions and
parameter values used for the capacity estimate.
With new higher data rate services being introduced (via IS-95B or IS-2000), it is expected that the
forward link will require higher data downloads than the reverse link. As a result, the forward link
is also expected to be the limiting path from a capacity perspective. Even though the forward link
may be the limiting factor of capacity for some systems, it may still be appropriate to use the
previous reverse link capacity estimates to approximate the CDMA carrier capacity under the
given assumptions and conditions. In many instances, the capacity analysis results of the reverse
link can sometimes provide an adequate budgetary estimate for the CDMA carrier. Ultimately,
simulations should be used (i.e. using NetPlan) to obtain more accurate capacity estimations.
Simulations can take into account many variable elements for which a general reverse or forward
Table 3-9: Reverse Capacity per Sector for Various Probabilities of Rise - Vehicle
Scenario Rise
Probability
Data
AF
Avg. Rise
(dB)
A 98% N/A 4.4 89 67 59 25.5 19.1 17.0
95% N/A 5.0 95 71 63 27.3 20.4 18.2
90% N/A 5.6 101 76 67 29.0 21.7 19.3
B 98% 90% 2.4 108 81 72 7.5 5.6 5.0
98% 20% 3.5 104 78 69 19.4 14.6 12.9
95% 90% 3.0 124 93 83 8.7 6.5 5.8
95% 20% 4.0 114 86 76 21.4 16.0 14.3
90% 90% 3.6 141 106 94 9.9 7.4 6.6
90% 20% 4.7 125 94 83 23.3 17.5 15.6
C 98% 90% 2.0 113 85 75 3.1 2.3 2.1
98% 20% 2.7 120 90 80 12.8 9.6 8.5
95% 90% 2.5 134 101 89 3.7 2.8 2.5
95% 20% 3.2 137 103 92 14.6 10.9 9.7
90% 90% 3.1 157 118 105 4.3 3.2 2.9
90% 20% 3.8 155 116 103 16.4 12.3 10.9
D 98% 90% 1.8 114 86 76 1.6 1.2 1.1
98% 20% 2.2 132 99 88 8.4 6.3 5.6
95% 90% 2.3 138 103 92 2.0 1.5 1.3
95% 20% 2.7 154 116 103 9.8 7.4 6.5
90% 90% 2.8 163 122 109 2.3 1.8 1.6
90% 20% 3.3 178 133 119 11.3 8.5 7.5
3
link capacity equation cannot adequately model (i.e. non uniform traffic and speed distributions,
non uniform cell site layouts, propagation characteristics for a specific area, multiple subscriber
classes with various call models, combined forward and reverse link analysis, etc.).
As a point of reference, the CDMA Development Group (CDG) has published a report
2
with
simulation results for voice users showing 29.9 Erlangs for the reverse link and 23.6 Erlangs for
the forward link. These capacity values were based on a generic 37 site system. Furthermore, the
sites were three-sector and a vehicular fading model was assumed.
The following figure shows the relationship between the reverse link noise rise and the throughput
for several probability curves. The input parameters used to create the figure are shown below. The
50%-ile curve corresponds to the average rise.
Figure 3-14: Reverse Link Rise vs. Throughput
Parameters:
Traffic mix = Scenario B
Voice activity factor = 57.6%
Data activity factor = 100%
2. CDG Evolution Study Report, Revision 4.01, January 10,2000
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 50 100 150 200 250
Throughput (Kbps)
N
o
i
s
e

R
i
s
e

(
d
B
)
98% 95% 90% 85% 75% 50%
3
Mean square of activity factor = 0.1 dB
F-factor = 0.45 (3-sector cell site configuration)
Vehicular (30 kmph) E
b
/N
o
assumptions from Table 3-6 were used
E
b
/N
o
standard deviation = 2.5 dB
The following figure shows the relationship between reverse link noise rise and Erlangs of various
data rates. The input parameters used to create the figure are shown below.
Figure 3-15: Reverse Link Rise vs. Erlangs for Different Data Rates
Parameters:
Voice and data activity factor = 57.6%
Probability factor = 95%
b
/N
o
E
b
/N
o
The curves in the figure above show the significant impact that data users can have on the capacity
of a system. The voice and data activity factors were purposely set to the same value in order to
reflect the capacity impact of just varying the data rate.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Erlangs
N
o
i
s
e

R
i
s
e

(
d
B
)
Voice @ 9600 Data @ 19200 Data @ 38400 Data @ 76800 Data @ 153600
3
The following figure shows the relationship between the reverse link total throughput and total
Erlangs with respect to the data activity factor. The input parameters used to create the figure are
shown below.
Figure 3-16: Reverse Link Total Erlangs & Throughput vs. Data Activity Factor
Parameters:
Peak noise rise = 10 dB
b
/N
o
E
b
/N
o
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%
Data Activity Factor
T
o
t
a
l

T
h
r
u
p
u
t

(
K
b
p
s
)
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
T
o
t
a
l

E
r
l
a
n
g
s
Total Thruput Total Erlangs
3
3.5 Forward Link Pole Capacity Estimation
Forward link (downlink) capacity calculations are similar to the reverse link calculations in that the
ratio of energy per bit over the interference density for each subscriber needs to be calculated. The
nature of the interference is slightly different in that the pilot, page and synchronization channels
need to be considered as interference. Therefore the capacity of the forward link is dependent upon
the strength of these channels. Another factor that may need to be considered in the calculation of
forward link capacity is the total amount of base station transmission power required. By using the
appropriate input parameters, the following approach can be applied towards both types of systems
(IS-95 and IS-2000 1X).
3.5.1 Forward Link Load Factor Estimation
A forward link load factor, , can be defined in a similar approach as the reverse link pole
capacity equations, although some of the parameters are slightly different. The following equation
can be used to represent the forward link load factor.
[EQ 3-49]
Where:
Forward link load factor
Number of connections per cell
Activity factor of user j
Signal energy per bit divided by noise spectral density of user j
Data rate of user j
Orthogonality of the channel of user j
Ratio of out of cell to in cell base station power received by user j
When compared to the reverse link equations, the primary new parameter is , which represents
the orthogonality factor for the forward link users. Since the forward link employs orthogonal
codes to separate the users, multipath propagation can cause sufficient delay spread in the radio
channel which produces interference. Thus, the orthogonality factor is used to estimate the amount
of interference created by the multipath propagation environment, where a value of 1 corresponds
FL
FL

j
j 1 =
N
E
b
N
o
( )
j
W R
j
----------------------
1
j
( ) i
j
+ [ ] =
FL
N
j
E
b
N
o
( )
j
W
R
j
j
i
j
j
3
to perfectly orthogonal users and a value of 0 corresponds to no orthogonality. Typically, the
orthogonality factor is between 0.4 and 0.9 for multipath channels.
For the forward link, the ratio of out of cell to in cell base station power received, , is dependent
upon the individual user location and is therefore different for each user.
3.5.2 Forward Link Pole Capacity Estimation
When the forward link load factor approaches unity, the system reaches its pole capacity and the
noise rise over thermal goes to infinity. The forward link noise rise pole capacity can be represented
by the following equation:
[EQ 3-50]
Where:
Noise rise (dB)
Forward link load factor (see Equation 3-49)
The forward link noise rise pole capacity equation can be used to estimate the noise rise over
thermal noise due to multiple access interference. This is similar to the reverse link equation (see
Equation 3-44) and has the same characteristics as shown in Figure 3-11.
For forward link dimensioning, it is important to take into account the total amount of base station
transmission power required. The power estimate should be based on the average transmission
power for the user and not the maximum transmission power for a user at the cell edge which is
typically shown by the link budget. The total base station transmission power for a user at an
average location within the cell can be mathematically expressed by the following equation.
BS_Tx_Power = [EQ 3-51]
Where:
Noise spectral density of the subscriber receiver front-end or ,
where k is Boltzmanns constant J/K, T is temperature in degrees
Kelvin (290 K), and NF is the subscriber station noise figure
Average attenuation between the base station transmitter and the subscriber
station receiver
Average load factor using Equation 3-49 with average values for and
i
j
Z 10Log
10
1
FL
( ) =
Z
FL
N
rf
W L
j
j 1 =
N
E
b
N
o
( )
j
W R
j
----------------------

1
FL
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
N
rf
N
rf
k T NF + =
1.38 10
23
( )
L
FL

j
i
j
3
When using Equation 3-51, the power impacts of the forward link common channels (pilot, page,
sync, quick paging channel, etc.) and cable losses should be accounted for in the BS_Tx_Power
allocation.
3.6 Forward Link Fractional Power Capacity Estimation
For the forward link of a CDMA cell site, there is a fixed amount of power that is allocated for a
CDMA carrier on a per-cell/per-sector basis. Since this is a fixed resource, an alternate method for
estimating forward link capacity is to normalize this fixed power resource and estimate the
fractional amount of power required for the average user while taking several factors into account
(i.e. distribution of users with 1-way, 2-way, & 3-way links, other cell interference, overhead
channel power, required Eb/Nt, forward power control error, activity factor, etc.).
The following equation represents a first order approximation of the forward link capacity using a
fractional power approach:
[EQ 3-52]
Where:
Traffic load supported (in Erlangs)
Effective Voice or Data Activity
Fraction of total cell power for pilot, page, and sync
Fraction of users in i-way handoff
Fraction of allocated cell power for each i-way link
The next step is to provide a more detailed estimate for the fraction of allocated cell power for each
i-way link.
[EQ 3-53]
Where:
Total normalized interference seen by i-way user
Fraction of recovered power by i-way connection
N
1
pps
( )
V
eff
3S
3way
3way
( 2S
2way
2way
S
1way
1way
) + +
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- <
N
V
eff
pps
S
iway
iway
i way
I (
on i ) (

i ( )
) 10
E
b
Nt
iway
-------------- FPC
error
+
,
_
10
i
i ( )
W
R
---- -
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- =
I
on i ) (
i ( )
3
Energy per bit per thermal noise power spectral density per i-way connection
FPC
error
Forward power control error in dB
W Bandwidth of channel
R Data rate
The final step is to provide a more detailed estimate for the total normalized interference as seen
by each i-way user.
[EQ 3-54]
Where:
Adjacent carrier(s) noise factor
Other cell (not including adjacent carrier) normalized interference
For the following examples, the values from Table 3-10 below (0 adjacent carriers is assumed) are
entered into Equation 3-52, Equation 3-53, and Equation 3-54 in order to estimate the forward link
capacity for a Rate Set 1 and Rate Set 2 system.
Table 3-10: Example of Parameter Values
Parameter 1-way 2-way 3-way
0.40 0.35 0.25
0.134 0.30 0.30
0.92 0.92 0.80
for 13 kb
15.5 dB 9 dB 7 dB
for 8 kb
13 dB 7 dB 5 dB
1.2 dB (for 13 kb) or 1.5 dB (for 8 kb)
0.37
85.33 (for 13 kb) or 128 (for 8 kb)
0.48 (for 13 kb) or 0.56 (for 8 kb)
(assume 2% per carrier)
1.00 (for 0 adjacent carrier),
1.02 (for 1 adjacent carrier),
1.04 (for 2 adjacent carriers)
E
b
Nt
iway
---------------
I
on i ) (
i I
ocn i ) (
+ =
I
ocn i ) (
S
iway
I
ocn i ) (
i ( )
E
b
Nt
iway
E
b
Nt
iway
FPC
error
pps
W R
V
eff

3
The following examples assume no adjacent carrier interference ( = 1.00).
Example #1: Rate Set 1
1. Estimate for the total normalized interference as seen by each i-way user.
2. Estimate the fraction of allocated cell power for each i-way link.
3. Estimate the first order approximation of the forward link capacity using a fractional power
approach.
Erlangs
Example #2: Rate Set 2
1. Estimate for the total normalized interference as seen by each i-way user (same for Rate Set 1).
I
on 1) (
1 1 0.134 1.134 = + =
I
on 2) (
2 1 0.3 2.3 = + =
I
on 3) (
3 1 0.3 3.3 = + =
1 way
1.134 ( 0.92) 10
13 1.5 + ( ) 10
1 0.92 128
------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.0512 = =
2 way
2.3 ( 0.92) 10
7 1.5 + ( ) 10
2 0.92 128
---------------------------------------------------------------- 0.0415 = =
3 way
3.3 ( 0.8) 10
5 1.5 + ( ) 10
2 0.8 128
------------------------------------------------------------- 0.0364 = =
N
1 0.37 ( )
0.56 3 0.25 0.0364 ( 2 0.35 0.0415 0.40 0.0512 ) + +
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14.6 = <
I
on 1) (
1 1 0.134 1.134 = + =
I
on 2) (
2 1 0.3 2.3 = + =
I
on 3) (
3 1 0.3 3.3 = + =
3
2. Estimate the fraction of allocated cell power for each i-way link.
3. Estimate the first order approximation of the forward link capacity using a fractional power
approach.
Erlangs
3.7 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation
The amount of noise rise (interference) that can be tolerated by the CDMA subscriber will place a
limit upon how many users can be supported by the forward link. As the number of users served
by the forward link is increased, the level of noise rise seen by the subscribers will be increased
due to the additional energy being transmitted by the site to support all of the subscribers. The cell
capacity is determined by calculating the number of users required to produce a maximum accepted
noise rise. This section is similar to Section 3.4 for the reverse link except it is being applied to the
forward link.
This section provides a method of estimating the noise rise for a particular user type. The
estimating approach will also allow the calculation of the total noise rise for multiple user types.
As a result, the noise rise estimation approach provided in this section is better suited to estimate
the capacity of a system which utilizes multiple user types (i.e. multiple data rates). Although this
capacity estimation approach can be applied towards both IS-95 and IS-2000 systems, it may be
more appropriate in estimating the capacity of an IS-2000 system, where it is more common to
support different user type profiles utilizing different data rates.
For IS-2000 systems, it is important to note that the capacity estimation calculation provided in this
section does not account for the dynamic resource allocation capabilities of an IS-2000 1X packet
data system. Within the IS-2000 1X infrastructure, the subscriber will be assigned supplemental
channel resources based upon several criteria (e.g. the demand requirements for the amount of data
to be transmitted, RF capacity availability, Walsh code resource availability, etc.). The allocation
of these IS-2000 1X supplemental channel resources are also dynamically adjusted throughout the
duration of the packet data call. The capacity estimation calculation provided in this section treats
a packet data user more like a circuit data user. The capacity formulas provided imply a fixed
resource allocation where there are X users at 9.6 kbps, Y users at 19.2 kbps, Z users at 38.4 kbps,
etc. As a result, the capacity obtained from the capacity estimation approach may differ from that
1 way
1.134 ( 0.92 ) 10
15.5 1.2 + ( ) 10
1 0.92 85.33
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.1275 = =
2 way
2.3 ( 0.92) 10
9 1.2 + ( ) 10
2 0.92 85.33
----------------------------------------------------------------
0.0920 = =
3 way
3.3 ( 0.8) 10
7 1.2 + ( ) 10
2 0.8 85.33
------------------------------------------------------------- 0.0807 = =
N
1 0.37 ( )
0.48 3 0.25 0.0807 ( 2 0.35 0.0920 0.40 0.1275 ) + +
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.5 = <
3
of an actual IS-2000 1X system. For a more accurate estimation of packet data services, it is
recommended to utilize a simulation tool which simulates the dynamic resource allocation
capabilities of an IS-2000 1X system. The time-sliced simulation function of the NetPlan tool can
be used for this purpose. See Section 3.12 for more information on the simulation capabilities of
the NetPlan tool.
Another aspect of the forward link capacity is the amount of base station transmission power
required. As the subscriber unit experiences more interference, it will request more power from its
serving base station to compensate for increased interference. Therefore, the transmission power
limitations of the base station may place an upper limit on the forward capacity available.
3.7.1 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Limit
The forward link pole capacity is considered to be the point where additional power from the BTSs
to support an additional user will cause the noise rise within the subscriber unit to increase
exponentially. This will create an unstable situation where user connections may be lost and the
network grade of service will be severely degraded.
The forward link noise rise pole capacity can be represented by the same equation that is provided
in Equation 3-50. A graph of the forward noise rise pole capacity equation is the same as the one
for the reverse noise rise pole capacity equation which is shown in Figure 3-11.
In order to estimate the capacity from a number of users perspective, a forward noise rise capacity
limit must be selected. For CDMA RF system designs (for both IS-95A/B and IS-2000), a peak
noise rise of 10 dB is recommended to be the maximum that a system should tolerate (which is the
same limit for the reverse link). In order to account for the noise rise generated by the pilot, page,
and sync overhead channels for the forward link, a de-rating of the noise rise limit is recommended
as follows.
Assumptions:
Pilot = 20% of total power at maximum capacity
Page = 75% of the pilot power
Sync = 10% of the pilot power
PPS
total
= 20% (for pilot) + 20% x 75% (for paging) + 20% x 10% (for sync) = 37%
Noise Rise De-rating:
PPS
total
= 37% of total power at maximum capacity
Total User Capacity = 100% - 37% = 63% of total power at maximum capacity
10 dB noise rise limit = 10
(10/10)
= 10 linear units
De-rated Noise Rise Limit = 10 x 63% = 6.3 linear = 10log(6.3) = ~8.0 dB
Thus, the recommended de-rated peak noise rise limit is 8 dB. The average noise rise would be
several dB below this peak value. It is important to note that the 8 dB noise rise limit is a peak value
which is associated with a certain probability factor (see Equation 3-48 and Section 3.4.3). The
recommended probability factors associated with the 8 dB peak noise rise recommendation are as
follows.
3
8 dB noise rise with a 90% probability factor (for aggressive capacity results)
8 dB noise rise with a 95% probability factor (for moderate capacity results)
8 dB noise rise with a 98% probability factor (for conservative capacity results)
Although the above recommendation provides some flexibility in selecting a probability factor, the
8 dB noise rise with a 95% probability factor is the typical limit that is normally recommended.
3.7.2 Forward Noise Rise Capacity Estimation
To approximate the number of users that could be supported by a site while staying below a desired
noise rise limit, the following forward link capacity equations can be utilized.
A multi-service traffic loading factor, X, can be expressed as follows:
[EQ 3-55]
The mean value for the multi-service traffic loading factor, X, is expressed as:
[EQ 3-56]
The variance for the multi-service traffic loading factor, X, is expressed as:
[EQ 3-57]
The following equation provides the distribution of the noise rise, Z, for the multi-service traffic
loading factor, X (which is the same equation provided for the reverse link, Equation 3-48):
[EQ 3-58]
Where:
M Number of different service-types
Traffic load of the m
th
service-type (in Erlangs)
The energy-per-bit to total-interference-density target of the m
th
service-type
LN(10)/10
X L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )
P
G m ( )
--------------
E
b m ( )
N
T
------------- 1
m ( )
( ) i
m ( )
+ [ ] =
E X [ ] L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )
P
G m ( )
--------------
m ( )
m ( )
( )
2
2
--------------------- + exp 1
m ( )
( ) i
m ( )
+ [ ] =
Var X ( ) L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )

m ( )
( ) +
2
P
G m ( )
( )
2
----------------------------------- 2
m ( )
2
m ( )
( )
2
+ [ ] exp 1
m ( )
( ) i
m ( )
+ [ ] =
Z 10 Log
10
1 Pa Var X ( ) E X [ ] ( ) =
L
m ( )
E
b m ( )
N
T
-------------

3
Average E
b
/N
o
(dB) of the m
th
service-type
E
b
/N
o
standard deviation, in dB of the m
th
service-type (to account for
inaccuracies in power control)
Activity Factor of the m
th
service-type
Mean Square of Activity Factor of the m
th
service-type (variance = 0.1)
Orthogonality of the channel of the m
th
service-type
Ratio of out of cell to in cell base station power received by the m
th
service-type,
where I =
Note: The terms I and i are equivalent to the terms F and f for the reverse link (see
Equation 3-13), but from a forward link perspective. For the forward link, the
ratio of out of cell to in cell base station power received, , is dependent upon
the individual user location and is therefore different for each user.
Processing gain (Bandwidth/Information rate) of the m
th
service
Z Interference rise (expressed in dB)
Pa Probability factor (inverse of the standard normal cumulative distribution) with a
distribution having a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 (see Section 3.4.3
for more details regarding the probability factor)
In a scenario with multiple services, the equations are a bit more complex than for a single service.
Basically, an average and variance needs to be determined for each service offered. The net rise,
Z, will need to account for all of the users being handled by each service.
3.7.3 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation Examples
The following section provides two examples of how to use the forward link noise rise capacity
estimation equations provided in Section 3.7.2. The first example estimates the noise rise for a
single service type of traffic load of voice users only. The second example provides the calculations
required to estimate the noise rise for a multiple service type of traffic load with a mixture of voice
and data users.
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
i
m ( )
InCell
InCell OutCell +
--------------------------------------------
1
1
OutCell
InCell
--------------------- +
------------------------------
1
1 i +
----------- = =
i
m ( )
P
G m ( )
3
3.7.3.1 Example #1: Voice Only
The following example calculates the noise rise for, on average, 16.3 IS-2000 1X voice users at
9600 bps, in a 3-sectored system with a 95% probability factor. Additional assumptions are
provided below.
Traffic Load:
16.3 Voice users (average) at 9600 bps
0.45 = I-factor (3 sector), where
0.23 = Beta value LN(10)/10 ( )
16.3 = number of average users at 9600 bps ( )
6.34 dB = average E
b
/N
o
2.5 dB = E
b
/N
o
0.6 = Orthogonality factor ( )
The first step is to calculate the mean value of the traffic loading factor, X, for the 16.3 average
voice users by using Equation 3-56 (repeated below for reference).
Using the input variables from the assumptions above, E[X] is calculated as follows:
The next step is to calculate the variance for the traffic loading factor, X, for the 16.3 average voice
i
m ( )
1
I
--- 1
1
0.45
---------- 1 = =
L
m ( )
P
G m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
E X [ ] L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )
P
G m ( )
--------------
m ( )
m ( )
( )
2
2
--------------------- + exp 1
m ( )
( ) i
m ( )
+ [ ] =
E X [ ] 16.3
0.56
128
----------
0.23 ( ) 6.34 ( )
0.23 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
2
--------------------------------------- + exp 1 0.6 ( )
1
0.45
---------- 1 + =
E X [ ] 0.115685 1.625527 [ ] exp 0.115685 5.081096 0.587805 = = =
Var X ( ) L
m ( )
m 1 =
M

m ( )

m ( )
( ) +
2
P
G m ( )
( )
2
----------------------------------- 2
m ( )
2
m ( )
( )
2
+ [ ] exp 1
m ( )
( ) i
m ( )
+ [ ] =
3
The final step is to calculate the noise rise, Z, for the 16.3 average voice users by using
Equation 3-58 (repeated below for reference).
dB
3.7.3.2 Example #2: Voice and Data Users
The following example calculates the noise rise for a multiple service type traffic load environment
consisting of, on average, 6 IS-2000 1X voice users at 9600 bps, 1 IS-2000 1X data user at 19200
bps, and 1 data user at 38400 bps. Additional assumptions are provided below.
Traffic Load:
0.45 = I-factor (3 sector), where
0.23 = Beta value LN(10)/10 ( )
6.34 dB = average E
b
/N
o
2.5 dB = E
b
/N
o
Var X ( ) 16.3
0.1 0.56 ( ) +
2
128 ( )
2
-------------------------------- 2 0.23 ( ) 6.34 ( ) 2 0.23 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
+ [ ] exp 1 0.6 ( )
1
0.45
---------- 1 + =
Var X ( ) 0.000668 3.582424 [ ] exp 0.000668 35.960611 0.024004 = = =
Z 10 Log
10
1 Pa Var X ( ) E X [ ] ( ) =
Z 10 Log
10
1 1.644848 0.024004 0.587805 ( ) =
Z 10 Log
10
0.157354 ( ) 8.03 = =
i
m ( )
1
I
--- 1
1
0.45
---------- 1 = =
L
m ( )
P
G m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
3
5.69 dB = average E
b
/N
o
2.5 dB = E
b
/N
o
4.94 dB = average E
b
/N
o
2.5 dB = E
b
/N
o
The first step is to calculate the mean value of the traffic loading factor for the 6 average voice users
E[X]
9600
19200
is
38400
is
L
m ( )
P
G m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
L
m ( )
P
G m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
m ( )
E X [ ]
9600
6
0.56
128
---------- 0.23 ( ) 6.34 ( )
0.23 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
2
--------------------------------------- + 1 0.6 ( )
1
0.45
---------- 1 + exp =
E X [ ]
9600
0.042583 1.625527 [ ] exp 0.042583 5.081096 0.216370 = = =
E X [ ]
19200
1
0.9
64
------- 0.23 ( ) 5.69 ( )
0.23 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
2
--------------------------------------- + exp 1 0.6 ( )
1
0.45
---------- 1 + =
E X [ ]
19200
0.022813 1.475859 [ ] exp 0.022813 4.374791 0.099800 = = =
E X [ ]
38400
1
0.9
32
-------
0.23 ( ) 4.94 ( )
0.23 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
2
--------------------------------------- + exp 1 0.6 ( )
1
0.45
---------- 1 + =
3
Finally, calculate the total loading factor E[X]
Total
individual results.
The next step is to calculate the variance for the traffic loading factor for the 6 average voice users
Var(X)
9600
19200
is
38400
is
Finally, calculate the total variance Var(X)
Total
individual results.
The final step is to calculate the noise rise, Z, for the total traffic load using a 95% probability factor
by using Equation 3-58 (as shown below).
E X [ ]
38400
0.045625 1.303164 [ ] exp 0.045625 3.680926 0.167942 = = =
E X [ ]
Total
0.216370 0.099800 0.167942 0.484112 = + + =
Var X ( )
9600
6
0.1 0.56 ( ) +
2
128 ( )
2
-------------------------------- 2 0.23 ( ) 6.34 ( ) 2 0.23 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
+ [ ] exp 1 0.6 ( )
1
0.45
---------- 1 + =
Var X ( )
9600
0.000246 3.582424 [ ] exp 0.000246 35.960611 0.008836 = = =
Var X ( )
19200
1
0.1 0.9 ( ) +
2
64 ( )
2
----------------------------- 2 0.23 ( ) 5.69 ( ) 2 0.23 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
+ [ ] exp 1 0.6 ( )
1
0.45
---------- 1 + =
Var X ( )
19200
0.000360 3.283088 [ ] exp 0.000360 26.657952 0.009608 = = =
Var X ( )
38400
1
0.1 0.9 ( ) +
2
32 ( )
2
----------------------------- 2 0.23 ( ) 4.94 ( ) 2 0.23 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )
2
+ [ ] 1 0.6 ( )
1
0.45
---------- 1 + exp =
Var X ( )
38400
0.001442 2.937699 [ ] exp 0.001442 18.872371 0.027207 = = =
Var X ( )
Total
0.008836 0.009608 0.027207 0.045650 = + + =
3
dB
3.7.4 Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimates for IS-2000 1X
In order to calculate the capacity supported by the air interface in an IS-2000 1X system, it is
important to determine the values of the various factors that affect the capacity. The IS-2000 1X
forward link capacity estimates (throughput and Erlangs) provided in this document are based on
the forward link noise rise capacity estimation equations provided in Section 3.7.2 and utilizing the
parameter value assumptions that follow.
The following are the assumptions for the various IS-2000 1X parameter values to be applied to
the forward link noise rise capacity estimation equations.
3.7.4.1 Noise Rise
For the purpose of determining capacity estimates, a 10 dB maximum noise rise value was selected.
As shown in Section 3.7.1, this 10 dB limit is de-rated to 8 dB in order to account for the overhead
channels. Additionally, each rise has a probability factor, Pa, associated with it. Table 3-11
provides some of the recommended noise rise values and probability factors used for this exercise.
Since the probability factor is associated with a normal distribution, the 50% probability factor
implies an average noise rise value. Therefore, for the scenarios where the probability factor is
greater than 50%, the average noise rise will be less than the rise value shown. This can be
illustrated further through Figure 3-12, where the 50% probability factor is associated with the
average point in the normal distribution curve. However, a higher probability factor would be
associated with a value that is greater than the average value.
The capacity tables shown in Section 3.7.4.10 provide both the capacity (in Erlangs and
throughput) and the average rise values associated with a 8 dB peak noise rise for the 90%, 95%,
and 98% probability factors. Typical RF designs should strive to keep the peak percentile
probability reverse noise rise value less than 8 dB.
Various probability factors were used in scenarios to estimate the capacity for aggressive (90%),
Table 3-11: Interference Rise Scenarios
Percentile
Probability (Pa)
Associated
Noise Rise (Z)
90% 8 dB
95% 8 dB
98% 8 dB
Z 10 Log
10
1 Pa Var X ( )
Total
E X [ ]
Total
( ) =
Z 10 Log
10
1 1.644848 0.045650 0.484112 ( ) =
Z 10 Log
10
0.164450 ( ) 7.84 = =
3
moderate (95%), or conservative (98%) cases. Additionally, a rise value of less than 8 dB can be
used to demonstrate the impact on capacity, in order to trade capacity for increased forward link
coverage.
In all of the test cases, the cell loading is considered uniform in each sector (homogeneous network)
and as such the rise is the same across each cell. In practice, the non-homogeneous nature of cell
loading will mean that an individual cell may be able to cope with a peak load higher than the
homogeneous case.
3.7.4.2 I-factor
I-factor is the ratio of own cell interference to own cell plus other cell interference from the
subscriber perspective. The ratio of out of cell to in cell base station power received by the
subscriber is the parameter. The I-factor and parameter have the following relationship.
where I = or
[EQ 3-59]
The terms I and i are equivalent to the terms F and f for the reverse link (see Equation 3-13), but
from a forward link subscriber perspective. For the forward link, the ratio of out of cell to in cell
base station power received by user m, , is dependent upon the individual user location and is
therefore different for each user.
For this exercise, the following I-factors have been assumed:
3.7.4.3 Average E
b
/N
o

E
b
/N
o
is defined as energy per bit to the noise spectral density. The appropriate value for the
required E
b
/N
o
is such that the desired bit, block, or frame erasure rate of the received signal is
achieved. This gives an indication of the lowest signal strength that the subscriber receiver can
detect above a certain noise level. Such items as the subscriber speed, the propagation
environment, and power control impact the required E
b
/N
o
.
Table 3-12: I-factor
Site Type I-factor
Omni 0.60
3-Sector 0.45
6-Sector 0.40
i
m ( )
i
m ( )
InCell
InCell OutCell +
--------------------------------------------
1
1
OutCell
InCell
--------------------- +
------------------------------
1
1 i +
----------- = =
i
1
I
--- 1 =
i
m ( )
3
The E
b
/N
o
numbers used for each data rate in this document are typical numbers that are used for
dimensioning purposes. The E
b
/N
o
values were obtained from forward link level simulations. The
E
b
/N
o
values used for this exercise are shown in Table 3-13.
In looking at Equation 3-56 and Equation 3-57 again, the number of users is inversely proportional
to the E
b
/N
o
in order to maintain the same average and variance load factor. That is, an increase in
the E
b
/N
o
will result in a decrease in the number of users. A decrease to the E
b
/N
o
will result in an
increase to the number of users.
3.7.4.4 E
b
/N
o
Standard Deviation
A standard deviation of 2.5 dB on the E
b
/N
o
is assumed for each rate. This standard deviation for
the E
b
/N
o
is used to adjust the average E
b
/N
o
to compensate for imperfect power control in the real
world environment.
The number of users is inversely proportional to the E
b
/N
o
standard deviation in order to maintain
the same average and variance load factor. That is, an increase in the E
b
/N
o
standard deviation will
result in a decrease in the number of users. A decrease to the E
b
/N
o
standard deviation will result
in an increase to the number of users.
The E
b
/N
o
standard deviation has been assumed to be the same for each data rate. In a real world
situation this may not be the case, but for an estimate of the capacity (as used for this exercise), one
value has been assumed for all services.
3.7.4.5 Processing Gain
The processing gain is the ratio of the chip rate to the bit rate. For IS-2000 1X, the chip rate is equal
to 1.2288 x 10
6
chips/s. The calculation of the processing gain in linear and in dB units are provided
below.
Processing Gain
linear
=
Processing Gain
db
=
Where:
W Bandwidth (1.2288 Mcps for IS-2000 1X)
R Information rate
W R
10 Log
10
W R ( )
3
The following table provides a summary of the E
b
/N
o
, E
b
/N
o
Standard Deviation, and the
processing gain values for the various data rates that were used in this exercise.
Recall that the E
b
/N
o
values shown in the above table were obtained from forward link level
simulations and represent typical values that are used for dimensioning purposes. The E
b
/N
o
values
will vary based on the subscriber speed, propagation conditions, percent FER, etc. For detailed
capacity and coverage results, Motorola recommends using the NetPlan simulation tool. This
simulation tool incorporates a family of E
b
/N
o
curves as opposed to only a few E
b
/N
o
values.
The bearer rate data in Table 3-13 represents a data link layer rate from the subscribers
perspective. It does not include any overhead (RLP, framing, etc.). The bearer rates in Table 3-13
are used in the calculation of the throughput capacity (see Section 3.7.4.9).
3.7.4.6 Activity Factor
The activity factor is defined as the percentage of time that a user transmits on an active traffic
channel. With IS-95, a typical industry accepted voice activity factor was 40%. This roughly
equated to 32% of the time the user was at full rate and 68% of the time the user was at eighth rate.
With IS-2000 1X, an adjustment to the voice activity factor of 16% is recommended to account for
the impact of the forward power control bits. Thus a 40% voice activity factor is adjusted up to
56%.
It should be noted that this adjusted activity factor (56%) is utilized in the capacity equation as a
means to derate the capacity due to the forward power control bits. In converting the voice users
to an equivalent throughput, the voice activity factor of 40% (0.4) is used.
For the capacity results provided in this section, two different data activity factors (0.9 and 0.2) are
assumed to shown the impact of a high and low data activity factor user type.
The number of users is inversely proportional to the activity factor in order to maintain the same
average and variance load factor. That is, an increase in the activity factor will result in a decrease
in the number of users. A decrease to the activity factor will result in an increase to the number of
users.
b
/N
o
Values
Bearer Rate
(bits/s)
Data Rate
(bits/s)
FER E
b
/N
o
(dB) E
b
/N
o
Std.
Dev. (dB)
Proc. Gain
(dB)
3 kmph 30 kmph
8600 9600 1% 7.56 6.34 2.5 21.1
14400 19200 5% 6.53 5.69 2.5 18.1
32000 38400 5% 5.65 4.94 2.5 15.1
64000 76800 5% 4.90 4.53 2.5 12.0
128800 153600 5% 5.10 4.86 2.5 9.0
3
3.7.4.7 Orthogonality Factor
CDMA utilizes orthogonal Walsh codes to separate the multiple users or multiple channels in the
downlink. In the absence of multipath propagation, the orthogonality of the signal received by the
subscriber would be the same as that which is sent by the base station. However, since multipath
propagation can produce sufficient delay spread in the radio channel, the subscriber will see part
of the base station signal as multiple access interference.
An orthogonality of 1 corresponds to perfectly orthogonal users. Typically, the orthogonality is
between 0.4 and 0.9 in multipath channels.
For the capacity analysis provided in this section, an orthogonality factor of 0.6 is used for the
vehicular (30 kmph) capacity results and a value of 0.9 is used for the pedestrian (3 kmph) capacity
results. These values correspond to the ITU Vehicular A channel and ITU Pedestrian A channel
respectively.
3.7.4.8 Traffic Mix
Four different traffic mix scenarios were analyzed as reflected in the following table.
The percentage of users can be interpreted, for example, as follows. In Scenario A, 100% of the
users are voice users at 8.6 kbps. In this scenario, all users in the network are continuously
receiving the relevant voice activity and at the required signal level to reach their respective E
b
/N
o
value. For Scenario C, 50% of the users are voice users at 8.6 kbps, 40% of the users are using 64
kbps, and the remaining 10% of the users are at 128.8 kbps.
3.7.4.9 Throughput Capacity
With multiple rate high-speed data services being introduced into the call model traffic mix, the
capacity of a cell/sector should now be quantified with a throughput value in addition to the number
of Erlangs. For the capacity analysis results provided below, the estimated throughput capacity is
calculated by multiplying the bearer rate, the activity factor, and the number of supported users
(continuously transmitting users) together.
For a single data rate user example, consider scenario A with a rise of 8 dB and a probability factor
of 95% (see Table 3-15). The voice rate assumed is 8.6 kbps and as such, approximately 14.3
Erlangs at the pedestrian speed can be supported in a single sector of a 3-sectored cell. This
Table 3-14: Traffic Mix
Scenario Bearer Service
Voice (8.6 kbps) 64 kbps 128.8 kbps
A 100% - -
B 80% 20% -
C 50% 40% 10%
D 10% 60% 30%
3
corresponds to a throughput capacity of approximately 49 kbps / sector (8.6 kbps x 0.40 AF x 14.3
Erlangs). As stated previously (see Section 3.7.4.6), an adjusted activity factor is utilized in the
capacity equation as a means to derate the capacity due to the forward power control bits. In
converting the voice users to an equivalent throughput capacity, the non-adjusted voice activity
factor of 40% (0.4) is used for the throughput calculation, instead of the adjusted activity factor of
approximately 56% (as calculated in Section 3.7.4.6).
For a multiple data rate mixture of users, the throughput capacity is calculated for each individual
data rate user type and then summed together. For example, consider traffic mix scenario C with a
probability of 95% and a data activity factor of 20%. From the results in Table 3-15, an estimated
6.6 Erlangs at the pedestrian speed can be supported in a single sector of a 3-sectored cell with a
total throughput of 62 kbps. The traffic distribution for scenario C is 50% for 8.6 kbps voice users,
40% for 64.0 kbps data users, and 10% for 128.8 kbps data users. According to the traffic
distribution of scenario C, the throughput capacity is calculated as follows.
8.6 kbps Voice User Thruput = 8.6 kbps x 0.4 AF x (6.6 x 0.5) Erlangs = 11.4 kbps
Total Throughput = 62.2 kbps
3.7.4.10 IS-2000 1X Forward Noise Rise Capacity Analysis Results
The following two tables provide capacity values (expressed as kbps throughput and Erlangs) per
sector for the various scenarios assuming an interference rise limit of 8 dB but with varying levels
of probability. For the traffic mix scenarios which include data users (Scenarios B, C, and D),
capacity results for two different Data Activity Factors (AF) are provided. A 90% Data AF is used
to estimate the results of high data activity factor users such as a File Transfer Protocol (FTP) user.
A 20% Data AF is used to estimate the results of lower data activity factor users such as a Low
Speed Packet Data (LSPD) or a High Speed Packet Data (HSPD) user.
3
All of the traffic mix scenarios in Table 3-15 below assume pedestrian (3 kmph) E
b
/N
o
values with
an orthogonality factor of 0.9.
Table 3-15: Forward Capacity per Sector for Various Probabilities of Rise - Pedestrian
Scenario Rise
Probability
Data
AF
Avg Rise
(dB)
A 98% N/A 3.0 77 44 37 22.3 12.9 10.7
95% N/A 3.5 85 49 41 24.6 14.3 11.8
90% N/A 4.1 93 54 44 27.0 15.6 12.9
B 98% 90% 1.6 88 51 42 6.2 3.6 3.0
98% 20% 2.4 89 52 43 16.7 9.7 8.0
95% 90% 2.0 106 62 51 7.5 4.3 3.6
95% 20% 2.8 102 59 49 19.1 11.1 9.2
90% 90% 2.5 127 73 61 8.9 5.1 4.3
90% 20% 3.4 115 67 55 21.6 12.5 10.4
C 98% 90% 1.1 76 44 37 2.1 1.2 1.0
98% 20% 1.6 89 52 43 9.5 5.5 4.5
95% 90% 1.5 97 56 46 2.7 1.5 1.3
95% 20% 2.0 108 62 52 11.4 6.6 5.5
90% 90% 1.9 121 70 58 3.3 1.9 1.6
90% 20% 2.5 128 74 61 13.6 7.9 6.5
D 98% 90% 1.0 71 41 34 1.0 0.6 0.5
98% 20% 1.2 87 51 42 5.5 3.2 2.7
95% 90% 1.3 91 53 44 1.3 0.8 0.6
95% 20% 1.6 109 63 52 6.9 4.0 3.3
90% 90% 1.7 116 67 56 1.7 1.0 0.8
90% 20% 2.1 134 78 64 8.5 4.9 4.1
3
All of the traffic mix scenarios in Table 3-16 below assume vehicular (30 kmph) E
b
/N
o
values
with an orthogonality factor of 0.6.
The results in Table 3-15 and Table 3-16 show the capacity estimates for an IS-2000 1X forward
link under the stated configurations, assumptions, and parameter values. As shown above, the
capacity estimate can vary greatly depending upon the parameter values that are chosen. Although
the stated assumptions and parameter values used for this exercise are deemed to be realistic, the
accuracy of the capacity estimate is highly dependent upon the accuracy of the assumptions and
parameter values used for the capacity estimate.
Table 3-16: Forward Capacity per Sector for Various Probabilities of Rise - Vehicle
Scenario Rise
Probability
Data
AF
Avg. Rise
(dB)
A 98% N/A 3.3 78 51 44 22.7 14.9 12.7
95% N/A 3.8 85 56 48 24.8 16.3 13.9
90% N/A 4.4 92 61 52 26.8 17.6 15.0
B 98% 90% 1.6 75 49 42 5.3 3.5 3.0
98% 20% 2.4 82 54 46 15.4 10.1 8.7
95% 90% 2.0 91 60 51 6.4 4.2 3.6
95% 20% 2.9 93 61 52 17.6 11.6 9.9
90% 90% 2.6 108 71 60 7.5 5.0 4.2
90% 20% 3.5 105 69 59 19.8 13.0 11.1
C 98% 90% 1.1 62 41 35 1.7 1.1 1.0
98% 20% 1.6 75 49 42 7.9 5.2 4.5
95% 90% 1.5 78 51 44 2.2 1.4 1.2
95% 20% 2.0 90 59 51 9.6 6.3 5.4
90% 90% 2.0 98 64 55 2.7 1.8 1.5
90% 20% 2.6 107 70 60 11.3 7.5 6.4
D 98% 90% 1.0 57 37 32 0.8 0.5 0.5
98% 20% 1.3 70 46 39 4.4 2.9 2.5
95% 90% 1.3 73 48 41 1.0 0.7 0.6
95% 20% 1.7 87 57 49 5.5 3.6 3.1
90% 90% 1.8 92 61 52 1.3 0.9 0.7
90% 20% 2.2 106 70 60 6.7 4.4 3.8
3
The following figure shows the relationship between the forward link noise rise and the throughput
for several probability curves. The input parameters used to create the figure are shown below. The
50%-ile curve corresponds to the average rise.
Figure 3-17: Forward Link Rise vs. Throughput
Parameters:
I-factor = 0.45 (3-sector cell site configuration)
b
/N
o
Forward link orthogonality factor = 0.6 (30 kmph)
E
b
/N
o
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 50 100 150 200 250
Throughput (Kbps)
N
o
i
s
e

R
i
s
e

(
d
B
)
98% 95% 90% 85% 75% 50%
3
The following figure shows the relationship between forward link noise rise and Erlangs of various
data rates. The input parameters used to create the figure are shown below.
Figure 3-18: Forward Link Rise vs. Erlangs for Different Data Rates
Parameters:
b
/N
o
E
b
/N
o
The curves in the figure above show the significant impact that data users can have on the capacity
of a system. The voice and data activity factors were purposely set to the same value in order to
reflect the capacity impact of just varying the data rate.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Erlangs
N
o
i
s
e

R
i
s
e

(
d
B
)
Voice @ 9600 Data @ 19200 Data @ 38400 Data @ 76800
3
The following figure shows the relationship between the forward link total throughput and total
Erlangs with respect to the data activity factor. The input parameters used to create the figure are
shown below.
Figure 3-19: Forward Link Total Erlangs & Throughput vs. Data Activity Factor
Parameters:
Peak noise rise = 8 dB
b
/N
o
E
b
/N
o
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%
T
o
t
a
l

T
h
r
u
p
u
t

(
K
b
p
s
)
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
T
o
t
a
l

E
r
l
a
n
g
s
Total Thruput Total Erlangs
3
3.8 Forward vs. Reverse Link Capacity Comparison
The Reverse Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation approach provided in Section 3.4 is almost
identical to the Forward Link Noise Rise Capacity Estimation approach provided in Section 3.7.
The following section will compare the IS-2000 1X capacity results of the forward and reverse
links using the same assumptions and parameter values as stated in the previous sections (refer to
the previous sections for specific details regarding the assumptions and parameter values used).
Figure 3-20 shows a comparison of the IS-2000 1X forward and reverse links for the noise rise vs.
throughput capacity results for a 95% probability factor capacity estimation.
Figure 3-20: Forward and Reverse Link Rise vs. Throughput - 95% Probability Factor
Parameters: (unless otherwise noted, the parameters below apply to both forward and reverse links)
F-factor or I-factor = 0.45 (3-sector cell site configuration)
b
/N
o
assumptions from Table 3-6 and Table 3-13 were used
E
b
/N
o
0
2
4
6
8
10
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0
Throughput (Kbps)
N
o
i
s
e

R
I
s
e

(
d
B
)
Fwd 95% Rev 95%
3
Figure 3-21 shows a comparison of the IS-2000 1X forward and reverse links for the noise rise vs.
Erlangs, capacity results for the 9600 and 19200 bps data rates.
Figure 3-21: Forward and Reverse Link Rise vs. Erlangs for Different Data Rates
b
/N
o
E
b
/N
o
The voice and data activity factors were purposely set to the same value in order to reflect the
capacity impact of just varying the data rate.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Erlangs
N
o
i
s
e

R
i
s
e

(
d
B
)
Fwd Voice @ 9600 Fwd Data @ 19200 Rev Voice @ 9600 Rev Data @ 19200
3
Figure 3-22 shows a comparison of the IS-2000 1X forward and reverse links for Erlangs and
throughput capacity vs. data activity factor.
Figure 3-22: Forward and Reverse Link Erlangs & Thruput vs. Data Activity Factor
Forward peak noise rise = 8 dB
Reverse peak noise rise = 10 dB
b
/N
o
E
b
/N
o
The results from all of the figures (Figure 3-20, Figure 3-21, and Figure 3-22) above, show the
forward link with less capacity than the reverse link. In a general sense, the forward link may have
less capacity than the reverse link, but the difference between the two may not be as wide as
depicted in the figures above. Keep in mind that utilizing different assumptions and parameters
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
22.0
24.0
90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%
T
o
t
a
l

E
r
l
a
n
g
s
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
T
h
r
o
u
g
h
p
u
t

(
K
b
p
s
)
Fwd Erlangs Rev Erlangs Fwd Thruput Rev Thruput
3
may be able to close the gap between the forward and reverse links, or even produce results which
show the reverse link with less capacity than the forward link.
For example, Figure 3-23 shows a comparison of the IS-2000 1X forward and reverse links for
Erlangs and throughput capacity vs. data activity factor using the following parameter changes
mentioned below the figure.
Figure 3-23: Alternate Forward and Reverse Link Erlangs & Thruput vs. Data Activity Factor
Parameters: (All of the parameters for Figure 3-22 were used, except for the following changes)
Forward E
b
/N
o
@ 9600 = 4.4 dB (Figure 3-22 utilized a value of 6.34 dB)
Forward E
b
/N
o
@ 76800 = 3.3 dB (Figure 3-22 utilized a value of 4.53 dB)
Forward link orthogonality factor = 0.7 (Figure 3-22 utilized a value of 0.6)
The results in Figure 3-23 show that the forward link capacity is now equal to or slightly better than
that of the reverse link. It is important to note that the parameter changes stated above are realistic
parameters to use to model certain propagation environments (i.e. depending upon the multipath,
ray imbalance, and geometry environment). Although the forward link may have a higher capacity
than that of the reverse link (similar to the results in Figure 3-23) in some areas of a system, the
general expectation is that the forward link will be the limiting factor from a capacity perspective
(similar to the results in Figure 3-22, but maybe not as wide of a gap). Which link will be the
limiting factor from a capacity perspective will depend upon the assumptions and parameter values
used for a particular system analysis. As stated previously, the accuracy of the capacity estimate is
highly dependent upon the accuracy of the assumptions and parameter values used for the capacity
estimate.
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
22.0
24.0
90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10%
T
o
t
a
l

E
r
l
a
n
g
s
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
T
h
r
o
u
g
h
p
u
t

(
K
b
p
s
)
Fwd Erlangs Rev Erlangs Fwd Thruput Rev Thruput
3
It should also be mentioned that these results are what the BTS sector may be able to support. The
data applications being used by the subscriber unit may be more demanding on one link over the
other. For instance, the user may request a file to be downloaded. To request the file will place a
small load on the reverse link, but depending on the size of the file to be downloaded, the load on
the forward link may be quite larger. This is commonly referred to as asymmetrical data transfer.
This asymmetrical data transfer will be another reason why one of the links will be the limiting link
with regards to capacity.
3.9 EIA/TIA Specifications and RF Air Interface Limitations
The CDMA RF Air Interface specifications defines the structure of the Forward and Reverse
Channel. These specifications place an upper limitation on the number of channels that can be
served by a CDMA frequency. The following sections provide Forward and Reverse Channel
structure overviews for both IS-95 and IS-2000 Air Interface specifications.
3.9.1 IS-95 Forward Channel Structure
The following figure shows an example of the code channels transmitted by a base station. Out of
the 64 code channels available for use, the example depicts the Pilot Channel (always required),
one Sync Channel, seven Paging Channels (the maximum allowed), and fifty-five Traffic
Channels.
Figure 3-24: Example of IS-95 Forward CDMA Channels
Code channels on the forward link are addressed by different Walsh codes. Each of these code
channels is spread by the appropriate Pseudo-Noise Sequence at a fixed Chip Rate of 1.2288 Mega-
Chips per second. The uniqueness of the forward channel structure is the use of the Pilot Channel.
It is transmitted by each cell site and is used as a coherent carrier reference for demodulation by all
subscriber stations. The pilot signal is unmodulated and uses the zeroth Walsh code which consists
of 64 zeros. Hence, the pilot simply contains the I and Q spreading code. The choice of this code
allows the subscriber to acquire the system faster. The Walsh codes are generated with a 64 x 64
Hadamard Matrix. Thus, the maximum number of code channels per carrier is 64 which consists
of a Pilot Channel, a Sync Channel, a maximum of 7 Paging Channels and a minimum of 55 Traffic
Channels (TCH). In view of the channel structure, a 1.23 MHz CDMA carrier can support up to 55
TCHs if the effect of interference is not considered. Another possible configuration could replace
PILOT CH SYNC CH
PAGING
CH 1
PAGING
CH 7
TCH 1
TCH 55
WALSH 0 WALSH 32 WALSH 1 WALSH 63
CDMA FORWARD CHANNEL
1.23 MHz
Traffic Power Control
Data Sub-Channel

(ADDRESSED BY WALSH CODE)
up to
3
Paging Channels and Sync Channels one for one with TCHs to obtain a maximum of 63 TCHs, 1
Pilot Channel, 0 Paging Channel, and 0 Sync Channel. In practice, due to the intense interference
in the spectrum, a satisfactory quality of service in terms of voice quality and FER is difficult to
maintain if all 55 traffic channels are implemented in the system.
The CDMA equipment requires a carrier frequency, a pilot offset, and a Walsh code to encode/
decode the channel. The Base Station System (BSS) allocates a Traffic Channel in response to the
Assignment Request message from the MSC. The BSS does not allocate traffic channels unless a
request from the MSC is acknowledged. The Traffic Channel will be allocated in the sector with
which the call is associated.
The BSS maintains a pool of Traffic Channels and Walsh codes in each sector for new call setups
and soft/softer handoffs. Traffic Channel allocation for new originations and soft handoffs require
an assignment of a physical Traffic Channel and a Walsh code. Softer handoff requires just the
assignment of a Walsh code, no new Traffic Channel element has to be assigned. The assignment
of Walsh codes and Traffic Channels is separated to allow the allocation process to adjust for the
different needs of soft and softer handoff. In order to reduce the risk of soft/softer handoff
assignment failure during the conversation, the BSS denies assignment of Traffic Channels and
Walsh codes for new call setups if Traffic Channels or Walsh codes are not available or being used
for soft/softer handoffs.
The number of Traffic Channels is defined by the In-Service Hardware in the BSS. It could be less
than the number configured if some of the hardware is out of service. The number of Walsh codes
assigned to a sector is set to 64 which is the maximum specified by the EIA/TIA standard. Limiting
the number of Walsh codes in a sector is a method of controlling service quality. Since Walsh codes
are not associated with any hardware, they cannot go out of service. As a result, 64 is the hard limit
of the number of code channels per sector according to the protocol specifications.
3.9.2 IS-95 Reverse Channel Structure
The Reverse CDMA Channel is composed of Access Channels and Reverse Traffic Channels.
These channels share the same CDMA frequency assignment. Each Traffic Channel is identified
by a distinct user long code sequence and each Access Channel is identified by a distinct Access
Channel long code sequence. The following figure shows as example of the signals received by a
base station on the Reverse CDMA Channel.
3
Figure 3-25: Example of IS-95 Reverse CDMA Channels
The reverse link employs the same 32768 length binary short PN sequences which are used for the
forward link. However, unlike on the forward link, a fixed code phase offset is used. A long PN
sequence (2
42
-1) with a user-determined time offset is used to identify the subscriber (analogous
to ESN in AMPS). The sequence is then modulo-2 added with a 42 bit wide mask.
The subscriber unit convolutionally encodes the data transmitted on the Reverse Traffic Channel
and the Access Channel prior to interleaving. The transmitted digital information is convolutional
encoded using a rate 1/3 code of constraint length 9 for the Access Channel and for Rate Set 1 of
the Reverse Traffic Channel. For Rate Set 2 of the Reverse Traffic Channel, the convolutional code
rate is 1/2. The encoded information is then interleaved over a 20 ms interval. The interleaved
information is then grouped in code words which consist of 6 symbol groups each. These code
words are used to select one of the 64 orthogonal Walsh codes for transmission. On the reverse link,
the Walsh codes are used for information transmission. The reverse CDMA frequency channel can
support up to 62 TCHs per Paging Channel and 32 Access Channels per Paging Channel.
3.9.3 IS-2000 1X Forward Channel Structure
The following figure shows the Forward Channel Structure for IS-2000.
ACCESS ACCESS
CH N
TCH 1
TCH M
CDMA REVERSE CHANNEL
1.23 MHz
CH 0
(ADDRESSED BY LONG PSEUDO-NOISE CODE)
(received at the base station)
3
Figure 3-26: Example of IS-2000 Forward CDMA Channels
3.9.3.1 IS-2000 Forward Channels (Motorola Implementation)
The Common Assignment, Common Power Control, Common Control, and Broadcast Channels
are not implemented in CBSC Release 16. In the Common Pilot Channels, only the Forward Pilot
Channel is implemented for CBSC Release 16. The following sections provide a brief description
of the forward channels that are supported for CBSC Release 16.
Forward Pilot Channel (F-PICH)
The IS-2000 Forward Pilot Channel is identical to the Pilot Channel in IS-95A/B, for backwards
compatibility. It is transmitted by each cell site and is used as a coherent carrier reference for
demodulation by all subscriber stations. The pilot signal is un-modulated and uses Walsh code 0,
which consists of 64 zeros. A Walsh code can be expressed as a Walsh Function W
n
L
, where n =
Walsh code number and L = Walsh code length. The Walsh code for a F-PICH can be represented
as W
0
64
. The Pilot Channels do not carry any information and essentially consist of Short PN
codes. A Short PN code pair is generated by a modified linear feedback shift register. The pilot
simply contains the I and Q spreading code.
Forward CDMA
Channels
Quick Paging
Channels(0-3)
[F-QPCH]
Fundamental
Channel (0 or 1)
[F-FCH]
Supplemental Code
Channels (0-7)
[F-SCCH]
Pilot
Channel
[F-PICH]
Transmit Diversity
Pilot Channel
[F-TDPICH]
Auxiliary Pilot
Channel
[F-APICH]
Auxiliary Transmit
Diversity Pilot Chan.
[F-ATDPICH]
Common Paging
Channels
Dedicated
Channels
Dedicated Control
Channel (0 or 1)
[F-DCCH]
Supplemental
Channels (0-2)
[F-SCH]
Paging
Channels (0-7)
[F-PCH]
Common
Pilot
Channels
Common Power
Control Channel
[F-CPCCH]
Common Control
Channel
[F-CCCH]
Common
Channels
Common Assignment
Channel
[F-CACH]
Sync
Channel
[F-SYNC]
Broadcast
Channel
[F-BCH]
= Channels NOT implemented in CBSC Release 16
3
Forward Sync Channel (F-SYNC)
The Forward Sync Channel is used by the subscriber stations operating within the coverage area
of the base station to acquire CDMA System time and Long PN code synchronization. It also
transmits the system Protocol Revision (P_REV). There is only one Sync Channel per omni-carrier
and there is a Sync Channel for each sector-carrier for sectored cells. The Sync Channel is spread
by Walsh 32 of length 64 (W
32
64
), just as in IS-95A/B. The bit rate for the Sync Channel is 1200
bps and the frame is 26.67ms in duration. For CBSC Release 16, the Sync Channel supports new
redirection fields which can redirect subscribers to carriers that support Radio Configurations
greater than 2 and the Forward Quick Paging Channel (F-QPCH).
Forward Paging Channel (F-PCH)
The Forward Paging Channel functionality is basically the same as an IS-95A/B Paging Channel
except that there exists new messages specified for IS-2000. The base station uses the Paging
Channel to transmit overhead/SMS messages, pages, acknowledgements, channel assignments,
and authentications to idle subscribers. IS-2000 supports up to 7 Paging Channels per sector-
carrier, but as in earlier releases, CBSC Release 16 only supports 1 Paging Channel per sector-
carrier. The primary Paging Channel number is Paging Channel number 1. This is the mode where
the IS-2000 handset emulates an IS-95A/B handset. It is spread by a Walsh i of length 64 (W
i
64
),
where i is the Paging Channel number. The bit rate that a Paging Channel uses is 9600 bps or
4800 bps.
Forward Quick Paging Channel (F-QPCH)
The Forward Quick Paging Channel is introduced in IS-2000 to enhance the subscribers idle time
battery life. It is used by the base station to inform subscriber stations, operating in the slotted mode
(where the subscriber only listens during an assigned slot), that a page will be transmitted on the
next designated slot on the Paging Channel. It is covered by Walsh code 80, 48, or 112 of length
128 (W
80
128
,W
48
128
,W
112
128
). The bit rate for a Quick Paging Channel is 4800 or 2400 bps and it
is divided into 2048 slots of 80ms duration (the same number of slots as a Paging Channel as
determined by the slot cycle index). A subscriber will hash (based upon the IMSI) to 1 of 376 bits
(for 4800 bps) or 1 of 188 bits (for 2400 bps) to determine whether it needs to monitor the Paging
Channel slot for an impending page message. The slots are sub-divided into Paging Indicators and
Configuration Change or Broadcast Indicators. Two Paging Indicators are transmitted in each
QPCH slot for each subscriber station that will be paged in the associated Paging Channel slot.
Prior to the occurrence of the Quick Paging/Paging slot, the Access/Paging MCC determines the
Paging Indicator bits based on the page messages found which support Quick Paging. It buffers the
bits and transmits them when the Quick Paging Channel slot begins. As shown in Figure 3-27,
approximately 20ms after the QPCH slot, the associated paging messages are transmitted on the
Paging Channel. The Access/Paging MCC schedules only those page messages which have been
quick paged on the QPCH slot which occurred 100ms prior to this PCH slot as shown in the figure.
Each paging indication is a single bit at a data rate of 4800 bps or 2400 bps. The effective rate is
9600 bps or 4800 bps, respectively as each bit is sent twice (time diversity).
The base station enables the Configuration Change Indicators in each QPCH slot for a period of
time following a change in configuration parameters. Configuration Change Indicators are only
used on QPCH number 1 and either 4 or 8 of the Paging Indicators are reserved for Configuration
3
Change Indicators depending upon the data rate. Quick Paging capability allows a subscriber to
conserve power and hence support extended battery life, by monitoring certain Paging Indicator
bits within a Quick Paging slot on a Quick Paging Channel. The structure of the QPCH allows the
use of a less complex demodulator which can enhance the battery life even further.
Figure 3-27: QPCH to PCH Timing
Forward Fundamental Channel (F-FCH)
The Forward Fundamental Channel, as in IS-95A/B, is used for transmission of user and signaling
information to a specific subscriber station for voice or low bit rate data applications during a call.
RC 1 and RC 2 channels are backwards compatible to the TCH in IS-95A/B supporting data rates
of 9600 or 14400 bps and 20 ms frames. As in IS-95A/B, this channel may be transmitted at a
variable rate (on a frame-by-frame basis). New to IS-2000 is that each channel is transmitted on a
different variable length Walsh code channel (expressed as W
n
L
, where n = Walsh code number
and L = Walsh code length). For RC 1 or RC 2 and RC 3 or RC 5, each channel is assigned to code
channel W
n
64
, where 1 < n < 63. For RC 4, each channel is assigned a code channel W
n
128
, where
1 < n < 127.
Forward Dedicated Control Channel (F-DCCH)
The Forward Dedicated Control Channel introduced in IS-2000 is used to carry user data as well
as signaling and control data while the call is in progress. It does not support voice traffic. The

0 1 2 3
Paging
Channel
Paging Channel Slot
(80 ms)
1 2 3 4 11 2
3 4
Quick Paging Channel
Slot (80 ms)
20ms 20ms
1
Quick
Paging
Channel
Paging Indicators Paging Indicators
Configuration
Change Indicators
3
Forward TCH channel may contain one Dedicated Control Channel. For RC 3 or RC 5, each
channel is assigned to code channel W
n
64
, where 1 < n < 63 and for RC 4, each channel is assigned
a code channel W
n
128
, where 1 < n < 127. This channel uses a data rate of 9600 bps (for RC 3 and
RC 4) or 14400 bps (for RC 5).
Forward Supplemental Channel (F-SCH)
The Forward Supplemental Channel (packet based) introduced in IS-2000 is used for the
transmission of user data to a specific subscriber station during a call. It is always accompanied by
a dedicated FCH or DCCH. In IS-2000, the Forward Supplemental Channel is designed to reach
data rates as high as 1,036,800 bps on a single RF carrier using a Spreading Rate (SR) of 3x. Also
with IS-2000, each Forward TCH can have up to 2 Forward Supplemental Channels. For
Motorolas CBSC Release 16 implementation, only 1 F-SCH per user with a maximum data rate
of 153,600 bps will be supported using a Spreading Factor of 1x. These channels are shared
resources which are allocated dynamically in order to meet the required data rate. The resources
are scheduled into time slices which leads to a more efficient use of the channel elements. It
supports variable data rates with the use of a variable length Walsh code. For RC 3 or RC 4, each
channel is assigned a code channel W
n
L
, where 1 < n < L-1 [L=4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 (where 128 is
for RC 4 only)].
Forward Supplemental Code Channel (F-SCCH)
The Forward Supplemental Code Channels are used to transmit users data from the base station
to the subscriber station during a call and are primarily defined for backward compatibility with
IS-95B for RC 1 and RC 2 only. The F-SCCH in IS-2000 can simultaneously use up to 7
Supplemental Code Channels in order to enable higher data speeds (for 3G-Type Services) on
carriers under RC 1 and RC 2 and each channel is assigned a code channel W
n
64
, where 1 < n <
63. Motorolas implementation of the F-SCCH only supports 5 channels for RS1 and 4 channels
for RS2 (similar to Motorolas implementation of IS-95B).These channels are dedicated resources
which are assigned to a specific user to achieve data rates up to 64 kbps.
3.9.3.2 IS-2000 Forward Link Radio Configurations
The following table briefly explains the Radio Configurations (RC) supported by the forward link
in IS-2000 for Spreading Rates (SR) 1 and 3.
Table 3-17: IS-2000 Forward Link Radio Configurations
RC SR
Data Rates
(kbps)
Coding
Rate
Modulation
RC 1 1 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, 9.6 1/2 BPSK
RC 2 1 1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4 1/2 BPSK
RC 3 1 1.5, 2.7, 4.8, 9.6, 19.2, 38.4, 76.8, 153.6 1/4 QPSK
RC 4 1 1.5, 2.7, 4.8, 9.6, 19.2, 38.4, 76.8, 153.6, 307.2 1/2 QPSK
3
Motorola IS-2000 BSS Implementation for CBSC Release 16
The following table provides the forward link Radio Configuration and data rates that are
supported with CBSC Release 16.
RC 5 1 1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4, 28.8, 57.6, 115.2, 230.4 1/4 QPSK
RC 6 3 1.5, 2.7, 4.8, 9.6, 19.2, 38.4, 76.8, 153.6, 307.2 1/6 QPSK
RC 7 3
1.5, 2.7, 4.8, 9.6, 19.2, 38.4,
76.8, 153.6, 307.2, 614.4
1/3 QPSK
RC 8 3
1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4, 28.8,
57.6, 115.2, 230.4, 460.8
1/4 or
1/3
QPSK
RC 9 3
1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4, 28.8, 57.6,
115.2, 230.4, 460.8, 518.4, 1036.8
1/2 or
1/3
QPSK
Table 3-18: Forward Link Radio Configuration Support for CBSC Release 16
RC SR
Data Rates
(kbps)
Coding
Rate
Modulation CBSC Release 16 Notes
RC 1 1 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, 9.6 1/2 BPSK
Rate Set 1
Backward Compatible
RC 2 1 1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4 1/2 BPSK
Rate Set 2
Backward Compatible
RC 3 1
1.5, 2.7, 4.8, 9.6,
19.2, 38.4, 76.8, 153.6
1/4 QPSK
Supported in 1X Mode
only
RC 4 1
1.5, 2.7, 4.8, 9.6,
19.2, 38.4, 76.8, 153.6
1/2 QPSK Supported up to 153.6
RC 5 1 1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4 1/4 QPSK Supported up to 14.4
Table 3-17: IS-2000 Forward Link Radio Configurations
RC SR
Data Rates
(kbps)
Coding
Rate
Modulation
3
The following table shows the number of channel element (CE) resources that are required for the
various data rates for RC 3 and RC 4.
The maximum data rate (153.6 kbps) supported on the forward link is obtained by utilizing RC 3
or RC 4. As shown above, RC 4 requires half as many CE resources compared to RC 3 to support
the maximum data rate.
3.9.3.3 IS-2000 Walsh Code Allocation
Unlike IS-95A/B, the number of Walsh codes is not hard limited to 64 in IS-2000. To increase the
number of usable Walsh codes, Complex or QPSK modulation is employed where 2 information
bits are mapped into a QPSK symbol. Using the same coding rate, this method allows for an
increase in the number of Walsh codes by a factor of 2 relative to BPSK, thereby allowing longer
Walsh codes (i.e. 128 for RC 4, instead of 64). Implementing QPSK modulation, also allows
doubling the original data rate on the same available bandwidth.
A Supplemental Channel in IS-2000 is designed to reach data rates up to 1,036,800 bps on a single
RF carrier (refer to Section 3.9.3.2 above for the data rates supported by Motorola). With the code
chip rate fixed at 1228800 chips/sec, the length of the Walsh code spreading must be substantially
reduced to achieve the high data rates.
The variable length Walsh code implementation can be visualized as shown in Figure 3-28. As
seen in Figure 3-28, codes on different levels of the tree have different Walsh code lengths. The
new levels in the tree are constructed by concatenating a root code word with a replica or an inverse
of itself generating a long code word. During spreading, each bit is multiplied by an entire code
word and longer codes are associated with lower bit rates. The root code word (which is shorter in
length) is not guaranteed to be orthogonal to the derived long code words. The short code word is
modulated exactly as the long code word is built and hence there is no way to differentiate the
signals. Thus, if a root code is assigned to a certain user, then the derivative code words (the
branches of the tree structure) should not be used because they are not orthogonal to the root code.
Thus assigning a Walsh code at a particular rate will make some higher rate codes and some of the
lower rate codes unavailable for assignment.
In this scenario if Walsh code C
2,1
is assigned at a particular rate, Walsh codes C
4,1
and C
4,2
are
not orthogonal to C
2,1
and hence they should not be assigned. At each level, all the code words are
the rows of a Hadamard matrix.
Table 3-19: Forward Link Channel Element Resource Requirement
Data Rate
(kbps)
Radio Configuration 3
CE Resources
CE Resources
9.6 1 1
19.2 2 1
38.4 4 2
76.8 8 4
153.6 16 8
3
Figure 3-28: IS-2000 Walsh Code Tree
Motorola IS-2000 BSS Implementation for Release 16
For the multiple data rates achieved with the CBSC Release 16 implementation, a maximum data
rate of 153,600 bps is achieved with one F-SCH. A Walsh code allocation tree with a 153,600 bps
maximum data rate is shown in Figure 3-29.
As seen in the figure, assigning a Walsh code at a particular rate would make some higher rate
codes as well as lower rate codes unorthogonal and unavailable for assignment. WC0, WC1, and
WC32 are reserved for Pilot, Page, and Sync channels respectively. The figure shows the number
of Walsh codes available for each of the multiple data rates that CBSC Release 16 supports. The
"X" on some of the higher and lower data rate Walsh codes indicates that they are unavailable or
reserved due to the Pilot, Page, and Sync Walsh code allocations.
C
1,1
=(1,1)
C
2,1
=(1,1)
C
2,2
=(1,-1)
C
4,2
=(1,1,-1,-1)
C
4,1
=(1,1,1,1)
C
4,3
=(1,-1,1,-1)
C
4,4
=(1,-1,-1,1)
1
C
8,2
=(1,1,1,1,-1,-1,-1,-1)
C
8,3
=(1,1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,-1)
C
8,4
=(1,1,-1,-1,-1,-1,1,1)
C
8,5
=(1,-1,1,-1,1,-1,1,-1)
C
8,6
=(1,-1,1,-1,-1,1,-1,1)
C
8,7
=(1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,-1,1)
C
8,8
=(1,-1,-1,1,-1,1,1,-1)
C
8,1
=(1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1)
3
Figure 3-29: Walsh Code Allocation Tree
Shorter length Walsh codes limit the number of simultaneous users in the forward link, because of
the smaller Walsh code set. If the remaining two high rate (153,600 bps) Walsh codes are also
assigned to data users as shown in Figure 3-30, all of the lower rate Walsh codes below those codes
become unavailable (shaded Walsh codes). In this scenario, only 29 Walsh codes are available for
voice call assignments (9600 bps) as seen in Figure 3-30 below.
Figure 3-30: Walsh Code Allocation Tree
X X
X
X
X
9.6 kbps
19.2 kbps
38.4 kbps
153.6 kbps
76.8 kbps
X
X
X
WC32
WC0
WC1
X X
X
X
X
9.6 kbps
19.2 kbps
38.4 kbps
153.6 kbps
76.8 kbps
X
X
X
WC32
WC0
WC1
X X
X
X
X
9.6 kbps
19.2 kbps
38.4 kbps
153.6 kbps
76.8 kbps
X
X
X
WC32
WC0
WC1
X X
X
X
X
9.6 kbps
19.2 kbps
38.4 kbps
153.6 kbps
76.8 kbps
X
X
X
WC32
WC0
WC1
3
3.9.4 IS-2000 Reverse Channel Structure
The following figure shows the Reverse Channel Structure for IS-2000.
Figure 3-31: Example of IS-2000 Reverse CDMA Channels
3.9.4.1 IS-2000 Reverse Channels (Motorola Implementation)
The Reverse link in IS-2000 essentially consists of three new channels. They are Pilot,
Supplemental, and Dedicated Control Channels, in addition to the IS-95A/B Access and
Fundamental Channels. The following sections provide a brief description of the reverse channels
that are supported for CBSC Release 16.
Reverse Pilot Channel (R-PICH)
The Reverse Pilot Channel introduced in IS-2000 is used to assist the base station in detecting
subscriber station transmissions. There exists a Pilot Channel for each subscriber on a TCH in the
uplink and it is used for the timing and phase reference to the BTS for coherent demodulation. As
in the forward link, the pilot signal is un-modulated and it uses zeroth Walsh code 0 but of length
32 (W
0
32
). The Pilot Channels do not carry any information and essentially consist of Short PN
codes. It allows the use of Walsh code and simultaneous channel transmission on the reverse link.
It is only supported on Reverse RCs greater than 2, because RC 1 and RC 2 have to be compatible
with IS-95A/B which does not support a Reverse Pilot Channel. The R-PICH also includes a
Reverse CDMA
Channels
Fundamental
Channel
[R-FCH]
Supplemental
Code Channels (0-7)
[R-SCCH]
Traffic Channels
(RC 1, RC 2)
Enhanced Access
Channel
[R-EACH]
+
Pilot
Channel
[R-PICH]
Common
Control
Channels
Pilot
Channel
[R-PICH]
Dedicated Control
Channel (0 or 1)
[R-DCCH]
Fundamental
Channel (0 or 1)
[R-FCH]
Supplemental
Channels (0-2)
[R-SCH]
Access
Channel
[R-ACH]
Access
Channels
Common
Control Channel
[R-CCCH]
+
Pilot
Channel
[R-PICH]
Traffic Channels
(RC 3-6)
= Channels NOT implemented in CBSC Release 16
3
Reverse Power Control Sub-Channel when operating on a TCH with RC 3 and RC 4. It is used by
the subscriber station to transmit Forward Power Control commands to the base station.
Reverse Access Channel (R-ACH)
The Reverse Access Channel functionality is the same as an IS-95A/B Access Channel, supporting
RC 1 and RC 2, in order to allow for the backwards compatibility. It is identified by a Long PN
Code offset. There are 32 Access Channels associated to one Paging Channel and the information
on the Access Channel is transmitted at data rate of 4800 bps. Motorolas implementation supports
only 1 Access Channel per Paging Channel.
Reverse Fundamental Channel (R-FCH)
For RC 1 and RC 2, the Reverse Fundamental Channel functionality is the same as in IS-95A/B.
Only one Reverse Fundamental Channel can be used by the subscriber station during a call. As in
IS-95A/B, it supports the basic rates of 9600 bps and 14400 bps. The R-FCH uses Walsh code 4 of
length 16 (W
4
16
) for spreading. It supports orthogonal modulation with RC 1 and RC 2 and
orthogonal spreading with RC 3 and RC 4. It performs discontinuous transmission using repetition
coding, where a subscriber station operating with RCs 3 through 6 may discontinue transmission
of the R-FCH for up to three 5 ms frames in a 20 ms frame.
Reverse Supplemental Channel (R-SCH)
The Reverse Supplemental Channel introduced in IS-2000 is used for the transmission of user data
to the base station during a call. An R-SCH is always accompanied by a dedicated R-FCH or R-
DCCH. They operate with RCs 3 through 6 only (for CBSC Release 16, Motorola only supports
RC 3 and RC 4 for the reverse link). There are up to 2 Supplemental Channels. The data rate is
selected on a time slice basis and it supports data rates up to 307,200 bps. For spreading, R-SCH
uses Walsh code W
1
2
or W
2
4
. Although IS-2000 supports up to 2 reverse Supplemental Channels,
CBSC Release 16 supports only 1 R-SCH with a maximum data rate of 153,600 bps. If the second
R-SCH were supported, it would use W
2
4
or W
6
8
for spreading.
Reverse Dedicated Control Channel (R-DCCH)
The Reverse Dedicated Control Channel introduced in IS-2000 is used to carry user data as well as
signalling and control information during a call. One Dedicated Control Channel may accompany
an R-SCH, but the R-DCCH does not support voice traffic. The subscriber transmits at a fixed data
rate of 9600 bps or 14400 bps and it uses Walsh code 8 of length 16 (W
8
16
) for spreading. It
supports orthogonal spreading with RC 3 and RC 4
3.9.4.2 IS-2000 Reverse Link Radio Configurations
The following table briefly explains the Radio Configurations (RC) supported by the reverse link
in IS-2000 for Spreading Rates (SR) 1 and 3.
3
Motorola IS-2000 BSS Implementation for CBSC Release 16
The following table provides the reverse link Radio Configuration and data rates that are supported
with CBSC Release 16.
Table 3-20: IS-2000 Reverse Link Radio Configurations
RC SR
Data Rates
(kbps)
Coding
Rate
Modulation
RC 1 1 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, 9.6 1/3
64-ary
Orthogonal
RC 2 1 1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4 1/2
64-ary
Orthogonal
RC 3 1
1.2, 1.35, 1.5, 2.4, 2.7, 4.8,
9.6, 19.2, 38.4, 76.8, 153.6
1/4
BPSK
w/Pilot
307.2 1/2
RC 4 1 1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4, 28.8, 57.6, 115.2, 230.4 1/4
BPSK
w/Pilot
RC 5 3
1.2, 1.35, 1.5, 2.4, 2.7, 4.8,
9.6, 19.2, 38.4, 76.8, 153.6
1/4
BPSK
w/Pilot
307.2, 614.4 1/3
RC 6 3
1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4, 28.8,
57.6, 115.2, 230.4, 460.8
1/4
BPSK
w/Pilot
1036.8 1/2
Table 3-21: Reverse Link Radio Configuration Support for CBSC Release 16
RC SR
Data Rates
(kbps)
Coding
Rate
Modulation CBSC Release 16 Notes
RC 1 1 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, 9.6 1/3
64-ary
Orthogonal
Rate Set 1
Backward Compatible
RC 2 1 1.8, 3.6. 7.2, 14.4 1/2
64-ary
Orthogonal
Rate Set 2
Backward Compatible
RC 3 1
1.5, 2.7, 4.8, 9.6,
19.2, 38.4, 76.8, 153.6
1/4
BPSK
w/Pilot
Supported up to 153.6
RC 4 1 1.8, 3.6, 7.2, 14.4 1/4
BPSK
w/Pilot
Supported up to 14.4
3
The following table shows the number of channel element resources that are required for the
various data rates for RC 3.
The maximum data rate (153.6 kbps) supported on the reverse link is with RC 3.
3.10 Handoffs
The new IS-2000 air interface provides the ability to handoff voice and data calls, as well as other
services from an IS-95 system to an IS-2000 system and from an IS-2000 system to an IS-95
system. The following handoff methods are supported in both IS-95 and IS-2000 systems:
Soft (or Softer) handoff
Inter-CBSC Soft Handoff
Hard handoff
3.10.1 Soft Handoff
A soft handoff is a handoff in which a new base transceiver station (BTS) commences
communications with the subscriber station without interrupting the communications from the old
BTS. The BTS can direct the subscriber station to perform a soft handoff only when all Forward
Traffic Channels assigned to the subscriber station have identical frequency assignments. When
performing a soft handoff, the subscriber collects the signal-to-noise ratio (pilot Ec/Io) received
from each active sector on the downlink along with all candidate sectors. Each active BTS that
receives the uplink transmission from the subscriber will relay it to the transcoder (XC). The XC
will make the final decision on the eligibility of candidates and the handoff will proceed. While in
a soft handoff state, more than 1 TCH is assigned to the subscriber.
The soft handoff factor (SHOF) is used to determine the overhead Erlangs to support different
kinds of soft handoffs. The factor is likely to vary from 1.3 to 2.0. It should be noted that the soft
handoff factor defined here is a linear scaling factor of the actual usable Erlangs but not the number
of traffic channels.
Soft Handoff Factor = 1*(1-a-b) + 2*a + 3*b [EQ 3-60]
Table 3-22: Reverse Link Channel Element Resource Requirement
Data Rate
(kbps)
CE Resources
9.6 1
19.2 1
38.4 2
76.8 4
153.6 8
3
where:
2-way soft handoff fraction, a = Average 2-way soft handoff duration per hold time
3-way soft handoff fraction, b = Average 3-way soft handoff duration per hold time
3.10.2 Inter-CBSC Soft Handoff
Inter-CBSC Soft Handoff (ICBSC-SHO) happens when the subscriber communicates with sectors
of different BTSs and the BTSs are controlled by different CBSCs. In a Motorola system, when the
subscriber reports a handoff pilot that refers to an external sector database that has inter-CBSC soft
handoffs enabled, the call goes into inter-CBSC soft handoff. In this case, the external sector can
reside in the source CBSC or can be backhauled from the target CBSC. The source CBSC remains
in control of the call until no source handoff legs remain, then control is transferred to the target
CBSC by a Anchor Handoff (which is a form of a hard handoff).
3.10.3 Hard Handoffs
Hard Handoffs take place during all "break before make" handoff situations. In an IS-95 and/or IS-
2000 system, hard handoffs can be represented by a change from one radio configuration to
another, or when a multi-mode subscriber station transitions from CDMA operation to operation
on an analog system. In a Motorola system, hard handoffs which result in the subscriber being
supported by a new PDSN will cause the connection to the old PDSN to be dropped. The subscriber
must then initiate a new PPP session as well as an IP registration following a hard handoff.
3.10.3.1 Anchor Handoff
Anchor Handoffs are handoffs triggered when a subscriber is in Inter-CBSC soft handoff, and a set
of criteria have been met within the database. When the criteria are met (typically no source CBSC
handoff legs are active), the target CBSC determines the current strongest Inter-CBSC soft handoff
sector and initiates a hard handoff to that sector. The source CBSC maintains control of the call
until the criteria is met, then control is transferred to the target CBSC resulting in a change in Walsh
codes.
3.10.3.2 IS-95 to IS-2000 Hand-up
Hand-up from IS-95 to IS-2000 happens when an IS-2000 capable subscriber station is directed
from an IS-95 channel to an IS-2000 channel. In a Motorola system, before allocating a channel
element for a handoff request, the MM checks the Radio Configuration Class capability of the
current sector against the candidate sector. If the candidate sector supports a higher Radio
Configuration Class, the MM can pick a channel element with a higher Radio Configuration Class
that is supported by the subscriber. For example, if a IS-2000 capable subscriber is on a call using
IS-95 with RC 2 radio resources and wishes to add a leg from a BTS that has IS-2000 with RC 3
radio resources available, the MM could decide to perform a hard handoff and hand the subscriber
up to the IS-2000 channel with RC 3 radio resources. Increasing the call to a higher Radio
Configuration Class is referred to as a hand-up.
3
3.10.3.3 IS-2000 to IS-95 Hand-down
An IS-2000 to IS-95 hand-down happens when an IS-2000 capable subscriber station is assigned
to an IS-2000 channel in the source BTS, and the target BTS has assigned an IS-95 channel. In a
Motorola system, the MM checks the Radio Configuration Class capability of the current sector
against the candidate sector. If the candidate sector supports a lower Radio Configuration Class,
the MM can pick a channel element with a lower Radio Configuration that is supported by the
subscriber. The subscriber would then hand down to the IS-95 channel. An example of this is when
the call starts out on an IS-2000 channel with RC 3 radio resources and the subscriber wishes to
handoff to a BTS that does not have IS-2000 resources available. The MM could decide to perform
a hard handoff and hand the subscriber down from IS-2000 to IS-95. As part of this handoff
process, the source radio channel is also handed down to IS-95. Decreasing the call to a lower
Radio Configuration Class is referred to as a hand-down.
3.10.3.4 Packet Data Handoffs
In a Motorola system, when the base station determines that a Hard Handoff is required for a packet
data call, the base station will transition a packet data call into dormant mode by initiating a call
release. During the release procedure the base station sends the subscriber a Service Option Control
message indicating the minimum amount of time the subscriber must wait before trying to transfer
the packet data. The subscriber will attempt to access the system again using the best serving cell.
Once access has been granted, the subscriber will resume the transfer of the packet data.
3.10.3.5 Inter-Carrier Hand-across
An IS-2000 to IS-2000 inter-carrier hand-across happens when an IS-2000 capable subscriber is
assigned to an IS-2000 channel in the source sector, and the target sector can assign an IS-2000
channel. The subscriber would then handoff to the IS-2000 channel. In the case of the hand-across,
the source and target sectors are located under two different frequencies, and a hard handoff to the
IS-2000 target cell is required. This inter-carrier hand across case can also occur among IS-95
channels.
3.11 Budgetary Estimate of Sites for Capacity (Voice Only)
The following section provides a budgetary estimate of sites from a capacity perspective for a
Chicago Metropolitan Area example. This example provides a simplified traffic engineering
approach to estimating the number of sites required from a capacity perspective for an IS-95 voice
only system. If some simplifying assumptions were made towards the voice and data call models,
a similar approach could also be performed to estimate the number of sites required from a capacity
perspective for a voice and data system as well (IS-95B and/or IS-2000 1X).
It is important to note that the site estimates provided in this section are for budgetary purposes
only. Many other issues such as cell coverage, cell location, antenna configurations, unique traffic
call models (voice and data), etc. have to be taken into consideration for an actual system design.
It is recommended that simulations be performed using a tool like Motorolas NetPlan tool (see
Section 3.12) before finalizing a system design.
3
This example illustrates the case that the cellular operator decides to deploy a single carrier CDMA
system and allocate 1.8 MHz (including the guard band) out of the 12.5 MHz cellular band for
CDMA deployment. The system shall be designed to provide service to 40,000 new CDMA
subscribers. Prior to the design of the system, information concerning the propagation environment
and subscriber distribution has to be gathered for each particular service area.
3.11.1 Required Parameters for Initial System Design
Prior to the design of an IS-95 voice only system, the propagation parameters and the subscriber
profile must be available. This section is intended to give an overview of some important
parameters and the correct way to apply them to system design. A completed example follows.
3.11.1.1 Busy Hour Call Attempts and Completions
Busy hour is defined as the continuous one hour period in the day during which the highest average
traffic density is experienced by the system. Busy Hour Call Attempts (BHCA) is the number of
call setup requests during the busy hour. Busy Hour Call Completion (BHCC) is the portion of the
requests which succeed in making it to the conversation state.
3.11.1.2 Average Holding Time
Holding time is defined as the average length of time an active user occupies a traffic channel.
3.11.1.3 Erlangs per Subscriber
An Erlang is the traffic intensity of a traffic channel which is continuously occupied. Erlang per
subscriber is the product of BHCA per subscriber and the average holding time per access.
3

Figure 3-32: Subscriber Distribution of Chicago Metropolitan Area
CHICAGO
DOWNTOWN
NORTHWEST
SUBURBS
UPTOWN
AREA
WEST
SUBURBS
SOUTHWEST
SUBURBS
SOUTH
SUBURBS
3
Table 3-23: Subscriber Distribution of Chicago Metropolitan Area
System Parameters:
Median (E
b
/I
o
) = 7 dB
Power Control standard deviation = 2.5 dB
Noise Rise Threshold (I
o
/N
o
) = 10
Assumptions:
1. Each subscribers required energy per bit-to-interference density ratio (E
b
/I
o
) is varied
according to propagation conditions to achieve the specified FER of 0.01
2. All the sectors support the same number of subscribers.
3. The subscribers are uniformly distributed over each sector.
4. There is no overflow from the CDMA network to the AMPS network
5. There are 40,000 subscribers distributed across the system as shown in Table 3-23.
6. The Average Hold time per Access is 65 seconds.
7. The path loss slope for a dense urban environment of 32.8 dB/decade is assumed with a
shadowing standard deviation of 7.7 dB.
8. The path loss slope for an urban environment of 38.4 dB/decade is assumed with a
shadowing standard deviation of 8 dB.
9. 40% of the subscribers will be in soft handoff between two or more sites.
10. The sectorization improvement going from a single sector to three sectors is 2.4 times.
Area
Subscriber
Distribution
Environment
Classifications
BHCA per
subscriber
1 City core area 50% dense urban 1.40
2 Northwest Suburb 25% suburban 1.40
3 Uptown area 10% dense urban 1.38
4 West Suburb 8% suburban 1.30
5 Southwest Suburb 5% suburban 1.30
6 South Suburb 2% suburban 1.20
3
From the Figure 3-7: Probability of Blocking vs. Erlangs per CDMA Sector with Various Path
Loss Slope Values with Rate Set 1 Vocoder, Page 28, with fully loaded neighbor cells (worst case),
the maximum capacity for 2% probability of blocking is approximately 15 Erlangs per CDMA
sector for dense urban areas, and 17.8 Erlangs per CDMA sector for suburban areas.
These results in addition to following are approximations based on the curves and the assumptions
which went into generating the curves. Actual system designs will vary from system to system.
For Area 1,
Number of subscribers in the city core = 40,000*50% = 20,000
Required traffic capacity for this area
= BHCA/sub * # of Sub * Average Hold Time per Access(sec) / 3600
= 1.4 * 20,000 * 65 / 3600
= 505.56 Erlangs (0.0253 Erlang per sub)
Required traffic capacity including soft handoff
= Required traffic capacity * soft handoff factor
= 505.56 * 1.4
= 707.78 Erlangs
Required number of CDMA sectors
= 707.78 / 15 Erlangs per CDMA sector
= 48 CDMA sectors
Required number of CDMA sector cells
= 48 / 2.4 (2.4 is the sectorization gain)
= 20 cells
For Area 2,
Number of subscribers in the city core = 40,000*25% = 10,000
Required traffic capacity for this area
= BHCA/sub * # of Sub * Average Hold Time per Access(sec) / 3600
= 1.4 * 10,000 * 65 / 3600
= 252.78 Erlangs
Required traffic capacity including soft handoff
= Required traffic capacity * soft handoff factor
= 252.78 * 1.4
= 353.89 Erlangs
3
Required number of CDMA sectors
= 353.89 / 17.8 Erlangs per CDMA sector
= 20 CDMA sectors
Required Number of CDMA sector cells
= 20 / 2.4
= 9 cells
Using a sectorization gain of 2.45 for a three sector CDMA site, a total of 20 sector cells are
required for area 1. Propagation studies have to be performed to determine if the system is coverage
limited as opposed to capacity limited. If the number of sector cell sites required in this case for
coverage is larger than 20 (the system is coverage limited), the system should be designed based
on the number of cell sites required for coverage. Propagation studies could be a detailed system
wide simulation or a simple link budget analysis based on certain well-known propagation model
such as the Okumura Model or the Hata Model (depending on the degree of accuracy required).
By the same method, the calculation of the other areas is summarized in following table:
Table 3-24: Chicago Metropolitan Area Summary
Area
BHCA
per
Sub
Subs.
%
Subs.
in
Region
(k)
Required
Traffic
(Erlangs)
SHO
Factor
(Erlangs)
Required
Traffic w/
SHO
(Erlangs)
Max.
Traffic
per
Sector
Required
Sector
Cells
1 1.40 50 20 505.56 1.4 707.78 15.0 20
2 1.40 25 10 252.78 1.4 353.89 17.8 9
3 1.38 10 4 99.67 1.4 139.53 15.0 4
4 1.30 8 3.2 75.11 1.4 105.16 17.8 3
5 1.30 5 2 46.94 1.4 65.72 17.8 2
6 1.20 2 0.8 17.33 1.4 24.27 17.8 1
Total 100 40 997.39 1396.35 39
3
3.12 IS-95 and IS-2000 Simulations
Planning a wireless system revolves around three main characteristics: Coverage, Capacity, and
Quality. In a CDMA system, these three characteristics must be carefully balanced against one
another in order to arrive at the desired level of system performance. If high capacity is desired,
there will be some degree of degradation in coverage and/or quality. Likewise, if a better system
quality is desired, there will be some degree of degradation in capacity and/or coverage. The
important point to realize is that these parameters are intertwined.
It is up to the system designer to determine how to balance these parameters to best serve a
particular area. The best balance point will change from cell site to cell site depending on where
that cell site is located in the system or the design objectives. Sites in dense downtown areas will
trade off coverage for capacity. Conversely, cell sites at the edges of a system could sacrifice
capacity for additional coverage.
The capacity of a CDMA site and system is dependent upon many factors which can be unique
from one system to the next. Some of these factors that have an impact to both IS-95 and IS-2000
1X systems are:
Propagation loss (path loss slope, log normal fading, antenna types)
Amount of delay spread in the environment
Terrain and clutter environment
Traffic distribution of the subscribers
Speed distribution of the subscribers
Voice/data call models and activity factors
Soft and softer handoff factors
Channel power settings (Pilot, Page, Sync, FCH, SCH, etc.)
Environmental characteristics (noise, interference from other services, etc.)
Level of reliability
Quantity and placement of sites, in addition to the amount of cell overlap
For IS-2000 1X, the dimensioning of a complex traffic model with variable data rates, which
supports both circuit voice call models and packet data call models, creates a new challenge in
capacity design. In IS-95 and IS-2000 1X, voice calls are handled by allocating dedicated channels.
For IS-95B, data calls use dedicated supplemental code channels, but for IS-2000 1X, data calls
employ shared supplemental channels. Therefore, the IS-2000 1X channel structure assures
efficient use of the supplemental channels.
Various formulas can be used, dependent upon the level of complexity and accuracy desired, to
estimate the capacity of a site. The more accurate calculations will require more time to perform
or many simulations executed to obtain results which are statistically and reasonably valid. Due to
the variability of the many different factors mentioned above, there is no single capacity number,
but a range of values over an environment. The forward and reverse link capacity estimation
equations provided in this chapter can only be used as an approximation of capacity of the system
and should be used for budgetary purposes only. They do not take into account the size of the cell
or the spacing between the sites. These equations do not totally account for the benefits of soft
3
handoff, since they assume that all sites serving a given subscriber will experience peak rises at the
same time, which in reality is a very small probability. In addition, these budgetary equations
assume that the subscriber distribution is uniform, which is not likely. One sector may need to
support many users, whereas the nearby sectors may be lightly loaded and therefore result in a
lower f-factor which allows for greater capacity. A more accurate estimation can be performed with
a more sophisticated CDMA simulation program, such as Motorolas NetPlan tool. NetPlan can be
used to model the forward and reverse links for thousands of subscribers in a realistic system
environment with different voice and data traffic mixes.
The NetPlan CDMA Simulator incorporates both IS-95 and IS-2000 1X parameters and can be run
in one of two simulation modes: non time-sliced and time-sliced. Non time-sliced simulations
utilize a simulation technique where all of the dropped subscribers are actively bursting (although
the power is adjusted according to an activity factor) at simulation time, and data rates assigned
according to available capacity. For time-sliced simulations, data subscribers are modeled
according to a dynamic source model, which employs a State machine consisting of the Reverse
Request State, Server Delay State, Forward Reference or Download State, Think State, and
Dormant State. Each subscriber cycles through these states during the time-sliced simulation.
These states represent different bursting and non-bursting stages of the data call. For more
information on the dynamic source model, please refer to the CDMA RF System Design Procedure
(Chapter 6 and Appendix A4). Both of the simulation modes incorporate T-ADD, T-DROP, Soft
Slope, Add Intercept, Drop Intercept, overhead channel power requirements, as well as generic
antenna parameters such as horizontal and vertical antenna patterns, bearing, downtilt, and gain.
Various path loss models (statistical and deterministic) may be used by the simulator to aid in
defining the CDMA coverage area. Each path loss model has its benefits and disadvantages. While
most statistical models, such as Hata, do not consider terrain variation, they do allow for quick
budgetary simulations. The Xlos propagation model incorporates terrain variation, antenna pattern,
overlay (clutter) data, etc., in an attempt to model actual installations. The location of the CDMA
subscriber units within a system will greatly affect total system capacity, coverage and quality, as
well as the achieved data rate and distribution of resources. Subscriber positioning may be uniform
or may be more accurately modeled with a subscriber traffic map.
In essence, the NetPlan CDMA Simulator is a tool to layout a DS-CDMA system resulting in
information on predicted capacity, required system parameter values, system quality, predicted
coverage and hardware loading information. It permits investigations into real cellular system
concerns such as edge effects, propagation anomalies, antenna types, subscriber distribution, call
quality, receiver sensitivity impact on capacity, interference mitigation, power control and
handoffs. It provides statistical information for the cell, and end-user. Cell statistics include the
number of blocked subscribers due to unavailable Walsh codes, good subscriber percentage, total
TCH power per data rate, forward and reverse SCH data rate, sector throughput and end user
throughput, just to name a few. Because of CDMA system complexity and the inter-dependence
between coverage, capacity and quality, it is only when these properties are considered together
that a system representation with a higher degree of accuracy can be developed.
3
3.13 References
1. R.H. Owen, Phil Jones, Shirin Dehgan, Dave Lister, "Uplink WCDMA capacity and
range as a function of inter-to-intra cell interference: theory and practice", pp. 298-302,
VTC 2000.
2. Szu-Wei Wang and Irving Wang, "Effects of Soft Handoff, Frequency Reuse and Non-
Ideal Antenna Sectorization on CDMA System Capacity", pp. 850-854, IEEE 1993.
3. William C. Y. Lee, "Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems", McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Second Edition 1995, figure 4.3, p. 110.
4. A. Viterbi & Viterbi, "Erlang Capacity of a Power_Controlled CDMA System", IEEE
Selected Areas in Communications, August 1993, pp. 892-900.
5. A. Viterbi, "CDMA Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication", Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Copyright 1995.
6. R. Padovani, "Reverse Link Performance of IS-95 Based Cellular Systems", IEEE
Personal Communications Third Quarter 1994, page 28-34.
7. Charles Noblet, Ray Owen, Simon Burley, Allan Bartlett, UMTS Network
Dimensioning From Theory to Simulations, version 1.00
8. CDG Evolution Study Report, Revision 4.01, January 10,2000
9. H. Holma & A. Toskala, "WCDMA for UMTS", John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Copyright
2000, pp. 163-167.
Table of Contents
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 3
4.2 Radio Frequency Link Budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 4
4.2.1 Propagation Related Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 6
4.2.1.1 Building Loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 6
4.2.1.2 Vehicle Loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 9
4.2.1.3 Body Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 9
4.2.1.4 Ambient Noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 9
4.2.1.5 RF Feeder Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 9
4.2.1.6 Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 12
4.2.2 CDMA Specific Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 14
4.2.2.1 Interference Noise Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 14
4.2.2.2 Soft Handoff Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 18
4.2.2.3 E
b
/N
o
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 19
4.2.3 Product Specific Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 20
4.2.3.1 Product Transmit Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 20
4.2.3.2 Product Receiver Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 24
4.2.4 Reliability (Shadow Fade Margin) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 29
4.2.5 Example Reverse (Uplink - Subscriber to Base) Link Budget. . . 4 - 36
4.2.6 RF Link Budget Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 40
4.3 Propagation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 41
4.3.1 Free Space Propagation Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 41
4.3.2 Hata Propagation Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 43
4.3.3 COST-231-Hata Propagation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 44
4.3.4 Additional Propagation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 45
4.4 Forward Link Coverage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 46
4.4.1 BTS Equipment Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 47
4.4.2 CDMA Signal Power Distribution Characteristics and PA Sizing 4 - 51
4.4.3 General Power Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 51
4.4.4 Design Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 53
4.4.4.1 Comparison to Average Rated Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 53
4.4.4.2 Comparison to High Power Alarm Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 54
4.4.4.3 Comparison to Walsh Code Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 54
Chapter
4
Link Budgets and
Coverage
4
Chapter 4: Link Budgets and Coverage
4.4.5 General Power Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 54
4.4.5.1 Minimum ARP Based on LT-AVG Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 55
4.4.5.2 Minimum HPA Based on VST-AVG Estimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 56
4.4.5.3 Exceeding the High Power Alarm Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 56
4.4.5.4 Carrier Load Management Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 57
4.4.6 Power Allocation in Mixed Mode Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 58
4.4.7 Government Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 65
4.5 CDMA Repeaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 65
4.5.1 CDMA Repeater Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 66
4.5.1.1 Coverage Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 66
4.5.1.2 Cascaded Noise Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 69
4.5.1.3 Interference and Capacity Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 73
4.5.1.4 Filtering Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 73
4.5.2 CDMA Repeater Installation Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 74
4.5.2.1 Antenna Isolation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 74
4.5.2.2 Repeater Antenna Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 77
4.5.2.3 Repeater Gain Settings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 78
4.5.3 CDMA Repeater Optimization Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 79
4.5.3.1 Timing Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 79
4.5.3.2 Optimization Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 81
4.5.4 CDMA Repeater Maintenance Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 81
4.5.4.1 Future Expansion Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 82
4.5.4.2 Environmental Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 83
4.5.4.3 Operations and Maintenance Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 83
4.6 Theoretical vs. Simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 83
4.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 - 85
4
4.1 Introduction
The RF design of a wireless system revolves around three main principles. Those principles are
coverage, capacity and quality. The coverage of a system relates to the area within the system that
has sufficient RF signal strength to provide for a quality call. The capacity of a system relates to
the ability of the system to support a given number of users. Finally, the quality of the system
relates to the ability of being able to adequately reproduce analog voice with a digital system. With
CDMA, all three of these quantities are interrelated. To improve quality, some coverage and
capacity has to be sacrificed. To improve coverage, capacity and quality would be sacrificed.
Finally, to improve capacity, coverage and quality would be sacrificed.
The CDMA system design process consists primarily of three levels or phases. These levels range
from an initial budgetary design to a final design used to implement the system. The amount of
time and effort required to complete a design increases as the design process moves from a
budgetary design to a final design. However, this additional time and effort results in a more
accurate system design.
The first level of the design process is a budgetary level. It uses the RF link budget along with a
statistical propagation model (such as Hata or COST-231 Hata) to estimate the coverage of the sites
and ultimately determine how many sites are required for the particular system. This type of
propagation model has a slope and intercept value for each type of environment (Urban, Suburban,
Open, etc.) and does not include terrain effects. This relatively simplistic approach allows for a
quick analysis of the number of sites that may be required to cover a given area.
The next level of a system design requires a more detailed propagation model. This propagation
model takes into account the characteristics of the selected antenna, the terrain, and the land use
and land clutter surrounding the site. Since these factors are accounted for, this propagation model
will determine a better estimate of the coverage of the sites than the previous statistical propagation
model. Thus, its use, in conjunction with the RF link budget, produces a more accurate
determination of the number of cells required. This second level of the design process uses the
reverse RF link budget to assist in determining the required propagation path loss. Motorola uses
the NetPlan tool for this portion of the design process.
However to complete a system design, the forward link must also be analyzed to determine power
settings and pilot coverage. The forward RF link budget consists of many variables including
subscriber speed, location, soft handoff, noise figure, voice activity, and pilot range. It is
recommended that a simulation be used to analyze the forward link by accounting for the statistical
variation in these parameters. Such simulator studies are part of the final design phase.
The final level or phase of the design process incorporates further detail into the design by the use
of simulation studies. Motorola uses the NetPlan CDMA Simulator for this analysis. The
simulation studies account for subscriber distributions within a coverage area and also for CDMA
system and site level parameters. The simulator analyzes both the forward and the reverse links.
This final design process is required in the deployment of a system or in determining warranty
coverage.
The one element common to all three levels of a system design is the RF link budget. The following
section discusses this element in greater detail.
4
4.2 Radio Frequency Link Budget
There are two main purposes for establishing the RF link budget for CDMA designs. The first
purpose is to establish system design assumptions for all of the gains and losses in the RF path
(such as vehicle loss, building loss, ambient noise margin, maximum subscriber transmit power,
etc.). The second purpose of a link budget is to establish an estimate for maximum allowable path
loss. This maximum allowable path loss number is used in conjunction with the propagation model
to estimate cell site coverage, which ultimately determines the number of cells required for
adequate system RF signal coverage and hence the system cost. Figure 4-1 shows the impact to the
quantity of sites required due to changes in the RF link budget. For example, if the RF link budget
(maximum allowable path loss) was improved by 5 dB, approximately half the number of sites
would be required.
Figure 4-1: Percentage of Cells Based on dB Changes to the Link Budget
The above figure is derived using the COST 231 Hata Suburban propagation model. Other models
may differ slightly from this. This figure can be utilized as a quick aid to help quantify the number
of sites required based upon a change made to the RF link budget. It should be pointed out that
other environmental factors may contribute to the above not holding true. For instance, in a very
hilly terrain location, dB improvements may not provide for extra range if the terrain is blocking
the propagation.
The system designer will need to determine the specific RF link budget parameters to be used when
designing the system. The parameters within the RF link budget can be divided into four major
categories. The following lists some of these parameters:
4
1. Propagation related
Building Loss
Vehicle Loss
Body Loss
Ambient Noise
RF Feeder Losses
Antenna Gain
2. CDMA specific
Interference Noise Rise (other users)
E
b
/N
o
Processing Gain (ratio of bandwidth to data rate)
3. Product specific
Product Transmit Power
Product Receiver Sensitivity
4. Reliability
Shadow Fade Margin
The following figure shows the typical gains and losses that are encountered in the RF link.
Figure 4-2: RF Link Budget Gains & Losses
A RF link budget must be determined for each sector of each site. The RF link budget for each
sector must incorporate any specific parameters that have been supplied (such as building
penetrations, antenna heights, antenna gains, cable losses, coverage criteria, coverage reliability,
etc.). It is common that all sectors of a given site may have the same link budget or even that several
BTS
Sub.
Subscriber Line Loss
Subscriber Antenna Gain
Body Loss
Vehicle Loss
Building Loss
Man-made Noise
RF Path Loss
Shadow Fade Margin (Reliability)
BTS Antenna Gain
Transmission Line Loss
Jumpers & Connector Loss
RF
Gains
&
Losses
Subscriber Tx Power
Subscriber Rx Sensitivity
BTS Tx Power
BTS Rx Sensitivity
4
sites may have the same link budget due to common installation practices being followed. If this is
the case, then the same link budget can be used for all of the similarly configured sectors. However,
if the parameters change from sector to sector and site to site, then separate link budgets will need
to be calculated for each unique sector.
CDMA RF link budgets may make simplifying assumptions regarding noise rise and E
b
/N
o
requirements. For instance, in the RF link budget, the E
b
/N
o
value is considered a constant. In
actuality, E
b
/N
o
is not a constant value but varies with respect to speed, delay spread and other
factors. Some of the simplifying assumptions are addressed in the detailed design phase.
4.2.1 Propagation Related Parameters
Propagation related parameters are those gains or losses of a link budget that are constant,
independent of the multiple access technology chosen or vendor. The values of these parameters,
though, are frequency dependent (i.e. differences would exist between an 800 MHz design and a
1900 MHz design or between a mobile and a fixed environment). These parameters include such
factors as: building loss, vehicle loss, body loss, man-made noise margin, RF feeder losses, and
antennas. If comparing link budget information between vendors, these propagation related
parameters should be set the same so as to obtain a realistic comparison.
4.2.1.1 Building Loss
Building loss is associated with the degradation of the RF signal strength caused by a building
structure, when a subscriber handset operating within a building is communicating with a base
station. An adequate RF signal strength within a building can be accomplished in one of two ways.
One method involves the propagation scenario, where a base station located outdoors
communicates with a subscriber unit that is inside a building (see Figure 4-3). The second method
involves the propagation scenario, where both the base station and the subscriber unit are within
the same building.
Figure 4-3: In-Building Propagation Scenarios

For this chapter on link budgets, only building losses associated with the building penetration of
INTO
Propagation Scenario where a base
station communicates with a radio
transceiver that is inside a building.
WITHIN
Propagation Scenario where both
the transmitter and receiver are
within the same building.
4
the RF signal from an outdoor source are considered (refer to Figure 4-3, the diagram labeled
INTO). Refer to Section 7.2 of Chapter 7 for further information on in-building designs.
One approach for modeling the into building penetration is as an extension of an outdoor
propagation model. This method uses a distance-dependent path loss for a subscriber unit that is
outside a building, and adds a building loss factor.
This typical approach adds building loss factor to the macro cell link budget. This building loss is
highly variable and is a function of such items as: construction material, building layout, user
location inside the building, proximity to the base station, and direction from the base station.
Building losses can range anywhere from 5 to 40 dB or more. If actual field data is not available
for a given area, a value of building penetration may be assumed. The following table of values can
be used for a mobile design as a possible guideline in the absence of field data for the particular
environment:
This table of building losses represents the average difference in RF signal strength between the
outside environment and numerous points throughout the inside of the building.
Another approach is that radio transmission into buildings should be undertaken separately and not
as an extension of the outdoor propagation models plus the building loss factor. Besides the
antenna heights and path length, the floor area, number of rooms on the floor, angle of illumination
of the building to the base station and the construction of the walls should be considered when
trying to determine a new propagation model. This approached is not addressed in this planning
guide.
For a fixed system, the subscriber unit is not moving around inside the building but is instead fixed
to a position. Since the Fixed Wireless Terminal (FWT) unit is stationary, the installation should
be in a position that allows for the best signal to be received from the base station. The preferred
installation is to have the FWT with its whip antenna located near a window, preferably on the side
of the building closest to the base station. This would minimize the loss required for the signal to
penetrate into the building. In addition, the preferred FWT location would have it being mounted
above desk height. If this optimum location is achieved, the building loss will be minimized.
Careful placement of the fixed wireless terminals antenna near a window could reduce the
building loss value down to a 3 to 6 dB value. The following figure shows the preferred location
of the FWT with whip antennas. Refer to the FWT vendor to determine the recommendations of
the FWT placement.
Table 4-1: Example Building Penetration Losses (800 & 1900 MHz)
Environment Penetration Loss
Dense Urban 20 dB
Urban 15 dB
Suburban 10 dB
Rural 8 dB
4
Figure 4-4: Preferred FWT Locations Without External Antennas
There are numerous papers that exist which describe building penetration losses. The papers cover
many different factors that affect building loss such as: height of base station antennas, angle of
illumination to the building, differing heights of buildings, various building constructions, and the
impact of frequency on building loss. Some of these papers are contradictory. For example, a paper
by Turkmani
1

2
concluded that building penetration losses decrease with an increase in frequency.
On the other hand, Aguirre
3
reached the conclusion that higher penetration losses were
experienced at higher frequencies. It should be pointed out that Turkmanis study had antennas
above the rooftop, whereas Aguirres study had antennas below the rooftop.
Due to the differences in the papers, an assumption for building penetration loss can be made by
utilizing the results that are from a test case more in line with how the operator plans to provide for
the building penetration.
As the floors of a building are ascended, the relative signal strength increases. This effect is usually
attributed to the increased probability of line of site propagation between the higher floors of the
building and the base site. This is commonly referred to as a height gain per floor. This height gain
can effectively reduce the building loss by approximately 1.3 to 2 dB per floor. Since the normal
design is for a worst case scenario, the height gain would not be considered unless the particular
design is to provide coverage only to a given floor(s).
1. Turkmani, Parsons and Lewis, "Measurement of building penetration loss on radio signals at 441, 900 and
1400 MHz", Journal of the Institution of Electronic and Radio Engineers, Vol. 58, No. 6 (Supplement), pp.
S169-S174, September-December 1988
2. Turkmani and Toledo, "Modelling of radio transmissions into and within multistory buildings at 900, 1800
and 2300 MHz", IEEE Proceedings-I, Vol. 140, No. 6, December 1993
3. Aguirre, "Radio Propagation Into Buildings at 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz Using Microcells", 0-7803-1823-
4/94 IEEE, session 1.6 & 1.7, pp. 129-134
Good
Reception
Better
Reception
Install FWT near window
that faces the general
direction of the cell site.
4
4.2.1.2 Vehicle Loss
Vehicle loss is the degradation of the RF signal strength caused by a vehicular enclosure. A
subscriber handset communicating to a cell site from within a vehicle will have a lower signal
strength than if that same subscriber unit was operating outside of the vehicle. Vehicle loss has
been seen to range from 5 to 12 dB. If the design for a system is to include a vehicle penetration
loss, an average range is approximately 5 to 8 dB.
Due to the nature of a fixed system, vehicle loss should not be accounted for.
4.2.1.3 Body Loss
Body loss, also referred to as head loss, is the degradation of the RF signal strength due to the close
proximity of the subscriber handset antenna to the persons body. A 2 dB loss is associated with
the antenna in a vertical position; 6 dB is associated with the antenna in a horizontal position. It is
assumed that the typical user will rotate the phone or move slightly to help improve the quality of
the call. Therefore, a lower body loss of 2 to 3 dB is often used in system designs.
For a fixed system, there will be no body loss since the FWT antenna is either connected directly
to the FWT or is installed outdoors.
4.2.1.4 Ambient Noise
The ambient noise defines the environmental noise that is in excess of kTB for the sector. This
noise could be generated from automobiles, factories, machinery, and other man-made noise. The
ambient noise margin parameter can be added to the link budget to allow for an adjustment to the
thermal noise value. Since each environment is unique, a noise floor study should be performed to
determine if an adjustment is required to the theoretical thermal noise floor value.
Man-made noise is less significant at 1900 MHz than at 800 MHz. Also, galactic or sky noise is at
a minimum.
4
4.2.1.5 RF Feeder Losses
RF feeder losses include all of the losses that are encountered between the base station cabinet and
the base antenna, or with respect to a subscriber unit, all of the losses between the PA and the
antenna. Since a majority of subscriber units for a mobility system being sold to customers are
portable, there is minimal feeder loss; therefore, RF feeder loss at the subscriber unit is not
considered in the link budget. However, the feeder loss at the base site can account for several dB
of loss. The example RF link budgets provided in Table 4-6 on page 4-37 and Table 4-7 on page 4-
39 only reflect the line loss at the base site.
For a fixed system, the Fixed Wireless Terminal (FWT) may have an antenna connected directly
to the unit or the antenna may be installed on the outside of the building, thus requiring a
4. Lee, William C.Y. "Mobile Communications Engineering", Copyright 1982, McGraw-Hill Inc. pg. 33-40.
4
transmission run from the FWT to the antenna. For the scenario of an external antenna connected
to an FWT, subscriber unit feeder loss needs to be accounted for in the RF link budget. This feeder
loss would be the loss encountered from the FWT to the external antenna, which is a function of
the size of transmission line and the length of the run. Since this transmission line may need to wind
its way from the FWT to the external antenna, the size of the line may be small to allow for better
bending radii. A lightning arrestor will also need to be accounted for in this subscriber unit feeder
loss.
The base station RF feeder line loss calculations include such losses as: top jumper, main
transmission line, bottom jumper, lightning arrestors (surge protector), connectors, duplexers,
splitters, combiners, and couplers (see Figure 4-5). The loss associated with the RF feeder system
can be minimized by reducing the transmission line run between the base station and its antennas,
and/or utilizing lower loss transmission lines. Transmission lines can range from 1/2 to 1-5/8, or
greater, diameter cables. The larger the diameter of the cable, the less lossy the medium, but the
sacrifice is more rigid lines, larger bending radius, greater weight, more wind loading and larger
area required. Transmission lines are also available with either air or foam dielectrics. The air
dielectric cables are more expensive to install and maintain, but are less lossy than the foam lines.
Figure 4-5 reflects most of the different components that are encountered between the base site
antenna and the base station equipment.
When estimating the amount of transmission line loss, keep in mind that the line loss is frequency
dependent. Transmission cables are more lossy at higher frequencies. At 800 MHz, a 7/8 line may
suffice, but a 1-5/8 line for 1900 MHz may be required to maintain a similar loss. The following
table shows an example of the difference that can exist in transmission line loss as a function of the
operating frequency.
Consult the transmission line vendor for the specifications of the installed transmission line or the
system operator, if actual field measurements have been made.
Table 4-2: Example of Main Transmission Line Losses
850 MHz 1900 MHz
7/8 Foam Dielectric Coaxial Cable 1.24 dB/100ft.
4.07 dB/100meters
1.97 dB/100ft.
6.46 dB/100meters
1-5/8 Foam Dielectric Coaxial Cable 0.77 dB/100ft.
2.54 dB/100meters
1.25 dB/100ft.
4.1 dB/100meters
4
Figure 4-5: Typical Components in the RF Feeder Run
Additionally, the reference point used in the base station specifications should be known. For
instance, the duplexer loss and its jumpers/connectors to the base station may already be included
in the specifications for the base stations noise figure and PA output. Typically, the specifications
for the base station are at the top of the frame. Therefore, if the duplexer or other components are
located within the base station frame, additional loss would not need to be factored in. If, on the
other hand, the device is located external to the base station frame, this loss would need to be
accounted for.
For sites with multiple CDMA carriers, the Rx signal distribution and the Tx combining schemes
are typically addressed within the equipment specifications of the base station frame. If combining
or splitting of the RF signal is being performed external to the base station frame, the loss
associated with the combining or splitting would need to be added to the link budget.
From a budgetary or approximation viewpoint, one RF feeder loss value could be assumed as the
typical value for all of the sites. In real world situations, however, it is rare that one loss value will
Antenna
(A) Top Jumper
(B) Main Transmission Line
(C) Antenna Surge Protector
(D) Jumper to Directional Coupler
(E) Directional Coupler
(F) Jumper to Duplexer
(H) Jumper to Tx and Rx Antenna Port
BTS
Waveguide Entry Port
Note: Each Jumper consists of:
Two connectors and
One line
(G) Duplexer
4
be common for all of the sites. Some sites (and sectors) may have longer or shorter lengths of
transmission line due to being installed with a taller antenna supporting structure or due to the base
station equipment being located on the top of a building.
In performing propagation predictions, it is important that each site (sector) is represented as
accurately as possible. Therefore, an analysis should be done for each particular sector to determine
the RF feeder line loss. This calculation should include all losses between the antenna and the base
station such as those components depicted in Figure 4-5. The value of the line loss listed in
Table 4-6 on page 4-37 is an example which assumes that the base station will be operating at 1900
MHz and the main transmission antenna run is 30 meters (approximately 100 feet). A 1-5/8 heliax
cable at 1900 MHz has approximately 4.1 dB loss per 100 meters (1.25 dB loss per 100 feet).
Another 0.75 dB was assumed for jumpers and connectors.
Refer to Chapter 6, Section 6.7.3 for additional information on transmission lines.
4.2.1.6 Antennas
Antennas can be either omni or directional. Omni antennas provide approximately the same
amount of gain throughout the entire 360 horizontal pattern. Directional antennas, sometimes
referred to as sector antennas, have a maximum gain in one direction with the backside being 15
to 25 dB below the maximum gain.
The gain of the antenna is a function of the horizontal pattern, vertical pattern, and number of
elements that make up the antenna array. The number of elements will dictate the size of the
antenna. The horizontal and vertical beamwidths are referenced as the amount of degrees between
the points on the pattern where the gain is down 3 dB from the maximum gain.
The following points should be considered when selecting an antenna:
The size and weight of the antenna will impact tower loading or the ability to place the
antenna in the optimum position.
Typically, antenna patterns with narrower horizontal and/or vertical beamwidths will
result in a higher antenna gain, assuming similar lengths.
The horizontal and vertical beamwidths will have an impact upon the performance of the
site at the locations midway between the sectors. The larger horizontal beamwidths will
result in more overlap of signal between sectors and thus increase the amount of softer
handoff between sectors and soft handoff with other sites. This impacts the amount of
interference seen (thus impacting capacity) and the ability to contain pilot pollution.
The front to back ratio of the antenna also impacts the amount of interference seen at
other sites and the ability to minimize pilot pollution.
The horizontal and vertical patterns provided by the selected antenna should be verified to ensure
that there will be coverage in the desired area. For instance, as a means to improve forward gain of
the antenna, the vertical beamwidth may be reduced. In some situations, this reduction in the
vertical beamwidth may produce unsatisfactory signal strengths near the cell site tower due to the
antenna overshooting the area to be covered.
4
Another item to keep in mind is whether the antenna gain is in reference to a dipole or an isotropic
antenna. The difference is usually signified by dBd or dBi. A zero dBd gain antenna would
correspond to a 2.14 dBi gain antenna. Cellular often referenced antennas in dBd, but PCS RF link
budgets normally refer to dBi gain antennas. The important point to be made is that a propagation
model may be referenced to an isotropic or dipole antenna. Thus, care should be taken to ensure
the correct antenna gain is used with the propagation model, and thereby avoiding a potential error
of 4.3 dB.
Refer to Chapter 6 for additional information on antennas.
4.2.1.6.1 Base Station Antenna
The antennas located at the base site can be either omni or directional. In early cellular designs,
most sites started out as omni. Fewer antennas were required and the system was lightly loaded.
As the traffic requirements grew, sites were required to be sectorized to provide for this additional
traffic and to restrict the amount of co-channel and adjacent channel interference.
PCS systems at 1900 MHz initially did not require an abundance of capacity, but utilized
directional antennas because of the extra gain associated with a directional antenna as compared to
an omni antenna. A 4 dB improvement could easily be achieved by using directional antennas
instead of omni antennas. This 4 dB improvement could potentially reduce the quantity of sites
required at 1900 MHz by approximately 40%.
It is not mandatory that all sites use the same antenna. The system planner may deploy either omni
or directional antennas at a cell site to meet the coverage goals desired.
As mentioned above, the antennas need to be selected to ensure coverage will be provided over the
desired area. In addition, antennas need to be selected to minimize the level of interference.
Decreasing the level of interference will allow for greater site capacity and improved system
performance. Antenna patterns that provide a faster rolloff past the half power points (i.e. 3 dB
down from main lobe) will provide for better interference protection. In frequency reuse systems
(AMPS, GSM, USDC), improved interference control, such as through the use of sectorized sites,
allows for a set of frequencies to be used at closer distances (i.e. tighter reuse pattern), thus
providing increased capacity. For CDMA, as mentioned in the chapter on capacity (Chapter 3),
interference from other cells and other sectors has an impact on the capacity that can be supported.
4.2.1.6.2 Subscriber Unit Antenna
Our assumptions here are that the portable subscriber unit antenna has a gain of 0 dBi (-2.14 dBd)
without factoring in body loss and is an omni antenna. It is possible that differences may exist. The
system could be designed for mobile coverage, in which case, the antenna mounted on the external
of the vehicle may have higher gain.
Another scenario is a fixed application. An option for the FWT is to have a whip antenna connected
directly to the FWT unit. This whip antenna gain may differ based upon product or vendor. Another
option is that the FWT installation may utilize yagi or patch antennas with much greater gain and
directivity.
4
In some circumstances for a fixed application, particularly for users in fringe coverage areas,
external antennas are appropriate alternatives to the simple whip antenna. The vendor of the FWTs
should be contacted to determine what antenna options may be available.
4.2.2 CDMA Specific Parameters
CDMA specific parameters are those items in the RF link budget which will have different values
based on the technology chosen. CDMA parameters include such factors as: interference margin,
soft handoff gain and E
b
/N
o
.
4.2.2.1 Interference Noise Rise
In determining RF coverage in CDMA systems, the effect of interference generated from other
users on the serving cell as well as the neighboring cells must be considered. As discussed in
Chapter 3, this is in contrast to the RF coverage analysis for AMPS cells where interference mainly
affects the frequency assignment, but not the coverage.
The interference noise rise margin is dependent upon the amount of loading assumed in the system.
Different cell deployment strategies can be modeled by varying the interference margin. CDMA
cell deployments could be based on loading individual frequencies one by one, until they achieve
the target load (for instance, a 6 dB noise rise). An alternative deployment could utilize more
CDMA radio carriers, initially operating at a reduced load, to further extend the range of the cells
(for instance, 3 dB noise rise) while trading off capacity (exploiting any immediate spectrum
available). This 3 dB system rise improvement would result in approximately 30% fewer CDMA
cell sites at system turn-on.
The following equation can be used as a first pass approximation for the amount of interference
margin to be added to the reverse RF link budget to account for loading the CDMA system with
users.
[EQ 4-1]
Where X is the system load, specified as a fraction of pole capacity. For example, a cell site
operating near full capacity has X equal to seventy-five percent (75%). Noise rise varies as a
function of propagation, environment, load, user distribution, etc.
The derivation for Equation 4-1 can be shown as follows.
Assuming a CDMA system with subscribers in the cell of interest and perfect reverse link power
control such that the power received at the base site due to each subscriber unit is the same,
, the signal to noise plus total (in-cell and out of cell) inbound
interference ratio on the traffic channel can be defined as:
NoiseRise 10
1
1 X
------------
,
_
log =
N
P
r
1
P
r
2
.... P
r
N
P
r
= = =
4
[EQ 4-2]
[EQ 4-3]
[EQ 4-4]
Where:
is the signal to noise plus total interference ratio
is the power (in Watts) received at the base site from each individual in-cell
subscriber unit. Note that, although the power received at the base site from a
particular subscriber unit is a function of several factors (i.e. subscriber units
transmit power, subscriber unit antenna gain, base site antenna gain, individual
path loss and fading), the reverse link power control ensures that the received
power from any subscriber unit in the cell is approximately at the same level .
is the spread bandwidth (in Hz) of the CDMA system
is the thermal noise power spectral density (in Watts/Hz) at the input to the
receiver Low Noise Amplifier (LNA)
, is the interference power spectral density (in Watts/Hz) from all
of the subscriber units within the cell at the input to the receiver LNA. Note that,
in the cell of interest, out of a total of subscriber units, only one subscriber unit
is the one of interest, hence there are interfering subscriber units.
is the voice activity factor or the fraction of time voice is transmitted during a call
is the interference power spectral density (in Watts/Hz) from all of the subscriber
units in other cells at the input to the receiver LNA and is the function of their
respective path loss characteristics, load, size and power control
is the figure of merit for digital systems and is defined as energy per bit to noise
plus total interference power spectral density ratio
, is the Processing Gain of the CDMA system. MHz for
an IS-95 and IS-2000 1X CDMA system and is the bit rate of the traffic
channel (e.g. 9.6 kbps traffic channel or 14.4 kbps traffic channel).
SNR
P
r
N
o
W I
o
W I
oc
W + + ( )
--------------------------------------------------- =
E
b
N
t
------ SNR PG SNR
W
R
b
------
= =
SNR
E
b
N
t
W R
b
--------------- =
SNR
P
r
P
r
W
N
o
I
o
N 1 ( )P
r
W
---------------------------- =
N
N 1
I
oc
E
b
N
t
PG W R
b
= W 1.2288 =
R
b
4
Furthermore, the frequency reuse factor or the F-factor of a cell is defined as the ratio of inbound
interference from subscriber units within the cell (intra-cell) to the total inbound interference from
subscriber units in all the cells (including the cell of interest). Since each subscriber unit is a
potential interferer, F-factor is given by
[EQ 4-5]
Some references to the frequency reuse factor may be in terms of out of cell interference to in cell
interference (f = OutCell/InCell). The frequency reuse factors F and f can be equated with the
following equation:
[EQ 4-6]
Substituting the value of into Equation 4-5 results in:
[EQ 4-7]
Substituting the value of into Equation 4-2 and dividing both numerator and denominator by
, can be rewritten as
[EQ 4-8]
[EQ 4-9]
Substituting the value of F-factor from Equation 4-7 into Equation 4-9 results in,
[EQ 4-10]
[EQ 4-11]
F
InCell
InCell OutCell +
--------------------------------------------
I
o
I
o
I
oc
+
----------------- = =
F
1
1 f +
----------- =
I
o
F
N 1 ( )P
r
N 1 ( )P
r
I
oc
W +
---------------------------------------------- =
I
o
N
o
W SNR
SNR
P
r
N
o
W N 1 ( )P
r
I
oc
W + +
----------------------------------------------------------------
P
r
N (
o
W)
1
N 1 ( )P
r
N
o
W
--------------------------- -
I
oc
W
N
o
W
------------ + +
-------------------------------------------------------- = =
SNR
P
r
N (
o
W)
1
NP
r
I
oc
W + ( )
N
o
W
-------------------------------------
P
r
N
o
W
----------- +
-----------------------------------------------------------------
P
r
N (
o
W)
1
N 1 ( )P
r
I
oc
W +
N
o
W
---------------------------------------------- +
-------------------------------------------------------- = =
SNR
P
r
N (
o
W)
1
1
N
o
W
-----------
N 1 ( )P
r
F
--------------------------- -
+
------------------------------------------------------
P
r
N (
o
W)
1
N 1 ( )
F
--------------------- -
P
r
N
o
W
-----------
,
_
+
------------------------------------------------- = =
SNR
s
1

F
---
N 1 ( )s +
---------------------------------- =
4
where, .
Solving Equation 4-11 for s,
[EQ 4-12]
where is defined as the loading factor of the system and is given by
[EQ 4-13]
The upper bound on the number of users or the pole capacity of the cell of interest can be obtained
by substituting into Equation 4-13 and replacing SNR with Equation 4-4 to yield:
[EQ 4-14]
The system rise is defined as the ratio of thermal noise plus total inbound interference to thermal
noise and is given by
[EQ 4-15]
From Equation 4-2 and Equation 4-15 yields the following:
[EQ 4-16]
Substituting the value of from Equation 4-12 in Equation 4-16 results in:
or [EQ 4-17]
R (dB) is the median rise. In other words, noise rise is above (or below) this level 50% of the time.
This is due to the voice activity ( ) term used in the SNR calculation.
Figure 4-6 is a graphical representation of Equation 4-17 and plots rise versus the loading factor X.
From the plot, 50% loading corresponds to a rise of 3 dB and 75% loading corresponds to a 6 dB
rise.
s P
r
N (
o
W) =
s
SNR
1

F
--- N 1 ( ) SNR
-----------------------------------------------
SNR
1 X
------------ = =
X
X

F
--- N 1 ( ) SNR =
X 1 =
N
pole
1
F
SNR
------------------- + 1
F
---
W R
b
E
b
N
t
--------------- + = =
R
N
o
W I +
o
W I
oc
W +
N
o
W
---------------------------------------------- =
R
P
r
N (
o
W)
SNR
---------------------------
s
SNR
----------- = =
s
R
1
1 X
------------ = R (dB) 10 1 X ( ) log =

4
Figure 4-6: Rise (dB) at the cell of interest versus X (% load) at the cell of interest
4.2.2.2 Soft Handoff Gain
Soft handoff is the term that is normally associated with the fact that a CDMA system makes a
connection to a target cell prior to releasing (breaking) from the source site, commonly referred to
as make-before-break. A hard handoff, associated with AMPS, GSM, or USDC, requires that the
signal strength from the target cell be greater than the signal strength from the source cell by a
hysteresis value in order to reduce the number of handoffs per call and the ping-pong effect. This
hysteresis requires an overlap between the cell coverage areas. The soft handoff gain corresponds
to a decreased shadow fade margin required by the CDMA soft handoff over that of a hard handoff
system.
Some proponents of CDMA may have a separate entry in the RF link budget for soft handoff gain.
The purpose of this is to provide information as to the benefits of CDMA over other technologies.
Some system designers believe that the soft handoff gain should be accounted for in the reliability
value (shadow fade margin). The example RF link budget provided in a later section incorporates
the soft handoff gain in with the shadow fade margin. Refer to the section on Reliability for further
discussion on the shadow fade margin.
For a fixed system, the gain offered by soft handoff may or may not be present depending upon the
system design. For instance, a single isolated site supporting a fixed system would have no
neighboring sites to even allow soft handoff to occur. In this situation, the soft handoff gain would
be zero. Another situation is for a fixed system utilizing external FWT antennas. These directional
antennas tend to be sited to the best signal source and therefore minimal advantage from soft
4
handoff would be recognized. Even for the situation of a fixed system using the FWT whip
antennas, soft handoff gain may be lower than seen in a mobile environment. The FWT installation
causes a form of building directionality which may decrease the soft handoff advantage.
4.2.2.3 E
b
/N
o

E
b
/N
o
corresponds to energy per bit over interference plus noise density for a given target Frame
Erasure Rate (FER, typical voice FER target is 1%). In digital communications, it is customary to
designate one-sided noise density with N
o
. In CDMA, interference is dominated by the noise
generated due to other users in the system. The notation, N
o
, in this section refers to the total power
density due to interference and noise.
Included in the CDMA E
b
/N
o
value is diversity improvement arising from performance in
Rayleigh fading. This is distinct from the entry Soft Handoff Gain which represents an estimate
of the performance improvement of soft handoff, relative to hard handoff, when experiencing log
normal shadowing.
In general, the required downlink E
b
/N
o
, to provide an acceptable audio quality, improves at higher
speeds and in soft handoff. In the uplink path, the required E
b
/N
o
improves at lower speeds (which
is the opposite of the downlink). The worst case E
b
/N
o
value for voice communication on the
uplink is at about 30 kmph.
The uplink E
b
/N
o
value accounts for rake (non-coherent combining) receiver, dual antenna, and
interleaving/coding. The downlink E
b
/N
o
value accounts for rake (coherent, maximal ratio
combining) receiver, and interleaving/coding.
For mobile systems, the E
b
/N
o
target varies dynamically as the subscriber moves around. However,
FWTs are fixed and the only movement is that of people around the FWT in a building and large
vehicles or pedestrians close to an outdoor FWT antenna. Optimized FWT deployment may
significantly reduce the E
b
/N
o
target by avoiding the fading caused by the surrounding
environment.
In a mobile environment, the fading characteristic is Rayleigh. For a fixed system, the fading
environment may be more Rician. The E
b
/N
o
value assumes a certain type of fading environment.
The E
b
/N
o
requirement for a fixed system will therefore be different than for a mobile environment.
The E
b
/N
o
target value may range from 4 dB to 8 dB for CDMA fixed systems. The E
b
/N
o
target
value should be set to 8 dB for isolated cells using indoor omni FWT antennas or for cells with
little SHO benefits in the fringe areas. However, if external directional FWT antennas are used and
a Line Of Site (LOS) path exists between the cell site and the FWT antenna, an E
b
/N
o
target value
of 4 dB may be used.
As improvements are made to the hardware (chip sets) and to the software (how the energy is
managed), the E
b
/N
o
requirement level may be lessened. Typical E
b
/N
o
values used for fixed
systems are stated above. The early requirements for a mobile system are approximately 7 to 7.5
4
dB for the 8 kbps and 13 kbps vocoder respectively. With the latest chip sets (e.g. Qualcomm
CSM5000, Motorola EMAXX), the E
b
/N
o
values are approximately 1.5 to 2 dB less for voice
communications.
IS-95A and IS-95B assume the same E
b
/N
o
values. For the IS-2000 RF reverse link, there are
separate E
b
/N
o
values provided for the fundamental channel rate and each supplemental channel
rate. The E
b
/N
o
values for the supplemental channel rates (19.2 kbps and greater) are less than the
fundamental E
b
/N
o
. Two main factors are contributing to this. A higher FER for the higher data
rates may be targeted as compared to lower FER for lower data rates for speech (9600 bps e.g.).
This will reduce the required E
b
/N
o
. The RF link budget shown in Table 4-7 on page 4-39 assumes
an FER of 5% for the supplemental channel rates and an FER of 1% for the fundamental channel.
It is viewed that the radio link protocols (RLP) will allow for relaxed FER requirements for the
supplemental channel. The control channel information carried on the fundamental channel
requires the better FER. Turbo coding is the other factor contributing to the lower E
b
/N
o
value for
the supplemental channels. Turbo coding improves upon the error correction at the higher data
rates. The higher the data rate, the larger the benefit from Turbo coding (Turbo coding gain grows
as the number of bits sent increases for a given frame size) which results in a lower E
b
/N
o
for a
given FER target.
From a link budget analysis, only one E
b
/N
o
value can be assumed for a given scenario. The
appropriate E
b
/N
o
value to be used in the RF link budget is based upon the system design
assumptions (base station equipment and vocoder rate).
The Motorola NetPlan CDMA Simulator incorporates a family of curves to more accurately
account for the E
b
/N
o
requirements needed to meet a desired FER for each link that is being
analyzed between the user and the site. Refer to Section 4.6 for additional discussion on the
simulator.
4.2.3 Product Specific Parameters
Product specific parameters are those items in the RF link budget which can vary based on the
product (base station and subscriber) chosen. There may be differences between products within
Motorolas base station product line, such as differences in PA power. Differences will also exist
between different equipment vendors. Each equipment vendor will have their own vision of the
type of market their equipment is to satisfy.
4.2.3.1 Product Transmit Power
The transmit power is typically referenced by the power output of the piece of equipment prior to
the RF transmission lines and antennas. The point at which the transmit power is being measured
needs to be determined to ensure that there are no gains or losses left out of the link budget.
4
4.2.3.1.1 Subscriber Unit
The IS-95A standard provides the maximum effective radiated power (ERP) for any class of
personal station transmitter in Table 6.1.2.1-1. The Class II personal station is not to exceed 2.5
Watts (34 dBm). For the Class III personal station, the minimum ERP is 0.2 Watts (23 dBm) and
the maximum ERP is 1 Watt (30 dBm).
The CDMA standard for 1.8 to 2.0 GHz (ANSI J-STD-008) provides the maximum effective
isotropic radiated power (EIRP) for any class of personal station transmitter in Section 2.1.2.1. The
Class I personal station is not to exceed 2 Watts (33 dBm). For the Class II personal station, the
minimum EIRP is 0.2 Watts (23 dBm) and the maximum EIRP is 1 Watt (30 dBm).
There is a slight difference between the PCS and Cellular specifications. Cellular references the
output power with respect to a dipole (ERP), whereas PCS makes reference to an isotropic radiator
(EIRP). Therefore, there is approximately a 2 dB difference between the specifications given in the
standards documents.
The latest version of 3GPP2 C.S0011, Recommended Minimum Performance Standards for
cdma2000 Spread Spectrum Mobile Stations, also provides a table of radiated powers for the
various band classes that exist.
The typical subscriber value to be used in the reverse link (uplink - subscriber transmit to base
receive) is 23 dBm.
With respect to the reverse RF link budget, one parameter could be used for the transmit power of
the subscriber unit (the EIRP or ERP value) or it may be desirable to break up this value into three
parts. The three parts are: subscriber PA output, transmission line and connector losses, and the
antenna gain.
Since the subscriber unit, portable or FWT, can be purchased from different vendors, the
specifications for each subscriber unit should be obtained.
With IS-95B, high speed packet data is supported by concatenating multiple RF channels on the
forward link (Walsh codes). To enable the concatenation of multiple channels, IS-95B compatible
subscriber units are required. Motorolas IS-95B HSPD was not implemented on the reverse link,
thus only one RF channel is supported on the reverse link. It is assumed that the IS-95B subscriber
units physical characteristics will be the same as those that were used for IS-95A voice. If a
different device is used for data than for voice, the subscriber PA output, transmission line and
connector losses, and the antenna gain parameters would need to be determined.
With IS-2000, high speed packet data is supported with the use of supplemental channels. IS-2000
compatible subscriber units are required to support this air interface specification. With IS-2000,
the reverse link can support multiple channels (e.g. reverse pilot channel, fundamental channel,
supplemental channel). The example IS-2000 reverse RF link budget in Table 4-7 on page 4-39 has
two additional rows to show the amount of power that would be dedicated to the fundamental or
dedicated control channel and to the supplemental channel (for reverse data rates greater than 9.6
kbps). The following definitions were obtained from the IS-2000 specifications.
4
The Reverse Fundamental Channel (R-FCH) corresponds to a portion of the Reverse
Traffic Channel, which carries higher-level data and control information from a
subscriber station to a base station.
The Reverse Supplemental Channel (R-SCH) corresponds to a portion of Radio
Configuration 3 through 6 Reverse Traffic Channel, which operates in conjunction with
the Reverse Fundamental Channel or the Reverse Dedicated Control Channel. The
Reverse Supplemental Channel will provide higher data rate services, and is the channel
on which higher-level data is transmitted.
The Reverse Dedicated Control Channel (R-DCCH) corresponds to the portion of a
Radio Configuration 3 through 6 Reverse Traffic Channel used for the transmission of
higher-level data and control information from a subscriber station to a base station.
The Reverse Traffic Channel corresponds to a traffic channel on which data and
signaling are transmitted from a subscriber station to a base station. The Reverse Traffic
Channel is composed of up to one Reverse Dedicated Control Channel (IS-2000), up to
one Reverse Fundamental Channel (IS-95A/B or IS-2000), zero to two Reverse
Supplemental Channels (IS-2000), and zero to seven Reverse Supplemental Code
Channels (IS-95B).
The subscriber unit transmit power associated with the R-FCH or R-DCCH is dependent upon the
processing gain and E
b
/N
o
requirements associated with the fundamental channel. The subscriber
unit transmit power associated with the R-SCH is dependent upon the processing gain and E
b
/N
o
requirements associated with the data rate of the R-SCH (19.2, 38.4, 76.8 or 153.6 kbps). When a
supplemental channel is required, some of the subscriber units transmit power needs to be
allocated for the R-FCH or R-DCCH. The remaining transmit power can be utilized for the R-SCH.
The difference in the transmit power between the R-SCH and the R-FCH or R-DCCH is based on
the difference of the processing gain and E
b
/N
o
requirements of the different channels. The
following set of equations provide a method to determine the transmit powers for the various
reverse traffic channels.
P
T
= P
FCH
+ P
SCH
P
SCH
= 10^[(Processing_Gain_Delta
dB
+ E
b
/N
o
_Delta
dB
)/10] * P
FCH
P
T
= P
FCH
+ 10^[(Processing_Gain_Delta
dB
+ E
b
/N
o
_Delta
dB
)/10] * P
FCH
P
FCH
= P
T
/ {1 + 10^[(Processing_Gain_Delta
dB
+ E
b
/N
o
_Delta
dB
)/10]}
Where:
P
T
is the total subscriber unit transmit power available (mW)
P
FCH
is the portion of the total subscriber unit transmit power available for the reverse
fundamental channel or reverse dedicated control channel (mW)
P
SCH
is the portion of the total subscriber unit transmit power available for the reverse
supplemental channel (mW)
4
The following set of calculations provide an example of how the subscriber unit transmit powers
associated with the R-FCH and R-SCH for the 19.2 kbps data rate, represented in Table 4-7 on
page 4-39, were obtained. A similar approach would be followed for each of the other
supplemental channel rates.
P
T
= 200 mW
P
FCH
= 200 /{1+10^[(10*Log(19200/9600)+(3.5-5.6))/10]}
= 89.7 mW
P
SCH
= 200 - 89.7 = 110.3 mW
= 10 * Log(P
SCH
) = 20.4 dBm
4.2.3.1.2 Base Station
The CDMA standard for 1.8 to 2.0 GHz (ANSI J-STD-008) in Section 3.1.2 states that the base
station shall not transmit more than 1,640 Watts of effective isotropic radiated power (62.1 dBm
EIRP) in any direction in a 1.25 MHz band for antenna heights above average terrain less than 300
meters. The base transceiver station power is used in the forward link (downlink - base transmit to
subscriber receive).
With respect to the forward RF link budget, one value could be used for the transmit power of the
base station (the EIRP value) but typically this value is separated into three parts. The three parts
are: base station PA output, transmission line and connector losses, and the antenna gain. The
subscriber units are typically more uniform, having similar line losses and antenna gains. The base
station, on the other hand, can vary quite a bit from one base station to the next. Based on the
configuration of the site, location of antennas with respect to the base station infrastructure, and
power out required, it is not as simple to have one EIRP value that is common across the majority
of the sites. Since each base station site can be unique, the uniqueness of the site needs to be
accounted for to ensure the appropriate EIRP is being designed for. For instance, one site may
require a 100 ft. run of main transmission line, whereas another site may only require a 50 ft. run.
The additional loss for the longer run would alter the EIRP from the site. Another difference would
exist based on differences of antennas and their associated gains.
The power output of the base station is normally assumed to be the power out at the top of the
cabinet. It is possible that each vendor will have different transmit powers for their equipment. In
addition, one vendor may have different transmit powers for each product in their portfolio of base
station products. Obtain the specifications for the particular base station(s) that will be used in the
system design. In looking at the specifications, the power amplifiers may be for multiple carriers
or for a single tone (carrier). Refer to Section 4.4 for additional information on the Motorola BTS
PAs.
4
4.2.3.2 Product Receiver Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a radio receiver is a measure of its ability to receive weak signals. The following
equation can be utilized in calculating the sensitivity of a radio receiver.
[EQ 4-18]
Where:
k Boltzmanns constant = 1.38x10
-23
W/(Hz K)
T Room temperature in degrees Kelvin = 290 K
W Bandwidth of the carrier = 1228800 Hz
NF Noise figure of the equipment
E
b
/N
o
Energy bit density over noise
R Information bit rate
[EQ 4-19]
The processing gain, PG, is the result of the bandwidth (W) divided by the data rate (R). For IS-95
Rate Set 1 (8 kbps vocoder), the data rate is 9600 bps. The resulting processing gain for this case
is obtained as follows:
PG = W/R = 1228800 / 9600 = 128
PG
dB
= 10 * Log (128) = 21.1 dB
The following table provides the data rate (R) and the resulting processing gain for various Rate
Sets and radio configurations. The data rates provided in the table are those that are supported in
CBSC Release 16.0. Refer to the latest IS-95A/B and IS-2000 standards for all of the data rates that
exist in the air interface standards.
Table 4-3: Processing Gain
Air Interface Reverse Link Radio Configurations Data Rate (bps) Processing Gain (dB)
IS-95A/B Rate Set 1 - Standard 8 kbps Vocoder or
EVRC (Enhanced Variable Rate Coder)
9600 21.07
IS-95A/B Rate Set 2 - 13 kbps Vocoder 14400 19.31
IS-2000 1X Reverse Link Radio Configuration 1 9600 21.07
RxSensitivity kT ( )
dBm Hz
W
dB Hz
NF ( )
dB
E
b
N
o
( )
dB
W R ( )
dB
+ + + =
RxSensitivity 113
dBm
NF ( )
dB
E
b
N
o
( )
dB
PG
dB
+ + =
4
IS-95B supports high speed packet data, but because of the data applications that were being
deployed, only the fundamental rate was provided on the reverse link. Therefore, the above table
only provides the processing gain for the two different fundamental rates.
Differences in the receive sensitivity will exist between the subscriber unit and base station due to
the differences in E
b
/N
o
values, as discussed in Section 4.2.2.3, and the noise figure of the
equipment. The other parameters in the receive sensitivity calculation will be the same for both
ends of the link.
4.2.3.2.1 Base Station
The noise figure, or NF, of a network is a value used to compare the noise in a network with the
noise in an ideal or noiseless network. It is a measure of the degradation in signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) between the input and output ports of the network. Noise factor (F) is the numerical ratio of
NF, where NF is expressed in dB. The equation for converting noise factor to noise figure is:
[EQ 4-20]
Typically the noise figure value to be used in determining the receiver sensitivity value can be
obtained from the specification sheet for the particular product. The noise figure for the base station
is approximately 6 to 7 dB maximum with a typical value of approximately 4.5 dB. Consult the
base station equipment vendor for the specifics.
In some instances, a tower top amplifier (TTA) may be installed at a site to improve the level of
the received signal at the base station. The TTA includes an amplifier and therefore a new noise
figure needs to be determined since the configuration now has cascaded amplifiers. A TTA will
only benefit the reverse path (subscriber to base station). Since the TTA is only improving the
reverse link, the forward link may become more of the limiting path. It may be that a larger power
amplifier is needed in the forward link in order to balance both paths.
IS-2000 1X Reverse Link Radio Configuration 4
(Only the fundamental is initially
supported by Motorola.)
14400 19.3
Table 4-3: Processing Gain
Air Interface Reverse Link Radio Configurations Data Rate (bps) Processing Gain (dB)
NF
dB ( )
10 F ( ) log =
4
For a TTA scenario as mentioned above, it will be necessary to calculate the noise figure of a group
of amplifiers that are connected in series. This can be accomplished if the noise figure of each
individual amplifier is known. The equation for determining the cascaded noise factor is:
[EQ 4-21]
Where:
F
n
is the noise factor of each stage
G
n
is the numerical gain of each stage (not in dB)
The equation for converting Gain dB to linear Gain is:
[EQ 4-22]
One important point to be made with respect to Equation 4-21 is that if the gain of the first stage
G
1
is sufficiently high, the denominators of the subsequent terms will force those terms to be small,
leaving only F
1
. Therefore, the NF of the first stage will typically determine the NF of the cascaded
configuration.
The NF of two or more cascaded lossy networks can be found by simply adding the losses (in dB)
of each network element. Examples of a lossy network element are: transmission lines, jumpers,
duplexers, filters and mixers. If a duplexer with an insertion loss of 0.5 dB is followed by a main
transmission line loss of 3 dB, the combined noise figure of this cascaded network is 3.5 dB.
The following figure shows two different sites. One site has an amplifier located on the top of the
tower. The other site is the more conventional site, that has no additional amplification beyond the
base station. This diagram will be used to run through an example showing the noise figure
improvement with the TTA. In this diagram, stage 2 in the tower top amplifier example and stage
1 of the without tower top amplifier example represent cascaded lossy network elements which are
able to be summed together.
F
Total
F
1
F
2
1
G
1
---------------
F
3
1
G
1
G
2
---------------
F
4
1
G
1
G
2
G
3
---------------------
+ + + =
G
dB ( )
10 G
Linear
( ) log =
4
Figure 4-7: Example of Two Different Receive Path Configurations
The following table lists the noise figures, noise factors, and gains for each stage shown above.
Table 4-4: Receive Path Noise Figures and Gains
With Tower Top Amplifier Without Tower Top Amplifier
NF
1
2.5 dB F
1
1.78 NF
1
3.0 dB F
1
2.0
NF
2
3.5 dB F
2
2.24 NF
2
6.0 dB F
2
3.98
NF
3
9.5 dB F
3
8.91
G
1
12.0 dB G
1
15.85 G
1
-3.0 dB G
1
0.5
G
2
-3.5 dB G
2
0.45
Antenna
Jumper to Antenna
Main Transmission Line
Antenna Surge Protector
Jumper to Directional Coupler
Directional Coupler
Jumper to Duplexer
Jumper to Tx and Rx Antenna Port
BTS
Waveguide Entry Port
Duplexer
Tower Top Amplifier
BTS
Jumper
12 dBd
0.5 dB
3 dB
NF = 2.5 dB, Gain 12 dB
0.5 dB
12 dBd
0.5 dB
3 dB
A
B
C
D
With Tower Top
Amplifier
Without Tower
Top Amplifier
NF = 9.5 dB NF = 6 dB
Stage
1
Stage
2
Stage
1
Stage
2
Stage
3
4
Based upon the information in Table 4-4 and Equation 4-20, Equation 4-21, and Equation 4-22, the
noise factor at reference point B in Figure 4-7 for the receive path with the TTA can be calculated
as follows:
[EQ 4-23]
F
B
= 2.97
Using Equation 4-20, the cascaded noise figure would be:
NF
B
= 4.73 dB
The design without the tower top amplifier would result in the following noise factor at reference
point D shown in Figure 4-7:
[EQ 4-24]
F
D
= 7.96
NF
D
= 9.0 dB
The noise figure at point D could have also been determined by just adding the noise figure of stage
1 to the noise figure of stage 2 because the elements which made up stage 1 were all lossy.
From the above calculations, the low noise figure and the gain of the TTA produces a cascaded
noise figure of 4.73 dB at reference point B. This is a 4.77 dB improvement in the noise figure as
compared to the noise figure at point A. Point D, in the non-TTA case, can be compared to point B
to show the improvement in the noise figure and thus the reverse link improvement that can be
achieved with the TTA. The reverse link has improved 4.27 dB (9 - 4.73) with the TTA.
If the impact of the TTA is to be applied to a link budget, the following values would be used:
Please note that for the example in Figure 4-7, the base station product which includes a TTA was
modified to have a higher noise figure than the typical base station. The higher noise figure for the
base station/TTA configuration was implemented so that the gain of the TTA does not overdrive
the front-end of the base station.
Table 4-5: Link Budget Inputs
Parameter With TTA Without TTA
Base Rx Feeder Loss 0.5 dB 3.5 dB
Base Noise Figure 4.73 dB 6 dB
Yields Rx Sensitivity @ point B C
F
B
1.78
2.24 1
15.85
-------------------
8.91 1
15.85 0.45
------------------------------ + + =
F
D
2
3.98 1
0.5
------------------- + =
4
Though the above scenario shows a reverse link budget advantage when a TTA is installed, not all
aspects of a TTA may be as advantageous. The following lists some of the drawbacks of TTAs:
Increased susceptibility to reverse interference noise
Since the TTA only improves the reverse link, an increase to the forward power may be
required to maintain a balanced link
Timing concerns (How large can a site be without causing timing issues?)
Active electronics at the top of the antenna structure (more susceptible to lightning,
more difficult for maintenance, etc.)
Due to the increased susceptibility to noise, Motorola does not typically recommend TTAs.
Though in some scenarios (for example in rural applications), TTAs may be beneficial.
4.2.3.2.2 Subscriber Unit
The noise figure for the subscriber unit is approximately 10 dB. The required E
b
/N
o
value to
provide acceptable audio quality for the subscriber unit is highly dependent on several parameters.
These parameters include: the speed, the environmental parameters, multipath and soft handoff of
the subscriber unit. This is one of the reasons why it is difficult to determine a forward link budget.
It is best left to a CDMA simulator that takes these situations into account.
4.2.4 Reliability (Shadow Fade Margin)
The shadow fade margin (also known as slow or log-normal fading margin) corresponds to the
variation in mean signal level caused by the subscriber passing through the shadows of hills or
buildings. The log-normal distribution has been found to be a good estimate of the statistical nature
of shadowing and is used to calculate the probability of RF coverage at each point in the cell. At
points near the base station, the average received signal level and the probability of coverage will
be high. At points near the edge of the cell, the average received signal level and probability of
coverage will be lower. The total probability of coverage for the entire cell is determined by
integrating the point probabilities over the cell area. The desired area coverage (e.g. 90%) is
achieved by adjusting the fade margin to the necessary level. A normal distribution of signals can
be used in calculating the reliability. The following figure shows that adding a margin to the link
budget will increase the reliability (confidence) of achieving the desired signal level.
4
Figure 4-8: Impact of Fade Margin on Reliability
The desired level of reliability is used to determine the amount of shadow fade margin that is
required, where a 97% design requires several dB more margin than a 95% design. To improve the
RF reliability, going further out on the tail of the distribution, additional margin is added to all
users. For a fixed system this may not be efficient nor cost effective since subscriber unit placement
has a big effect in determining the worst 5% of the users. The cost of increasing the reliability
(increasing dB margin that will impact all users) should be replaced with fixing the worst 5% of
the users, and thus saving the dB margin for the average users. For a fixed system, the fade margin,
building penetration margin, and soft handoff gain should to be considered together to provide for
the best achievable link budget.
The fade margin is the amount of margin necessary to achieve the required area reliability (as per
Jakes equations
5
) for a given standard deviation. The standard deviation is a measured value that
is obtained from various clutter types. It basically represents the variance (log-normally distributed
around the mean value) of the measured RF signal strengths at a certain distance from the site.
5. Jakes, W.C., Microwave Mobile Communications, IEEE Press Reissue 1993 (Wiley, New York, 1974),
pp. 125-127
No Fade Margin
Margin
Edge Reliability at 50%
Edge Reliability at greater than 50%
4
Therefore, the standard deviation would vary by clutter type. Depending on the propagation
environment, the log-normal standard deviation can easily vary between 5 and 9 dB or even
greater. Assuming flat terrain, rural or open clutter types would typically have lower standard
deviation levels than the suburban or urban clutter types. This is due to the highly obstructive
properties encountered in an urban environment, that in turn will produce higher standard deviation
to mean signal strengths than that experienced in a rural area.
Jakes single cell reliability equations (refer to the following equations) that determine the edge and
area reliability of a single cell model are commonly used to approximate the reliability of a site.
[EQ 4-25]
Where:
Edge reliability
x
o
Signal threshold level
x Signal mean at edge of the cell
Log normal standard deviation
[EQ 4-26]
[EQ 4-27]
[EQ 4-28]
Where:
F
u
is the fraction of the total cell area where the signal exceeds a threshold
determined by
Signal mean at edge of the cell
n propagation exponent value
A composite standard deviation can be obtained by the following:
[EQ 4-29]
P
x
o
R ( )
1
2
---
1
2
-- -erf
x
o
x
2
-------------
,

_
=
P
x
o
R ( )
F
u
1
2
---
1 erf a ( )
1 2ab
b
2
------------------
,
_
1 erf
ab 1
b
---------------
,
_
+ exp +

' ;

=
a
x
o

2
-------------- =
b
10nLog
10
e ( )
2
-------------------------------- =
P
x
o
c

1
( )
2
2
( )
2

n
( )
2
+ =
4
Where:
Log normal standard deviation for environment, n
This composite standard deviation may sometimes be used if there are two or more environments
(for instance, outdoors and in-building) which have their own standard deviation. For example if
the standard deviation is 6 dB for outdoors and 8 dB for in-building, the composite standard
deviation to use in Jakes equation would be 10 dB.
The following two figures (Figure 4-9 and Figure 4-10) are results from Jakes single cell model.
The edge reliability, Figure 4-9, has been shown for three different standard deviations (6.5, 8, and
10 dB) to demonstrate the impact of the standard deviation.
Figure 4-9: Edge Reliability vs. Fade Margin
Figure 4-9 shows that edge reliability is dependent on the standard deviation and fade margin
assumed. The following observations can be seen.
As the standard deviation increases, the edge reliability is reduced for the same fade
margin.
As the standard deviation increases, a larger fade margin is required to maintain the
same edge reliability.
n
Uplink Shadow Fade Margin (dB)
E
d
g
e

R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
6.5
8.0
10.0
4
The area reliability, Figure 4-10, assumes a standard deviation of 8 dB for the three curves. The
difference in the curves is due to three different path loss slopes (32, 35, and 40 dB/decade).
Figure 4-10: Area Reliability vs. Fade Margin
Note: Within the legend of Figure 4-10, the first value corresponds to the propagation loss
slope in dB per decade. The second value corresponds to the standard deviation in dB.
Figure 4-10 shows that the area reliability is dependent on the standard deviation, fade margin, and
propagation loss slope (the slope is dependent on the height of the antennas). The following
observations can be seen.
As the standard deviation increases, a larger fade margin is required to maintain the
same area reliability, assuming the same propagation slope.
As the level of area reliability increases, a larger fade margin is required, assuming the
same standard deviation and propagation slope.
As the propagation slope (path loss exponent) increases, a smaller fade margin is
required to maintain the same area reliability, assuming the same standard deviation.
The preceding information is for a single cell. When multiple cells and soft handoff are accounted
for, the probability of meeting a given signal strength is increased. Soft handoff is not an absolute
A
r
e
a

R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
40, 6.5
35, 6.5
32, 6.5
40, 8
35, 8
32, 8
40, 10
35, 10
32, 10
4
gain but can be viewed as a reduction in the fade margin requirement needed to meet a desired edge
or area reliability goal. For isolated sites, there would be no improvement since there would be no
sites to enter into soft handoff with.
Since most systems are comprised of more than a single cell, the benefit of multiple cell effects
could be used. Simulations can be performed, given various assumptions (path loss slope, standard
deviation, correlation), to determine the appropriate shadow fade margin to be added to the link
budget to provide for the reliability desired. This multiple cell effect accounts for the overlap of
adjacent cells and the fast handoff capability of the CDMA soft handoff method. As mentioned in
the previous soft handoff section, the gain associated with soft handoff can be rolled into one
shadow fade margin.
Motorola has performed various simulations for a multiple cell system and generated some
reliability curves. The curves in Figure 4-11 show that 4.7 to 5.6 dB fade margin is required to
reach 95% area reliability for a sector site. The curves show that the area reliability is a function of
the configuration of the site, as well as the standard deviation and site-to-site correlation assumed.
Motorola typically recommends the 5.6 dB shadow fade margin to design systems with an area
reliability of 95% or slightly better.
The following two figures illustrate examples of the required fade margin based on simulations.
These simulations account for the soft handoff advantage in a multi-cell system. The two figures
illustrate the cell area and edge reliability as a function of shadow fade margin. Note that the
required margin varies as a function of the propagation model and sectorization. The notation (x
1
,
x
2
, x
3
), in the figures refer to the propagation model, where x
1
is the path loss slope, x
2
is the
lognormal shadow fading standard deviation, and x
3
is the site-to-site correlation (Note: path loss
slope x
1
converts to path loss dB/decade by multiplying x
1
by a factor of 10).
4
Figure 4-11: Area Reliability as a Function of Shadow Fade Margin
For the above analysis, the sector sites assumed an antenna with 90 horizontal beamwidth. For a
given area reliability, the sector sites required a larger fade margin to account for the reduction of
gain experienced between the sectors.
Sector (3.5, 6.5, 0.5)
Sector (4, 8, 0.5)
Omni (3.5, 6.5, 0.5)
Omni (4, 8, 0.5)
A
r
e
a

R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
4
Figure 4-12: Edge Reliability as a Function of Shadow Fade Margin
As mentioned in the section on soft handoff gain, some RF link budgets may have separate entries
for soft handoff gain and shadow fade margin. Typically when this is done, Jakes single cell model
fade margin is used to obtain the reliability level desired. The CDMA RF link budget, though, still
needs to account for the benefit of soft handoff. Therefore, an approximation for the benefit of soft
handoff gain is required in the link budget. In the RF link budget spreadsheet analysis, Motorola
typically assumes the benefit for soft handoff in a mobile environment to be approximately 3.5 dB
for a cluster of sties. If there is only a single entry in the RF link budget for the fade margin, then
the composite fade margin would be the single cell shadow fade margin minus the benefit
associated with soft handoff and multiple cells. For example, assuming a 9.1 dB shadow fade
margin and 3.5 dB benefit from soft handoff and multiple cells, the composite fade margin would
be 5.6 dB (9.1 minus 3.5).This is an approximation based on a single cell model plus an assumed
soft handoff benefit.
4.2.5 Example Reverse (Uplink - Subscriber to Base) Link Budget
The following table provides an example of a reverse path RF link budget for both a mobile/
portable system and a fixed IS-95 system. This basic RF link budget example could be applied
towards an IS-95A or IS-95B system. Antenna gains, feeder losses, noise rise, building losses,
vehicle losses, shadow fade margins, etc. will differ from system to system and from site to site
Sector (3.5, 6.5, 0.5)
Sector (4, 8, 0.5)
Omni (3.5, 6.5, 0.5)
Omni (4, 8, 0.5)
E
d
g
e

R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y
4
(possibly even from sector to sector) based on the design objectives of the system planner.
Table 4-6: Example of an IS-95 CDMA Reverse RF Link Budget
Note: 1. It is assumed that the latest version of chip sets are being utilized.
2. Path Loss values shown assume a medium traffic load on the reverse link for the
CDMA system.
3. The shadow fade margin assumes the effects of soft handoff and multiple cells.
Where:
Sensitivity and path loss are calculated as follows:
S = kTB + N
fb
+ E - PG
L
p
= P
p
- L
fp
+ G
p
+ G
b
- L
fb
- S - I
m
- T
m
- H
m
- V
m
- B
m
- F
m
L
i
= L
p
+ (2 * 2.14)
Parameter Unit Reference Mobile
13 kbps
Mobile
8 kbps
Fixed
8 kbps
Subscriber Unit Tx Power dBm
P
p
Section 4.2.3.1.1 23 23 23
Subscriber Unit Tx Feeder
Loss
dB
L
fp
Section 4.2.1.5 0 0 0
Subscriber Unit Antenna
Gain
dBd
G
p
Section 4.2.1.6 -2.1 -2.1 -1.0
Body Loss dB
H
m
Section 4.2.1.3 2 2 0
Vehicle Loss dB
V
m
Section 4.2.1.2 7 7 0
Building Loss dB
B
m
Section 4.2.1.1 0 0 6
Base Antenna Gain dBd
G
b
Section 4.2.1.6 14.5 14.5 14.5
Line Loss dB
L
fb
Section 4.2.1.5 3 3 3
kTB dBm
kTB
Section 4.2.3.2 -113.1 -113.1 -113.1
Noise Figure dB
N
fb
Section 4.2.3.2.1 6 6 6
E
b
/N
o
(Note: 1) dB
E
Section 4.2.2.3 6.0 5.6 5.6
Processing Gain dB
PG
Section 4.2.3.2 19.3 21.1 21.1
Base Rx Sensitivity dBm
S
Section 4.2.3.2 -120.4 -122.6 -122.6
Interference Margin
(Note: 2)
dB
I
m
Section 4.2.2.1 3 3 3
Ambient Noise Rise dB
T
m
Section 4.2.1.4 0 0 0
Shadow Fade Margin
(Note: 3)
dB
F
m
Section 4.2.2.2 &
Section 4.2.4
5.6 5.6 5.6
Max. Allowable Path Loss dB
L
p
135.2 137.4 141.5
Isotropic Path Loss dB
L
i
139.5 141.7 145.8
4
In comparing the link budget between mobile (portable) and fixed, there are three main differences.
The first being that the fixed link budget has a subscriber antenna gain of 1.1 dB better than the
mobile case (assumes FWT has the whip antenna installed, but could be higher with external
antennas). It is also assumed that the FWT whip antenna is connected directly to the FWT base unit
and therefore there is no line loss between the FWT base and antenna. Other scenarios may require
that a line loss be added for antennas not connected directly to the base unit. A second difference
is that there is no body loss assumed for the fixed case. The antenna gain and body loss differences
give a 3.1 dB link budget advantage of fixed over mobile.
The third difference is with respect to the building/vehicle penetration loss. For the fixed case, a
building loss value of 6 dB is shown based upon the assumption that the FWT with whip antenna
will be placed close to a window and in a location that will minimize the impact of the building
loss. The amount of building penetration will need to be adjusted (could be greater or less than the
6 dB value assumed here) based on the installation location of the FWT antenna and the building
characteristics (some buildings may allow RF to pass better than others).
For the mobile case, 7 dB is assumed for a vehicle penetration value. If in-building is desired, then
this value would need to be modified accordingly. If it is desired to provide in-building coverage,
additional margin would be required.
The fade margin is set the same for fixed and mobile for these link budget examples. One view is
that the fade margin should be increased to provide for better reliability for a fixed system. This
increased fade margin, though, would apply to all subscribers. Another way to improve the
reliability for a fixed system is not by adding margin in the link budget, which effects all users, but
to take the worst performing FWT and replace the whip antenna with an external antenna. This will
improve its performance, which ultimately improves the overall reliability. Another view is that
the reliability for fixed should be higher since fixed is competing with the wireline service. The
amount of fade margin is related to the reliability. If the reliability criteria is increased, the fade
margin will also need to be increased.
Another value which differs between the fixed and mobile is the subscriber antenna height. This is
not part of the link budget above, but would be required in the propagation models. The typical
subscriber antenna height assumed for the mobile (portable) case is 1.5 meters. The FWT antenna
has the ability of being positioned at various heights (on a desk, on a wall, externally on the roof),
therefore the height of the FWT could range from 1 to 3 or more meters.
The following table provides an example of an IS-2000 1X reverse path RF link budget for a
mobile/portable system. It represents the reverse Radio Configuration 3. A similar approach can
be done for reverse Radio Configuration 4 by replacing the subscriber transmit power, processing
gain and E
b
/N
o
s with the appropriate values. Antenna gains, feeder losses, noise rise, building
losses, vehicle losses, shadow fade margins, etc. will differ from system to system and from site to
site (possibly even from sector to sector) based on the design objectives of the system planner.
4
Table 4-7: Example of an IS-2000 1X CDMA RF Link Budget
Note: 1. Path Loss values shown assume a medium traffic load on the reverse link for the
CDMA system.
2. The shadow fade margin assumes the effects of soft handoff and multiple cells.
An observation of the above table shows that the allowable path loss decreases as the data rate
increases. This means that a smaller cell radius would be required to support higher data rates. For
example, more sites would be required if a system was to be designed based on a reverse link
Parameter Unit Reference
9.6
kbps
9.6
kbps
19.2
kbps
38.4
kbps
76.8
kbps
153.6
kbps
Reverse Traffic Channel FCH SCH SCH SCH SCH SCH
Total Subscriber Unit Tx
Power
mW
P
T
Section 4.2.3.1.1 200 200 200 200 200 200
Subscriber Unit R-FCH or
R-DCCH Tx Power
mW
P
FCH
Section 4.2.3.1.1 200 111 90 63 41 25
Subscriber Unit R-SCH
Tx Power
mW
P
SCH
Section 4.2.3.1.1 - 89 110 137 159 175
Subscriber Unit Tx Power
(for the specified reverse
traffic channel)
dBm P
p
Section 4.2.3.1.1 23 19.5 20.4 21.4 22.0 22.4
Subscriber Unit Tx Feeder
Loss
dB
L
fp
Section 4.2.1.5 0 0 0 0 0 0
Subscriber Unit Antenna
Gain
dBd
G
p
Section 4.2.1.6 -2.1 -2.1 -2.1 -2.1 -2.1 -2.1
Body Loss dB
H
m
Section 4.2.1.3 2 2 2 2 2 2
Vehicle Loss dB
V
m
Section 4.2.1.2 6 6 6 6 6 6
Building Loss dB
B
m
Section 4.2.1.1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Base Antenna Gain dBd
G
b
Section 4.2.1.6 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5 14.5
Line Loss dB
L
fb
Section 4.2.1.5 3 3 3 3 3 3
kTB dBm
kTB
Section 4.2.3.2.1 -113.1 -113.1 -113.1 -113.1 -113.1 -113.1
Noise Figure dB
N
fb
Section 4.2.3.2.1 6 6 6 6 6 6
E
b
/N
o
dB
E
Section 4.2.2.3 5.6 4.6 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.1
Processing Gain dB
PG
Section 4.2.3.2 21.1 21.1 18.1 15.1 12.0 9.0
Base Rx Sensitivity dBm
S
Section 4.2.3.2 -122.6 -123.6 -121.6 -119.1 -116.6 -114.0
Interference Margin
(Note: 1)
dB
I
m
Section 4.2.2.1 3 3 3 3 3 3
Ambient Noise Rise dB
T
m
Section 4.2.1.4 0 0 0 0 0 0
Shadow Fade Margin
(Note: 2)
dB
F
m
Section 4.2.2.2 &
Section 4.2.4
5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6
Max. Allowable Path Loss dB
L
p
138.4 135.9 134.8 133.3 131.4 129.2
Isotropic Path Loss dB
L
i
142.7 140.2 139.1 137.6 135.7 133.5
4
assuming 76.8 kbps than if the system requirement was for 9.6 kbps. Assuming a propagation
exponent of 3.5, the 7 dB path loss difference between these two data rates would correspond to
the 76.8 kbps scenario requiring approximately 2.5 times the number of sites as the 9.6 kbps
scenario.
IS-2000 provides the ability to have asymmetrical data transmission. That is, the data rate on the
forward link can be different than the data rate employed on the reverse link. Initial data
applications for IS-2000 are assumed to demand more data to be transferred on the forward link
than on the reverse link (i.e. the forward link data rate will need to be faster than the reverse link
data rate). Additionally, it is viewed that the reverse link will be the limiting link with regards to
coverage, whereas the forward link will be the limiting link with regards to capacity. It is possible
that an RF reverse link based on a fundamental rate of 9.6 kbps would allow for sufficient path loss
so that a forward link of 76.8 kbps could be achieved. This means that the reverse link coverage to
support 9.6 kbps may provide for sufficient coverage on the forward link to support a user needing
76.8 kbps. This is not saying that a user rate of 153.6 kbps is not supported. A user, in close
proximity to the site, could have a forward and/or reverse supplemental channel at 153.6 kbps, but
not at the fringe of the site. Given these views, a system design based on the RF reverse link for
reverse data rates above 19.2 kbps may not be necessary. If data applications require a high volume
of reverse data, then higher data rates need to be considered.
These link budgets are examples and may need to be modified to accommodate specific design
goals for a system. Refer to the previous discussion on each of the parameters to determine if
alterations are required for a specific design.
4.2.6 RF Link Budget Summary
The RF link budget propagation related parameters have the most variability. These propagation
related parameters are typically vendor and technology independent. The link budget parameters,
but not the values, listed above can apply to all technologies and frequencies. For instance, the loss
associated with the transmission line is dependent upon the frequency of operation, but not that it
will be used for CDMA instead of GSM.
The following figure demonstrates the impact to the quantity of sites required if one assumption is
made over another. The figure only shows 5 examples. There are many other combinations that are
possible.
4
Figure 4-13: Impact of dB Trade-off to Number of Sites
4.3 Propagation Models
The propagation model is used in conjunction with the RF link budget to obtain an estimate of the
cell radius based on the allowable path loss from the link budget. Statistical propagation models
are used in budgetary designs to give quick estimates of cell radii within various environments and
ultimately to estimate the number of cells required for a system.
There are many RF propagation factors which could extend or restrict the coverage of a site (e.g.
proximity to buildings, actual terrain, antenna heights, topology, morphology, etc.). More detailed
propagation models, which include some or all of these factors, will produce more accurate
predictions of cell radii. The following sections give additional detail concerning statistical
propagation models.
4.3.1 Free Space Propagation Model
The free space power received by a receiver antenna, which is at a distance of d from the transmitter
antenna, is given by the Friis free space equation.
[EQ 4-30] P
R
P
T
G
T
G
R
4d
--------- -
,
_
2
=
4
Where:
P
T
is the transmitted power
G
T
is the transmitting antenna gain
G
R
is the receiving antenna gain
d is the separation distance between antennas
The path loss, which represents the signal attenuation as a positive quantity, is defined as the
difference between the effective transmitted power and the received power. It may or may not
include the effects of the antenna gains. The path loss for the free space model, when the antennas
are assumed to have unity gain, is provided by the following equation.
[EQ 4-31]
Expressed in dB as:
[EQ 4-32]
Where:
d is in meters
f is in Hertz
c is equal to the speed of light (3 x 10
8
meters per second)
[EQ 4-33]
[EQ 4-34]
[EQ 4-35]
[EQ 4-36]
[EQ 4-37]
The above free space equations show that 6 dB of loss is associated with a doubling of the
frequency. This same relationship also holds for the distance, if the distance is doubled, 6 dB of
additional loss will be encountered.
P
T
P
R
------
4d
----------
,
_
2
4df
c
----------- -
,
_
2
=
=
L
FS
dB ( ) 10
P
T
P
R
------
,
_
20
4
c
------
,
_
20 f ( ) 20 d ( ) log + log + log = log =
L
FS
dB ( ) 147.56 20 f
Hz
( ) 20 d
meters
( ) log + log + =
L
FS
dB ( ) 32.44 20 f (
MHz
) 20 d (
km
) log + log + =
L
FS
dB ( ) 27.55 20 f (
MHz
) 20 d (
meters
) log + log + =
L
FS
dB ( ) 36.58 20 f (
MHz
) 20 d (
miles
) log + log + =
L
FS
dB ( ) 37.87 20 f (
MHz
) 20 d (
feet
) log + log + =
4
4.3.2 Hata Propagation Model
Among the many technical reports that are concerned with propagation prediction methods for
mobile radio, Okumuras
6
report is believed to be the most comprehensive one. In his report, many
useful curves to predict a median value of the received signal strength are presented based on the
data collected in the Tokyo area. The Tokyo urban area was then used as a basic predictor for urban
areas. The correction factors for suburban and open areas are determined based on the transmit
frequency. Based on Okumuras prediction curves, empirical formulas for the median path loss,
L
p
, between two isotropic antennas were obtained by Hata and are known as the Hata empirical
formulas for path loss
7
. The Hata propagation formulas are used with the link budget calculation
to translate a path loss value to a cell radius.
For Urban Area:
[EQ 4-38]
For Suburban Area:
[EQ 4-39]
For Quasi Open Area:
[EQ 4-40]
For Open Rural Area:
[EQ 4-41]
Where:
A
Hm
Correction Factor For Vehicular Station Antenna Height
For a medium-small city:
[EQ 4-42]
For a large city:
[EQ 4-43]
6. Okumura, Y., Ohmori, E., Kawano, T., Fukada, K.: "Field strength and ITs Variability in VHF and UHF
Land-Mobile Radio Service", Rev. Elec. Commun. Lab., 16 (1968), pp. 825-873
7. Hata, M.: "Empirical formula for propagation loss in land mobile radio services", IEEE Trans. on Vehicu-
lar and Technology, VT-29 (1980), pp. 317-325
L
U
69.55 26.16 f
c
( ) log 13.82 H
b
( ) log A
Hm
44.9 6.55 H
b
( ) log ] r ( ) log [ + + =
L
S
L
U
2
f
c
28
------
,
_
log
2
5.4 =
L
q
L
U
4.78 f
c
( ) log [ ]
2
18.33 f
c
( ) log 35.94 + =
L
q
L
U
4.78 f
c
( ) log [ ]
2
18.33 f
c
( ) log 40.94 + =
A
Hm
1.1 f
c
( ) 0.7 log [ ] H
m
1.56 f
c
( ) 0.8 log [ ] =
A
Hm
3.2 11.75 H
m
( ) ] log [
2
4.97 =
4
L
u
, L
s
, L
q
Isotropic path loss values
f
c
Carrier frequency in MHz (valid 150 to 1000 MHz)
H
b
Base antenna height in meters (valid 30 to 200 meters)
H
m
Subscriber antenna height in meters (valid 1 to 10 meters)
r Radius of site in kilometers (valid 1 to 20 km)
This model is valid for large and small cells (i.e. base station antenna heights above roof-top levels
of buildings adjacent to the base station).
4.3.3 COST-231-Hata Propagation Model
The COST 231 Subgroup on Propagation Models proposed an improved propagation model for
urban areas to be applied above 1500 MHz
8
. Like Hatas model, the COST-231-Hata model is
based on the measurements of Okumura. The COST-231-Hata propagation model has been derived
by analyzing Okumuras propagation curves in the upper frequency band. Hatas analysis was
restricted to frequencies below 1000 MHz. The COST-231-Hata propagation model extended the
range of parameters to include 1500 to 2000 MHz. Their modified model was based on Hatas
formula for the basic transmission loss in urban areas (see above).
For Urban Area:
[EQ 4-44]
For Suburban Area:
[EQ 4-45]
For Quasi Open Area:
[EQ 4-46]
For Open Rural Area:
[EQ 4-47]
8. COST 231 - UHF Propagation, "Urban transmission loss models for mobile radio in the 900- and 1,800-
MHz bands", COST 231 TD (91) 73 The Hagne, September, 1991
L
U
46.3 33.9 f
c
( ) log 13.82 H
b
( ) log A
Hm
44.9 6.55 H
b
( ) log ] r ( ) log [ + + =
L
S
L
U
2
f
c
28
------
,
_
log
2
5.4 =
L
q
L
U
4.78 f
c
( ) log [ ]
2
18.33 f
c
( ) log 35.94 + =
L
q
L
U
4.78 f
c
( ) log [ ]
2
18.33 f
c
( ) log 40.94 + =
4
Where:
A
Hm
Correction Factor For Vehicular Station Antenna Height
For a medium-small city:
[EQ 4-48]
For a metropolitan center:
[EQ 4-49]
L
u
, L
s
, L
q
Isotropic path loss values
f
c
Carrier frequency in MHz (valid 1500 to 2000 MHz)
H
b
Base antenna height in meters (valid 30 to 200 meters)
H
m
Subscriber antenna height in meters (valid 1 to 10 meters)
r Radius of site in kilometers (valid 1 to 20 km)
This model is valid for large and small cells (i.e. base station antenna heights above roof-top levels
of buildings adjacent to the base station).
A comparison between the Hata and COST-231-Hata equations show that they are similar except
for the following terms:
Hata yields
COST-231-Hata yields
Measurements which have been taken at 1900 MHz have shown the path loss difference between
800 MHz and 1900 MHz closer to 11 dB. The COST-231-Hata model was developed to account
for this difference.
4.3.4 Additional Propagation Models
The above propagation models are widely known and are usually referenced when conversing in
more general terms. Numerous books can be referenced for further discussion on these models,
such as those listed in references
9,10
.
9. Parsons, David, "The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel", Copyright 1992, Reprinted 1996 by John Wiley
& Sons Ltd.
10. Rappaport, Theodore S., "Wireless Communications Principles & Practices", Copyright 1996 by Prentice
Hall PTR
A
Hm
1.1 f
c
( ) 0.7 log [ ] H
m
1.56 f
c
( ) 0.8 log [ ] =
A
Hm
1.1 f
c
( ) 0.7 log [ ] H
m
1.56 f
c
( ) 0.8 log [ ] 3 =
69.55 26.16 f
c
( ) A
Hm
log +
46.3 33.9 f
c
( ) A
Hm
log +
4
These propagation models can be used to obtain an estimate of the expected radius of a site.
However, they do not include the effects of the antenna patterns, ground clutter and terrain
experienced between the transmitter and receiver. In addition, the Hata and COST-231-Hata model
are dependent upon the environment classification. Defining the area types are fairly subjective and
the entire cell site is considered to be the defined area type. For instance, if an area is assumed to
be urban but is more realistically suburban, a 12 dB impact results (many more sites would be
specified than what would really be needed). In addition, these propagation models do not portray
ground clutter such as a forested area, though modifications can be made to the propagation model
or the link budget to account for loss due to foliage or forest.
One model that does include these effects is the Xlos propagation model in Motorolas NetPlan
propagation analysis tool. This propagation model is based on work from Longley & Rice,
Okumura, Bullington and Motorolas extensive field measurement data. It takes into account the
effects of ground reflections, diffractions and line of sight propagation. It defines the path loss with
respect to dipole antennas. Hata or COST-231-Hata propagation models assume path loss is
defined with respect to isotropic antennas.
As was mentioned in the introduction, this sophistication in a propagation tool is required to
provide a more realistic portrayal of the coverage for a system.
4.4 Forward Link Coverage
In Section 4.2, the CDMA subscriber-to-base link (reverse or uplink) was discussed. This is a
many-to-one link, where many subscribers communicate with a single base station (or a fixed
number of base stations). Hence, the link can be simply characterized using a link budget with
additional margin included for interference. This margin is typically measured in terms of noise
rise at the cell, which is specified in terms of the operating point relative to a fixed asymptotic
capacity (pole) (e.g. operating at 75% of the pole results in a 6 dB noise rise).
The CDMA base-to-subscriber (forward or downlink) is a one-to-many link, where a single base
station (or a fixed number of base stations) communicates with many subscribers. This link is
somewhat more complicated to analyze, and it does not lend itself easily to a simple RF link budget
method. The reason for the difficulty is:
In the absence of multipath, the use of orthogonal Walsh codes on the downlink removes
the intra-cell interference. With multipath, intra-cell interference causes a reduction in
signal-to-noise ratio. However, this is mitigated (in most cases) by the fact that
multipath improves the subscriber receiver sensitivity.
Subscriber receiver sensitivity is characterized in terms of E
b
/(I
oc
+N
o
), energy-per-bit
over other-cell interference (plus noise) power density. It is assumed that there is
sufficient power allocated on the downlink such that thermal noise does not significantly
effect the performance. It has been determined, using simulations, that 13 Watts is
sufficient to balance the uplink and downlink of the IS-95A/B CDMA system (assuming
that the Base Station receiver uses the CSM (MCC8) demodulator.) Otherwise, in newer
Base Stations (the SC4812T series, the JCDMA SC9640, SC4840, and SC2440, the
SC300 and SC340), that have receivers with the EMAXX (MCC24) chip set which
4
offers improved receiver sensitivity, 27.5 Watts is needed to balance the uplink and
downlink of the IS-95A/B CDMA system. These simulations assumed a subscriber
noise figure = 10 dB, base noise figure = 6 dB, and subscriber PA power of 200 mW. It
has also been determined by simulations that 25 Watts is sufficient to balance the uplink
and downlink of an IS-2000 1X system. These simulations assumed EMAXX equivalent
Base Station receiver performance, forward Radio Configuration 4 (RC 4), subscriber
noise figure = 10 dB, base noise figure = 5 dB, and subscriber PA power of 200 mW.
The downlink E
b
/I
oc
varies substantially with multipath (or soft handoff) and subscriber
speed. For example, E
b
/I
oc
in 1-path (i.e. no multipath) Rayleigh fading at slow
subscriber speed can be as high as 20-25 dB, whereas with 3-path, E
b
/I
oc
can be less
than 8 dB.
Soft handoff also complicates the downlink, because typically subscribers in soft
handoff require less power (from each cell site). On the other hand, the subscribers at the
edge of the soft handoff region experience high interference, and the E
b
/I
oc
performance
(without multipath) is the worst. Thus, for downlink, it is not sufficient to balance the
link to the edge of the cell, but it has to be balanced to the edge of the soft handoff
region. Note that the soft handoff regions vary dynamically as a function of load in the
desired and the surrounding cells, as well as the propagation environment.
Though a forward link budget is not addressed, it is important to account for the power
requirements when designing (simulation studies) and optimizing a CDMA system. Forward link
power at the base station may limit coverage and capacity. The following sections provide some
guidelines to assist the system engineer.
4.4.1 BTS Equipment Capabilities
In these guidelines, two PA parameters are frequently referred to: the Average Rated Power (ARP
or Steady State Rating) and the High Power Alarm Rating (HPA). The table below is neither
comprehensive nor, necessarily, current; refer to equipment specifications for details on the Base
Transmission Station (BTS) product of interest.
Table 4-8: PA Ratings for Some BTS Products
ef
BTS Product Frequency
(MHz)
Number of
PA
Modules
Sector
Average
Rated Power
(W)
Sector/Carrier
High Power
Alarm Rating
(W)
Sector/Carrier
High Power
Alarm Rating
(dB)
a
Sector/Carrier
SC300 1X
Microcell
800/1900 1 10 31.6 5
SC340 1X
Picocell
Japan 800 1 0.2 N/A N/A
SC340 1X
Microcell
Japan 800 1 5 20 6
4
a. The High Power Alarm Rating (dB) is represented here in terms of dB above the Average Rated Power. It
is also a worst case specification; typical ratings are 0.5 to 1.0 dB better.
b. This is a TrunkedPower BTS. It has four LPA modules serving one three-sector carrier. Its Carrier ARP
is shared across all three sectors. The High Power Alarm functions on a total carrier power basis, as
opposed to an individual sector basis as for non-trunked BTSs. A sector-equivalent HPA rating is shown
here only for comparative purposes, and is based on a conservative trunking benefit of 1.1 dB.
c. This product, having no fans, has its Average Rated Power thermally limited.
d. This is a TrunkedPower
TM
BTS. It has four Trunked LPA modules serving one three-sector carrier. Its
Carrier ARP is shared across all three sectors. (A six-sector carrier is served by two sets of Trunked LPA
modules.) The High Power Alarm functions on a total carrier power basis, as opposed to an individual
sector basis as for non-trunked BTSs. A sector-equivalent HPA rating is shown here only for comparative
purposes, and is based on B1 specifications.
e. At the time of this revision, it is believed that the power ratings listed above will be the same for the IS-
2000 1X modes.
f. The models compatible at this time with IS-2000 1X are those in the SC4812T family, the SC300 1X, the
JCDMA models, SC9640, SC4840, and SC2440, and the JCDMA microcellular SC340 1X.
The following table illustrates the pilot RF power adjustment range capability for several different
CDMA BTS products. The upper specification is determined by the BTS RF gain when the BTS
is operating with a pilot digital gain of 127. The lower specification, corresponding to the sum of
the pilot, page, and sync signals, depends on a specific BTS transmit dynamic range. For a BTS
SC611 1900 1 7
c
28 6
SC614T 1900 (4
b
) 16/48 32
b
/76 3
b
/2
SC4812T/
ET/ET Lite
1900 (4
d
) 22.5/67.5 70.8
d
/107.2 5
d
/2
SC4852E 1900 2 20 32 2
SC4852R 1900 4 45 71 2
SC604 1900 2 10
c
24 3.8
SC611 800 1 7
c
32 6.6
SC614 800 2 20 32 2
SC2450 800 2 20 40 2
SC4812 800 2 22.5 36 2
SC4812T/
ET/ET Lite
800 (4
d
) 22.5/67.5 70.8
d
/107.2 5
d
/2
Table 4-8: PA Ratings for Some BTS Products
ef
(MHz)
Number of
PA
Modules
Sector
Average
Rated Power
(W)
Sector/Carrier
High Power
Alarm Rating
(W)
Sector/Carrier
High Power
Alarm Rating
(dB)
a
Sector/Carrier
4
equipped with a Single Tone LPA, an external attenuator is required when operating at lower than
the minimum specification. For a BTS equipped with a multitone LPA, the minimum total power
(shown in note b. of the table) must be maintained for proper operation. This can be achieved by
implementing one of the following: 1) multi-carrier operation, 2) raising the minimum operating
level, or 3) adding an external attenuator. The table below is neither comprehensive nor,
necessarily, current; refer to equipment specifications for details on the BTS product of interest.
a. Maximum pilot RF power as determined by the BTS RF gain with pilot digital gain of 127. The
minimum limit is with overhead channels (pilot+page+sync) except SC300 and SC340, see note d.
b. LPA power must be converged first before operating at the minimum level, which is assumed for the pilot
beacon application. The minimum level for the LPA to converge depends on the LPA types: 36 dBm for
125W ELPA; 40 dBm for 70W NAMPS/SC9600 LPA; and 42 dBm for 125W NAMPS/SC9600 LPA.
c. Maximum pilot power limits to 36 dBm with SGLF4009KE BBX.
d. Pilot only.
e. The models compatible at this time with IS-2000 1X are those in the SC4812T family, the SC300 1X, and
the JCDMA models, SC9640, SC4840, SC2440 and SC340 1X.
Table 4-9: BTS Pilot Power Adjustment Range
ae
Pilot Power Adjustment Range
(MHz)
Minimum PPS
a
(dBm)
Maximum Pilot
(dBm)
SC300 1X Microcell 800/1900
+14.0
d
+33.0
SC340 1X Picocell Japan 800
-2.0
d
+16.0
SC340 1X Microcell Japan 800
+14.0
d
+32.0
SC604 1900 +24.0 +33.0
SC604 800 +27.0 +36.0
SC614T 1900 +27.0 +36.0
SC6x1 800/1700/1900 +23.0 +33.0
SC2400 ELPA 800
+23.0
b
+40.0
SC2450 800 +30.0
+33.0
c
SC4820 1700 +27.0 +36.0
SC485x/SC485xE 1900 +27.0 +36.0
SC4812 800 +23.0 +36.0
SC4812T/ET/ET Lite 800 +28.0 +36.0
SC4812T/ET/ET Lite 1900 +28.0 +36.0
SC9600/SC9620 800
+23.0
b
+40.0
SC9640/SC4840/SC2440 800 (JCDMA)
+23.0
b
+40.0
4
Additional factors that will have an impact on the power amplifier are:
The use of external duplexers should be accounted for by including an additional 0.5 dB
of loss, nominally. For Motorolas SC4800-series E options (i.e. outdoor products)
and the SC600-series, duplexers are included and the specifications will already reflect
the duplexer loss.
For multiple carriers, the use of external combining should be accounted for. Nominal
figures include ~3.5 dB of loss; although low-loss combiners (~1.8 dB) are available.
For example, if the insertion loss of cavity combiners and associated cabling was on the
order of 1.8 dB, then the 20 Watts associated with the SC2450 would drop to 13.2 Watts.
For Motorola products with internal combiners (e.g. SC4812T), the specifications will
already reflect the combiner loss.
Products exploiting PA trunking across sectors (e.g. SC4812T) have both sector-carrier
and site-carrier limits of which to be aware. For example, a three-sector SC4812T at
either 800 MHz or 1900 MHz can deliver 67.5 Watts total for the site-carrier, but is rated
for 22.5 Watts for an individual sector-carrier (not including duplexer loss).
Verify that the Pilot, Page, Sync, and Traffic Channel power relationships can be
established. Although the PA may be rated to deliver the desired total power output,
other devices may limit the input signals into the LPA or the ratios among them. For
example, there are gain limits on the Paging, Sync, and Traffic channels of 127 (7F
HEX
),
but the Pilot has an upper limit of 1023 (3FF
HEX
). Adjusting the Pilot power to achieve
~4 Watts or more may require the Pilot gain setting to exceed 127, and thereby impact
the ratio of maximum traffic channel gain to Pilot gain, which may impact performance.
Account for any thermal limitations. Typically for indoor products, the operating
temperature range is 0C to 50C. The ARP is expressed in dBm or Watts at 25C, the
midpoint in the temperature range. An allowance for variation due to temperature is
provided. For example, the 800 MHz SC4812T specification is as follows.
Transmitter Sector Output Power with equal power sharing per sector (non-duplexed):
43.5 dBm (22.5 W) @25C t2 dB over temperature.
When the base station is to be operating inside an air conditioned environment, then the
43.5 dBm would be used for planning purposes. But, if the base station is to be subjected
to warm extremes (i.e. close to 50C), then greater consideration should be given to the
anticipated power requirements.
Some self-contained products have their ARP thermally limited due to lack of fans.
Additionally, to protect against overheating, the SC601 and SC604 products have a
thermal foldback feature that dynamically and proportionately reduces the output
power beginning at 35C (for operation at the specified ARP) up to a maximum of 3 dB
at 50C. (Note that IS-97 tolerates a power out variation of +2 dB to -4dB over the
temperature range.) Conversely, the SC611, SC614, and SC614T products only
foldback output power above the ARP or maximum operating temperature
specifications.
4
The SC4852E is rated for 180 Watts or 18 PA modules. This permits 3 sectors of 2
carriers with each sector-carrier at 30 Watts or, alternatively, 2 sectors of 2 carriers with
each sector-carrier at 40 Watts. The SC4852 is rated for 40 Watts ARP for all 6 sector-
carriers.
4.4.2 CDMA Signal Power Distribution Characteristics and PA Sizing
There are three characteristics of the CDMA signal power distribution that are useful in discussions
on PA requirements, which can be compared to PA equipment capabilities. These include:
1. The Long Term Average (LT-AVG): represents an average over 30 minutes or more.
For the PA to be sized correctly, the LT-AVG must be less than or equal to the Average
Rated Power (ARP).
2. The Short Term Average (ST-AVG): represents an average over 5 minutes.
For products that are not thermally limited, it may prove useful, as a rule of thumb, to
compare the ST-AVG to the ARP. Greater detail on this can be found in the next section.
3. The Very Short Term Average (VST-AVG): represents an average over less than 2
seconds.
For the PA to be sized correctly, the VST-AVG must be less than or equal to the High
Power Alarm Rating.
Note that any peak excursions significantly higher than the VST-AVG are of very short
duration and are managed by PA overload protection mechanisms.
4.4.3 General Power Relationships
As a result of various simulation studies, the following characteristics of a system that is
interference limited (i.e. fully loaded) have been derived and may be considered rules of thumb:
1. The LT-AVG is approximately 5 times the Pilot power.
2. The ST-AVG is approximately 10 times the Pilot power. This is 3 dB over the LT-AVG.
3. The VST-AVG is approximately 15 times the Pilot power. This is ~4.8 dB over the LT-
AVG and ~1.8 dB over the ST-AVG.
Given the deviation of the power distribution, the system designer will generally find the indoor
products (i.e. SC4852, SC2450, and SC4812) and the outdoor products with fans (i.e. SC614,
SC614T, SC4852E) to be High Power Alarm (HPA) limited. Since the ST-AVG is ~1.8 dB below
the VST-AVG and the Average Rated Power (ARP) is 2 dB below the HPA (worst case), using a
ST-AVG comparison to the ARP can provide a convenient rule of thumb for estimating the PA
requirements for these products. Specifically, the ST-AVG should be no greater than the ARP.
Those products that have no fans (i.e. are thermally limited) include the SC601, SC604, and the
SC611. Both the SC601 and the SC604, with their HPA rating 3.8 and 4.8 dB over the ARP (worst
case), respectively, are close to being balanced in terms of HPA and ARP limits relative to the
CDMA signal power distribution. Conversely, the SC611, at 1900 MHz and 800 MHz, is an
exception; with its HPA of 6 dB or more over the ARP, it is definitely ARP limited.
4
Based on simulations of CDMA carriers at capacity, the average forward link power per traffic
channel relative to the Pilot power can be estimated. For Rate Set 1 (RS1), ~13.5% of the Pilot
power would be consumed on average. For Rate Set 2 (RS2), ~27.8%. For a 2 Watt Pilot, the
average traffic channel power is ~270mW and 556mW for RS1 and RS2, respectively. These
figures take into account the Voice Activity Factor. IS-2000 forward link RC 3, RC 4, and RC 5
may have up to twice the Forward Link capacity of IS-95A/B; therefore, the average TCH powers
in these modes may be approximately 1/2 that indicated above. [Greater detail on these estimates
can be found in Section 4.4.5.] The number of forward links associated with this estimate is the
98th percentile of forward links and would include soft/softer links (i.e. 2% Erlang B on Walsh
code usage). This would also correspond to the ST-AVG.
Since RS2 consumes approximately double the power of RS1, a RS2 system can only support
approximately half the subscribers. Consequently, an LPA sized correctly for a RS2 carrier at
capacity would be sized correctly for RS1 as well. The transition, therefore, between RS2 and RS1
(i.e. EVRC) would not require any additional PA power.
The RS1 and RS2 traffic channels correspond to the fundamental rates of 9600 bps and 14400 bps
modes of RC 1 and RC 2 of IS-2000. The IS-2000 1X BTS will also support RC 3, RC 4, and RC
5. These Radio Configurations employ different error correcting schemes, and offer higher data
rates than RC 1 and RC 2 (up to 153,600 bps will be supported in RC 3 and RC 4). In general, data
rates higher than 14400 bps will require proportionately higher traffic channel powers (and lower
traffic channel capacities) than discussed above.
There is a level of Pilot power which will balance the reverse link. To increase the Pilot power
beyond this level will not significantly improve the composite area reliability, since the reverse link
becomes limiting. For this reason, it is recommended that the Pilot powers be designed to levels
sufficient to balance the reverse link, but not excessively so as to conserve the PA resource.
The introduction of the EMAXX chip set (supported in CBSC Release 8.0 and only with certain
BTS products) improves the reverse link budget by an approximate 3 dB for systems that are fully
loaded (average rise levels > 2 dB). This improvement would, for initial system designs,
necessitate a compensatory increase in forward power by 3 dB to balance the links.
Note: In IS-2000 1X upgraded models, the Qualcomm CSM5000 chip set is used in place of the
EMAXX chip set. Thus, in these upgraded models, the full reverse link improvement is not
available in RC 1 and RC 2.
The introduction of a tower-top amplifier will improve the reverse link by effectively negating the
losses between the antenna and the top of the rack (approximately 3 to 4 dB, refer back to
Section 4.2.3.2.1). This improvement (as with the introduction of the EMAXX chip set) would
necessitate a compensatory increase in forward power to balance the links. When a TTA is
introduced under the assumption of light loading (e.g. highway site), it is more likely that the
links can be balanced. It is not recommended to use TTAs elsewhere.
A 2:1 deployment in overlaying analog will require an approximate 3 dB increase in forward power
to overcome the Inter-System Interference (ISI). For a 1:1 overlay of analog, the PA requirements
are no different than normal.
4
4.4.4 Design Guidelines
When initially designing a CDMA system, the following two points should be kept in mind in order
to minimize the chance of sectors not having sufficient power out capabilities.
Design the system with low pilot powers in mind. It may be advisable to consider using
a 1 Watt pilot as the default.
Inter-system Interference (ISI) will require higher pilot powers.
Motorolas NetPlan CDMA Simulator (or comparable design tool) can be utilized to generate
statistics for a CDMA design. These statistics can be analyzed to determine if any sectors will have
a potential PA issue.
Evaluate the coverage/capacity/quality impacts of reduced pilot powers.
The confidence level is impacted by the number of Monte Carlo runs performed in
generating the data.
Evaluate the power requirements of each sector-carrier. Outputs from the CDMA
Simulator include statistics on traffic channel (TCH) power and forward links (i.e.
Walsh codes). Details on this evaluation should be found in the RF Design Procedure.
For conventionally powered BTS products (i.e. no sharing of PA resources across
multiple sectors and/or carriers), it is only necessary to determine the LT-AVG and
VST-AVG requirements for the sector-carrier and then compare them with the ARP and
HPA ratings, respectively. The ratings must exceed the requirements.
For TrunkedPower BTS products, there are two steps:
1. Determine the LT-AVG and VST-AVG requirements over the appropriate set of
sector-carriers over which the PA resource is shared and then compare them with the
ARP and HPA ratings, respectively. The ratings must exceed the requirements.
2. Determine the LT-AVG requirement for each individual sector-carrier and then
compare this with the ARP rating for a sector-carrier. The rating must exceed the
requirement.
As has been stated earlier, the SC4812T is rated for 22.5 Watts ARP in any individual
sector-carrier and 67.5 Watts total for 3 sectors of 1 carrier (not including duplexer loss).
4.4.4.1 Comparison to Average Rated Power
The following steps can be performed to obtain the LT-AVG for the sector-carrier(s) which can be
compared with the product ARP specification (for many products, these values are provided in
Table 4-8).
4
1. Take the average of the TCH power distribution.
For trunked PAs, generate the average for the individual sector-carrier for comparison
against sector-carrier ARP limits and then again for all the sector-carriers over which the
resource is to be shared for comparison against total ARP limits. For the total ARP
comparison, the power statistics must first be summed across the appropriate set of
sector-carriers within each Monte Carlo run. Although this will not impact the average,
it will impact the deviation.
2. Add in the constant power components associated with the Pilot, Page, and Sync
channels.
3. Compare this with the ARP of the PA. It must be lower.
Note: to compare the ST-AVG to the ARP, use the 98th percentile of the TCH power distribution.
4.4.4.2 Comparison to High Power Alarm Rating
The following steps can be performed to obtain the VST-AVG for the sector-carrier(s) which can
be compared with the product HPA specification (for some products, these values are provided in
Table 4-8).
1. Determine the 98th percentile of the TCH power distribution.
For trunked PAs, generate the average for all the sector-carriers over which the resource
is to be shared for comparison against total HPA limits. The power statistics must first
be summed across the appropriate set of sector-carriers within each Monte Carlo run.
The 98th percentile is then taken across the summed set of statistics.
2. Scale it up by a factor of 1.5. This compensates for variations in the voice activity factor
(up to a level that corresponds to the 98th percentile of the binomial distribution).
3. Add in the constant power components associated with the Pilot, Page, and Sync
channels.
4. Compare this with the High Power Alarm Rating. It should be lower.
4.4.4.3 Comparison to Walsh Code Limit
1. Take the average number of forward links. This may be interpreted as Walsh code
Erlangs.
2. Calculate a maximum number of forward links based on 2% GOS Erlang B for the
number of Walsh code Erlangs derived in step 1.
3. Compare step 2 results to the Walsh code limit. It should be lower.
4.4.5 General Power Requirements
In the absence of more precise simulations, here are some definitions and equations that can be
used to provide power requirements as a function of Rate Set, pilot power, and number of forward
links.
4
Definitions:
P
pilot
is the Pilot power.
P
page
is the Page power (commonly 75% of P_pilot).
P
sync
is the Sync power (commonly 10% of P_pilot).
FwdLinks
50th-ile
is equivalent to Walsh code Erlangs. It can be derived from the
Effective Traffic Load using the Soft/Softer Handoff Factor.
FwdLinks
98th-ile
is equivalent to the number of Walsh codes that result from taking
Walsh code Erlangs at 2% Erlang B.
V
eff
(Effective Voice Activity Factor) is scaled up from the normal VAF (Voice
Activity Factor) to compensate for Power Control Bit puncturing on the forward link.
The PCB bits are transmitted at a constant high power to maintain the integrity of the
closed loop power control mechanism. Scaling the VAF is one method of compensating
for the effect on forward power output. V_eff is 0.55 and 0.47 for Rate Sets 1 and 2 of
IS-95 systems, and Radio Configurations 1 and 2 of IS-2000 1X systems, respectively.
V
wc
represents, for the VAF binomial distribution, a ratio of the 98th percentile to the
mean. A value of 1.5 is used.
P
tch_avg
is the Average Traffic Channel Power. As a fraction of P
pilot
, these powers are
typically 24.6% and 59.1% for Rate Sets 1 and 2, respectively.
Assume:
[EQ 4-50]
4.4.5.1 Minimum ARP Based on LT-AVG Estimate
The following equations can be used to determine the minimum ARP specification based on the
Pilot power and the average number of links.
[EQ 4-51]
Rate Set 1:
[EQ 4-52]
Rate Set 2:
[EQ 4-53]
Notes:
1. To compare the ST-AVG to the ARP, use FwdLinks
98th-ile
in place of FwdLinks
50th-ile
2. Formulas for Rate Set 1 and 2 also apply to RC 1 and RC 2 respectively.
3. IS-2000 1X RC 3, RC 4, and RC 5 are expected to have twice the Forward Link capacity
of IS-95A/B for the same ARP; therefore, the average TCH powers in these modes may
be approximately 1/2 those indicated above.
P
Pilot
P
Page
P
Sync
+ + 1.85 P
Pilot
=
AverageRatedPower P
Pilot
P
Page
P
Sync
FwdLink
50th ile
P
tch_avg
V
eff
+ + + =
AverageRatedPower P
Pilot
1.85 [ F ( wdLink
50th ile
0.1353) ] + =
AverageRatedPower P
Pilot
1.85 [ F ( wdLink
50th ile
0.2778) ] + =
4
4.4.5.2 Minimum HPA Based on VST-AVG Estimate
The following equations can be used to determine the minimum HPA specification based on P
pilot
and FwdLinks
98th-ile
.
[EQ 4-54]
Rate Set 1:
[EQ 4-55]
Rate Set 2:
[EQ 4-56]
Alternatively, an upper estimate on FwdLinks
98th-ile
can be determined based on the HPA rating
and P
pilot
. This may serve as a Walsh code limit that will block traffic at levels that near the HPA
rating.
Rate Set 1:
[EQ 4-57]
Rate Set 2:
[EQ 4-58]
4.4.5.3 Exceeding the High Power Alarm Rating
On systems lacking carrier load management features, an LPA module which exceeds its High
Power Alarm Rating will enter an OOS_RAM maintenance state. The consequences and possible
operational response to this event were outlined in FYI No. SCCDM-1997.84 March 20, 1997.
LPA modules in systems having these features installed will not enter OOS_RAM.
If OOS_RAM events are occurring, the following design and optimization options could be taken:
Add more PA power. Depending upon the BTS product and the installed configuration,
there may be an ability to add an additional PA module.
Reoptimize the pilot power to a lower level. Be careful to review the potential
consequences on coverage. If the sites involved have the potential for significant
overlap, then lowering pilot powers may be the appropriate response.
Reoptimize the forward power control parameters. For example, reducing the Nominal
Traffic Channel Gain can reduce the overall output power and PA requirements.
HighPowerAlarmRating P
Pi l ot
P
Page
P
Sync
FwdLink
98th il e
P
tch_avg
V
ef f
V
wc
+ + + =
Pilot
1.85 [ F ( wdLink
98th ile
0.2030) ] + =
Pilot
1.85 [ F ( wdLink
98th ile
0.4167) ] + =
FwdLink
98th ile
Pilot
) 1.85] 0.2030 ( [ =
FwdLink
98th ile
Pilot
) 1.85] 0.4167 ( [ =
4
A Walsh code limit can be implemented which will maintain traffic on a sector-carrier
basis to levels which should not exceed the High Power Alarm Rating of the PA.
Determining this threshold can be based on the information provided here. Once Walsh
code limits are in place, Walsh code usage and blocking statistics may be monitored and
projected against the limit per standard traffic engineering guidelines.
4.4.5.4 Carrier Load Management Overview
With feature 1225B, a Fixed Power Threshold (dBm) sets the maximum output allowed per sector/
carrier and will limit the LPAs providing power to that sector/carrier. This parameter is used only
when the system has the Activate Fixed Overload Protection parameter enabled. This attribute
establishes a high water mark at which the CDMA transceivers will actively reduce gain if this
power threshold is exceeded for the given sector/carrier.
With feature 415B, the decision by the mobility manager (MM) to allocate a Walsh code or channel
element for subscriber originations and terminations is conditional upon the RF load in the forward
and reverse directions on the carrier selected for an allocation attempt.
The Group Line Interface (GLI) or Motorola Advanced Wideband Interface (MAWI) card at each
BTS is responsible for gathering real time forward and reverse link quality data from the traffic
channel elements and CDMA transceivers within each sector-carrier under its control. Forward and
reverse channel RF quality information is sent to the MM via SCAP (Application Protocol)
messaging and used by the MM to make decisions about whether or not to allow new call channel
allocation within a sector-carrier and to load balance channel allocation among carriers within a
particular sector. Forward and reverse FER statistics for each sector-carrier are reported to the MM,
where they are used to automatically adjust per sector-carrier thresholds and to allow/disallow
channel allocation within each sector-carrier.
The GLI or MAWI will also set a flag in the SCAP measurement report when the sector-carrier's
CDMA transceiver exceeds a user defined power output. The MM will deny origination/
terminations in the sector-carrier until the flag is cleared in a subsequent SCAP message.
The GLI or MAWI will also calculate the actual power being used by each sector-carrier's CDMA
transceiver, as well as the total power output of the LPA associated with the sector-carrier, and
forward the information to the MM via the periodic SCAP RF metrics reporting messages. This
data is for statistics collection and not used by the MM to make channel allocation decisions.
With feature 4472C (available starting with CBSC Release 16.0), in addition to gathering real-time
forward and reverse link quality data from the traffic channel elements and CDMA transceivers
within each sector-carrier under its control, the RF Load Manager at each BTS is responsible for
using the received forward and reverse FER statistics for each sector-carrier to automatically adjust
per sector-carrier thresholds and to provide near real-time updates of forward and reverse load
conditions to the Time Slice Manager. The Time Slice Manager is a BTS based mechanism to
schedule data activity in a series of small periods of time to maximize use of the forward and
reverse power capacity.
The RF Load Manager will also inhibit supplemental allocation in the sector-carrier when the
4
sector-carriers CDMA transceiver exceeds a user-defined fixed limit power output or if the sector-
carriers LPA is in gain limiting mode due to an LPA overload condition. It accomplishes this by
manipulating the various thresholds.
4.4.6 Power Allocation in Mixed Mode Systems
Note: IS-2000 CDMA is not used in mixed mode with analog cellular.
The subject of base station transmitter power considerations in mixed-mode (IS-95 CDMA plus
analog) systems is generally not well understood by those responsible for setting the levels. The
following sections provide an explanation on estimating the CDMA forward channel carrier power
requirements and a calculation of the derated LPA power specification. The formulas for derating
the rated power output of AMPS Band ELPA, the Combined-Shelf AMPS Band ELPA, and the
AMPS Band LPAs for any combination of analog and CDMA carriers are presented. Other linear
power amplifier models will have different derating recommendations. Also provided is an
example on how to allocate available transmitter power between IS-95 CDMA carriers and the
analog carriers on a sector of a mixed-mode base station, which is intended to illustrate the
concepts and considerations involved in determining these requirements. It should be noted that
each mixed-mode site will be unique, and that in general, the results will differ from the example.
System Engineering must design the site for the desired coverage, performance, and traffic channel
capacity, without exceeding the PA power limitations of the base station, preferably by using the
best sophisticated simulation tools available, such as the CDMA Simulator option of the NetPlan
system design tool package. In the absence of a sophisticated simulation tool, the following
calculations can be used to estimate the mixed mode power allocation of available transmitter
power of a linear power amplifier.
CDMA Forward Channel Carrier Power
CDMA forward channel carrier power varies greatly depending on how many traffic channels are
in use, the characteristics of the users voices, the Forward Power Control settings as requested by
each subscriber unit in use, and the power allocated for overhead functions (Pilot, Page and Sync).
An approximation of the CDMA forward channel carrier power can be defined as the power under
the following conditions:
Number of Forward Links (or total Traffic Channels): The number of traffic channels
required at the 2% Blocked-Calls-Cleared (Erlang B) Grade of Service level plus the
number of traffic channels that are in Soft Handoff with another cell, and/or in Softer
Handoff with another sector of the same cell, i.e., N
fwd_links
= N
2%_GOS
x SSHOF,
where SSHOF is the Soft plus Softer Handoff Factor
Traffic Channel power: The power of the average traffic channel due to average
modulation plus full rate Power Control Bits, i.e., approximately 0.15 x P
pilot
for Rate
Set 1, and approximately 0.27 x P
pilot
for Rate Set 2
4
Forward Power Control: The average Forward Power Control setting, at this setting the
average traffic channel power is still approximately 0.15 x P
pilot
for Rate Set 1, and
approximately 0.27 x P
pilot
for Rate Set 2
Overhead power: Pilot plus Page plus Sync power is equal to P
pilot
plus 0.75 x P
pilot
plus
0.1 x P
pilot
= 1.85x P
pilot
Since the component parts of the CDMA carrier power are all expressed in terms of Pilot power,
and since Pilot power is generally determined by the site coverage requirements, the power may be
summed up as follows:
P
cdma
= Overhead power + Traffic Channel power
P
cdma
= 1.85 x P
pilot
+ N
fwd_links
x 0.15 x P
pilot
(for Rate Set 1) or,
P
cdma
= 1.85 x P
pilot
+ N
fwd_links
x 0.27 x P
pilot
(for Rate Set 2)
It must be realized that these formulas are approximations, since the power level of the overhead
components and the number and power level of the traffic channels continuously vary in the real
world.
Linear Power Amplifier Derating
A. AMPS Band ELPA
The present AMPS band version of ELPA may contain two, three, or four ELPA modules,
depending on the site or sector power requirement.
The four-module AMPS band ELPA can provide up to 120 Watts of output power at the output of
the ELPA frame for either 1 CDMA carrier or up to 20 analog carriers. When more than 20 analog
carriers or more than 1 CDMA carrier are being amplified, the output power specification follows
a derating curve from 120 Watts to about 109 Watts for a very large number of analog and CDMA
carriers. This is due to the increasing peak to average power ratio of the composite signal. There
are similar derating curves when three or two modules are installed.
For purposes of determining the derated power specification of the ELPA amplifier in system
planning scenarios, each CDMA carrier is counted as 20 equivalent analog carriers (EAC). For
example, if the ELPA is going to be used to amplify 36 analog carriers and 3 CDMA carriers, it
will be expected to handle 96 equivalent analog carriers.
The derating equations for all of the possible four-module ELPA configurations follow:
The derating equation for two ELPA modules installed is:
EAC = equivalent analog carriers
EAC = (# of analog carriers) + 20 * (# of CDMA carriers)
4
P
out
= ELPA maximum output power rating
if EAC = 20:
P
out
= 60 Watts
if EAC > 20
P
out
= 54.55 + (72 / EAC) + (720 / (EAC)
2
) Watts
The derating equation for three ELPA modules installed is:
P
out
if EAC = 20:
P
out
= 90 Watts
if EAC > 20
P
out
= 81.825 + (108 / EAC) + (1080 / (EAC)
2
) Watts
The derating equation for four ELPA modules installed is:
P
out
if EAC = 20:
P
out
= 120 Watts
if EAC > 20
P
out
= 109.1 + (144 / EAC) + (1440 / (EAC)
2
) Watts
Four installed modules in an ELPA with 96 EAC has a P
out
rating of 110.8 Watts. Four installed
modules with 40 EAC (1 CDMA & 20 Analog Carriers) has a P
out
rating of 113.6 Watts. Four
installed modules with 35 EAC (1 CDMA & 15 Analog Carriers) has a P
out
rating of 114.4 Watts.
This power is available to be divided between the analog and CDMA carriers with any ratio. Valid
examples follow for 96 EAC:
Three 25 Watt CDMA carriers and Thirty-six 0.99 Watt analog carriers = 110.6 Watts.
Three 10 Watt CDMA carriers and Thirty-six 2.24 Watt analog carriers = 110.6 Watts.
Three 1.6 Watt CDMA carriers and Thirty-six 2.94 Watt analog carriers = 110.6 Watts.
4
B. Combined-Shelf AMPS Band ELPA
Higher power output is available from the combined-shelf ELPA models. Within these ELPA
frames, two four-module ELPA shelves are combined. The number of ELPA modules in each four-
module ELPA shelf must be the same, i.e., two, three, or four. The resulting combinations therefore
consist of four, six, or eight ELPA modules.
An eight-module AMPS band ELPA can provide up to 200 Watts of output power at the output of
the ELPA frame for either 1 CDMA carrier or up to 20 analog carriers. When more than 20 analog
carriers or more than 1 CDMA carrier are being amplified, the output power specification follows
a derating curve from 200 Watts to about 182 Watts for a very large number of analog and CDMA
carriers. This is due to the increasing peak to average power ratio of the composite signal. There
are similar derating curves for the cases when six or four modules are installed.
For the purposes of determining the derated power specification of the ELPA amplifier in system
planning scenarios, each CDMA carrier is counted as 20 equivalent analog carriers (EAC). For
example, if the ELPA is going to be used to amplify 36 analog carriers and 3 CDMA carriers, it
will be expected to handle 96 equivalent analog carriers.
The derating equations for all of the possible combined ELPA configurations follow:
P
out
if EAC = 20:
P
out
= 100 Watts
if EAC > 20
P
out
= 90.9 + (120 / EAC) + (1200 / (EAC)
2
) Watts
The derating equation for six ELPA modules installed is:
P
out
if EAC = 20:
P
out
= 150 Watts
if EAC > 20
P
out
= 136.4+ (180 / EAC) + (1800 / (EAC)
2
) Watts
4
The derating equation for eight ELPA modules installed is:
P
out
if EAC = 20:
P
out
= 200 Watts
if EAC > 20
P
out
= 181.8 + (240 / EAC) + (2400 / (EAC)
2
) Watts
Eight installed modules in a combined ELPA with 96 EAC has a P
out
rating of 184.6 Watts. Eight
installed modules with 40 EAC (1 CDMA & 20 Analog Carriers) has a P
out
rating of 189.3 Watts.
Eight installed modules with 35 EAC (1 CDMA & 15 Analog Carriers) has a P
out
rating of 190.6
Watts.
This power is available to be divided between the analog and CDMA carriers with any ratio. Valid
examples follow for 156 EAC (6 CDMA carriers and 36 analog carriers) which has a P
out
rating of
183.4 Watts:
Six 25 Watt CDMA carriers and Thirty-six 0.92 Watt analog carriers = 183.1 Watts.
Six 10 Watt CDMA carriers and Thirty-six 3.42 Watt analog carriers = 183.1 Watts.
Six 0.9 Watt CDMA carriers and Thirty-six 4.94 Watt analog carriers = 183.2 Watts.
C. AMPS Band LPA
The derating equation for the standard power (70 Watt) LPA is:
For 5 or less EAC: P
out
= 110 Watts
For more than 5 EAC: P
out
= 64 + 80/EAC + 800/(EAC)
2
Watts
The derating equation for the high power (125 Watt) LPA is:
For 12 or less EAC: P
out
= 140 Watts
For more than 12 EAC: P
out
= 114.2 + 144/EAC + 1440/(EAC)
2
Watts
D. Other Linear Power Amplifiers
Other LPA and ELPA models may have different power derating equations, or may require no
derating at all. This information should be available from the literature for the product of interest.
4
Example of a Mixed-Mode Site with Rate Set 1:
In this example of a mixed-mode SC9600 type of site, a sector is being planned to have one CDMA
carrier and 20 AMPS/NAMPS carriers; the equivalent number of analog carriers is therefore 40.
Under these conditions, the power output rating of a four-module AMPS band ELPA at the top of
the ELPA frame is determined as follows:
EAC = 40
P
out
= 109.1 + (144 / 40) + (1440 / (40)
2
) Watts
P
out
= 113.6 Watts
Note that the power rating given above is at the output of the AMPS Band ELPA frame. At the
output of the Site Interface Frame (SIF), this power level will be reduced by the insertion loss of
the cables and hardware in the transmit path. The maximum value for this loss is about 1.5 dB
(about 71% remaining power). Using this value, the resulting maximum available power level at
the output of the SIF would be:
P
out_sif
= 80.4 Watts (worst loss)
Alternatively, the actual measured loss from the ELPA frame output to the SIF frame output may
be used to determine the maximum available power level at the output of the SIF. Doing so will
result in a slightly higher output power.
In this example, the CDMA carrier will have Rate Set 1 voice traffic channels (for Rate Set 1, the
maximum bit rate of each voice traffic channel is 9.6 kbps). Also assume that for sector coverage
reasons, the required Pilot Power of the CDMA carrier has been determined to be 2 Watts. The
approximation of the CDMA carrier power is as follows:
P
cdma
= 1.85 x P
pilot
+ N
fwd_links
x 0.15 x P
pilot
P
pilot
= 2 Watts
P
cdma
= 1.85 x 2 Watts + N
fwd_links
x 0.15 x 2 Watts
P
cdma
= 3.7 Watts + N
fwd_links
x 0.3 Watts
An estimate of the maximum number of Forward Links (traffic channels) expected on the CDMA
carrier is required to complete this calculation.
N
fwd_links
= N
2%_GOS
x (SSHOF)
4
For a multi-Sector site, a conservative value for the Soft Plus Softer Handoff Factor is:
SSHOF = 2
Therefore,
N
fwd_links
= N
2%_GOS
x 2
The maximum value for the number of Erlangs on a heavily loaded sector during Busy Hour is:
N
Erlangs
= 14
The number of Traffic Channels required to handle this traffic load with 2% Blocked Call Grade
of Service (Erlang B) is:
N
2%_GOS
= 21
Including the Traffic Channels that are in Soft or Softer Handoff, the maximum number of Forward
Links required on this CDMA carrier (with 14 Erlangs, 2% GOS, & SSHOF=2) is expected to be:
N
fwd_links
= 42
Note that under no circumstances can this number exceed the number of available Walsh codes (i.e.
42 Walsh codes for IS-95A/B).
The power required by the CDMA carrier is therefore:
P
cdma
= 3.7 Watts + 42 x 0.3 Watts
P
cdma
= 3.7 Watts + 12.6 Watts
P
cdma
= 16.3 Watts
In a conservative mixed-mode site design, the total power available for the analog carriers is:
P
analog
= P
out_sif
- P
cdma
P
analog
= 80.4 Watts - 16.3 Watts
P
analog
= 64.1 Watts
If there are 20 analog carriers, the power available for each one is:
P
tch_analog
= 64.1 Watts / 20 = 3.21 Watts
4
If the power needed for each analog channel is higher than 3.21 Watts, the maximum number of
analog channels will need to be reduced to something less than 20. For example, if each analog
carrier is required to be 6.41 Watts, the analog carrier capacity would be reduced to a maximum of
10.
Of equal importance, if the CDMA Busy Hour traffic load was higher than 14 Erlangs (if it was
possible), this would cause the CDMA carrier to consume more than its allocated share of the
power available from the ELPA.
In the presence of all 20 analog carriers, excessively high CDMA power can result in activation of
the ELPA RF Overdrive Protection (approximately 20 dB ELPA gain reduction). The combination
can also cause distortion of the CDMA signal (poor voice quality and dropped calls), generation of
higher than normal CDMA sidebands, interference to the adjacent analog cellular channels, and
excessive thermal stress on the ELPA.
If an increased traffic load on the CDMA carrier is expected to be possible, then either the power
allocated to each analog carrier or the maximum number of analog carriers must be reduced.
4.4.7 Government Regulations
Certain government rules and regulations may exist which prohibit an operator from transmitting
an excess of power. For instance, the FCC regulations limit the Base Station output power to 1640
Watts EIRP per carrier for PCS systems.
11
Knowing the maximum power for a sector at the top of
the rack, this FCC limit will translate into a limit on antenna gain offset by cable losses. For
example, the three-sector SC4812T is rated for 45 Watts maximum for a sector-carrier.
Consequently, the maximum gain permitted between the top of the rack and the effective radiated
power would be G
max
:
[EQ 4-59]
The RF system designer is advised to determine if any regulations exist in the area of their system.
4.5 CDMA Repeaters
Repeaters have been successfully deployed in CDMA markets. By carefully following the
guidelines provided by the repeater vendor, it should be possible to deploy a repeater to enhance
system coverage for most repeater applications. The following sections provide considerations
regarding the design, installation, optimization, and maintenance of a repeater system. All of the
repeater information provided should be evaluated prior to deciding upon a specific repeater
application.
11. Title 47, Part 24, Sub-Part E, Section 24.232.
G
max
10 P
out
P
in
( ) log 10 1640 45 ( ) log 15.62 dB = = =
4
4.5.1 CDMA Repeater Design Considerations
The following sections provide useful information that should be considered during the design
phase of a repeater deployment.
4.5.1.1 Coverage Impact
CDMA system coverage can be traded off for more capacity. This is reflected in the link budget of
the reverse link by determining the acceptable interference margin allowed, which will determine
the reverse link coverage. By designing the system with a relatively small interference margin, less
users can be supported, but a larger coverage area is supported. For a relatively larger interference
margin, more users can be supported, but for a smaller coverage area. Similarly on the forward link,
it is the required PA power that is used to determine the desired mixture of coverage and capacity.
For a given load, a smaller coverage area produces a smaller PA power requirement, while a larger
coverage area produces a larger PA power requirement. For a given coverage area, the required PA
power is directly proportional to the load. This relationship is maintained up to the point where the
system becomes forward link interference limited, such that increasing PA power does not
maintain or improve SNR.
4.5.1.1.1 Typical CDMA Repeater Applications
In some cases, it is desirable to use transceivers called repeaters (see Figure 4-14) to boost CDMA
signals, which in effect spreads the capacity of the BTS to a larger coverage area. This is especially
useful in areas where the signal from the BTS is blocked by some kind of RF obstruction. In this
case, a repeater can be used between the donor BTS and the served subscriber to boost the signals.
The repeater helps to get both the BTS and subscriber signals around or through such RF
obstructions.
Figure 4-14: Typical Repeater Application
Repeaters can typically be used to provide improved coverage for the following applications:
terrain limited coverage, in-building coverage, and tunnel/subway/parking garage/underground
coverage. Using repeaters in this way maintains the coverage of the donor BTS while eliminating
Base
Station Repeater
Repeater
Coverage
BTS Cell
Coverage
Donor
Antenna
Subscriber
Antenna
4
the need for another BTS (assuming the donor BTS has enough capacity availability to accept the
additional load from the repeater). This is economical as long as the repeater is significantly
cheaper than the type of BTS to be added (in comparison to a macro-cell, micro-cell, or pico-cell)
and/or the site costs are less expensive. In the overlap areas of coverage between the donor BTS
and the repeater, there is enough delay in the repeater signal path such that the subscriber can
resolve the signals between the two sources. The same will be true for the reverse link.
4.5.1.1.2 CDMA Repeaters Used for Range Extension
Another application for repeaters are to use them to extend the range of a CDMA cell site or sector
for the case where there is no RF obstruction, such as down a highway. For this type of application,
the range extension obtained is largely limited by the following:
How much the repeater desensitizes the base station (for maximizing range of the
repeater, typically a 3 dB desense of the donor BTS allows optimum range of the BTS &
repeater combination). Note: maximizing overall coverage of the BTS and repeater will
cause a 3 dB desense reduction in the donor BTSs range.
The cascaded noise figure at the repeater (determined by the noise figures of the repeater
and base station including the transmission gain between them).
Repeater receiver sensitivity on the reverse link and ability to maintain diversity
reception back at the donor base station (repeater with transmit diversity is used for link
back to donor base station to compensate for repeater not having diversity reception and
rake receiver for subscriber to repeater link).
The effect of the loss of soft handoff of the donor site at the repeater location.
The size of the repeater PA used on its forward link (typically 6 Watts).
Given these assumptions, it has been determined that approximately 24-26% increase in range
extension may be achieved by using existing commercial repeaters (see Figure 4-15).
Figure 4-15: Repeater Range Analysis Results
R a n g e I m p r o v e m e n t U s i n g R e p e a t e r
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
S y s t e m C o n f i g u r a t i o n
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

i
n

R
a
n
g
e
Rev Link Inc rease
Fw d Link Inc rease
Rev Link Incr ease 26% 26% 26% 26% 24% 24%
Fw d Link Increas e 58% 59% 35% 38% 10% 13%
CSM 17dBi CSM 23dBi EMA XX 17dBi EMAXX 23dBi
CSM
TTA .17dBi
CSM
TTA .23dBi
BTS NF=4.5 dB
Rptr NF=7.0dB
NIM=0dB or 3dB desense
4
Figure 4-15 shows the percent improvement in range due to adding a repeater (normalized to the
BTS range without the repeater) for different BTS donor configurations. This analysis used a
typical noise figure value of 4.5 dB. For a guaranteed coverage calculation or prediction, it may be
necessary to use the six sigma value for the noise figure specification which is usually 1.5 to 2.5
dB higher than the typical value. A 20Watt LPA was assumed for all cases above. The dBi numbers
represent antenna gain and TTA indicates a tower top LNA was used at the BTS to reduce the BTS
effective noise figure. The range is largely limited by the reverse link allowing about a 25%
increase in range. While the forward link range extension can be large (above 50%) for a donor site
using a CSM chip set, it quickly drops as the receiver sensitivity is improved by using an EMAXX
chip set and then again if tower top low noise amplifiers (LNAs) are used to reduce antenna cable
loss. Going from left to right, the CSM to the EMAXX, and then to the CSM w/TTA, each
configuration improves the receiver sensitivity of the BTS, which in effect increases the
normalized range of the BTS. This also increases the power requirements of the BTS LPAs, which
is why the forward link improvement decreases quickly due to the fixed 20Watt LPA assumption.
By observing the increase in normalized range with each configuration change, the overall reverse
link improvement in range is increasing, but the percentage improvement due to the repeater is still
around the 24% range. Figure 4-16 represents an alternate repeater analysis with the following
assumptions.
The total loss/gain is the same between the forward and reverse links
The forward link loss/gain is measured from the Forward Tx output of the base station to
the Forward Tx output of the repeater
The reverse link loss/gain is measured from the Reverse Rx input of the repeater to the
Reverse Rx input of the base station
The base and repeater antennas have the same cable losses and antenna gains serving the
subscribers
Figure 4-16: Alternate Repeater Analysis
The Y axis in Figure 4-16 represents the difference in repeater forward Tx power relative to the
BTS power plus the difference in the repeater forward Tx gain relative to the repeater reverse Rx
B T S a n d R e p e a t e r R X R a n g e
3 . 2 6 R F p r o p l o s s
-20.0
-15.0
-10.0
- 5.0
0.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 1.90 2.00
N o r m a l i z e d R X C e l l c o v e r a g e r e f e r e n c e d t o B T S n o i s e f i g u r e
R
e
p
e
a
t
e
r

F
o
r
w
a
r
d

T
X

p
o
w
e
r

r
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

t
o

B
T
S
di stance BTS distance Repeater
B T S l o s e s - 4 d B s o f t h a n d o f f g a i n R e p e a t e r l o s e s - 1 d B f a d i n g t o B T S - 0 . 5 d B E c / I o F i n g e r s
Path Loss
Mobile to Repeater
Path Loss
Mobil e to BTS
L i n k L o s s = P a t h L o s s + C a b l e L o s s e s + A n t e n n a G a i n s + R e p e a t e r G a i n
A s s u m p t i o n
R e v e r s e L i n k R e p e a t e r t o B T S = F o r w a r d L i n k B T S t o R e p e a t e r
4
gain. This is identical to that of Figure 4-25 (see page 78 for further details). In a maximum range
extension application, the repeater Tx and Rx gains are typically equal and thus cancel themselves
out. As a result, the title in the above figure only mentions the difference in repeater to BTS Tx
powers. This alternate analysis also shows a ~26% increase in range. An interesting point to note
is that in this type of repeater configuration (maximum range), the donor BTS range is reduced by
over 40%, primarily due to the lack of soft handoff gain and the repeater desense of the BTS
receiver. It also shows the expected reductions in overall range as the relative power levels are
changed.
4.5.1.2 Cascaded Noise Figure
The calculation of the cascaded noise figure for multiple amplifiers in a cabled system is different
than that for a non-cabled repeater system. The following sections provide an explanation of how
to calculate the cascaded noise figures for both cabled and repeater (non-cabled) systems.
4.5.1.2.1 Cascaded Noise Figure for Cabled Systems
In a multiple amplifier cabled system (i.e. only one antenna input), Equation 4-20 and Equation 4-
21 can be used to calculate the cascaded noise figure, if the noise figure (or noise factor) for each
of the individual amplifiers which are connected in series is known.
Figure 4-17: Cabled Cascaded Noise Figure
For the example in Figure 4-17 Cabled Cascaded Noise Figure where the noise figures are
illustrated by setting the thermal noise, kTB = 1 (-113 dBm for CDMA), the cascaded noise
referenced to the first amplifier input is as follows (note that all values are linear, not dB).
Cascaded Noise @ Input =
To simplify the calculation, lets assume that the noise figures for F1, F2, and F3 are 3 dB (2.0
linear) and the gain for G1, G2, and G3 are 10 dB (10 linear). For the example in Figure 4-17
Cabled Cascaded Noise Figure, the cascaded noise at the input is as follows (assuming no cable
loss between the amplifiers):
Cascaded Noise @ Input = = 2.101 = 3.2 dB
G1
G2 G3
F1 - 1
F2 - 1 F3 - 1
1
Input
kTB=1
Output
F1
F2 1
G1
----------------
F3 1
G1 G2
--------------------- + +
2
2 1
10
------------
2 1
10 10
----------------- + +
4
4.5.1.2.2 Cascaded Noise Figure for Single Repeater System
The reverse link cascaded noise figure for a BTS repeater system can be easier to comprehend if a
few simplifying assumptions are made. First, the total loss/gain is assumed to be the same between
the forward and reverse links. Second, the BTS and repeater antennas have the same cable losses
and antenna gains serving the subscribers. Using the above assumptions, the forward loss/gain is
measured as the difference between the Forward Tx output of the BTS and the Forward Tx output
of the repeater. Also, the reverse loss/gain is measured as the difference between the Reverse Rx
input of the repeater and the Reverse Rx input of the BTS. Using the simplifying assumptions, the
cascaded noise figure looking into the repeater Rx will be higher than the cascaded noise figure
looking into the BTS Rx by the reverse loss/gain (in dB).
Figure 4-18: Base Station & Repeater Diagram
For the simple example in Figure 4-18 Base Station & Repeater Diagram, the repeater Tx pilot is
10 dB lower than the BTS Tx pilot. Knowledge of the individual components of the forward loss
is not required (i.e. the cable losses, antenna gains, and repeater gain are all hidden to our analysis).
Using symmetry between the forward and reverse links, the reverse loss is also 10 dB. A CDMA
subscriber received at the repeater at a level of -110 dBm will be presented to the BTS receiver at
-120 dBm. Using the simplifying assumptions, the cascaded noise figure looking into the repeater
Rx is 10 dB higher than the cascaded noise figure looking into the BTS Rx.
An important point to note is that a cascaded noise figure calculation for a repeater system (non-
cabled) is not the same as the cascaded cabled amplifier equation. In a repeater system (non-
cabled), Equation 4-21 cannot be used to calculate the cascaded noise figure. Cascaded amplifiers
only have one antenna input. Therefore, thermal noise (kTB) is only injected at the 1st amplifier
input. Also, subscribers are only received at the 1st amplifier. A repeater and BTS system has two
input antennas. Thermal noise (kTB) and the subscriber signal are injected at both receiver inputs.
Figure 4-19 Repeater Cascaded Noise Figure provides an example of a reverse link cascaded noise
figure for a simple repeater system.
Repeater BTS
Tx_BTS
Rx_BTS
Tx_R
Rx_R
Forward Loss = 10 dB
Pilot = 2 watts Pilot = 0.2 watts
Reverse Loss = 10 dB
4
Figure 4-19: Repeater Cascaded Noise Figure
As an alternate approach, the calculation of a cascaded noise figure for a repeater system reverse
link can be analyzed as follows (see Figure 4-19 Repeater Cascaded Noise Figure). Thermal noise
(kTB) is introduced at the repeater Rx by the source impedance of the antenna. The 3 dB noise
figure of the repeater doubles the noise by adding another kTB. A reverse loss of 10 dB will lower
the repeater noise at the BTS antenna to 0.2(kTB). The BTS receiver antenna and noise figure add
another 2(kTB). As a result, the total noise at the BTS receiver is 2.2(kTB). Thus, the cascaded
noise figure is 3.4 dB (10log(2.2)) looking into the BTS Rx. A simple equation for the cascaded
noise figure at the BTS receiver can be written as follows. All of the variables are in linear units
(i.e. 2.2 = 2 + (2 * 0.1)).
Cascaded NF @ BTS = BTS NF + (Repeater NF * reverse loss) [EQ 4-60]
Now, a subscriber looking into the repeater receiver will see a different cascaded noise figure than
a subscriber looking into the BTS receiver. Referenced to the repeater receiver input, the 2.2(kTB)
noise at the BTS receiver is ten times (10dB) higher at 22(kTB). As a result, the repeater cascaded
noise figure is 10 dB higher at 13.4 dB (10log(22)). Notice that the 10 dB difference is exactly the
same as the reverse loss. A simple equation for the cascaded noise figure at the repeater receiver
can be written as follows. Again, all variables are linear (i.e. 22 = 2.2 / 0.1).
Cascaded NF @ Repeater = Cascaded NF @ BTS / reverse loss [EQ 4-61]
In this example, the repeater is 10 dB less sensitive than the BTS. For a subscriber signal to be
received at the BTS at -120 dBm, it must received at the repeater at -110 dBm. A subscriber signal
going straight to the BTS would be received at the BTS at -120 dBm.
As a result, the cascaded noise figures for a repeater and base station system are easy to calculate.
They are determined by the repeater and BTS noise figures and the ratio of repeater pilot power to
BTS pilot power. The simplifying assumptions are that the forward and reverse links are balanced.
For unbalanced forward and reverse links or to include the effects of CDMA load, first calculate
the simple cascaded noise figure and then add in the other effects.
4.5.1.2.3 Cascaded Noise Figure for Cascaded Repeater Systems
For some highway applications where linear range needs to be maximized, a cascaded repeater
1.0
F1 - 1
0.1
F2 - 1
F2 = 3dB
F1 = 3dB
kTB
Subscriber kTB kTB
Repeater Base Station (BTS)
0.2(kTB)
2.2(kTB)
kTB
Subscriber
4
system may be a viable choice. Similar to the approach used in Section 4.5.1.1.2, a cascaded
repeater system will impact the capacity and range of the donor BTS in order to maximize the range
of the entire BTS/repeater system. Utilizing the same simplifying assumptions, the same approach
to calculating the cascaded noise figure for the single repeater system can be applied to the
cascaded repeater system. Figure 4-20 Multiple Repeater Cascaded Noise Figure provides an
example of a reverse link cascaded noise figure calculation for a cascaded repeater system. (Note:
The values used in the following example are not indicative of a cascaded repeater system
optimized for maximum range extension. The values are chosen to simplify the calculations.)
Figure 4-20: Multiple Repeater Cascaded Noise Figure
The following calculations are similar to the single repeater example. Thermal noise (kTB) is
introduced at Repeater #2 Rx by the source impedance of the antenna. The 3 dB noise figure of the
repeater doubles the noise by adding another kTB. A reverse loss of 10 dB will lower the repeater
noise at the Repeater #1 antenna to 0.2(kTB). The Repeater #1 receiver antenna and noise figure
add another 2(kTB). Another reverse loss of 10 dB will lower the combined repeater noise at the
BTS antenna to 0.22(kTB). Finally, the BTS receiver antenna and noise figure add another 2(kTB).
As a result, the total noise at the BTS receiver is 2.22(kTB), which produces a cascaded noise
figure of 3.46 dB looking into the BTS Rx. A simple equation for the cascaded noise figure at the
BTS receiver is as follows. All variables are linear (i.e. 2.22 = 2 + (2 * 0.1) + (2 * 0.01)).
Cascaded NF @ BTS = BTS NF + (Repeater #1 NF * reverse loss to BTS) +
(Repeater #2 NF * total reverse loss to BTS) [EQ 4-62]
Similar to the single repeater example, the cascaded noise figure looking into Repeater #1 and
Repeater #2 are as follows. Referenced to Repeater #1 receiver input, the 2.22(kTB) noise at the
BTS receiver is ten times (10 dB) higher at 22.2(kTB). As a result, the Repeater #1 cascaded noise
figure is 10 dB higher at 13.46 dB. Referenced to Repeater #2 receiver input, the 22.2(kTB) noise
at the Repeater #1 receiver is ten times (10 dB) higher at 222(kTB). As a result, the Repeater #2
cascaded noise figure is 10 dB higher at 23.46 dB. A simple equation for the cascaded noise figure
at the Repeater #1 and #2 receiver is as follows.
Cascaded NF @ Repeater #1 = Cascaded NF @ BTS / Repeater #1 reverse loss [EQ 4-63]
1.0
F1 - 1
0.1
F2 - 1
F2 = 3dB F1 = 3dB
kTB
Subscriber kTB kTB
Repeater #1 Base Station (BTS)
2.22(kTB)
kTB
Subscriber
0.1
F3 - 1
F3 = 3dB
kTB
Subscriber
kTB
Repeater #2
0.22(kTB) 0.2(kTB)
4
Example. Cascaded NF @ Repeater #1 = 2.22 / 0.1 = 22.2 = 13.46 dB
Cascaded NF @ Repeater #2 = Cascaded NF @ BTS / Repeater #2 reverse loss [EQ 4-64]
Example. Cascaded NF @ Repeater #2 = 2.22 / 0.01 = 222 = 23.46 dB
It is important to note that the reverse loss for Repeater #2 is the total reverse loss from Repeater
#2 to the BTS (which includes the loss from Repeater #1 to the BTS). For the example given in
Figure 4-20 Multiple Repeater Cascaded Noise Figure, the total reverse loss from Repeater #2 to
the BTS is 20 dB.
4.5.1.3 Interference and Capacity Issues
The interference and capacity impact of a repeater will most likely depend upon its specific
application and installation/optimization. The interference and capacity impact should be minimal
for a repeater, that is used for a typical application (i.e. to overcome RF obstructions) and that has
been properly installed and optimized. A repeater that has not been properly installed or optimized
can have an impact on the interference and capacity of the donor BTS.
A CDMA repeater application that is set up for maximum range extension can have a significant
capacity impact upon the donor BTS. Since this repeater application is designed to trade-off
capacity for coverage, the donor BTS capacity impact depends upon the amount of interference
margin that is traded-off for coverage. Again, a repeater that has not been properly installed or
optimized for the range extension desired can have a greater capacity impact on the donor BTS than
what it was originally designed for.
In order to reduce the number of BTSs for a new system deployment, a system operator may
consider implementing a wide scale repeater deployment. A system with a wide scale deployment
of repeaters can create multiple paths of interference (direct path from the subscriber, indirect path
through the repeater, and indirect paths through multiple other repeaters). Depending upon the
system design, a system of this type may increase the reverse link noise rise which may decrease
the system capacity. Reverse link simulations of a couple of wide scale repeater design scenarios
have shown a decrease in RF carrier capacity of approximately 9-16%. In order to estimate the
capacity impact, simulations are highly recommended for any specific wide scale repeater
deployment design.
The probability of interference from IM and spectral regrowth are increased with the use of a
repeater. The situation may be worse for repeaters because the repeater receiver will add some
additional amount of IM and regrowth to the signal that is transmitted. The receiver absorbing this
undesired energy at the end of the chain will need to cope with these increased levels of IM and
regrowth.
4.5.1.4 Filtering Issues
Depending upon the specific system design (i.e. repeater application, spectrum planning, adjacent
band technology, etc.), additional filtering may be required to minimize the interference between
the repeater and the adjacent band technologies that are being used. The Sideband Noise (SBN)
4
performance of the repeater may require additional filters to be installed at the repeater site. A
detailed guard band interference analysis should be performed to determine the appropriate guard
band and filter requirements to allow the repeater and the adjacent band technologies to co-exist
with an acceptable interference impact. An analysis of both repeater links (Rx and Tx) is necessary
to determine if filtering is required for either link. Separate filters may be required for each of the
repeater links.
If additional filtering is required, the additional space requirements must be taken into account
when designing the repeater site. If two separate filters are required, then the amount of space
required to house and mount the filter hardware needs to be considered. With the potential use of
filters at the CDMA donor BTS, at the receiver input of the repeater, and at the output of the
repeater, the total group delay of the filters can become a concern. Too much group delay will
distort the CDMA waveform, which may cause unacceptable "rho" performance (a measure of
waveform quality). The total maximum group delay must be split between the three filters. Since
the group delay for the built-in filters of the donor BTS and of the repeater are already established,
a lower group delay specification for the additional repeater filter may be required. It may be
difficult to find an economical and compact filter to satisfy the group delay requirements in
addition to the other filter requirements determined from the detailed analysis.
If it has been determined that additional filtering is required, then the cost impact of the additional
filtering should be taken into consideration when designing a repeater site. Since a repeater does
not add any capacity to the system, the additional cost of the filtering should be added to the total
cost analysis to determine if a regular BTS (macro-cell, micro-cell, or pico-cell) may be more
appropriate for the application.
4.5.2 CDMA Repeater Installation Considerations
When using repeaters for a typical application to overcome an RF obstruction within a BTSs
coverage area or for a highway application to maximize linear range extension, it is important to
follow the repeater vendors installation engineering guidelines.
4.5.2.1 Antenna Isolation
Antenna isolation is a critical parameter for an over-the-air repeater system. If the repeaters
antennas do not have adequate isolation from each other, the repeaters amplifiers may start
oscillating. Proper donor to subscriber antenna isolation at the repeater may be difficult to achieve
for some applications. The amount of antenna isolation that is normally required is equal to 15 dB
plus the gain of the repeater (refer to the repeater vendors recommendation for the actual value to
use). Antenna isolation values of 80 dB (repeater gain = 65 + 15 = 80 dB) or greater are not
uncommon. Since the environmental surroundings and the physical construction of the site can
have an impact, it is highly recommended to actually measure the antenna isolation for each and
every repeater site. The ability to measure the antenna isolation properly and accurately is an
important step in the repeater installation. Do not rely on estimated antenna isolation calculations
to validate the isolation requirements.
The repeater diagram in Figure 4-14 shows the donor antenna at a higher elevation than the
4
subscriber antenna. This represents a repeater application which takes advantage of vertical
separation between the donor and subscriber antenna in order to achieve the isolation requirements.
Placing the donor antenna at a higher elevation may also provide a direct line-of-sight path to the
donor base station, which is highly recommended for all repeater implementations. In some
applications, the subscriber antenna may be mounted at a higher elevation than the donor antenna
(see Figure 4-21).
Figure 4-21: Alternate Repeater Antenna Configuration
A viable configuration which utilizes horizontal separation along with a barrier is shown in
Figure 4-22. For this application, the building is acting as a physical barrier in order to increase the
attenuation between the antennas, which will increase the antenna isolation.
Figure 4-22: Horizontal Separation Using a Barrier
Just as long as the measured isolation and the direct line-of-sight requirements are satisfied, the
optimal antenna locations may depend upon the particular application.
In some cases where vertical and/or horizontal separation does not provide enough antenna
isolation, it may be possible to install custom RF shielding between the donor and subscriber
antennas in order to achieve the desired antenna isolation requirements. RF shields can be
Base
Station Repeater
Repeater
Coverage
BTS Cell
Coverage
Donor
Antenna
Subscriber
Antenna
Base
Station
Repeater
Repeater
Coverage
BTS Cell
Coverage
Donor
Antenna
Subscriber
Antenna
Building
4
constructed with various materials (hardware cloth, cyclone chain-link fence, metal screen, solid
metal, etc.) and various types of configurations (flat shield, flat shield with corners, curved shield,
etc.). The actual attenuation will depend upon the specific application, but nominal values in the
range of 10-30 dB of attenuation may be achievable.
As an alternate solution, a micro-wave or fiber linked repeater may be used instead of an over-the-
air type repeater. A linked repeater does not have the same antenna isolation requirements as an
over-the-air repeater. An example of a micro-wave linked repeater is shown in Figure 4-23.
Figure 4-23: Micro-wave Linked Repeater
Since the micro-wave link is operating at a different frequency and transmitted in a different
format, the isolation between the subscriber antenna and the micro-wave antenna is not as critical
as the over-the-air repeater. An example of a fiber linked repeater is shown in Figure 4-24.
Figure 4-24: Fiber Linked Repeater
Since the fiber link is not transmitting over the air, antenna isolation is not even a factor for this
repeater application.
Base
Station Repeater
Repeater
Coverage
BTS Cell
Coverage
Subscriber
Antenna
Micro-wave Link
Base
Station Repeater
Repeater
Coverage
BTS Cell
Coverage
Subscriber
Antenna
Fiber Link
4
4.5.2.2 Repeater Antenna Considerations
The following sections provide information regarding the repeater donor and subscriber antennas.
4.5.2.2.1 Repeater Donor Antenna
The repeater donor antenna should have a very narrow beamwidth in order to isolate a single donor
BTS. In an area with a dense population of BTSs, isolating a single donor BTS may be difficult. If
more than one BTS is seen by the repeater, the performance in the repeaters coverage area may be
degraded. As a result, it is typically recommended to use a highly directional, high gain, high front-
to-back ratio (for horizontal separation), and/or high side lobe attenuation (for vertical separation)
donor antenna with 15 of horizontal beamwidth or less. Parabolic antennas (solid or grid) are
suited very well for this application, which also have an added advantage of high side lobe
attenuation, which can help achieve the vertical antenna isolation requirements for the site.
Pilot pollution can be made worse if the repeater donor antenna is not narrow enough and localized
to the desired donor base station sector. Since the repeater repeats the entire CDMA carrier (signal
plus noise), it is important that the repeater location be line-of-sight to the donor BTS with a
dominant PN. It is highly recommended to choose a repeater application that will allow a line-of-
sight (LOS) path with a clear Fresnel zone (ideally with 60% of the first Fresnel clearance) between
the repeater and the donor BTS. A LOS path will ensure a highly reliable repeater link, which can
utilize a smaller fade margin. If a LOS path is not possible, then a path loss measurement is
required to estimate the mean path loss of the donor link.
Since a LOS path which isolates a single donor BTS is important, donor antenna alignment is also
very critical to the installation of a repeater site. A mis-aligned highly directional donor antenna
can also create significant performance issues with the operation of a repeater site.
4.5.2.2.2 Repeater Subscriber Antenna
The subscriber antenna should be chosen (i.e. gain, H/V beamwidth, etc.) to cover the desired area.
For over-the-air repeater applications, it is typically recommended to use an antenna with 105 of
horizontal beamwidth or less, due to isolation/interference concerns and the unreliability of the
beam patterns. It would be very difficult to achieve the antenna isolation requirements using an
omni subscriber antenna with an over-the-air repeater application and as such, they are not
recommended. On the other hand, micro-wave and fiber linked repeaters do not have the same
isolation requirements as the over-the-air repeaters. Thus, the horizontal beamwidth restrictions do
not apply towards the micro-wave/fiber linked repeater applications.
For those repeaters which have a diversity receive path capability, two subscriber antennas will be
required. The same subscriber antenna restrictions mentioned above would apply for over-the-air
diversity receive repeaters. As an alternative, a dual polarized slant 45 antenna may be a logical
choice for diversity receive repeaters. Dual pole antennas (see Chapter 7) with the desired
horizontal and vertical beamwidths have an advantage of providing two separate antennas in a
single housing.
4
4.5.2.3 Repeater Gain Settings
The repeater gain settings are a critical component to the successful installation and performance
of the repeater. Setting the gain too high for the repeaters Tx path to the subscriber could cause
the repeater Tx PA to be over driven under a loaded condition. Although this may not be a major
concern if the repeater PA is designed with gain compression, a significant amount of
intermodulation (IM) distortion and spectral regrowth may be generated, which can impact the
spectral purity (rho) of the CDMA signal beyond acceptable levels.
Setting the repeaters Rx path back to the donor BTS too high could cause the BTS receiver to
desense. To ensure that the repeater does not desense the donor BTS in a normal application (i.e.
the repeater is NOT being used for maximum range extension), the repeater vendors typically
recommend that the repeater Rx gain back to the BTS should be set lower (up to 10 dB) than the
repeater Tx gain to the subscriber.
It is important to set the repeater gain levels for the Rx & Tx paths properly. Figure 4-25 below
shows the potential effects of reducing the range of a donor BTS if the gain settings are not set
properly.
Figure 4-25: Potential Range Reduction Due to Repeaters
With the assumption stated in the chart, the Y axis in the figure above represents the difference in
repeater forward Tx power relative to the BTS power plus the difference in the repeater forward
Tx gain relative to the repeater reverse Rx gain. Table 4-10 provides an example of how to
calculate the relative Tx & Rx link difference.
B T S R X R a n g e
1 , 2 , o r 4 R e p e a t e r s
3 . 2 6 R F p r o p l o s s
-20.0
-15.0
-10.0
- 5.0
0.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
N o r m a liz e d R X C e ll c o v e r a g e r e f e r e n c e d t o B T S n o is e f ig u r e
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

T
x

&

R
x

L
i
n
k

D
i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
1 Repeater
2 Repeaters
4 Repeaters
distance BTS with 1 Repeater
BTS
Path Loss
Mobile to BTS
L in k L o s s = P a t h L o s s + C a b le L o s s + A n t e n n a G a in + R e p e a t e r G a in
As s u m p t io n
R e v e r s e L i n k R e p e a t e r t o B T S = F o r w a r d L i n k B T S t o R e p e a t e r
4
Table 4-10: Relative Tx & Rx Link Difference Example
With this example, the donor BTSs normalized Rx cell coverage at a -10dB relative Tx & Rx link
difference is ~96% of the BTSs coverage area without the repeater (i.e. the repeater reduced the
coverage area by ~4%). Typical settings of the relative Tx & Rx link differences are -15 dB or
better which will cause little to no effect on the normal coverage area of the donor BTS.
4.5.3 CDMA Repeater Optimization Considerations
This section discusses some of the optimization considerations around repeater applications.
4.5.3.1 Timing Impacts
The following sections provide some optimization considerations regarding the timing impacts of
adding a repeater to a system.
4.5.3.1.1 Search Windows and Parameters
One of the main optimization considerations for the deployment of a repeater is the adjustment of
the network parameters associated with search windows and timing. Since the repeater unit itself
will add approximately 5-8 micro-seconds (s) of delay (typically around 6 s) in both the forward
and reverse links, certain timing related parameters need to be expanded in order to handle this
extra timing delay. There are four basic timing related considerations for repeaters.
Access Channel Search Window (Cell Radius - PamSz & AchPamWinSz)
Traffic Channel Search Window (TchAqcWinSz)
Subscriber Search Windows (SrchWinA, SrchWinN, SrchWinR)
PN Offset Interference Protection (Pilot_Inc)
Access Channel Search Window. The access channel search window establishes the maximum
round trip propagation delay that the BTS will search for subscriber origination attempts. In effect,
it establishes the maximum radius that the BTS will be able to receive an origination attempt. Since
a repeater not only increases the radius (distance) of the donor BTS, it also adds delay to the signal
which is similar to adding propagation delay. The added delay can be translated back to distance.
Thus, the access channel search window of the donor BTS needs to be expanded to compensate for
the added distance (repeater coverage plus repeater delay) that the repeater provides. For the
BTS Tx Pilot Power 30 dBm a
Repeater Tx Pilot Power 25 dBm b
Repeater Tx Path Gain 70 dB c
Repeater Rx Path Gain 65 dB d
Relative Tx & Rx Link Differences -10 dB (b-a) + (d-c)
4
Motorola infrastructure, the access channel search window is set by adjusting the Cell Radius
parameter (which automatically adjusts the PamSz & AchPamWinSz parameters). Adjustments to
the Cell Radius parameter can be calculated as follows:
Cell Radius = Donor BTS Range (km) + Repeater Delay (s) * 0.299 (km/s) + Repeater Range (km) [EQ 4-65]
Traffic Channel Search Window. For the Motorola infrastructure, the traffic channel search
window is set by the TchAqcWinSz parameter. This parameter defines the traffic channel
acquisition in PN chips, which is used during the handover acquisition of a call. For normal
applications (including repeater applications), it should be set at least as large as the
AchPamWinSz parameter (which is established by the Cell Radius parameter).
Subscriber Search Windows. The subscriber search window parameters are SrchWinA,
SrchWinN, and SrchWinR. SrchWinA is the active/candidate pilot set search window size which
should be made large enough to incorporate ~95% of the expected delay spread energy. Since a
repeater has an internal delay of 5-8 s and a subscriber will find itself in places where the BTS
and repeater signals are both strong enough to demodulate, a repeater will normally increase the
effective delay spread of the donor BTS. The default setting for SrchWinA is 5 which corresponds
to 20 PN chips (16 s or +8 s from the earliest arriving usable delay spread component). The
default setting may be adequate for some repeater applications. An evaluation of the specific
repeater application is necessary to determine if the SrchWinA parameter for the donor BTS needs
to be increased.
The SrchWinN and SrchWinR parameters represent the search window sizes associated with the
Neighbor Set and Remaining Set pilots. The size should be made large enough to account for
differential time delay between the subscriber and a potential handoff BTS given in the
subscribers neighbor list. The worst case differential delay would be a scenario where the
subscriber is next to a serving site and the subscriber attempts to handoff to a distant site. Since a
repeater can increase the differential delay, increasing the SrchWinN and SrchWinR parameters
may be necessary for some repeater applications. It is important to note that handoff relationships
are symmetrical and reciprocal for the neighboring cells which are candidates for the donor sector.
Thus, the SrchWinN and SrchWinR parameters will need to be adjusted for both the donor BTS
and the neighbor cells to the donor BTS.
PN Offset Interference Protection. Some level of PN Offset interference protection is provided
with the Pilot_Inc parameter. An increase in the Pilot_Inc increases the separation between
adjacent PN offset pilots which provides improved adjacent offset interference protection. The
increased separation between adjacent PN offsets also reduces the total number of valid PN offsets.
A Pilot_Inc of 2 will decrease the total number of valid PN offsets from 512 to 256. Since the cell
radius (or propagation delay) is a factor to consider when selecting the appropriate Pilot_Inc
setting, adding repeaters to a system may require a re-evaluation of the Pilot_Inc setting. In most
cases, adjustments to the Pilot_Inc parameter due to repeater applications will not be necessary, if
proper PN offset planning is performed. In some cases, a re-evaluation of the Pilot_Inc setting may
be necessary and an adjustment to the setting may be required.
For more detailed information on PN offset planning and search window parameters please refer
to Chapter 5.
4
4.5.3.1.2 Location Based Services
Another timing related issue to consider is that some implementations of location based services
may be affected by the use of repeaters. For a fixed network equipment based solution, Time
Difference of Arrival (TDA) measurements are made which will now include both repeater and
propagation delays. The repeater delay will add variance to the TDA measurements and may make
it difficult to achieve accurate location calculations. There is also a handset based GPS solution
which still requires some coordination with the fixed network equipment. Both of these location
based service implementations may require some sort of custom solution in order to make the
location based feature accurate for repeater applications.
4.5.3.2 Optimization Considerations
Once the repeater site has been fully designed, installed, and verified (i.e. repeater gain settings
verification, donor BTS-to-repeater link verification, antenna isolation verification, etc.), the next
step is to conduct drive test optimization. After the timing related parameters have been evaluated
and adjusted appropriately, there are six drive test areas that need to be analyzed.
Donor BTS coverage area
Repeater coverage area
Donor BTS to repeater transition zone coverage area
Donor BTS to adjacent cell handoff zones
Repeater to adjacent cell handoff zones
Donor BTS to repeater transition zone to adjacent cell handoff zones
Most of the same basic drive test data collection and optimization techniques used for a normal
BTS can also be applied towards a repeater site. Although, the added complexity and functionality
of a repeater should be taken in account during the troubleshooting of any performance issues that
are identified through the drive test optimization process. Since one PN offset will be transmitted
from two separate antennas at two different locations, the optimization engineer needs to be
familiar with the donor BTS and repeater antenna configurations, in order to optimize the coverage
of the one PN offset.
Since the repeater repeats the entire CDMA carrier (signal plus noise), it is important that the
repeater location be line-of-sight to the donor BTS with a dominant PN. Pilot pollution can be
made worse if the repeater donor antenna is not narrow enough and localized to the desired donor
BTS sector. A repeater deployment should create a dominant pilot area and improve the pilot signal
strength coverage.
4.5.4 CDMA Repeater Maintenance Considerations
This section discusses some of the maintenance considerations around repeater applications.
4
4.5.4.1 Future Expansion Considerations
As the capacity of a system grows over time, a natural progression is to deploy an additional
CDMA carrier to the system. Prior to deploying a repeater for a specific repeater application, the
long term expansion planning of the repeater site should be considered. The following sections
provide information about two future expansion considerations.
Multiple Repeater Expansion
Repeater to BTS Conversion
4.5.4.1.1 Multiple Repeater Expansion
The expansion design of a multiple carrier repeater system becomes more complex. Duplication of
repeater hardware & installation is required with each additional carrier added to the donor BTS.
If a new carrier is added to an area where repeaters are deployed, re-engineering of the repeater site
is required to accommodate a multiple repeater configuration. Below are a few design issues to
consider when looking at multiple carrier repeater sites.
Antenna sharing configuration (splitters, combiners, duplexers, etc.)
Separate antennas
If the additional repeater is required to share the antennas of the existing repeater, the antenna
sharing combining/splitting/filtering losses for the new antenna configuration will need to be
evaluated. Adjustments to the repeater design may be required to overcome the additional
combining/splitting/filtering losses of the new antenna sharing configuration. If the additional
repeater requires separate antennas, an evaluation of the interference and antenna isolation is still
required. For either antenna configuration (antenna sharing or separate antennas), a re-evaluation
of the following is required.
Re-evaluation of interference for additional filtering
Re-evaluation of repeater gain settings
Re-evaluation of repeater antenna isolation requirements
Re-evaluation of donor BTS-to-repeater link engineering
Once the new antenna configuration has been designed and implemented, the new repeater
configuration should be reverified (i.e. repeater gain settings verification, donor BTS-to-repeater
link verification, antenna isolation verification, etc.). The long term planning and design of a
repeater application (i.e. multiple repeaters for multiple carrier support) should be considered
during the initial design and deployment of a specific repeater site.
4.5.4.1.2 Repeater to BTS Conversion
Typically, a new carrier is added to expand the capacity of the system. A repeater does not provide
any capacity benefit to the system (it only provides expanded coverage). If a new carrier is added
to an area where repeaters are deployed, it may make sense to convert the repeater to a regular
capacity bearing cell site.
4
A significant amount of cell site design, installation, and optimization work at the repeater site is
necessary to convert the repeater site to a capacity bearing cell site. All of the initial work in the
repeater design, installation, and optimization including RF propagation modeling, antenna
isolation measurements, custom shielding, linked network equipment installation, donor antenna
alignment, subscriber antenna adjustments, repeater gain settings and verifications, parameter
settings, and drive test optimization, will not apply to the capacity bearing cell site. Most of the cell
site design, installation, and optimization work required to deploy a new cell site into a system is
also required to convert a repeater site to a regular cell site. The long term planning and design of
a repeater application (i.e. repeater to BTS conversion) should include a cost analysis of the
repeater site which incorporates the cost of all of the rework to convert the repeater to a capacity
bearing site.
4.5.4.2 Environmental Changes
Future changes in the environmental conditions surrounding an over-the-air repeater site can have
an impact on the performance of the repeater. Changes in the surrounding environment (i.e.
changes in the ground clutter such as new buildings, changes to landscaping, seasonal changes to
the surrounding foliage, etc.) can have a negative impact on the donor BTS-to-repeater link
performance. It may also have a negative impact on the donor-to-subscriber antenna isolation. Both
of these conditions can affect the performance of an over-the-air repeater.
4.5.4.3 Operations and Maintenance Considerations
The Operations and Maintenance (O&M) of a repeater network will be different than that of a BTS
network. The hardware, software, monitoring access (POTS line w/modem, wireless modem, etc.),
configuration management, and alarm monitoring O&M practices and procedures for a repeater
network will be different and will require specialized knowledge and skill sets. Different resources
or additional training will be required to properly plan, design, install, operate, and maintain a
repeater system.
System Capacity planning becomes more complicated with repeaters. Since repeaters connected to
one sector will cover more area than sectors without repeaters, the sites capacity limit will be
reached more quickly due to the additional area the sector with the repeater is covering. This may
cause a highly imbalanced system where one sector is lightly loaded while another sector is heavily
loaded. To overcome capacity loaded donor sectors, a new carrier can be added, the repeater can
be replaced with a new cell site, or the repeater can be moved to a lightly loaded donor sector.
4.6 Theoretical vs. Simulator
It should be emphasized that a RF link budget and associated statistical propagation model (i.e.
Hata), although useful as an analysis technique to evaluate relative differences between radio
systems or to obtain a qualitative description of a CDMA system, cannot be used to guarantee
capacity or coverage reliability. A detailed system design needs to be completed which takes into
account the specific characteristics of the given area. Some of the specific characteristics to be
accounted for are: site locations, subscriber distribution, terrain, and ground clutter. The generic
assumptions of flat terrain, uniform subscriber distribution, and ideal site locations implied within
4
the propagation and traffic distribution models do not adequately account for specific
characteristics of actual systems.
The actual terrain of the area to be covered can greatly influence the range to which a site will
propagate. Instead of an ideal line of sight propagation, reflections, diffractions and shadowing of
the RF signal are taken into account to adjust the distance that the signal will propagate. In addition
to the terrain, what is on the terrain, ground clutter, is quite important. A given RF signal will
propagate further in an area that is desolate (little to no buildings or foliage), than in an area which
is comprised of many buildings. Also, the placement of the site within this terrain is very important.
Simply stated, if the site is surrounded by obstructions, the coverage of the site will be less than if
there are no obstructions.
The actual traffic characteristics of systems are non-uniform with large variations possible from
sector to sector. The more spectrally efficient a given radio technology is, the more economical it
is to maintain the grade of service in these sectors by simply adding additional traffic channels. In
less efficient radio systems, cell splitting is the only option available to maintain the grade of
service. This often requires the addition of several cells to resolve the blocking problem in a single
sector. This characteristic is not accounted for in the RF link budgets.
Many different criteria exist for determining the CDMA coverage area of a system. Among these
criteria, differentiation should be made between the forward and reverse links, as well as, between
the criteria that can be simulated as opposed to being field test measured. Differentiation of the
subscriber unit needs to be considered. Fixed systems need to have different assumptions or
considerations applied to the design that will be different from a system being designed to support
mobility. Finally, a distinction must be made between coverage area as defined in the loaded
system as opposed to the unloaded system. Coverage will change with loading. Any coverage test
needs to keep loading in perspective.
Because of the interrelated nature of CDMA coverage, quality and capacity, and all of the issues
highlighted above, Motorola utilizes the NetPlan CDMA Simulator to estimate the performance of
individual system installations.
The Motorola NetPlan CDMA Simulator may be used for analyzing DS-CDMA performance in
proposed and existing systems resulting in predicted capacity, required system parameters and
hardware loading information. It provides for a method of understanding the inter-relationship
between coverage, capacity, and quality. It permits investigations into real Cellular/PCS system
concerns such as edge effects, excess background noise, propagation anomalies, antenna
beamwidth, subscriber distribution, receiver sensitivity impact, interference mitigation, power
control and handoff. It also provides performance levels and determines required power allocation
for page, sync, pilot, forward and reverse traffic channels (TCH) for different channel models, cell
loading, and receiver characteristics. Both the reverse and forward link are simulated.
It should be noted that the accuracy of the simulator is dependent on the accuracy of the input it
requires (such as path loss, traffic distribution, vehicle speed, etc.).
4
4.7 References
1. Turkmani, Parsons and Lewis, "Measurement of building penetration loss on radio
signals at 441, 900 and 1400 MHz", Journal of the Institution of Electronic and Radio
Engineers, Vol. 58, No. 6 (Supplement), pp. S169-S174, September-December 1988
2. Turkmani and Toledo, "Modelling of radio transmissions into and within multistory
buildings at 900, 1800 and 2300 MHz", IEEE Proceedings-I, Vol. 140, No. 6, December
1993
3. Aguirre, "Radio Propagation Into Buildings at 912, 1920, and 5990 MHz Using
Microcells", 0-7803-1823-4/94 IEEE, session 1.6 & 1.7, pp. 129-134
4. Lee, William C.Y. "Mobile Communications Engineering", Copyright 1982, McGraw-
Hill Inc. pg. 33-40.
5. Jakes, W.C., "Microwave Mobile Communications", IEEE Press Reissue 1993, (Wiley,
New York, 1974), pp. 125-127
6. Okumura, Y., Ohmori, E., Kawano, T., Fukada, K.: "Field strength and ITs Variability
in VHF and UHF Land-Mobile Radio Service", Rev. Elec. Commun. Lab., 16 (1968),
pp. 825-873
7. Hata, M.: "Empirical formula for propagation loss in land mobile radio services", IEEE
Trans. on Vehicular and Technology, VT-29 (1980), pp. 317-325
8. COST 231 - UHF Propagation, "Urban transmission loss models for mobile radio in the
900- and 1,800- MHz bands", COST 231 TD (91) 73 The Hagne, September, 1991
9. Parsons, David, "The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel", Copyright 1992, Reprinted
1996 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
10. Rappaport, Theodore S., "Wireless Communications Principles & Practices", Copyright
1996 by Prentice Hall PTR
11. Title 47, Part 24, Sub-Part E, Section 24.232.
4
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Table of Contents
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 3
5.2 Number of Pilot Offsets per CDMA Frequency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 3
5.3 PN Offset Planning - General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 3
5.3.1 Consequences and Sources of Offset Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 3
5.3.2 PN Offset Planning - Parameters and Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 5
5.3.3 Converting Between Chips and Time or Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 8
5.3.4 Search Windows and Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 9
5.3.5 Search Windows and Scan Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 11
5.4 PN Offset Planning - Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 12
5.4.1 Mitigating Adjacent Offset Interference - General . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 12
5.4.1.1 Adjacent Offset Interference Protection Based on Timing . . . . . . . 5 - 12
5.4.1.2 Adjacent Offset Interference Protection Based on Signal Strength 5 - 14
5.4.2 Protection Against Co-Offset Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 15
5.4.3 Incorrect Identification of an Offset by the Base Station. . . . . . . 5 - 18
5.4.4 PILOT_INC and the Scan Rate of Remaining Set Pilots. . . . . . . 5 - 19
5.4.5 Summary of Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 20
5.4.6 Guidelines for Assigning Offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 22
5.4.7 Guidelines for Changing PILOT_INC
at Inter-CBSC Boundaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 25
5.5 Reuse Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 26
5.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 - 27
Chapter
5
PN Offset Planning and
Search Windows
5
Chapter 5: PN Offset Planning and Search Windows
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5
5.1 Introduction
This chapter will discuss the PN Offset Planning. Section 5.3 provides insight into the sources and
consequences of offset interference. The definition of important terms and parameters are given.
Also, since a knowledge of search windows is considered fundamental, a detailed explanation of
this topic is included. Section 5.4 provides the theory that justifies placing certain boundaries on
the value of PILOT_INC, which is central to PN Offset Planning. Section 5.4.5 and Section 5.4.6
will prove very useful to the offset planner by providing a summary of the factors pertinent to
PILOT_INC selection along with a concise listing of all the planning guidelines. Section 5.4.7
provides guidelines for offset planning at an Inter-CBSC boundary when different PILOT_INC
values are involved. Some information has been provided that will benefit system optimizers. This
includes information on scanning rates (Section 5.3.5 and Section 5.4.4). Finally, references are
provided for further study of this important topic.
Please note that all of the information provided on this topic applies equally to IS-95A, IS-95B,
and IS-2000 specifications.
5.2 Number of Pilot Offsets per CDMA Frequency
The Pilot Channel is a spread spectrum signal carrying no data and is always transmitted on a
downlink CDMA channel. The subscriber stations use the pilot to acquire the system, and to assist
in several signal processing functions such as synchronization, demodulation (phase reference),
soft handoff and channel estimation. The uniqueness of the pilot is achieved through time shifts of
a basic sequence known as zero shift pilot or short PN sequence. Since sectors are distinguished by
time shifts of a given pseudo-noise sequence, enough separation between time offsets must be
provided to avoid mutual pilot interference. Per TIA/EIA IS-95 Interim Standard, the chosen
length for the pilot PN sequences is 32,768 chips (Section 7.1.3.1.9) with a minimum separation of
64 chips (Section 7.1.3.2.1) between adjacent offsets. This leaves a maximum of 512 (32768/64)
distinct pilot offsets available for a CDMA frequency.
5.3 PN Offset Planning - General
Before actually doing a PN offset plan, it will be beneficial to have a general understanding of
scenarios to avoid when designing the PN offset plan, to learn the general terms and definitions that
are associated with PN offset planning, and to gain an understanding to the various search
windows.
5.3.1 Consequences and Sources of Offset Interference
The design of a PN offset plan for CDMA is comparable to that of a signalling channel frequency
plan in analog. The consequences of poor offset planning include the following:
Active Set Pilot Interference - This phenomenon would occur in the active area and
involve the active search window (SRCH_WIN_A). The interfering signal would need
5
to be strong enough to be processed as an active finger (except in the less likely case
where the timing was perfectly coincident with a true active finger).
Neighbor Set Pilot Falsing - A neighbor set pilot may falsely appear strong enough for
the subscriber to promote the pilot to the candidate set and recommend to the base
station (BS) to perform a soft handoff add via the Pilot Strength Measurement
Message (PSMM). This falsing would occur in the neighbor area and involve the
neighbor search window (SRCH_WIN_N). The falsing signal strength would need to
meet the T-ADD threshold criteria.
The probability for interference or falsing is dependent upon two factors: timing and
strength. Time differentials can be translated into geographic regions and have as their
threshold the search window size. A detailed discussion of this topic will be found later
within this chapter. If a signal falls outside of a search window, its energy becomes
nothing more than uncorrelated interference. Note that the term active area is meant to
refer to the area in which a signal may be (or is intended to be) actively demodulated. The
term neighbor area refers to the area in which a signal will be sought as a candidate. In
geographic terms, the neighbor area greatly expands the region where problems may
occur since the search for a neighbor signal lies in many areas outside of the active area.
The use of large or generous neighbor lists along with the technique of merging neighbor
lists when in soft/softer handoff creates further expansion. Mitigating this expansion of
the geographic space in which falsing may occur is the heightened signal strength
threshold at which interference may occur (a T-ADD of -14dB versus a finger-locking
threshold of approximately -24dB).
Incorrect BS Identification - A signal may travel far enough to be incorrectly
identified by the BS when it translates the subscriber reported phase into a PILOT_PN
offset index.
In this document, the phrases interference and falsing may be used interchangeably.
In analog systems, co and adjacent channel interference are major factors in the system design.
The co-channel interference was managed via the antenna configuration and the reuse pattern/
distance. The adjacent channel interference was managed through the application of a simple
frequency planning rule.
With the CDMA channel, all sites reuse the same frequency. Interference isolation on the forward
CDMA channel is obtained via short PN code offsets (inter-sector) and Walsh codes (intra-sector).
The possible sources of interference/falsing include co and adjacent offsets.
Since CDMA pilots are distinguished through offsets of the same short PN code, adjacent channel
interference has its counterpart in CDMA when phase shifts occur caused by propagation delays.
Using phase for cell identification may therefore cause falsing problems as depicted in Figure 5-1.
5
Figure 5-1: PN Offset Planning
The phase delay used in the figure above need not be so exact to create problems. The falsing of
one signal need only fall within the search window of the subscriber.
1

The valid set of offsets is limited to multiples of PILOT_INC. In Figure 5-2 below, a PILOT_INC
of 2 was chosen. Offset 4 is adjacent to and can interfere with 6 if it arrives ~2 offsets late which
implies that 4, the interfering signal, is traversing a significant distance. Conversely, offset 6 may
interfere with 4, but 6 would need to arrive ~2 offsets early which implies that the subscriber is
acting at a significant distance from the site using offset 4. If the PILOT_INC is chosen carefully,
there should be little concern with 2 interfering with 6 or 6 with 2.
Figure 5-2: Short PN Sequence w/PILOT_INC = 2
As with analog, a reuse distance must be maintained between sectors implementing the same PN
offset to avoid interference. Since the pilot signal is integral to the operation of a CDMA system,
careful PN offset planning should be performed to mitigate interference between sites using the
same offset and falsing between adjacent PN codes which result from phase delay.
5.3.2 PN Offset Planning - Parameters and Terms
There are various parameters and terms which come into play when discussing PN offsets and their
function in CDMA.
1. Note also how time, distance, and chips are all related. Refer to Section 5.3.3.
PN 0
PN 1
t
0
= 102 sec
t
1
= 50 sec
Avoid ambiguity
which could result from phase delay.
t = t
0
- t
1
= 102 sec - 50 sec = 52 sec
PN 1 - PN 0 = 64 chips = 52 sec = 9.6 miles
Traversing the additional distance of 9.6 miles, the PN 0 signal has phase
shifted sufficiently so as to be received by the subscriber with essentially the
same phase as PN 1.
2 4 6 8 10
5
System Time
All base station digital transmissions are referenced to a common CDMA system-wide time scale
that uses the Global Positioning System (GPS) time scale, which is traceable to and synchronous
with Universal Coordinated Time (UTC).
2
Time Reference
The subscriber establishes a time reference which is used to derive system time. This time
reference will be the earliest arriving multipath component being used for demodulation.
3
This
reflects the assumption that the subscribers fix on system time is always skewed by delay
associated with the shortest active link.
PILOT_PN
The Pilot PN sequence offset (index), in units of 64 PN chips. It ranges from 0 to 511. Every
transmit sector will have an offset assigned to it.
Active Set
The pilots associated with the Forward Traffic Channels assigned to the subscriber.
4
It is the base
station that assigns all active set pilots to subscribers.
Candidate Set
The pilots that are not currently in the Active Set but have been received by the subscriber with
sufficient strength to indicate that the associated Forward Traffic Channels could be successfully
demodulated. As a property of the Mobile Assisted HandOff (MAHO), the subscriber promotes a
Neighbor Set or Remaining Set pilot to the Candidate Set when certain pilot strength criteria are
met and then recommends the pilot to the base station for inclusion in the Active Set.
Neighbor Set
The pilots that are not currently in the Active Set or the Candidate Set and are likely candidates for
handoff. Neighbor Set pilots are identified by the base station via Neighbor List and Neighbor List
Update messages.
Remaining Set
The set of all possible pilots in the current system on the current CDMA frequency assignment,
excluding pilots in the other sets. These pilots must be integer multiples of PILOT_INC (defined
below).
2. EIA/TIA/IS-95A, Mobile Station - Base Station Compatibility Standard for Dual-Mode Wideband Spread Spectrum Cellular System,
1.2.
3. Ibid., 6.1.5.1.
4. Ibid., 6.6.6.1.2.
5
SRCH_WIN_N, SRCH_WIN_R
These parameters represent the search window sizes associated with Neighbor Set and Remaining
Set pilots.
5
The subscriber centers the search window for each pilot around the pilots PN sequence
offset using timing defined by the subscribers time reference.
In general, a neighbor search window, SRCH_WIN_N, will be sized so as to encompass the
geographic area in which the neighbor may be added (a soft handoff add zone or initial
detection area). The largest a neighbor search window need be is such that it is sufficient to cover
the distance between the neighbors, , plus an accommodation of the time-of-flight delay
(approx. 3 chips).
SRCH_WIN_A
This parameter represents the search window size associated with the Active Set and Candidate Set
pilots.
6
The subscriber centers the search window for each pilot around the earliest arriving usable
multipath component of the pilot. Note that in contrast to the neighbor or remaining set search
windows, the active/candidate search windows "float" with the desired signals. That is to say that
the center position of the search window is updated every scan to track the new location of the
earliest arriving multipath component.
To better illustrate the relationships between search windows, consider the following scenario:
A subscriber monitors a neighbor pilot. The neighbor search window is centered on the neighbor
pilot offset. This centering is relative based on timing derived from the time reference. When the
pilot strength of a neighbor pilot recommends promotion to the candidate set, then the search
window will be tightened to the active search window size. The active search window is sized to
compensate for delay spread only and is, therefore, smaller than the neighbor search window. In
addition, the active search window locks onto and tracks the candidate pilot.
PILOT_ARRIVAL
The pilot arrival time is the time of occurrence of the earliest arriving usable multipath component
of a pilot relative to the subscribers time reference.
7
PILOT_PN_PHASE
The subscriber reports pilot strength and phase measurements for each active and candidate pilot
in the Pilot Strength Measurement Message when recommending a change in the handoff status
(i.e. mobile assisted handoff). The subscriber computes the reported PILOT_PN_PHASE as a
function of the PILOT_ARRIVAL and the PILOT_PN.
8
The pilot arrival component represents
the time delay of the pilot relative to the time reference or, in other words, how skewed the pilot is
5. Ibid., 6.6.6.2.1.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., 6.6.6.2.4.
8. Ibid.
3R
5
from the subscribers concept of system time. Both the PILOT_ARRIVAL and
PILOT_PN_PHASE measurements are in chips (15 bits, 0 to 32,767 or 2
15
-1) while the
PILOT_PN is in offsets (9 bits, 0 to 511). The difference (6 bits) corresponds to the 64 chip interval
between successive PN offsets.
Note also that the subscriber does not identify pilots by their offset index directly, but by their
phase measurement. If the pilot arrival was larger than 32 chips (1/2 of a pilot offset or 4.8 miles),
then this could undermine the ability of the base station to properly translate pilot phase into pilot
offset index (given a PILOT_INC of 1).
PILOT_INC
The pilot PN sequence offset index increment is the interval between pilots, in increments of 64
chips. Its valid range is from 1 to 15. The subscriber uses this parameter in only one manner, to
determine which pilots to scan from among the Remaining set. Only valid pilots (i.e. those pilots
that are multiples of PILOT_INC) will be scanned. For the subscriber, PILOT_INC impacts only
the scanning rate applied to Remaining pilots. It accomplishes this by reducing the number of
Remaining pilots that need to be scanned.
For the base station, the effect of the PILOT_INC is different. In the base station, it is used in
properly translating pilot phase back into pilot offset index. The consequence is that the operator
may artificially increase the separation between valid time offsets. By selecting a PILOT_INC of
2, for instance, an operator chooses to limit the number of valid offsets to 256 (i.e. 0, 2, 4,..., 508,
510) instead of 512. The increased separation means that the pilot arrival must be larger before
adjacent offset ambiguity is possible and consequently the likelihood of a strong adjacent interferer
is reduced.
5.3.3 Converting Between Chips and Time or Distance
Chips are related to time by the following relationship:
[EQ 5-1]
Chips are related to distance by the following relationship:
[EQ 5-2]
Or, in kilometers:
[EQ 5-3]
Note that the chip rate (1.2288 Mcps) and the speed of light (186,000 miles/sec) are fundamental
to these conversions.
Time (us)
Chips
1.2288 Mcps
------------------------------- Chips 0.8138 us/chip = =
Distance (miles) Chips 0.8138 us/chip 186,000 miles/1,000,000 us Chips 0.1514 miles/chip = =
Distance (km) Chips 0.8138 us/chip 299,311 km 1,000,000 us Chips 0.244 km/chip = =
5
5.3.4 Search Windows and Geography
Before discussing offset planning in any detail, a brief discussion of search windows and their
spatial relationships to cell sites and subscribers is needed. Base Stations, by virtue of their GPS
tracking, have an exact concept of system time. This, in turn, means that signals leaving these sites
have precise offsets and identities. On the other hand, subscribers derive their timing from a time
reference. Their concept of system time is skewed late by the time-of-flight delay associated with
this time reference signal. The greater the distance between the subscriber and the time reference
site, the greater the skewing.
Consider the diagram below:
Figure 5-3: Subscriber Location Relative to Search Window
Let subscriber A, Site 1 and Site 2 be co-linear with subscriber A positioned exactly between Sites
1 and 2 and with Site 1 active. The subscribers concept of system time is skewed from real system
time by X, the distance between the subscribers concept of time and its time reference. When the
subscriber searches for a neighbor, it will center the search window on the offset associated with
the neighbor, but based on its own system time (which, of course, is a little late compared with real
system time). Assuming Site 2 to be a neighbor of interest, its signal traverses a distance to
subscriber A that is exactly as late as the subscribers time reference. Under these circumstances,
the time differential between the two signals is zero (i.e. X-X = 0) and the signal from Site 2 will
fall directly in the center of the neighbor search window in which the subscriber is searching for
Site 2.
Now, consider subscribers B and B. Subscriber B is located 1 chip closer to Site 1 with Site 1
active; therefore, subscriber Bs system time is skewed by only X-1. The signal from Site 2
traverses X+1 and the time differential between the two signals is (X-1) - (X+1) = -2; consequently,
the signal from Site 2 is arriving 2 chips late and will appear 2 chips off center in the neighbor
search window. Please note that a 1 chip shift in spatial location has had a 2 chip impact on
the location within the search window. Conversely, subscriber B has timing skewed by X+1
while Site 2s signal traverses only X-1 chips, leading to a time differential of (X+1) - (X-1) or 2
chips. Site 2s signal is arriving early by 2 chips. To design a search window large enough to
encompass locations B and B, a search window of at least 4 chips or + 2 chips wide would be
required.
The worst case time differential is when the subscriber is located directly adjacent to one site while
trying to detect or demodulate the signal from the other site. For example, subscriber C effectively
has timing that is coincident with system time (i.e. its skewing is 0). Site 2s signal is arriving D
A
B
C
2 1
B
D = distance between Site 1 and Site 2
X = D/2
1 chip
5
chips late. For this signal to fall into the search window, it must be sized + D chips or 2D chips
wide. Since this is the worst case scenario, the following should be understood: if a search window
is sized large enough to compensate for the distance between the two sites (i.e. 2D), then there is
no location where a subscriber would have one site as its time reference and not see the other site
in its search window.
Here is a more generalized depiction of search windows in space:
Figure 5-4: Search Windows in Space
The two sites are located at (0,0) and (10,0) and are 10 units apart. The curves represent constant
time differentials between the two sites and will correspond to the edges of certain search window
sizes. Search windows will be centered on the perpendicular line half-way between the sites. The
width of the search window in space will correspond to half of the search window size in chips.
For example, the two lines corresponding to time differentials of -4 and +4 demarcate an area that
corresponds to a search window that is + 4 units or 8 units in width. In geographic space, the width
of the area on the line between the two sites will only be 4 units wide or 1/2 of the search window
size. Between the curves, a subscriber tied to one site will see the other site fall within its search
window. Conversely, no matter how strong a neighbor signal may be, if the subscriber is located
outside of the search window area, it will not detect the signal.
Note how the curves bend as the search window is enlarged. When the search window is made
large enough to compensate for the distance between the two sites, the curves collapse upon
themselves indicating that there is no longer any region in space where the signal will not fall
within the search window. In general, a generous attitude toward search window sizing should
exist. The ability to demodulate a signal depends on being able to see it. The table below correlates
distance between neighbors to search window sizes.
Diff = -8
Diff = -6
Diff = -4
Diff = -2 Diff = 2 Diff = 6
Diff = 4
Diff = 8
Diff = -10 Diff = 10
5
The SrchWin sizes come from their definition in IS-95A/J-STD-8. The equation correlating
Window Size (in chips) to distance between neighbors (in miles) is:
[EQ 5-4]
The two chips removed from the Window Size compensate for time-of-flight (i.e. real world)
delays. If starting with a distance between sites to calculate a window size, two chips would need
to be added.
This discussion on search windows was designed to help the system engineer visualize the spatial
relationship of search windows to cell sites. An individual out in the field can estimate how large
a search window would need to be for a particular location by estimating the time differential
between the two sites of interest (use the absolute value only), adding 1 chip (to compensate for
time-of-flight delays), and multiplying by 2.
5.3.5 Search Windows and Scan Intervals
The following information is provided to give insight to system optimizers and is based on
Motorolas general understanding of subscriber vendor pilot scan algorithms. It is important to note
that such algorithms are not specified through IS-95A/J-STD-008 and are, therefore, manufacturer
specific. Also, pilot scanning rates/intervals are a function of many variables.
In general, active and candidate pilots are scanned at a rate of 50 times/second or better. This would
be valid for up to a total of 6 pilots and is not impacted by the number of neighbors or remaining
set pilots.
Neighbor set pilots are scanned anywhere between 2 to 40 times/second with a common range
being 4 to 15 times/second. The rate is dependent on the number of actives/candidates and
neighbors.
Remaining set pilots are scanned on the order of seconds. The remaining set pilots will be scanned
N
R
times slower than the neighbors (where N
R
represents the number of remaining set pilots, a
function of PILOT_INC).
Table 5-1: Search Window Size vs. Neighbor Separation
SrchWin 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Window Size (chips) 4 6 8 10 14 20 28 40
Delay (s) 1.6 3.3 4.9 6.5 9.8 14.6 21.2 30.9
Neighbor Separation (mi) 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.9 1.4 2.0 2.9
SrchWin 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Window Size (chips) 60 80 100 130 160 226 320 452
Delay (s) 47.2 63.5 79.8 104.2 128.6 182.3 258.8 366.2
Neighbor Separation (mi) 4.4 5.9 7.5 9.7 12.0 17.0 24.2 34.2
distance
miles ( )
Window Size 2 ( )
2
----------------------------------------------
0.1516 =
5
5.4 PN Offset Planning - Solutions
Current concepts for PN offset planning generally center on finding an appropriate value for
PILOT_INC. A large value would provide good protection against adjacent offset interference
since the pilot needs to travel a greater distance before potentially falsing (since signal attenuation
is highly correlated with propagation distance). However, too large a value implies too few valid
PN offsets and too small a reuse distance, thereby increasing the likelihood of co-offset
interference. Conversely, a small value of PILOT_INC delivers a large set of valid PN offsets, a
large reuse pattern and reuse distance, thereby reducing the likelihood of any co-offset
interference. However, too small a value will not provide good isolation against adjacent offset
interference or ambiguity.
Prior to discussing in detail the planning limits for PILOT_INC, it is important to note the
following concerning R, the radius of the cell site. CDMAs use of soft handoff makes the radius
of the active area significantly larger than that which is accustomed with analog and which is
associated with a hexagonal grid. Speaking of the radius of a site conveys significant information
since both reuse distance, D, and cluster size, N, are related as follows:
[EQ 5-5]
However, with CDMA and soft handoff there is significantly greater overlap between sites. If the
hexagon/analog oriented radius is labeled as R
hex
and the CDMA active area radius is labeled as
R
cdma
, then it needs to be understood that R
cdma
can easily be twice as large as R
hex
, perhaps
slightly larger. Many discussions of offset planning have failed to characterize this difference and
consequently lead to faulty conclusions. Specifically, consider a recommendation that suggests
that 5R is sufficient separation for reusing sites. If the R is taken to be R
hex
, then D/R would be 5
and the cluster size would be 9. However, if it is understood that R is R
cdma
, then D/R would be
more on the order of 10 and the cluster size would be 36, which is a significant difference.
5.4.1 Mitigating Adjacent Offset Interference - General
The following explanations, which define the limits of adjacent offset interference based on timing
and signal strength considerations, are not impacted by antenna configuration (whether the sites
are omni, 3-sector, or 6-sector). This attribute simplifies the discussion.
5.4.1.1 Adjacent Offset Interference Protection Based on Timing
For an adjacent offset to have the potential of falsing, it must meet a timing criteria. That is to say
that it must fall into the search window. This is depicted below:
D
R
---- 3 N =
5
Figure 5-5: Minimum Distance for Adjacent Offset Interference
A signal from a potential adjacent interferer must traverse a minimum distance to be able to fall
into the search window of the adjacent offset.
[EQ 5-6]
In this equation, S is 1/2 of the search window size. For example, with a PILOT_INC = 3 and
SRCH_WIN_N = + 30 chips, this minimum distance corresponds to 3 x 64 - 30 = 162 chips = 39.5
km = 24.6 miles. A larger PILOT_INC provides greater isolation; conversely, larger
SRCH_WIN_N values mitigate the isolation.
Of course, the value of 60 chips for SRCH_WIN_N is a recommended starting value and will take
on larger or smaller values. Since SRCH_WIN_A is always smaller than SRCH_WIN_N, an
adjacent offset interferer must always travel a greater distance to potentially interfere in the active
search window.
Table 5-2: Distance/Timing Restriction on Adjacent Interference
(assuming SRCH_WIN_N = + 30 chips)
a
a. For ease of performing mental math, note that each offset of 64 chips contributes a little less
than ~10 miles (9.7) or a little more than ~15 km (15.6). The 30 chip search window accounts
for a 7.3 km or 4.5 mile reduction.
PILOT_INC
(offsets)
PILOT_INC
(chips)
Minimum
Distance
(chips)
Minimum
Distance
(km)
Minimum
Distance
(miles)
1 64 34 8.3 5.2
2 128 98 23.9 14.9
3 192 162 39.5 24.6
4 256 226 55.1 34.3
5 320 290 70.8 44.0
6 384 354 86.4 53.7
3 6
PILOT_INC
SRCH_WIN_X = + S
Minimum Distance PILOT_INC S =
5
Due to this timing requirement, a general rule can be established concerning placement of an
adjacent offset and its neighbors. They should be located under the PILOT_INC - S umbrella
(Equation 5-6) within the cluster. To the degree that this criteria is met, it eliminates the potential
for adjacent interference within the cluster. The limit of this example is to place adjacents with
sectors that are co-located. Under these conditions, there is no time differential between signals
leaving the site and only distant reflections can possibly achieve the time constraints of
interference, which is highly unlikely.
5.4.1.2 Adjacent Offset Interference Protection Based on Signal Strength
The timing discussion can be expanded by taking into account signal strength considerations. The
lower bound on PILOT_INC is identified and will correlate to an acceptable C/I threshold.
Consider this equation which seeks to guarantee a bounded interference between correlated pilots,
effectively yielding the PILOT_INC.
9
[EQ 5-7]
In this equation, R is the radius of the cell in chips, S is 1/2 of the search window size, a is the
desired C/I in dB, and law represents the propagation exponent. The result, m, represents the
required offset, in chips, between any two pilots so that the desired C/I can be achieved. The
relationship can be interpreted as recommending that for each chip of R, there should be k chips of
separation for an adjacent offset so that a minimum C/I threshold is achieved. In this equation, the
presence of S reflects the fact that the correlation need not be perfect for interference to exist. The
adjacent signal need only fall into the search window (a less stringent timing criteria).
10
Note also
that Equation 5-6 and Equation 5-7 are identical in form. Equation 5-7 is stating that at a distance
of PILOT_INC - S (or m - S), the C/I threshold will be achieved. The following table shows a few
different examples of the calculation:
9. Qualcomm, The CDMA Network Engineering Handbook, March 1, 1993, 9.4.2.
10. An earlier, more conservative version of this relationship had S also scaled by k.
Table 5-3: Pilot Sequence Offset Index Assignment
(assuming a = 18.0 dB, law = 3.0, k = 2.98)
R
(km)
R
(miles)
R
(chips)
S
(chips)
m
(chips)
PILOT_INC
(offsets)
Number
of Valid
Offsets
Cluster
Size
(3-sector)
24.9 15.5 102 80 384 6 85 28
20.9 13.0 85.5 65 320 5 102 34
16.9 10.5 69.1 50 256 4 128 42
12.4 7.7 51.0 40 192 3 170 57
8.0 5.0 32.9 30 128 2 256 85
4.1 2.5 16.8 14 64 1 512 170
m 10
a law 10 ( )
1 ( ) R S + k R S + =
5
A conservative propagation exponent was chosen to compensate for the simplicity of the approach
(for example, the assumption of uniform power at both sites). The C/I threshold was set at 18.0 dB
to correspond to a 12 dB C/I threshold (6 dB fade margin, 90% area reliability w/8dB deviation)
for a 2 cell system. This 12 dB imbalance seems sufficient to predict that the searcher will not select
the interfering energy within the active window. Under unloaded conditions (worst case), this
threshold corresponds to an interferer Ec/Io of -14.9 dB which is below the normal range for the
T-ADD setting; therefore, neighbor window falsing is unlikely. Additionally, to generate the table
values, neighbor search window sizes, which vary with cell radius, were used.
Although these table values seem fairly generous, there is one element mitigating the results. An
appropriate value for R must take into account two factors. First, the R is R
cdma
. Additionally, since
path loss is not isotropic and systems are not ideally laid out on grids (i.e. are non-uniform) the
selection of R should reflect a limiting case. Since a system-wide value of PILOT_INC is being
determined, the value of R should more closely represent the 90th percentile rather than the mean.
The radius of highway sites and other larger radius sites that are not clustered need not dominate
the analysis since spatial separation may be used to mitigate interference in those cases.
5.4.2 Protection Against Co-Offset Interference
The following explanations, which define the limits of co-offset interference based on timing and
signal strength considerations are impacted by both the antenna configuration (i.e. omni or sector)
and whether the subscriber is in the active area or in the larger neighbor area. As such, they will
need to be more extensive.
The study of co-offset interference is started by looking at the timing considerations involved in
interfering within the active search window. Consider the following diagrams:
Figure 5-6: Active Window Interference Timing Criteria
It has been stated elsewhere
11
that if two users of the same offset where positioned 2R + S away
from each other (where S is 1/2 of the search window size), then the potential for co-offset
interference is avoided due to the timing criteria not being met. From the discussion on search
windows in Section 5.3.4, it can be seen that if two sites met this criteria for separation, then the
11. Qualcomm, The CDMA Network Engineering Handbook, March 1, 1993, 9.4.2.
A
B
S
Active
R
R
OMNI
SECTOR
A
B
S
Active
R
5
search window would spatially fall completely outside of R. For the sectorized case, the
requirement was modified to R+S.
While meeting this criteria is sufficient to protect against interference within the active search
window, it does not protect against falsing within the neighbor search window. From a timing
perspective, neighbor falsing will be limiting. Consider the following diagrams:
Figure 5-7: Neighbor Window Interference Timing Criteria
Here are some guidelines used in generating these approximations:
There can be no common neighbors among users with the same offset, no sector may
share an offset assignment with one of its neighbors nor may any of its neighbors share
the same offset assignment.
The distance 2R + S
Active
is sufficient to define non-neighbors.
As Neighbor Area is limited to 3R + S
Active
for omni and 2R + S
Active
for sector.
For omni systems, B must be separated by S
Neighbor
from As Neighbor Area to avoid
neighbor falsing.
For sector systems, B possesses back-side neighbors (i.e. the co-located sectors) which
must be separated by S
Active
from As Neighbor Area to avoid sharing common
neighbors.
The conclusions from this exercise are summarized in the following table:
Table 5-4: Estimates of Reuse Distance and Cluster Size Based on Timing
(assuming R
cdma
= 2R
hex
, S
Neighbor
2R
hex
and S
Active
1R
hex
)
Antenna Configuration Reuse Distance Equation Reuse Distance Cluster Size
Omni 4R
cdma
+ S
Active
+ S
Neighbor
11R
hex
43
Sector 3R
cdma
+ 2 x S
Active
8R
hex
~21
A
B
C
S
Active
R
R
R
R
S
Neighbor
OMNI
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

A
r
e
a
R
a
d
i
u
s
A
B
S
Active
R
R
S
Active
SECTOR
N
e
i
g
h
b
o
r

A
r
e
a

R
a
d
i
u
s
R
5
The previous analysis, though simple, can help establish a safe margin easily. A somewhat more
detailed analysis below may help determine an absolute minimum reuse distance based on timing.
Figure 5-8: Active and Neighbor Areas
To help visualize the true requirements of the situation, consider Figure 5-8. The sector labelled
with 0 represents the sector of interest. The active area for this sector is depicted in yellow.
Depicted in blue is all of the active area pertaining to the top 10 neighbors. (As with search window
sizing, it is also recommended to be generous with neighbor lists.) Keep in mind that the blue area
represents the neighbor area to which is being referenced. That is to say, areas where a subscriber
might be looking for the offset of sector 0 even though it is well outside of the area where sector 0
is actively demodulated. By this means alone, the neighbor area represents an expansion of greater
than 300% over the active area. If the next six most significant neighbors (sectors labelled 2) were
included as neighbors, the neighbor area expands even further (area depicted in cyan). Note how
both the front and back of sector 0 have neighbor search areas. The front is more pronounced while
the back is affected mostly by the co-located sectors. (These neighbor relationships and subscriber
locations are based on soft handoff relationships identified through CDMA static simulations for
an ideal grid and uniform distribution.)
Estimates based on this perspective will prove more optimistic than those derived earlier since they
account for the overlapping of cells and they better estimate the true neighbor area size.
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2 2
2
2
Sector 0
Top 10 Neighbors
11 - 16 Neighbors
5
Note: To take advantage of sectorization, the planner must reuse offsets with the same orientation.
5.4.3 Incorrect Identification of an Offset by the Base Station
The CBSC (i.e. the XC subsystem) translates phase measurements to offsets by pooling them to
the nearest valid offset based on its knowledge of PILOT_INC. For correct identification, this
process assumes that the PILOT_ARRIVAL component of the phase measurement never exceeds
1/2 of PILOT_INC. As a check on the selection of PILOT_INC, planners should ask whether or
not locations exist within the system where subscribers may be active with a site at a distance
greater than 1/2 of PILOT_INC. [Note: the process by which phase measurements are translated to
offset indices is not specified by IS-95A/J-STD-008.
Figure 5-9: Phase Measurement Translations
Now, compare the relationship between SRCH_WIN_N and PILOT_INC. It is a rule that
SRCH_WIN_N (and SRCH_WIN_R) never exceed PILOT_INC. The consequences of doing so
are that the two adjacent windows would overlap. The BS may incorrectly identify the offset and
the subscriber may report multiple signals where only one is present. This guideline, easy to
express and understand, is frequently the truly limiting factor on the lower bound for PILOT_INC
Table 5-5: Calculation of Reuse Distance
(Assuming S
Neighbor
2R, S
Active
1R and Active Area Radius (A) 2.2R)
Front
(F)
Back
(B)
Reuse
Equation
a
a. The reuse equation is based on spatial relationships depicted in Figure 5-7. The Front range corresponds
to the Neighbor Area Radius.
Reuse
Distance
Cluster
Size
Top 10 Neighbors - Sector 3.1 R 2.2 R
F + S
Active
+ B
b
b. Under these conditions, the back-side requirement for 2A + S
Neighbor
6.4R would become limiting.
6.3 R 13
Expanded Neighbor List - Sector 4.3 R 2.2 R F + S
Active
+ B 7.5 R 19
1 Tier - Omni 2.7 R - F + S
Neighbor
+ A 6.9 R 16
2 Tier - Omni 4.4 R - F + S
Neighbor
+ A 8.6 R 25
0 3 6 9 12
PILOT_INC = 3 = spacing between valid offsets
0 3 6 9 12
pilot phase reported by subscriber in PSMM
SRCH_WIN_N
5
(and conversely, the upper bound on cluster size). When situations arise where an area of the
system requires very large search windows, so as to permit soft handoff between distant neighbors
(across water or mountains with large time differentials), the PILOT_INC (a global parameter)
must be resized large enough to accommodate the search window.
5.4.4 PILOT_INC and the Scan Rate of Remaining Set Pilots
The following information is provided to give insight to system optimizers and is based on
Motorolas general understanding of subscriber vendor pilot scan algorithms. It is important to note
that such algorithms are not specified through IS-95A/J-STD-008 and are, therefore, manufacturer
specific.
As was noted in the definition of PILOT_INC, according to IS-95A/J-STD-008, the only impact
of PILOT_INC on the subscriber is to influence the scanning rate of remaining set pilots. Please
note that for optimum system performance, the scanning rate of remaining set pilots is not
considered a dominant factor in determining the size of PILOT_INC. Remaining set pilots are at a
distinct disadvantage over neighbor set pilots due to the scanning prioritization of pilot sets. For
example, all active and candidate set pilots are scanned between scans of individual neighbor or
remaining set pilots. All neighbor set pilots are scanned between scans of individual remaining set
pilots. The scanning order is represented as follows for 3 active set pilots and 1 candidate set pilot
[please remember that the actual scanning order is subscriber manufacturer specific]:
A
1
A
2
A
3
C
1
N
1
A
1
A
2
A
3
C
1
N
2
A
1
A
2
A
3
C
1
N
3
...
A
1
A
2
A
3
C
1
N
N
A
1
A
2
A
3
C
1
R
1
A
1
A
2
A
3
C
1
N
1
...
A
1
A
2
A
3
C
1
N
N
A
1
A
2
A
3
C
1
R
N
Begin again from the top.
A remaining set pilot is scanned N times slower than a neighbor set pilot where N is the number of
remaining set pilots. In addition to their low scanning priority, IS-98 specifies no performance
criteria for remaining set pilots.
Any remaining set pilot that appears strong enough (and long enough) to recommend promotion to
the active set needs to be analyzed as part of the optimization process. Perhaps, it should be added
to the neighbor list (or have its coverage adjusted). Feedback on these events can be derived from
callproc logs in the pre-commercial phase and Call Detail Logs (CDLs) in the commercial phase.
Note: Since remaining set pilots are prioritized low and, currently, Motorola does not honor
requests to enter into soft handoff with a remaining set pilot, some operators have considered
reducing SRCH_WIN_R to a minimum (i.e. 4 chips) and trading off the remaining set scan time
for improved scan time on actives, candidates and neighbors. This is not recommended. The most
significant reason is that the remaining set search window provides a means by which truncated
neighbors can be recognized by the system. When in soft/softer handoff, a merging of neighbor
lists take place. If the merge yields more than 20 neighbors, the subscriber limit of 20 neighbors
requires that the list be truncated to only higher prioritized neighbors. Although these neighbors
may not be identified to the subscriber as neighbors, they nevertheless may be detected through a
remaining set scan. The system will recognize and honor these remaining set pilot requests. A
secondary motivation for permitting the windows to stay open is that they provide a means for
5
optimizing neighbors lists by recognizing those sites which should be neighbors, but are not on the
neighbor list. On the other hand, the improvement in the scan interval will only be modest on
average (~6%).
5.4.5 Summary of Guidelines
The table below and the following text provide a summary of the PN offset planning guidelines.
To summarize the key guidelines for sectorized systems on sizing PILOT_INC are:
1. Minimum cluster size is 19 for 3-sector or 6-sector systems. Refer to Section 5.4.2 for
details.
Table 5-6: Summary of PN Offset Planning Guidelines
PILOT_INC
Comments
8 6 4 3 2 1
Cluster Size (3-sector) 19 25 37 52 76 148 co-offset
D/R (3-sector) 7.5 8.7 10.5 12.5 15.1 21.1 co-offset
Extra Sites (3-sector) 2 3 5 4 8 20 insurance
Cluster Size (6-sector) 9 13 19 25 37 76 co-offset
D/R (6-sector) 5.2 6.2 7.5 8.7 10.5 15.1 co-offset
Extra Sites (6-sector) 1 1 2 3 5 8 insurance
C/I (5km/10km)
a
a. Refer to Section 5.4.1.2.
40.3/
31.9
36.6/
28.3
31.3/
23.4
27.8/
20.2
20.4/
15.9
16.1/
10.4
adjacent offset -
PCS
C/I (8km/16km) 34.5/
26.4
30.9/
23.0
25.9/
18.5
22.5/
15.6
18.0/
11.9
12.1/
7.4
adjacent offset - 800
S (chips) 80 65 50 40 30 14 varies w/cell radius
PILOT_INC - S
(chips)
432 319 206 152 98 50 adjacent offset
PILOT_INC - S (km) 105.4 77.8 50.2 37.1 23.9 12.2 adjacent offset
PILOT_INC (chips) 512 384 256 192 128 64 compare w/
SRCH_WIN_N
PILOT_INC/2 (chips) 256 192 128 96 64 32 Neighbor Proximity
Check?
PILOT_INC/2 (km) 62.5 46.8 31.2 23.4 15.6 7.8 Neighbor Proximity
Check?
C/I 30 m S ( ) R 1 + ( ) log =
5
2. Maximum PILOT_INC is 8 for 3-sector and 4 for 6-sector. This correlates to the
minimum cluster size.
3. For Suburban environments at 1900 MHz, minimum PILOT_INC is 3 (based on a
minimum C/I threshold of 18.5 dB and unloaded carriers). This will serve the Urban/
Dense Urban areas as well.
Note: Due to the approximate 9 dB difference between path loss at 1900 MHz and 800
MHz, PCS systems have smaller sites and consequently lower minimum PILOT_INC
values.
4. For Suburban environments at 800 MHz, minimum PILOT_INC is 4 (based on a
minimum C/I threshold of 18.5 dB and unloaded carriers). This will serve the Urban/
Dense Urban areas as well.
5. PILOT_INC must be larger than the Neighbor and Remaining Set search windows,
SRCH_WIN_N and SRCH_WIN_R. All timing differentials must be less than
PILOT_INC/2. Carefully review the system design for any neighbors that are separated
by more than PILOT_INC/2 since potentially these neighbors can generate sufficiently
large timing differentials to cause translation errors (i.e. Neighbor Proximity Check).
Refer to Section 5.4.3 for details.
6. To eliminate the potential for adjacent interference within a cluster, an adjacent offset
and its neighbors should be separated from the potential interferer by a distance no
greater than PILOT_INC - S. The distance PILOT_INC/2 is a safer limit (since S is a
variable with an upper limit of PILOT_INC/2). This criteria can best be met by either
co-locating the adjacent offsets within the same site or by assigning them to 1st tier
neighbors. Refer to Section 5.4.1.1 for details.
7. If the system is truly characterized by Urban/Dense Urban environments, then smaller
PILOT_INC values may be justified. If an entire CBSC is characterized by smaller radii,
then that CBSC may have its PILOT_INC set lower.
8. Small sized trials are very easy to plan for. The largest PILOT_INC which will not
require the trial system to have any reuse at all is suggested. Under these conditions, co-
offset interference is non-existent and adjacent interference protection is maximized. If
the PILOT_INC is selected to be a multiple of that which will ultimately be
migrated to, then implementing changes in PILOT_INC later will not force a
change to the sector level PN offset assignments.
9. Multiple carriers in a sector are all assigned the same PN offset.
10. The implementation of CDMA at 1900 MHz is, generally, not tied to an already existing
analog base with its locations and antennas where significant cell splitting has taken
place. The site grid should be more uniform than the mature analog counterpart. This
should lend itself to a simpler repeat pattern implementation.
11. From a practical perspective, it should be understood that the majority of Motorola
systems that are commercial use a PILOT_INC in the range of 2 to 4. The systems using
a PILOT_INC of 2 can be characterized as possessing small radius sites. The systems
employing a PILOT_INC of 4 can be characterized as possessing some areas of
extensive propagation (water, mountains) that have required resizing SRCH_WIN_N,
and consequently PILOT_INC, larger.
5
5.4.6 Guidelines for Assigning Offsets
It has already been explained that there should be a goal for locating adjacent offsets close to each
other. In the figure below, the Adjacent Sectors configuration shows co-located sectors containing
adjacent offsets. This represents the absolute limit on how close adjacent offsets can be located.
Under these conditions, two-thirds of all adjacent assignments (for 3 sector sites) will have reduced
the time differential to zero. For the remaining third, the adjacent offset is located in an adjacent
site. This approach also has the benefit of easy recognition of co-located sectors during system
optimization.
Figure 5-10: Adjacent Sector and Adjacent Site Offset Assignment Approaches
Previously, this has been the only recommendation. There is now an alternative recommendation,
Adjacent Sites, which locates all adjacent offset assignments within adjacent sites (and not within
adjacent sectors of the same site). The Adjacent Sites approach has Offset Groupings associated
with it that are found in Table 5-7 and Table 5-8. Although this represents a slight compromise with
respect to the timing margin of the Adjacent Sectors configuration, there are several characteristics
with this approach that make it worth recommending:
Virtually all adjacent offsets possess the same antenna orientation (as co-offsets
normally do). This provides an additional measure of interference protection and
simplifies system optimization.
A uniform increment of 168 exists between co-located sectors regardless of the
PILOT_INC in use. This will help optimization through easier recognition of co-site
offsets. (The Adjacent Sectors approach also benefits from easy recognition of co-site
offsets.)
A 3-sector site uses one group while a 6-sector site uses 2 groups. (The Adjacent Sectors
approach possesses this benefit as well.)
Table 5-7 contains 84 groupings for a PILOT_INC of 2. Subsets of this table apply to
PILOT_INC values of 4 (42 sets), 6 (28 sets), 8 (21 sets), and 12 (14 sets). These
groupings will prove useful in any transition or migration between different
PILOT_INCs.
ADJACENT SECTORS ADJACENT SITES
6
3
9
12
15
18
6
174
342
9
177
345
5
Table 5-8 contains 56 groupings for a PILOT_INC of 3. Subsets of this table apply to
PILOT_INC values of 6 (28 sets) and 12 (14 sets). These groupings will prove useful in
any transition or migration between different PILOT_INCs.
For example, to transition between PILOT_INCs 2 and 3, the design would need a
transition zone of 6. All of the appropriate groupings for a PILOT_INC of 6 already exist
within the separate 2 and 3 sets.
Generic information on reuse patterns can be found in Section 5.5. Here are some possible cluster
configurations:
Table 5-7: Offset Groupings for PILOT_INC = 2 (also 4, 6, 8, and 12)
Alpha
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42
Beta
170 172 174 176 178 180 182 184 186 188 190 192 194 196 198 200 202 204 206 208 210
Gamma
338 340 342 344 346 348 350 352 354 356 358 360 362 364 366 368 370 372 374 376 378
Alpha
44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84
Beta
212 214 216 218 220 222 224 226 228 230 232 234 236 238 240 242 244 246 248 250 252
Gamma
380 382 384 386 388 390 392 394 396 398 400 402 404 406 408 410 412 414 416 418 420
Alpha
86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126
Beta
254 256 258 260 262 264 266 268 270 272 274 276 278 280 282 284 286 288 290 292 294
Gamma
422 424 426 428 430 432 434 436 438 440 442 444 446 448 450 452 454 456 458 460 462
Alpha
128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 166 168
Beta
296 298 300 302 304 306 308 310 312 314 316 318 320 322 324 326 328 330 332 334 336
Gamma
464 466 468 470 472 474 476 478 480 482 484 486 488 490 492 494 496 498 500 502 504
Table 5-8: Offset Groupings for PILOT_INC = 3 (also 6 and 12)
Alpha
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60 63
Beta
171 174 177 180 183 186 189 192 195 198 201 204 207 210 213 216 219 222 225 228 231
Gamma
339 342 345 348 351 354 357 360 363 366 369 372 375 378 381 384 387 390 393 396 399
Alpha
66 69 72 75 78 81 84 87 90 93 96 99 102 105 108 111 114 117 120 123 126
Beta
234 237 240 243 246 249 252 255 258 261 264 267 270 273 276 279 282 285 288 291 294
Gamma
402 405 408 411 414 417 420 423 426 429 432 435 438 441 444 447 450 453 456 459 462
Alpha
129 132 135 138 141 144 147 150 153 156 159 162 165 168
Beta
297 300 303 306 309 312 315 318 321 324 327 330 333 336
Gamma
465 468 471 474 477 480 483 486 489 492 495 498 501 504
5
The 19-cell repeat pattern is easy to use. A site number, N,
within the pattern can easily be translated into a PN offset
assignment for a particular sector.
For Adjacent Sectors, 6-sector, and PILOT_INC of 4:
SECTOR x OFFSET= ((N-1) * 6 + x) * 4
For Adjacent Sites, 6-sector, and PILOT_INC of 4:
SECTOR x OFFSET= N*4 + (x-1)*168; (x = 1,2,3)
SECTOR x OFFSET= (N+21)*4 + (x-4)*168; (x = 4,5,6)
The 25-cell repeat pattern is easy to use. A site
number, N, within the pattern can easily be translated
into a PN offset assignment for a particular sector.
SECTOR x OFFSET= (N+28)*3 + (x-4)*168;
(x = 4,5,6)
The 37-cell repeat pattern is easy to use. A site
number, N, within the pattern can easily be translated
into a PN offset assignment for a particular sector.
17 9 1 12 4
10 2 13 5
16 8 19 11
3 14 6
15 7 18
3
10
17 6 14
4 8 13 19 22
7 14 18 23
3 9 12 20
15 17 24
2 10 11
1 6 15
11 16 25
24
25 16
21 21
22
5
6
4
5
1
2
23 12 1 27 16
13 2 28 17
22 11 37 26
3 29 18
21 10 36
20 9 35
4 30 19
31
32 25
33 15
34
24
14
5
6
7
8
5
The 52-cell repeat pattern is easy to use. A site number,
N, within the pattern can easily be translated into a PN
offset assignment for a particular sector.
5.4.7 Guidelines for Changing PILOT_INC at Inter-CBSC Boundaries.
PILOT_INC is a CBSC global parameter. As such, PILOT_INC can only be changed at CBSC
boundaries. When such a change is required, the preferred methodology includes the following
guidelines:
Figure 5-11: Inter-CBSC PILOT_INC Boundary
One side shall have a PILOT_INC which is a multiple of the other side. For example,
transitioning between 2 and 4 or 3 and 6.
The challenge in transitioning is characterized by subscribers on one side seeing a site
from the other side, but the home CBSC does not interpret the phase correctly because a
different PILOT_INC is in use. For the example in Figure 5-11, CBSC A is using 2 and
CBSC B is using 4. A subscriber tied to B sees an A site using offset 6 and reports it in a
PSMM. CBSC B will interpret the offset as either 4 or 8, because it does not recognize
6. This problem does not manifest itself in the other direction since all multiples of 4 are
already multiples of 2.
21 47 1 27 7
48 2 28 8
20 46 26 52
3 29 9
19 45 25
18 44 24
4 30 10
38
39 51
40 6
41
22
49
33
34
35
36
37 17 43 11
12
23
42
16
15
14
13
32
31 5
50
5
10
12
16
23
31
36
50
42
CBSC A
PILOT_INC = 2
CBSC B
PILOT_INC = 4
TRANSITION ZONE
6
8
4
16
multiple of 2, but not of 4
multiple of 4
5
A transition zone should be planned on the A side (using PILOT_INC = 2) of the border
such that for a few layers of cells, all sites are using multiples of 4. In other words the
transition is planned as an extension of the B side.
If the PILOT_INC on one CBSC is not the multiple of the PILOT_INC in use on the
other CBSC, then a transition zone consisting of offsets based on a common multiple
should be used. For example, to transition between 2 and 3, the common multiple of 6 is
used.
A pseudo-requirement of Inter-CBSC Soft Handoff is that PILOT_INCs should be the
same across all CBSCs that are connected. Since target CBSC BTSs are being controlled
by a source/anchor CBSC, they are subject to using the anchor PILOT_INC during an
Inter-CBSC soft handoff. If No Legs-Wait or No Legs is used as the anchor handoff
trigger, then this technique may still work and may require a larger transition area.
5.5 Reuse Patterns
This table can help in defining reuse patterns through use of i & j coordinates. For example, to
create a normal analog 7 cell reuse pattern, follow along the i axis for 2 cells and then follow the j
axis (either clockwise or counter-clockwise, but be consistent) for 1 cell. The grayed out table
elements pertain to cluster sizes not likely to be used in CDMA.
Table 5-9: Reuse Pattern Coordinates, i & j,
and Cluster Size, N, and D/R
i j N D/R i j N D/R
1 0 1 1.73 7 1 57 13.08
1 1 3 3.00 5 4 61
(4 ring)
13.53
2 0 4 3.46 6 3 63 13.75
2 1 7
(1 ring)
4.58 8 0 64 13.86
3 0 9 5.20 7 2 67 14.18
2 2 12 6.00 8 1 73 14.80
3 1 13 6.24 5 5 75 15.00
4 0 16 6.93 6 4 76 15.10
3 2 19
(2 ring)
7.55 7 3 79 15.39
4 1 21 7.94 8 2 84 15.87
5 0 25 8.66 6 5 91
(5 ring)
16.52
3 3 27 9.00 7 4 93 16.70
4 2 28 9.17 8 3 97 17.06
5 1 31 9.64 6 6 108 18.00
6 0 36 10.39 7 5 109 18.08
4 3 37
(3 ring)
10.54 8 4 112 18.33
5
5.6 References
Prior discussions of topics significant to PN Offset Planning which are useful references include
the following:
1. TIA/EIA/IS-95A, Mobile Station-Base Station Compatibility Standard for Dual-Mode
Wideband Spread Spectrum Cellular System, version 0.07, 6.1.5.1, 6.6.6.1.2,
6.6.6.2.1, 6.6.6.2.4.
2. Qualcomm, The CDMA Network Engineering Handbook, March 1, 1993, 9.1.1,
9.2.3, 9.4.
3. Scott M. Hall (Motorola), Simple CDMA PN Search Windows, January 5, 1995.
IEEE Conference Papers on this topic include:
4. Chu Rui Chang, Jane Zhen Wan and Meng F. Lee (NORTEL Wireless Engineering
Services), PN offset planning strategies for non-uniform CDMA networks, 1997 IEEE
47th Vehicular Technology Conference, May 4-7, 1997.
5. Jin Yang, Derek Bao and Mo Ali (Airtouch Cellular), PN offset planning in IS-95
based CDMA systems, 1997 IEEE 47th Vehicular Technology Conference, May 4-7,
1997.
5 2 39 10.82 7 6 127
(6 ring)
19.52
6 1 43 11.36 8 5 129 19.67
4 4 48 12.00 7 7 147 21.00
5 3 49 12.12 8 6 148 21.07
7 0 49 12.12 8 7 169
(7 ring)
22.52
6 2 52 12.49 8 8 192 24.00
Table 5-9: Reuse Pattern Coordinates, i & j,
and Cluster Size, N, and D/R
i j N D/R i j N D/R
5
NOTES
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Table of Contents
6.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 3
6.2 CDMA Cell Site Antenna Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 3
6.2.1 Antenna Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 3
6.2.2 Antenna Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 4
6.2.3 Antenna Beamwidth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 6
6.2.4 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 6
6.2.5 Return Loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 6
6.2.6 Power Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 7
6.2.7 Front to Back Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 7
6.2.8 Side Lobes & Back Lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 7
6.2.9 Antenna Downtilting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 8
6.2.10 Antenna Height. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 8
6.3 CDMA Antenna Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 9
6.3.1 Antenna Isolation Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 9
6.3.1.1 CDMA/AMPS Transmit/Receive Antenna Isolation Requirements 6 - 10
6.3.1.2 Measuring Port-to-Port Antenna Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 13
6.3.1.3 Reducing the Required Antenna Isolation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 13
6.3.1.4 Typical Antenna Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 14
6.3.1.5 CDMA Antenna Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 14
6.3.2 Antenna Diversity (Spacial) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 15
6.3.2.1 Horizontal Antenna Diversity and Recommended Separation . . . . 6 - 16
6.3.2.2 Vertical Antenna Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 16
6.4 CDMA Antenna Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 17
6.4.1 Multiple Frame Antenna Sharing with 800 MHz BTS Products . 6 - 17
6.4.2 Multiple Carrier Cavity Combining
With 1900 MHz BTS Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 20
6.4.2.1 Output Power Without Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 20
6.4.2.2 Type of Combining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 20
6.4.2.3 Multiple Carrier Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 21
6.4.3 Duplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 22
6.4.3.1 Pre-Engineered Kits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 23
6.4.3.2 Duplexers and Intermodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 23
6.4.3.3 Proper Installation and Maintenance of Duplexed Antennas . . . . . 6 - 24
RF Antenna Systems
Chapter
6
6
Chapter 6: RF Antenna Systems
6.5 CDMA Antenna Sharing With Other Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 28
6.5.1 SC9600 BTS/HDII Shared Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 28
6.5.1.1 Common Transmit Antenna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 29
6.5.1.2 Common Receive Antenna(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 32
6.5.2 Duplexed AMPS/CDMA Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 39
6.6 GPS Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 41
6.7 Ancillary Antenna System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 41
6.7.1 Directional Couplers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 41
6.7.2 Surge (Lightning) Protectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 41
6.7.3 Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 42
6.7.3.1 RF Performance of Transmission Lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 42
6.7.3.2 Physical Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 42
6.7.3.3 Choice of Transmission Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 43
6.7.4 Transition Feeder Cables (Jumper Cables). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 43
6.8 RF Diagnostic System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 - 44
6
6.1 Introduction
This chapter will outline RF engineering considerations that should be incorporated into the design
of CDMA "antenna systems". The antenna system is defined as those elements between the BTS
equipment cabinet (top of rack) and the Tx or Rx antenna. A detailed discussion of the various
available equipment and antenna sharing configurations and requirements are discussed, including
those involving co-location with other technologies, duplexing, and multiple carrier combining.
The guidelines below are intended to assure the most efficient implementation of Motorolas
CDMA system while minimizing the risk to other fixed and mobile radio operators.
6.2 CDMA Cell Site Antenna Parameters
This section of the document will outline the main antenna parameters that the system engineer
should consider when choosing the optimum antenna to be used in a CDMA system. Guidelines
are provided where possible, although it is recognized that a number of issues are beyond the scope
of this document and may require site specific engineering.
6.2.1 Antenna Type
If separate omni-directional type transmit antennas are to be used for the CDMA system (e.g. no
antenna sharing), a type similar to those used for other cellular technologies, such as AMPS or
GSM, can be used, obviously dependent on the required antenna operating frequency
specifications.
The same convention is basically held for sector type directional CDMA antennas, with the
exception of the consideration of desired beamwidths. Typically, antennas with narrower
horizontal beamwidths than their AMPS or GSM supporting counterparts are used for CDMA to
help limit noise contribution to adjacent sectors. As a result, suitable antenna types should be
chosen if the CDMA system being installed is not to share antennas currently existing at the site.
Sufficient isolation between CDMA antennas and other existing antennas at the site should be
readily obtained. Considering that physical separation between co-located antennas may be
required to assist in achieving this isolation, physically smaller antenna types may be required to
allow for proper installation on the tower.
In general, the log-periodic reflector type directional antennas have smaller height and width
dimensions for the same forward gain than dipole panel antennas or collinear dipole reflector type
antennas. They, of course, have a larger dimension in the direction of maximum gain due to the
length of the log-periodic array(s) which form the overall antenna system. Because of the smaller
area occupied on the face of the tower or its platform, it should be possible to fit at least seven of
these antennas in the same space originally allocated for the AMPS sector antennas.
Log-periodic reflector type antennas also appear to have excellent front-to-back and front-to-side
ratios. It appears that the isolation between adjacent antennas is significantly higher than for dipole
type directional antennas. This is based on measured data taken by Allgon System AB on their line
6
of log-periodic reflector antennas. This provides the same isolation with closer spacing than for
comparable gain panel antennas or greater isolation for the same spacing.
Special consideration should be given to the antenna bandwidth. If the use of duplexers is required
then a wideband antenna capable of supporting the primary and the secondary CDMA carriers
should be selected (see tables below)
Refer to Chapter 2 concerning other frequency bands that might be utilized.
6.2.2 Antenna Gain
This is often referred to as "power gain" and is the ratio of the maximum radiation in a given
direction to that of a reference antenna in the same direction for equal power input. Usually this
gain is referenced to either an isotropic antenna or a half wave dipole in free space at 0 elevation.
Table 6-1: CDMA Carrier Frequency Range
Frequency
Band
Primary CDMA Carrier -
Center Channel
(& Broadband Channel Range)
Frequency Range in MHz
(Base Rx/Tx)
A 283 (263-303) 832.89-834.09 / 877.89-879.09
B 384 (364-404) 835.92-837.12 / 880.92-882.12
Frequency
Band
Secondary CDMA Carrier -
Center Channel
(& Broadband Channel Range)
(Base Rx/Tx)
A 691 (671-711) 845.13-846.33 / 890.13-891.33
B 777 (757-797) 847.71-848.91 / 892.71-893.91
Table 6-2: PCS Carrier Frequency Range
Frequency Band
(Base Rx/Tx)
A 1850-1865/1930-1945
D 1865-1870/1945-1950
B 1870-1885/1950-1965
E 1885-1890/1965-1970
F 1890-1895/1970-1975
C 1895-1910/1975-1990
6
An isotropic reference (dBi) generally pertains to a theoretical antenna having a spherical radiation
pattern with equal gain in all directions. When used as a gain reference, the isotropic antenna has
a power of 0 dBi. The halfwave dipole (dBd) is an antenna which is center fed as to have equal
current distribution in both halves. When used as a theoretical reference antenna it has a power gain
of 0 dBd, which equates to a 2.14 dB difference compared to an Isotropic antenna. For a graphical
representation of the different antenna patterns, please refer to the following figure.
dBi = dBd + 2.14 dBd = dBi - 2.14
Figure 6-1: dBd vs. dBi
The gain of the antenna will impact other antenna characteristics such as: size, weight, horizontal
beamwidth, vertical beamwidth, cost. The RF Engineer will need to select the appropriate antenna
for the particular situation. A trade-off will need to be made by the RF Engineer as to whether a
higher gain or lower gain antenna should be chosen. The higher gain antenna typically is physically
larger, more expensive and has a narrower vertical beamwidth than would a lower gain antenna.
The gain of an antenna has a direct interaction with other antenna parameters, (the technical depth
of which is beyond the scope of this document). The following paragraphs will provide the system
engineer with general guidelines:
Vertical Beamwidth - Generally, the greater the gain of the antenna, the narrower the vertical
beamwidth. The vertical beam can be used to focus coverage in some circumstances, but the
engineer should ensure that the optimum vertical beamwidth is used to prevent the creation of
"nulls" or coverage holes near to the site.
Physical Size - The size of an antenna will generally be greater as an antenna gain increases. This
is due to the greater number of dipole array and electrical elements required to reach the desired
gain. The system engineer should remember that PCS frequencies are approximately half the
wavelength of 800 MHz and therefore the antennas will typically be smaller for a common gain.
6
6.2.3 Antenna Beamwidth
Antenna beamwidth is measured in degrees between the half power points (3 dB) of the major lobe
of the antenna. Beamwidth can be expressed in terms of azimuth (horizontal or H-plane) and
elevation (vertical or E-plane).
The predominant type of antenna configuration within urban areas will be three sectored. This
implies that each sector should utilize an antenna with 120 horizontal beamwidth; however, it has
been found through simulation that the use of 120 antennas provide too much overlap. As the
coverage of any sector within a CDMA system is directly affected by the noise generated by its
neighboring sectors and traffic within those sectors, the use of 120 can lead to reduced coverage
area through the rise in system noise. The excessive overlap of sectors can also lead to increased
softer handoff and therefore the reduction of call processing capability.
If narrow horizontal beamwidth antennas are used, for example 60, simulation has shown that
insufficient coverage (i.e. coverage holes) can exist between adjacent sectors. The use of 60 high
gain antennas can also restrict the vertical beamwidth and can lead to coverage nulls close to the
cell site.
From current simulation, the optimum horizontal antenna beamwidth for PCS systems has been
found to be between 90 and 100. This beamwidth has been proven to minimize softer handoff
while providing adequate coverage. However, before choosing an antenna of this beamwidth, the
system engineer should ensure that all factors outlined within this "Antenna Parameters" section
have been identified.
6.2.4 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is another parameter used to describe an antenna
performance. It deals with the impedance match of the antenna feed point to the feed or
transmission line. The antenna input impedance establishes a load on the transmission line as well
as on the radio link transmitter and receiver. To have RF energy produced by the transmitter
radiated with minimum loss or the energy picked up by the antenna passed to the receiver with
minimum loss, the input or base impedance of the antenna must be matched to the characteristics
of the transmission line. The VSWR of a CDMA antenna should be less than 1.5:1.
6.2.5 Return Loss
Return Loss (RL) is the decibel difference between the power incident upon a mismatched
continuity and the power reflected from that discontinuity. Return loss is related to the reflection
coefficient (p) and VSWR as follows;
RL
dB
= 20 log (1/p)
Where p = (VSWR-1)/(VSWR+1)
VSWR = Vmax/Vmin
6
In other words, the return loss of an antenna can be considered as the difference in power in the
forward and reverse directions due to impedance mismatches in the antenna design.
All other things being equal, the higher the antenna return loss, the better the antenna. The system
engineer should choose an antenna with a return loss of 14 dB or better. Note that 14 dB
corresponds to a VSWR of 1.5:1 as per the following example;
VSWR = 1.5/1 = 1.5
p = (1.5-1)/(1.5+1) = 0.5/2.5 = 0.2
RL
dB
= 20log (1/0.2)
RL
dB
= 13.979 dB
6.2.6 Power Rating
The Power Rating of an antenna is the maximum power, normally expressed in Watts that the
antenna will pass without degraded performance. Typical values for the power rating of an antenna
are between 300 and 500 Watts. As CDMA will employ a smaller number of carriers and due to
the losses associated with combining, the power rating of an antenna is not expected to be a limiting
factor for antenna choice. Even so, when choosing an antenna, the system engineer should consider
system expansion and the theoretical maximum configuration of carriers that could be placed onto
a single antenna (please refer to Section 6.4.2).
6.2.7 Front to Back Ratio
The front to back ratio of an antenna is an important measure of performance. It is the ratio of the
power radiated from the main ray beam forward to that radiated from the back lobe behind the
antenna. Front to back ratio is normally expressed in terms of dB. This means that a signal at the
back of the antenna should be X dB down on a signal at a mirror angle in front of the antenna. The
front to back ratio for a typical CDMA antenna should be in the region of 25 dB.
6.2.8 Side Lobes & Back Lobes
Side and Back lobes are those undesirable directions where the chosen "directional" antenna may
present gain. The system engineer should pay particular attention to these characteristics when
downtilting an antenna, the mechanical downtilting of an antenna will directly affect the radiation
of both side and back lobes. The mounting of panel antennas on buildings or the use of antenna
with electronic down/up tilt are two possible ways to limit back lobe interference.
The system engineer should choose the optimum directivity and gain of an antenna while limiting
the number of side lobes and the strength of the back lobe (refer to previous paragraph - front to
back ratio).
6
6.2.9 Antenna Downtilting
Downtilting is the method of effectively adjusting the vertical radiation pattern of the antenna to
direct the main energy more downwards and reduce the energy directed towards the horizon.
Downtilting can be used to increase the amount of coverage close to the site where "nulls" (holes)
may exist due to the effective height of the antenna. Downtilting can also be used to reduce "pilot
pollution" caused by reflections or undesired RF propagation beyond a predetermined footprint.
There are principally two types of antenna downtilting possible, mechanical and electronic.
Mechanical downtilting can be achieved through the mechanical adjustment of an antennas
physical position. The main advantage of the mechanical type of downtilting is the ease (dependent
upon location) of mechanically adjusting the antennas direction following system optimization.
Note that any CDMA network will require some degree of system optimization based upon site
specific variables. The adjustment of antenna downtilt has historically been one of the principle
methods of tuning system performance, therefore the system engineer should consider if the chosen
antenna can be downtilted and if so, by how much?
The second method of downtilting that can be used is electronic downtilt. This is the only way to
implement downtilt for an omni directional antenna. The level of electronic downtilt for an antenna
can be preset and ordered directly from the antenna manufacturer. The system engineer should be
aware that electronic antenna downtilt is preset. Thus, the field adjustment of downtilt and
therefore vertical radiation can not normally be reduced. There are antenna suppliers that provide
the capability of being able to alter the downtilt characteristics of the antenna from the base of the
cell site. This may take the form of motors to perform the physical downtilt or electronics used to
alter the electrical characteristics of the antenna. Refer to the numerous antenna vendors for the
various antennas that they supply.
The system engineer should also remember that the amount of gain in the antenna will also have a
direct affect both on the physical size of the antenna and the vertical beamwidth. If a low gain
antenna is utilized, the vertical beamwidth will be relatively broad and therefore the benefits of
downtilting will be minimal.
6.2.10 Antenna Height
In general the 6 dB per octave rule will apply to the cell site antenna height in a flat terrain, that is
doubling the antenna height causes a gain increase of 6 dB. The system engineer should compare
this possible gain height increase with the effects of doubling the transmission line loss and the
possible appearance of nulls close to the site.
Figure 6-2 shows the comparative number of cell sites required for a given area based upon
differing base station antenna heights and the Cost-231 Hata propagation model (i.e. flat terrain
only). If 100 ft. (30 m) is considered as the reference point, the system engineer should note that
by doubling the antenna height to 200 ft., there is a reduction of 50% in cell sites required.
6
Figure 6-2: The Relationship of Antenna Height to Number of Cell Sites.
6.3 CDMA Antenna Placement
The placement of required CDMA antennas will typically depend on two main factors:
the isolation required between the CDMA antennas to be installed and other antennas
existing at the site
the amount of spatial diversity provided between CDMA Rx antennas.
It is important that enough physical separation be used between affected antennas to ensure the best
possible performance of the CDMA BTS while minimizing the threat of interference to/from other
co-located technologies. The following sections discuss the above considerations in more detail.
6.3.1 Antenna Isolation Considerations
The following recommendations are general guidelines on the base station antenna isolation
required between two or more of the following radio systems:
800 MHz AMPS
800 MHz CDMA
1900 MHz CDMA PCS
6
Typical examples of site sharing are an 800 MHz CDMA system overlayed on an existing 800
MHz AMPS system, or a 1900 MHz CDMA PCS system sharing the same tower/rooftop with an
existing 800 MHz AMPS/CDMA system. This section describes the RF isolation requirements
between the various transmit and receive antennas of two or more of the above radio systems which
share a common tower/platform/rooftop location. The following antenna isolation scenarios need
to be considered.
Tx to Tx Antenna Isolation: There must be sufficient isolation between any two transmit antennas
to attenuate the signals from one antenna sufficiently before they enter another transmit antenna
and create transmitter IM products in the associated transmitters that are strong enough to cause a
problem for the system.
Rx to Rx Antenna Isolation: For adequate receive diversity performance there must be sufficient
spacing between the two antennas to achieve the desired degree of de-correlation of the two
receiver feeds for the signals being received.
Tx to Rx Antenna Isolation: The isolation between the transmit and receive antennas at a cell site
must be high enough to provide sufficient attenuation to eliminate the following three potential
problems:
1. Receiver overload caused by the high level transmit carriers being picked up by the
receive antennas and causing receiver desensitization and/or generating IM products
within the receiver which interfere with the reception of the desired signals.
2. Interference with the reception of the desired signals caused by transmitter sideband
noise and/or spurious signals generated in the transmitter which fall in the receive band
and whose energy is radiated from the transmit antennas and picked up by the receive
antennas.
3. Interference with the reception of the desired signals caused by transmit IM products
falling in the receive band that are generated in the transmit antenna systems consisting
of feed line and jumper connectors and/or the transmit antennas themselves. These IM
products are produced after the transmitter output filtering and therefore cannot be
eliminated by any transmitter filtering. These IM products will be radiated by the
transmit antennas and picked up by the receive antennas.
Also included in this section are several antenna placement examples as well as a discussion of
some typical isolations that can be expected between various combinations of 800 MHz and 1900
MHz antennas.
Additional base station antenna isolation requirements, involving scenarios such as the co-location
of 800 MHz CDMA and TACS antennas, the co-location of DCS 1800 and PCS 1900 CDMA
antenna and the co-location of PCS 1900 CDMA and microwave antennas, are considered in
Chapter 9.
6.3.1.1 CDMA/AMPS Transmit/Receive Antenna Isolation Requirements
The following sections provide the calculations for antenna isolation requirements.
6
800/1900 MHz Tx-Tx ANTENNA ISOLATION
CDMA Tx - CDMA Tx
The maximum Tx reverse signal that can be applied to a BTS Tx port is +30 dBm (1 Watt). A
typical high power LPA can deliver +50 dBm (100 Watts) to the antenna system. Taking into
consideration the coupling from the adjacent sectors, the minimum antenna-to-antenna isolation
should be:
50 dBm + 3 dB - 30 dBm = 23 dB
Since the minimum AMPS transmit antenna-to-antenna isolation is typically 20 dB, the worst case
antenna isolation required between any AMPS and CDMA transmit antenna combination will be
chosen to be 23 dB. (This applies to both 800 and 1900 MHz transmit antennas.)
800/1900 MHz Rx-Rx ANTENNA ISOLATION
A minimum isolation of 20 dB is desired between any two antennas. This would apply to separate
AMPS and CDMA receive antennas mounted in close proximity to each other. When evaluating
two receive antennas connected to the same BTS for diversity reception, a more important factor
is the spatial separation of the two antennas. If their responses are uncorrelated to fading, good
diversity reception is assured. (According to Lee, William C.Y. in Mobile Cellular
Telecommunications Systems, uncorrelated antennas require from 8 to 14 wavelengths of
horizontal separation. This equates to about 3 to 5 meters at 800 MHz or about half that much at
1900 MHz.) The internal requirement of the BTS is 20 dB isolation, so the antenna system need
only be 20 dB also. The physical spacing required for spatial separation greatly exceeds 20 dB of
isolation between the two receive antennas.
800/1900 MHz Tx-Rx ANTENNA ISOLATION
In Cases 1 through 3 below, Transmit to Receive Antenna Isolation requirements are estimated
based on reducing transmitter noise and spurs in the receive band to the point where only 0.5 dB
of receiver noise floor rise or receiver threshold sensitivity is produced. If either more or less
degradation is tolerable, the information given in Table 6-3 can be used to modify them as desired.
Similarly, if specific information as to the transmitter noise and spurious signal levels for a
particular Base Station model of interest is known, Cases 1 through 3 can be used as a guide.
a: The added noise at this level is equal to kTBF
Table 6-3: Degradation to Sensitivity Based on Noise Level Below kTBF
Noise level below kTBF Degradation to sensitivity
16 dB 0.1 dB
13 dB 0.2 dB
9 dB 0.5 dB
6 dB 1.0 dB
3 dB 1.8 dB
0 dB
a
3.0 dB
6
Case 1: CDMA Tx - CDMA Rx
From Table 6-3, a 0.5 dB sensitivity degradation occurs when the transmitter noise is at
a level of 9 dB below kTBF. For a CDMA receiver with a Noise Figure of 4 dB, kTBF is
-109 dBm. This results in a maximum acceptable interference power of -118 dBm.
Typical CDMA Tx noise level due to CDMA spurs (CDMA Tx IM) in the receive band
is less than -85 dBm in a 1 MHz bandwidth. In the CDMA receiver bandwidth of 1.2288
MHz this is -84 dBm. The resulting antenna-to-antenna isolation requirement for 0.5 dB
sensitivity degradation is:
-84 dBm - (-118 dBm) = 34 dB
Case 2: AMPS Tx - CDMA Rx
The AMPS Tx specification requires the AMPS Rx band spurs to be at a maximum level
of -90 dBm/30 kHz. The total Tx SBN and spurs in the CDMA Rx band is maintained at
-85 dBm/1 MHz with proper frequency planning (no 3rd order IM inside CDMA Rx).
The resulting antenna-to-antenna isolation requirement for a 0.5 dB degradation is:
-84 dBm - (-118 dBm) = 34 dB
For a multitone LPA application, the worst case Tx SBN measured in the Rx band should
be less than -85 dBm/1 MHz.
Case 3: CDMA Tx - AMPS Rx
Typical CDMA Tx noise level due to CDMA spurs (CDMA Tx IM) in the receive band
is less than -85 dBm in a bandwidth of 1 MHz. This is -100 dBm in the AMPS receiver
bandwidth of 30 kHz. The kTBF for a typical AMPS receiver is -123 dBm. Using
Table 6-3, 0.5 dB sensitivity degradation occurs when the Transmitter noise is 9 dB below
kTBF, which is -132 dBm in this case. The resulting antenna-to-antenna isolation
requirement for 0.5 dB sensitivity degradation is:
-100 dBm - (-132 dBm) = 32 dB
The worst case AMPS or CDMA transmit antenna to AMPS or CDMA receive
antenna isolation will be chosen to be 34 dB. (This also holds for any combination of
800 and 1900 MHz antennas.)
Since the required isolation between the Tx-Tx, Rx-Rx, and Tx-Rx pairs of antennas is for the most
part identical for all of the combinations of both 800 MHz AMPS/CDMA and 1900 MHz CDMA
PCS systems, it is appropriate that a single set of isolation requirements should be adopted. Table
6-4 summarizes the isolation requirements between two transmit antennas, two receive antennas,
or a transmit and receive antenna pair which share a common location and are operating in the 800
MHz Cellular and/or 1900 MHz PCS bands and utilizing analog or CDMA technology.
6
Table 6-4: Antenna Isolation Requirements
The antenna isolation requirements in Table 6-4 represent the port-to-port isolation between the
equipment end of the bottom jumper of one antenna system to the equipment end of the bottom
jumper of the other antenna system. Therefore, if the combined jumper and main transmission line
losses of the transmit and receive antenna systems are say 5 dB then the required isolation between
the two antennas themselves would only have to be 29 dB to achieve the required 34 dB port-to-
port isolation listed in Table 6-4.
6.3.1.2 Measuring Port-to-Port Antenna Isolation
The Tx-Rx isolation can be measured by feeding a test signal into the transmit antenna bottom
jumper input (normally connected to the transmitter output port) and measuring the level of the
signal at the output end of the receive antenna bottom jumper (normally connected to the receiver
input port).
A typical measurement setup for port-to-port isolation between two antennas is a signal generator
feeding the desired transmit frequency (at a level of about -20 dBm) into the transmit antenna
bottom jumper and a spectrum analyzer or calibrated test receiver (adjusted to measure the level of
the transmit test signal) connected to the receive antenna bottom jumper. The difference between
the received level and signal generator test level is the port-to-port isolation. For example, if the
level of the received signal is -60 dBm for a signal generator output level of -20 dBm, the port-to-
port isolation would be 40 dB.
6.3.1.3 Reducing the Required Antenna Isolation
Except for overload of the victim receiver front ends by interfering transmit carriers, which require
a minimum isolation between the transmit and receive antennas of 20 dB, all of the isolation
requirements above 20 dB outlined above are due to the effects of either the noise energy or IM
products that are produced in the interfering base station PAs/LPAs and which fall in the receiver
band.
If the receive band attenuation of the bandpass filter in the output of an interfering LPA is increased
(or additional external receiver band filtering is added), the required antenna isolation may be
reduced. However, transmitter IM products generated by hardware in the RF path following the
bandpass or an added external filter may limit the amount of improvement that can be achieved.
Cellular Band (824-894 MHz) PCS Band (1.7-2.0 GHz)
Tx-Tx Rx-Rx Tx-Rx Tx-Tx Rx-Rx Tx-Rx
Cellular 23 dB 20 dB 34 dB 23 dB 20 dB 34 dB
PCS 23 dB 20 dB 34 dB 23 dB 20 dB 34 dB
6
6.3.1.4 Typical Antenna Isolation
For 800 MHz directional panel antennas it should be possible to achieve 25-30 dB of isolation with
0.45-0.6 meters of spacing and 35 dB or so at 1 meter of horizontal spacing. However, reflections
from the tower structure and coupling effects from other antennas may reduce the isolation
obtainable. This is especially true for the advertised front-to-back ratios for many directional
antennas which do not have metal reflector panels on the back sides of the panel structures.
1900 MHz PCS directional panel antennas should be able to achieve isolation levels comparable
to similar 800 MHz types at spacings approaching half of the 800 MHz spacings. Because of this
the tower platform sizes at 1900 MHz can be significantly smaller than those at 800 MHz.
On the basis of limited testing by several of the antenna vendors it would appear that the cross band
isolation between 800 MHz and 1900 MHz antennas in close proximity can run 10-15 dB better
than the same band isolation would be for similar physical spacings. Because of differences
between various antenna types, the actual antenna isolation of a proposed site sharing configuration
should be measured using the techniques in Section 6.3.1.2.
6.3.1.5 CDMA Antenna Placement
In consideration of the above isolation requirements, Motorola recommends that any required
CDMA antennas be mounted on the tower above or below any existing antennas being used by
other wireless technologies such that superior isolation provided by vertical spacing is obtained
while at the same time providing the required CDMA coverage to the surrounding area.
The goal of this approach is to leave any existing antennas untouched. If, however, CDMA
antennas are to be installed on a tower platform that is already supporting antennas from other
technologies (provided that enough isolation is provided), it may be necessary to replace the
existing antennas with smaller antennas to physically accommodate the newly-added CDMA
antennas. Figure 6-3 provides an antenna placement example using a shared platform approach.
Figure 6-3: Antenna Placement - Shared Platform
AMPS
Rx
(Main)
CDMA
Rx
(Main)
CDMA
Rx
(Diversity)
AMPS
Rx
(Diversity)
CDMA
Tx
20 dB of isolation
desirable
20 dB of isolation
desirable
23 dB of isolation
desirable
34 dB of isolation
required
34 dB of isolation
required
AMPS
Tx
Notes: 1. Only 1 face of a 120 S/S implementation is shown here.
6
Figure 6-4 provides an antenna placement example using a separate platform approach.
Figure 6-4: Antenna Placement - Separate Platforms
With reference to Figure 6-3, the shared platform approach can be readily utilized for an 800 MHz
AMPS/CDMA configuration with shared receive antennas and one or two sets of separate transmit
antennas. An eight antenna configuration involving two receive and two transmit antennas for each
of the AMPS and CDMA systems, can get rather unwieldy, and the separate platform approach in
Figure 6-4 might be more appropriate.
For 800 MHz and 1900 MHz shared sites, the separate platform approach would appear to be the
better choice, not that sufficient isolation could not be obtained with the single platform but
because of the potential for conflicts should either of the systems want to change existing antennas
or add additional antennas. Any physical changes in the antennas for one system could impact the
other system because of a reduction in antenna isolations on the same platform. Separate platforms
will normally provide a higher degree of isolation between the two systems which reduces the
possibility of "political problems" between the two systems when either system desires changes in
their antennas.
6.3.2 Antenna Diversity (Spacial)
The CDMA system employs time, space and frequency diversity. Spatial diversity is implemented
through the use of two receive antennas at the base station, commonly called "Antenna Diversity".
Receive antenna diversity is employed at the base site to improve the uplink by approximately 3 to
5 dB. The gain obtained by spatial diversity is based on the assumption that the signals received by
the two separated antennas are not correlated or have a low degree of correlation, the affects of
AMPS
Rx
(Main)
CDMA
Rx
(Main)
CDMA
Rx
(Diversity)
AMPS
Rx
(Diversity)
CDMA
Tx
AMPS
Tx
Notes: 1. Only 1 face of a 120 S/S implementation is shown here.
34 dB of isolation
required
34 dB of isolation
required
1 m min.
vertical
separation
6
fading on one path will therefore be independent from the second. The 3 to 5 dB improvement is
already incorporated into the equipment E
b
/N
o
receiver sensitivity specification. Note that if
horizontal diversity is not utilized, the equipment performance may degrade.
6.3.2.1 Horizontal Antenna Diversity and Recommended Separation
The conventional method for determining the minimum separation for horizontal antennas to
achieve non correlation is normally expressed as a factor of the wavelength (equal to the speed of
light/frequency). The recommendation for standard cellular implementation (800 MHz) has
generally been accepted as 10 times the wavelength (lambda). This figure should only be
considered as an average distance as the level of correlation for horizontal diversity can also be
affected by a number of variables, for example; the height of the antennas, the type of surrounding
clutter (i.e. the level of multipath) and the typical angular arrival of the signals (i.e. are the antennas
mounted perpendicular to a highway).
As the wavelength of PCS frequencies is approximately half that of conventional cellular, it seems
fair to assume that the diversity antenna separation for PCS will effectively be half that of 800 MHz
systems. At this time, the antenna separation of 10 lambda at the base site is considered sufficient
for the non correlation of uplink signals within an urban environment (obviously greater than 10
lambda will provide even less correlation).
Note that Lees equation utilizes the antenna height in addition to frequency to determine the
minimum horizontal diversity separation. This equation can be used as a more accurate planning
guideline where the antenna height is known.
Frequency: 1850 MHz Wavelength: 16 cm Diversity distance (x10): 1.6 m (5.3 ft.)
Lees Equation: d = 77.27*h/f
Where d = Rx antenna separation, h = Rx antenna height (ft.), f = frequency (MHz)
Example (1850 MHz @ 100 ft.)d = 77.27*100/1850
d = 4.2 ft.
It is believed that the horizontal separation of 5.3 (ft.) is an achievable separation distance for PCS
cell site installations. Field trials and performance tests on PCS systems will determine if this
minimum separation can be reduced under certain conditions.
6.3.2.2 Vertical Antenna Diversity
The vertical separation of two diversity antennas could be an appealing alternative for CDMA
operators where the location of two horizontally separated antennas is hard to achieve.
Unfortunately, the system engineer should be aware that the vertical separation of antennas
provides poor diversity performance. This is due to a higher degree of correlation for a given
distance compared to horizontal separation. In other words, the vertical separation distance
required between two base site antennas is much larger than the horizontal separation required to
gain the same correlation coefficient of two received branches.
6
The preferred method of implementing diversity at a base site is horizontal diversity. While vertical
separation of receive antennas will provide a degree of non correlation, the performance of vertical
diversity is not considered as effective as horizontal diversity.
6.4 CDMA Antenna Sharing
The following section discusses the various antenna sharing strategies that are currently available
with respect to the Motorola CDMA BTS.
6.4.1 Multiple Frame Antenna Sharing with 800 MHz BTS Products
This section provides some of the multiple frame antenna sharing configurations for the Motorola
BTS product lines at 800 MHz that are currently supported.
Each 800 MHz SC4812T frame is capable of supporting up to two IS-95A/B or IS-2000 1X six-
sector carriers or up to four IS-95A/B or IS-2000 1X three-sector carriers. The SC4812T starter
frame can currently support one or two SC4812T expansion frames, depending on the frequency
of operation. External low-loss cavity combining for transmit antenna sharing is not supported. An
optional duplexer can be used to share Tx and Rx antennas (see Figure 6-5). The SC4812T differs
from the earlier SC4812 in that it contains Trunked LPAs in place of the dedicated per-sector
LPAs. The Trunked LPA contains 4 LPA modules and supports 1 CDMA RF carrier for all sectors.
Its power output capacity is shared between all sectors proportional to the traffic on each sector.
Internal 2:1 or 4:1 cavity combiners are used to combine the Trunked LPAs to increase the number
of CDMA RF carriers available.
Figure 6-5: SC4812T to SC4812T Expansion Frame
Note: m = main, div = diversity, exp = expansion
SC4812T
Exp. Frame
SC4812T
Rx Exp.
Rx-m
Tx
D
Tx
Optional
Duplexer
Rx-div
D
6
The 800 MHz SC4812T expansion frame can also share Rx antennas with some of the existing 4-
digit 800 MHz BTS products, which include the following.
SC2450 STPA
SC2400 with ELPA
SC9600 with LPA or ELPA
There are three versions of the SC4812T frame, a starter frame, an expansion frame, and a modem
frame. The general differences between the three different versions are as follows. A starter frame
is a standard stand-alone BTS frame which is designed to amplify the Rx & Tx signals while
connected directly to the antenna feed line jumpers. An expansion frame shares the Rx signals from
a starter frame and thus it is designed with a lower Rx gain in the front end, since the starter frame
provides the first stage of amplification. The Tx signals of an expansion frame are independent
from that of the starter frame and are typically connected to their own antenna (unless some sort of
external combining technique is used). An SC4812T modem frame is functionally similar to the
SC9600 modem frame. In this case, the modem frame shares the Rx signals from another frame
(typically a SIF) as well as providing a low level Tx output signal which requires further
amplification from yet another frame (typically an LPA or ELPA frame). The following figures
provide some of the antenna sharing configurations for the various SC4812T frame versions as it
shares the Rx antennas from various 4-digit 800 MHz BTS products.
Figure 6-6: SC2450 to SC4812T Expansion Frame
Each SC2450 or SC2400 starter frame is capable of supporting as many as three expansion frames.
The expansion frames can be of the SC24XX series or SC4812T expansion frames (three-sector
configuration only, see Figure 6-6 & Figure 6-7). There are no transmit antenna sharing
configurations that are currently supported between these frames. For expansion kit ordering
SC4812T
Exp. Frame
SC2450
Rx Exp.
Rx-m
Tx
D
Tx
Optional Duplexer
Rx-div
10 dB
Pad
D
6
information refer to the latest version of the equipment planning guide or contact the Product
Management group for more information.
Figure 6-7: SC2400 ELPA to SC4812T Expansion Frame
For the SC2400 frames using CDMA only, the Tx output from the ELPA can be duplexed with the
Rx antenna (this is not shown in Figure 6-7). Although it is typically not recommended, the output
signals from the SC2400 ELPA frame can also be duplexed for mixed mode analog and CDMA
frames onto the Rx antenna, but extreme care should be used in frequency planning to prevent IM
products from effecting system performance.
Figure 6-8: SC9600 SIF to SC4812T Expansion Frame
The configuration in Figure 6-8 provides Rx antenna sharing between a SC9600 Site Interface
Frame (SIF) and an SC4812T expansion frame (three-sector only). Up to two SC4812T expansion
frames can be supported in this configuration. Each SC4812T expansion frame requires a separate
Tx antenna. For expansion kit ordering information refer to the latest version of the equipment
planning guide or contact the Product Management group for more information.
SC4812T
Exp. Frame
SC2400
Rx Exp.
Rx-m Tx Rx-div
10 dB
Pad
ELPA
SC4812T
Exp. Frame
SC9600
SIF
Rx Exp.
Rx Tx
6
Figure 6-9: SC9600 SIF & LPA with SC4812T Modem Frame
The SC4812T modem frame in Figure 6-9 is comparable to the existing SC9600 modem frame.
External combiners can be used for combining up to two SC4812T modem frames (or 8 carriers)
in this configuration. For modem frame or expansion kit ordering information refer to the latest
version of the equipment planning guide or contact the Product Management group for more
information.
6.4.2 Multiple Carrier Cavity Combining With 1900 MHz BTS Products
Combining is considered desirable by PCS operators in order to support multiple carriers at cell
sites with a minimum number of antennas. It is important to remember that the function of
combining will inherently add loss to the forward link. The following section will therefore provide
the system engineer with general guidelines on how combining will be implemented within the
Motorola BTS architecture (at 1900 MHz).
6.4.2.1 Output Power Without Combining
The SC4812T will provide 22.4 Watts top of cabinet output power assuming that the RF power
delivered to each sector is equal. For PCS applications, Motorola assumes that 13 Watts is
sufficient to balance the uplink and downlink paths. The combining and associated cabling
supplied by Motorola will therefore have to provide no greater loss than 2.4 dB in order to achieve
13 Watts from a 22.4 Watt LPA input. Note that 22.4 Watts top of cabinet does not include the
0.5 dB loss of the duplexer, which is external to the cabinet.
The SC300 1X will provide 10 Watts top of cabinet output power. The reduced output power of
the SC300 1X will require a 1.14 dB (13 W to 10 W) offset in the link budget calculations in order
to balance the paths at 10 Watts. The SC300 1X may be expanded up to 4 carriers by the addition
of Field Replaceable Units (FRUs).
6.4.2.2 Type of Combining
Motorola will provide multiple pole cavity filter combiners, utilizing conventional phased
transmission line combining techniques, which are self contained within a cast housing. A
SC4812T
Modem
SC9600
SIF
Rx Exp.
Rx-m
SC9600
LPA or
Tx
Frame ELPA
Rx-div
6
maximum of 4 branch combining will be supported allowing up to a maximum of 4 alternate carrier
channels to be combined per antenna/per sector (with duplexers). The insertion loss of the cavity
combiners, duplexer, and associated cabling will not exceed 2.4 dB in order to maintain 13 Watts
output power for the SC4812T.
6.4.2.3 Multiple Carrier Scenarios
The SC4812T will support a maximum of 12 sector-carriers per site (i.e. 3 sectors with 4 RF
carrier, or 6 sectors with 2 RF carriers). The 22.4 Watts at the "top of the cabinet" for SC4812T
includes the combining loss with the cabinet for either configuration, therefore 13 Watts of output
power per each RF carrier on each sector can be provided through up to 2.4 dB of external
combiner, duplexer, and cable loss.
The SC300 1X supports one carrier per FRU. Up to four carriers can be supported by
interconnecting four FRUs. Each FRU supports 10 Watts per carrier RF output power.
The following figures provide a high level outline of the combining required to support two and
eight carriers with the SC4812T (note that a only a single sector is shown as all 3 sectors are
identical).
Assuming that the maximum number of antennas allowed at a cell site is 6 (2 per sector), Figure 6-
10 shows that combining is not required for a two adjacent carrier configuration. If 6 duplexers are
utilized, each antenna within each sector can be duplexed to either carrier 1 or carrier 2. This
configuration will allow for balanced receive paths (i.e. no need for pads) and will allow for
sufficient power (13 Watts) to balance the uplink. Provided that both carriers are duplexed in every
sector, only 6 antennas will be required for a 3 sector site.
Figure 6-10: 2 Carrier Configuration
Alternatively, the SC4812T frame may include either 2:1 or 4:1 Tx cavity combiners. Adjacent RF
carriers cannot be combined using cavity combiners. Alternate adjacent carriers can be combined
with the cavity combiners. In the single frame 3-sector 6 antenna case, only 1 duplexer per sector
is needed. This configuration will also allow for balanced receive paths (i.e. no need for pads) and
will allow for sufficient power (at least 13 Watts) to balance the uplink.
Tx1
Tx2
Antenna 1
(Sector 1)
Antenna 2
(Sector 1)
Duplexers
2 Carriers with 2 Duplexers (no combining)
Rx-m Rx-div
6
Figure 6-11 shows how the configuration of 8 carriers for the SC4812T may be combined onto 6
antennas. Note the following applies to SC4812T:
1. Only a single stage of 4 branch cavity combining is required.
2. The use of alternate (non adjacent) frequencies is required.
3. Duplexers for each antenna are required.
The configuration of 8 carriers will require (2) SC4812T cabinets. The cavity combiners are
contained within the SC4812T cabinets, thus helping to minimize the cable lengths.
Figure 6-11: 8 Carrier Configuration
6.4.3 Duplexing
Duplexing is one of the options that can be used to reduce the number of antennas required to
support a CDMA base station. The duplexer for the SC4812T, for example, is a standard, three-
port device, which allows for the combination of transmit and receive signals onto one antenna.
Figure 6-12: Duplexer
Tx1
Tx2
Tx3
Tx4
Tx5
Tx6
Tx7
Tx8
Antenna 1
(Sector 1)
Antenna 2
(Sector 1)
Duplexer Duplexer
To Rx A To Rx B
4 Branch
Cavity Combiners
4 Branch Cavity Combining for 8 Carriers
ANT PORT
Rx PORT Tx PORT
Path 1 Path 2
Path 3
6
The duplexer does not incorporate a circulator. Therefore, port isolation is achieved through the
phasing and stop band attenuation of the two bandpass filters. The following table outlines the
frequency response characteristics for a 1900 MHz duplexer.
Table 6-5: Duplexer Frequency Response Characteristics
The duplexer 3rd order intermodulation (IM) products between the Tx port and Rx port, for two
(10) Watt carriers in the transmit band (1930 - 1990 MHz) will be below -100 dBm and the fifth
order (and higher) IM products will be below -120 dBm.
The duplexer is physically included within the SC4812ET/ET Lite (outdoor products) and the
SC300 1X cabinet, but is not located within the SC4812T (indoor) product. Please refer to the
current Motorola B1 document for full equipment specifications.
6.4.3.1 Pre-Engineered Kits
Note that Motorola will be offering pre-engineered RF kits as part of its equipment offering for the
SC4812T, these kits will include items such as duplexers and directional couplers.
6.4.3.2 Duplexers and Intermodulation
The use of duplexed antennas will allow the combination of transmit and receive signals onto a
single antenna via a duplexer. This solution may be considered desirable by a number of PCS
operators in order to reduce the total number of antennas required per site. The Motorola PCS
infrastructure will be capable of supporting duplexed antenna configurations. The SC4812ET/ET
Lite (outdoor products) and the SC300 1X include internal duplexing equipment.
The use of duplexers implies zero isolation at the antenna port between transmit and receive
carriers. Under these conditions any transmit IM spurs created by non-linearities, in active or
passive components, in the common path, might produce significant interferers if they fall within
the receive carrier band. Duplexers can be made to work, in some applications, under ideal
conditions; but any imperfections introduced by aging, lightning, thermal cycling, bi-metallic
interaction or other common stresses can reduce system performance to below acceptable levels.
With regard to duplexing at 1900 MHz, it is useful to look at the potential for Transmitter
Intermodulation (IM) in duplexer equipped installations and to compare it to some of the existing
cellular technology systems. The following table examines the operation of AMPS/GSM/CDMA
and outlines the minimum Transmitter IM order required to generate IM products in the Rx band
Antenna Port to
Receive Port
Transmit Port
to Antenna Port
Transmit Port to
Receive Port
Pass Band 1850 - 1910 MHz 1930 - 1990 MHz -
Stop Band DC to 1770 MHz
& 1990-4000 MHz
3860 - 5970 MHz 1850 - 1910 MHz
1930 - 1990 MHz
Pass Band Insertion Loss 0.5 dB max 0.5 dB max -
Stop Band Isolation 30 dB 30 dB 40 dB minimum
6
of each technology. The minimum is calculated since the power generated by IM tends to fall off
fairly quickly with increasing IM order. Therefore, the majority of interference is generated by the
lowest order products.
Note that the IM orders presented in the following table for 1900 MHz refer to a single PCS band
case, operation within multiple PCS bands at the same site may require further investigation.
Table 6-6: Minimum IM Orders.
It is clear from the table above that the 1900 MHz CDMA systems have a significant advantage
from the combination of smaller channel grouping (no orphan extended bands) and the higher Tx
to Rx offset. Motorola believes that duplexers are a viable solution for PCS systems due to the fact
that only high order IM products will fall within the PCS band.
In general, 11th order frequency separation is sufficient to maintain control of transmitter passive
intermodulation in duplexed systems if all equipment recommendations are followed.
6.4.3.3 Proper Installation and Maintenance of Duplexed Antennas
The comments below are intended to show proper installation and component selection in systems
where duplexer use cannot be avoided.
6.4.3.3.1 Equipment Recommendations
All RF components in the cell site common receive/transmit path must be certified by the
equipment manufacturer for IM performance. A typical (derived from GSM) IM specification is
that all transmit IM products appearing in the receive band should be less than -110 dBm for two
input transmit carriers, at a power level of 25 Watts per carrier. In addition, a regularly scheduled
Preventative Maintenance Inspection (PMI) plan should be developed to verify that system IM
performance has not been degraded and to ensure component integrity. Typical requirements for a
PMI plan are described below.
The following components at the site would require IM certification:
Coax - Standard Heliax type coax is considered to have acceptable IM performance if
undamaged and unkinked. Other types of coax would have to be individually tested and certified.
Cable installation should include visual inspections for cable damage and electrical measurements
to verify performance. Provisions for strain relief to minimize stress on cables and maintain proper
System
Operator
Bandwidth
Tx-Rx
Spacing
Min IM Order
AMPS A side 22.5 MHz 45 MHz 5th
AMPS B side 14.0 MHz 45 MHz 7th
GSM (best case) 12.5 MHz 45 MHz 7th
1900 MHz CDMA 15.0 MHz 80 MHz 11th
1900 MHz CDMA 5.0 MHz 80 MHz > 30th
6
bend radii should be made. Cables should be mounted securely so as to prevent vibration and
movement per vendor specifications.
Connectors - The connectors in the common transmit/receive path are the most likely cause of
system IM problems. System planning should attempt to minimize the number of connections in
this path in order to prevent IM problems from occurring. Connectors with good IM properties
have silver plating and mechanical rigidity. 7/16 type connectors have been optimized for IM
performance and should be used, if possible, in all paths with potential for IM problems. Assembly
and installation instructions should be provided by the manufacturer and should include torque
specifications. All connectors should be thoroughly cleaned, prior to installation, and
waterproofed, if exposed to outdoor elements. Care should be taken when mating and unmating
connectors to prevent contamination and to maintain plating integrity. Connectors should be
regularly inspected for damage and proper torque.
Lightning Arrestors - Certification of lightning arrestors is the same as that of connectors. In
addition, lightning arrestor performance will degrade if a lightning strike has been taken by the
antenna. Verification of component performance should be made regularly.
Duplexers - Considerable effort has been made by duplexer manufacturers to improve IM
performance of duplexers. A duplexer that has been certified for its IM performance should include
adequate silver plating of components and 7/16 type connectors. Accelerated life testing should be
performed as part of the certification process. Only IM certified duplexers should be used in a
duplexed system.
Antennas - Each antenna installed in a cell site should be tested and certified for IM performance.
This is due to the additional potential IM risk of contamination of the material used for the radiating
elements (no ferromagnetic materials). Proper care in installation should be used to prevent
antenna damage and to verify that there are no metallic objects in the radiation paths close enough
to reradiate back into the receiver (the rusty bolt effect). Mechanical stability should be provided
to protect from exposure and wind effects. Inspection and electrical verification should be made on
a regular basis, especially after a lightning strike or other unusual weather occurrence.
6.4.3.3.2 Installation Recommendations
Antennas - Care should be taken in installation to maintain proper distances from any other
radiators or other obstruction on the same tower.
Cable Lashing - All cables should be prevented from movement. A major source of IM is the
movement of the cable at any connector. In addition, damage may result to the cable at a connector
from continued movement.
Cable Bends - Care should be taken to prevent any excessive bends in cabling. Slack and service
loops should be provided in cable runs to prevent stress to cables.
Water Proofing - All external connectors should be waterproofed and regularly inspected for
hermeticism. External components should be installed to prevent internal water capture.
Components should be removed from any areas with potential standing water.
6
6.4.3.3.3 Maintenance
A Preventative Maintenance Inspection (PMI) plan should be developed and followed in order to
maintain the IM performance of a cell site. A PMI should include a complete visual inspection of
the cell site for obvious component damage or misapplication and an RF two tone test to verify
system performance is satisfactory. Figure 6-13: Two Tone IM Test Set Up (800 MHz) is a
diagram of the two tone test setup and is shown below.
The low noise amplifiers combined with the spectrum analyzer in the above diagram should be
sensitive enough to measure IM products at -120 dBm or lower. The frequencies of the CW tones
should be such that the spurious product of interest should fall within the passband of the receive
path. All measured IM products should be below -116 dBm (for 0.5 dB typical sensitivity
degradation).
If any anomalies are observed, a sweep of the transmit path using a Time Domain Reflectometer
(TDR) or equivalent should be performed. A TDR will identify the existence and location of
significant RF discontinuity in the signal path.
Monitoring cell site received signal strength indicator statistics for consistent foreign carriers is
also a good indication of IM problems and should be part of a PMI plan. Monitoring the receiver
port in the cell site with a spectrum analyzer for foreign carriers should also be performed. The port
should be monitored with the transmit carriers keyed and unkeyed to verify whether interference
is internally or externally generated.
6
Figure 6-13: Two Tone IM Test Set Up (800 MHz)
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6
6.5 CDMA Antenna Sharing With Other Technologies
The following section discusses topics associated with the sharing of antennas which is sometimes
required to support both CDMA and AMPS technologies in the 800 MHz spectrum. Various
methodologies for implementing co-located AMPS and CDMA cell sites are provided. Issues of
mutual system interference and cell site equipment sharing are considered. Where appropriate, this
discussion could be extended to include other antenna sharing configurations, provided that
minimum isolation requirements are met.
While Motorola recommends that CDMA implementations not share equipment with existing
AMPS systems, it is understood that zoning restrictions and other hard realities might make the
sharing of some equipment a virtual requirement from the customers point of view. The guidelines
below are intended to assure the most efficient implementation of the CDMA system while
minimizing the risk to operation of the host AMPS system.
For this version of the CDMA RF Planning Guide it is assumed that the CDMA antennas will be
co-located with existing AMPS antennas and will be sharing the same tower or roof top location.
For sites where the AMPS and CDMA systems are both omni-directional, it is assumed that the
receive antennas will be shared between the two systems. Motorola recommends that a separate
transmit antenna be installed for the CDMA system to simplify the system design. Motorola does
not generally recommend the use of duplexers to allow the AMPS and CDMA systems to share
common antennas. Please refer to Section 6.4.3 and Section 6.5.2 for more details on the subject
of duplexed antennas.
For sites where the AMPS and CDMA systems will both be sectorized, Motorola recommends that
whenever possible the CDMA system should have separate antennas from the AMPS system. In
fact, there are several CDMA system requirements which can only be satisfied by the use of
separate CDMA and AMPS antenna systems. For example, the coverages of the AMPS and
CDMA systems at the site require different downtilt angles for their respective antennas, or the
CDMA softer handoff considerations require a narrower horizontal beamwidth for the CDMA
sector antennas than for the AMPS sector antennas. Refer to the tower specifications to balance the
weight to height ratio (tower loading).
It should be understood that in order to even allow for the possibility of sharing, the antenna will
need to be able to operate in both of the frequency bands to be shared. For instance, an antenna that
operates in the AMPS frequency band would not be acceptable to also share carriers assigned for
the PCS band. Another instance to consider is if the antennas are only specified for operation in the
transmit or receive portion of the band. An antenna of this type would not be acceptable to support
both transmit and receive bands.
6.5.1 SC9600 BTS/HDII Shared Facilities
Sharing equipment virtually always implies sharing antennas. Three likely conditions for antenna
sharing might exist:
6
Common transmit antenna
Common receive antenna(s)
Duplexed antennas
In all cases where equipment is shared between SC9600 BTS and HDII, a site-by-site evaluation
of the changes to basic parameters (receive noise figure, receive input intercept point - IPi, receive
sensitivity, transmit maximum power, transmit IM spur potential of the site, etc.) is required (in
most cases).
6.5.1.1 Common Transmit Antenna
Several possible cases of transmit antenna sharing are described in this section. In most cases, in
order to share a transmit antenna it will be necessary to combine all signals prior to the LPA input,
unless the >3 dB loss resulting from post LPA wide-band hybrid combining is site engineered and
determined to be acceptable.
6.5.1.1.1 Combining Configuration for the SC9600 LPA (Used by HDII Carriers)
This configuration is recommended for commercial deployment.
Figure 6-14: SC9600 LPA Used by HDII Carriers
Notes for Figure 6-14: SC9600 LPA Used by HDII Carriers:
1. HDII system coverage is not affected, if the SC9600 LPA has enough reserve power.
2. Refer to Chapter 4 for the maximum total average power available from a single LPA.
6:1
HDII
SC9600
SC9600 LPA
CDMA
INTERFACE
HDII
INTERFACE
SC9600 SIF
FROM OTHER
HDII BAYS
XCVR RACK
CDMA MF
PREAMP
6
6.5.1.1.2 Combining Configuration for the HDII LPA (Used by SC9600 BTS CDMA
Carrier(s))
Two options are described below to properly configure the HDII LPA (used by the SC9600 BTS
CDMA carriers). The first option uses the SC9600 Modem Frame. The second option uses the
SC9600-D Modem Frame.
Option 1: SC9600 Modem Frame
This configuration requires an upgrade to the NAMPS LPA which contains a preamplifier. The
upgraded NAMPS LPA has two input ports, one for high level HDII signals, and the other for low
level CDMA signals. The optional LPA output filter which provides increased attenuation in the
receive band should also be ordered; this reduces the isolation needed between the transmit antenna
and the receive antenna.
Figure 6-15: HDII LPA Used by SC9600 CDMA Carriers
Notes for Figure 6-15: HDII LPA Used by SC9600 CDMA Carriers:
1. HDII system coverage is not affected if the NAMPS LPA has enough reserve power.
2. This system can handle multiple CDMA carriers.
3. This configuration is only applicable for the HDII 20 channel rack. It does not apply to
LD rack due to the lack of a wideband combiner/attenuator.
6:1
HDII
NAMPS LPA
PREAMP
CDMA
INTERFACE
HDII
INTERFACE
SC9600 SIF
FROM OTHER
HDII BAYS
XCVR RACK
(WITH OPTIONAL
PREAMPLIFIER)
SC9600
CDMA MF
6
Option 2: SC9600-D Modem Frame
This configuration also requires the upgrade to the NAMPS LPA which contains a preamplifier and
two separate input ports for HDII and CDMA signals. The optional LPA output filter which
provides increased attenuation in the receive band should also be ordered; this reduces the isolation
required between the transmit antenna and the receive antenna. The SC9600-D configuration
provides SC9600 CDMA capability into an existing HDII analog cell site that presently has enough
reserve power in the LPA(s) to support a CDMA carrier. Since the existing HDII filter rack and
LPA frames are reused, this configuration provides a cost effective way of implementing a CDMA
overlay into an existing HDII system.
Figure 6-16: HDII LPA Used by SC9600-D CDMA Carriers
Notes for Figure 6-16: HDII LPA Used by SC9600-D CDMA Carriers:
1. HDII system coverage is not affected if the NAMPS LPA has enough reserve power.
2. This system can handle multiple CDMA carriers.
3. This configuration is only applicable for the HDII 20 channel rack. It does not apply to
LD rack due to the lack of a wideband combiner/attenuator.
6:1
HDII
NAMPS LPA
CDMA
INTERFACE
HDII
INTERFACE
RFDS
FROM OTHER
HDII BAYS
XCVR RACK
(WITH OPTIONAL
PREAMPLIFIER)
(OPTIONAL)
PREAMP
SC9600-D
CDMA MF
6
6.5.1.1.3 Unapproved Combining Configurations
Ring Combiners
Combining of CDMA transmit signals with AMPS signals using ring combiners is not
recommended. The constraints on the passband amplitude and phase characteristics for the wide
bandwidth CDMA signal, and the narrow transition region between the CDMA carrier and the
AMPS carriers, results in a filter design that would be undesirable because of high insertion loss.
Such a filter would have to be tuned for a specific frequency plan, and would change as additional
CDMA carriers are added. A wideband hybrid combiner (3 dB) would be smaller and less
expensive, while still lossy.
Pseudo-Omni Cell Using Splitters/Combiners
It is possible to construct a unique AMPS cell site configuration using panel antennas with passive
Tx splitters and Rx combiners to achieve a pseudo-omni pattern using an omni configuration BTS.
While such a configuration would function for CDMA, the risk of performance degradation is
significant. The deliberate creation of a deeply faded field in the antenna overlap areas, without the
benefit of softer handoff, is likely to require increased average power per subscriber. The delay
spread between these simulcast signals from each antenna can be less than 1 chip time. Forward
and reverse power control operation in this situation would be more highly taxed. How much
degradation occurs would depend on the amount of multipath present. This configuration is not
recommended.
6.5.1.2 Common Receive Antenna(s)
Several possible cases of receive antenna sharing are described in the this section.
6.5.1.2.1 HDII Multicoupler (Receive Outputs Serving CDMA BTS)
Four options are available for the HDII multi-carrier. The first option uses the SC9600-D Modem
Frame, the second option uses the SC9600 BTS Frame, the third option uses the SC2400 BTS
Frame, and the fourth option uses the SC4812T 800 MHz Modem Frame.
Option 1: SC9600-D Modem Frame
The SC9600-D configuration provides SC9600 CDMA capability into an existing HDII analog cell
site that presently has enough reserve power in the LPA(s) to support a CDMA carrier. Since the
existing HDII filter rack and LPA frames are reused, this configuration provides a cost effective
way of implementing a CDMA overlay into an existing HDII system.
6
Figure 6-17: SC9600-D CDMA-AMPS Configuration, Shared Sector HDII Multicoupler
Notes for Figure 6-17 and Figure 6-18:
1. Consult field/systems engineering for proper attenuators used in the CDMA receive
path. Values shown are typical.
2. No change to the HDII receive path is required.
XCVR
20 CHANNEL
Rx
2:1
4:1
MULTI
3 dB
PAD
HDII SITE FILTER RACK
6:1
SRF2140B
XCVR
10 CHANNEL XCVR BAY

Preselector
5dB
COUPLER
EXTENDER
MATRIX
Rx
MATRIX
XCVR BAY
Rx
MATRIX
PAD
SRF2290C
Preselector
SGRF1009A
(OR 7 dB
PAD)
7dB
PAD
BBX
SC9600-D CDMA MF
MPC
2:1
2:1
2:1
3 dB
PAD
BBX
SC9600-D CDMA MF
MPC
2:1
2:1
2:1
6
Figure 6-18: SC9600-D CDMA-AMPS Configuration, Shared Omni HDII Multicoupler
Option 2: SC9600 BTS Frames
This implementation requires the use of a SC9600 SIF which accepts the CDMA receiver feeds
(main and diversity) from available outputs of the HDII multicoupler. This assures no need to
reoptimize the HDII receiver path, as well as balanced delay, noise figure, and RF levels for
CDMA. This configuration is recommended for field trial systems. Identification of any
degradations to the performance of the CDMA system are to be exposed by site engineering
evaluation.
Eliminating redundant portions of the SIF (filters, etc.) suggests the use of a unique SIF frame (not
available), and is not supported at this time.
6:1
6:1
SRF2140B
XCVR
20 CHANNEL
4:1
4:1
2:1
XCVR
4:1
4:1
Preselector
SGRF1009A
XCVR BAY
10 CHANNEL XCVR BAY
7 dB
PAD
0-3 dB
PAD
BBX
SC9600-D CDMA MF
MPC
2:1
2:1
BBX
SC9600-D CDMA MF
MPC
2:1
2:1
2:1
2:1
Preselector
SRF2290C
5 dB
PAD
6
Figure 6-19: SC9600 CDMA-AMPS Configuration, Shared Sector HDII Multicoupler
Figure 6-20: SC9600 CDMA-AMPS Configuration, Shared Omni HDII Multicoupler
BBX
SC9600 CDMA MF
Preselector
SC9600 SIF
5 dB
PAD
XCVR
20 CHANNEL
Rx
4:1
MULTI
5 dB
PAD
Multicoupler
6:1
SRF2140B
XCVR
10 CHANNEL XCVR BAY

2:1
2:1
2:1
COUPLER
EXTENDER
MATRIX
Rx
MATRIX
XCVR BAY
Rx
MATRIX
(OR 7 dB
PAD)
2:1
Preselector
SRF2290C
Preselector
SGRF1009A
5 dB
PAD
6:1
6:1
SRF2140B
BBX
SC9600 CDMA MF
Preselector
2:1
2:1
2:1
SC9600 SIF
Multicoupler
XCVR
20 CHANNEL
4:1
4:1
XCVR
4:1
4:1
5 dB
PAD
5 dB
PAD
XCVR BAY
10 CHANNEL XCVR BAY
2:1
Preselector
SGRF1009A
Preselector
SRF2290C
5 dB
PAD
6
Option 3: SC2400 BTS Frame
Figure 6-21: SC2400 CDMA-AMPS Configuration, Shared Sector HDII Multicoupler
Figure 6-22: SC2400 CDMA-AMPS Configuration, Shared Omni HDII Multicoupler
BBX
SC2400 CDMA MF
Preselector I/O
XCVR
20 CHANNEL
Rx
4:1
MULTI
MPC
6:1
SRF2140B
XCVR
10 CHANNEL XCVR BAY

COUPLER
EXTENDER
MATRIX
Rx
MATRIX
XCVR BAY
Rx
MATRIX
(OR 7 dB
PAD)
2:1
2:1
2:1
2:1
2:1
7 dB
PAD
2:1
Preselector
SRF2290C
Preselector
SGRF1009A
5 dB
PAD
3 dB
Option B
3 dB
Option A
6:1
6:1
SRF2140B
XCVR
20 CHANNEL
4:1
4:1
XCVR
4:1
4:1
XCVR BAY
10 CHANNEL XCVR BAY
BBX
SC2400 CDMA MF
Preselector I/O
MPC
2:1
2:1
2:1
2:1
2:1
10 dB
PAD
2:1
Preselector
SGRF1009A
Preselector
SRF2290C
5 dB
PAD
Option B
Option A
6
Option 4: SC4812T 800 MHz Modem Frame
Figure 6-23: SC4812T CDMA-AMPS Configuration, Shared Omni HDII Multicoupler
3. The SC4812T 800 MHz BTS is configured as a stand-alone product. This configuration
does not support Tx antenna sharing.
Figure 6-24: SC4812T CDMA-AMPS Configuration, Shared Sector HDII Multicoupler
HDII Site
Rx Exp.
Rx
Tx
Filter Rack
(Omni)
6:1
6:1
Rx Exp.
10 dB
Pad
SC4812T
Frame
HDII Site
Rx Exp.
Rx
Tx
3 dB
Pad
Filter Rack
(Sector)
6:1
4:1
Rx Exp.
10 dB
Pad
SC4812T
Frame
Multicoupler
Extender
6
6.5.1.2.2 SC9600 SIF (Receive Outputs Serving HDII)
Figure 6-25: CDMA-AMPS Config., Shared SC9600 SIF frame, AMPS/NAMPS Sector Rx
1. Consult field/systems engineering for proper attenuators used in the analog receive path.
2. Reoptimization is required for analog operation.
Figure 6-26: CDMA-AMPS Config., Shared SC9600 SIF Frame, AMPS/NAMPS Omni Rx
4:1
Rx M/C
4:1
4:1
SC9600 SIF
4:1
Multicoupler
BBX
SC9600 CDMA MF
Preselector
XCVR
20 CHANNEL

XCVR

2:1
2:1
2:1
EXTENDER
7 dB
PAD
XCVR BAY
Rx
MATRIX
Rx
MATRIX
Preselector
SRF2290B
7 dB
PAD
7 dB
PAD
3 dB
PAD
2:1

Rx
MATRIX
10 CHANNEL XCVR BAY
Preselector
SRF2290B
SC9600 SIF
Multicoupler
4:1
BBX
SC9600 CDMA MF
Preselector
4:1
4:1
XCVR
20 CHANNEL
XCVR
4:1
2:1
2:1
2:1
Rx M/C
EXTENDER
3 dB
PAD
7 dB
PAD
2:1
7 dB
PAD
7 dB
PAD
4:1
XCVR BAY
4:1
4:1
4:1
10 CHANNEL XCVR BAY
Preselector
SRF2290B
Preselector
SRF2290B
6
6.5.2 Duplexed AMPS/CDMA Antennas
The use of duplexers implies zero isolation between a family of transmit carriers and a family of
receive carriers. Under these conditions, any transmit IM spurs created by non-linearities, in active
or passive components, in the common path might produce significant interferers in the receive
band. Duplexers can be made to work in some applications under ideal conditions; but any
imperfections introduced by aging, lightning, thermal cycling, bi-metallic interaction or other
common stresses can reduce system performance to below acceptable levels.
Motorola does not recommend the use of duplexers for AMPS/CDMA systems at 800 MHz;
however, certain situations may require their use. Intermodulation products introduced by the
duplexed antenna system may degrade either the CDMA or the analog system depending upon the
duplexing scheme implemented. For further clarification, refer to Figure 6-27 and the
accompanying text.
Duplexing a 800 MHz CDMA system has been broken down into three options. These are the only
options that are considered to be acceptable at this time. Any duplexing configurations that are
different from what is shown below would require evaluation of its acceptability. The following
table and figure illustrate three possible configurations where duplexers could be used with CDMA
and AMPS carriers and the acceptability of each:
Figure 6-27: CDMA Duplexing Options
Table 6-7: Possible Duplexed Configurations
CDMA Tx AMPS Tx CDMA & AMPS Tx
CDMA
&
AMPS
Rx
Option #1: Unconditionally
acceptable for one CDMA
carrier. Conditionally
acceptable for multiple CDMA
carriers.
Option #2: Unconditionally
acceptable for SIG only.
Conditionally acceptable for
multiple AMPS carriers. NOT
acceptable for multiple AMPS
carriers including SIG.
Option #3: Conditionally
acceptable for one or multiple
CDMA and AMPS SIG only.
NOT acceptable for CDMA and
multiple AMPS voice carriers.
Option #1 Option #2 Option #3
CDMA
Tx
Tx
Rx
Tx
Rx
Tx
Rx
CDMA
& AMPS SIG
CDMA
&
Rx
AMPS
CDMA
&
Rx
AMPS
CDMA
&
Rx
AMPS
AMPS
Voice or SIG
6
Option 1: Duplexing One CDMA Transmit Carrier with CDMA and/or AMPS Receive.
This is the recommended implementation. Duplexing multiple CDMA transmit carriers with
CDMA and/or AMPS receive may be acceptable if the proper IM prevention site engineering,
frequency planning, and maintenance techniques are employed.
Option 2: Duplexing AMPS Voice or One AMPS SIG Channel (control channel) with
CDMA and/or AMPS Receive.
This is an acceptable configuration. Duplexing multiple AMPS voice transmit carriers with CDMA
and/or AMPS receive may be acceptable with proper IM prevention site engineering, frequency
planning, and maintenance techniques. This is the least desired option due to the complexity of
implementing and maintaining the proper IM frequency planning techniques for the multiple
AMPS carriers. Duplexing multiple AMPS voice and SIG carriers with CDMA and/or AMPS
receive is not acceptable.
Option 3: Duplexing One or Multiple CDMA and AMPS SIG Carriers with CDMA and/
or AMPS Receive
This may be an acceptable configuration if the proper IM prevention site engineering, frequency
planning, and maintenance techniques are employed. Duplexing one or multiple CDMA and
multiple AMPS voice carriers with CDMA and/or AMPS receive is not acceptable.
The only inherently acceptable application of a duplexed CDMA system is to duplex the Tx of one
CDMA carrier or one AMPS SIG carrier with the Rx of CDMA and/or AMPS. This is always
acceptable because there is no transmitter generated receive band IM for one carrier.
Configurations that are inherently not acceptable are multiple AMPS carriers, including signalling
channels, combined with CDMA carriers. These configurations are considered unacceptable
because there is a potential problem of in-band intermodulation generation with difficult spurious
frequency location prediction. The IM frequency planning mentioned above refers to planning the
transmit frequencies into the duplexer such that high energy, low order IM products, do not
interfere with the planned receive frequencies of the duplexer. The potential for interference and
difficulty in spurious location prediction increases significantly when using EAMPS and NAMPS
channels due to the increased number of carriers used in such configurations. The increase of
frequency spacing of EAMPS channels also allows IM products, as low as fifth order for non-
wireline systems, and seventh order for wireline systems to potentially exist (non-expanded AMPS
systems only had potential for eleventh order IM products and higher).
Combined analog and CDMA systems, that are considered conditionally acceptable, require site
engineering and preventative maintenance in order to provide acceptable system performance.
Some of the guidelines for site engineering and preventative maintenance are presented in
Section 6.4.3.3.
6
6.6 GPS Antennas
The installation of a GPS antenna and associated cabling is discussed later in this document. As the
recommendations for GPS antenna mounting (etc.) are common for both 800 MHz and 1900 MHz
no further guidelines will be proposed here.
6.7 Ancillary Antenna System Components
In addition to a duplexer, there are other RF components that are considered part of the antenna
system. Some of the more common components will be highlighted next.
6.7.1 Directional Couplers
A directional coupler is a power "sampler" with selective directivity. It is a relatively simple
waveguide device that is used to sample the power on a transmission line, both in the forward and
reverse directions. The sampling (or coupling) performed by the directional coupler is attenuated
at a level (typically 30 dB) as to not affect the power on the transmission line, (i.e) it is sampling
rather than splitting. In the Motorola antenna system, directional couplers are used for the
connection of the RFDS (see Section 6.8 for more information). For PCS applications the
directional couplers are connected in line with the transmission coax and may be mounted either
at the waveguide (cable entry window) or within a 19" rack.
6.7.2 Surge (Lightning) Protectors
To complement the existing internal and external grounding system (Please Reference:
"Motorolas Grounding Guideline for Cellular Radio Installations" - 68P81150E62), all
transmission cables entering the cell site must be protected by devices such as "grounding kits" and
tube or MOV protectors, commonly called "Surge or Lightning Protectors". Surge protectors are
required in order to dissipate surge energy that can be generated from a local lightning strikes or
other energy sources on the transmission lines.
A single surge protection unit is required (in addition to sufficient grounding equipment) for every
transmission cable entering the site (Tx/Rx/GPS). The following description outlines the Motorola
recommended surge protection unit. Please contact Motorola ancillary (dropship) for specific
product part numbers.
The Huber and Suhner 3400 Series protector consists of a coaxial transmission line and an
optimized 1/4-wave shorting stub which is located between the center conductor and outer
conductor. These protectors are designed as coaxial feedthroughs. A V-groove washer made of soft
copper ensures that a low contact resistance between protector body and the mounting wall is
achieved.
6
6.7.3 Transmission Line
The standard type of transmission line used for antenna systems is coaxial cable. There are a
number of factors that must be considered in the choice of coaxial cable both in terms of RF
performance and physical application.
6.7.3.1 RF Performance of Transmission Lines
For RF performance, the most important parameters in the choice of coaxial cable include,
attenuation loss for a given frequency/ambient temperature, the VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave
Ratio), return loss, power rating and insulation properties of the cable.
The loss of a coaxial cable will vary with frequency. Generally, the higher the frequency, the
greater the loss for a fixed distance. Transmission line losses are incorporated into link budget
calculations to determine the total loss of a RF transmission path. As this "path loss" will impact
cell radius, the loss associated with the transmission cable should be kept to a minimum. Different
types of coaxial cable are available and those with superior electrical properties (lower loss) are
normally both larger (thickness) and more expensive (per meter).
The VSWR rating of a cable is the additional load allowed due to the mismatch of impedance. The
system engineer should ensure that a cable with a VSWR rating between 1.01:1 and 1.15:1 is
ordered. A cable which allows higher VSWR and hence load (due to reflected power) will increase
the attenuation of the transmission line. Note that a VSWR of 1.15:1 equates to 23 dB return loss.
The return loss of a cable can be directly related to the VSWR rating. The return loss of a
transmission cable can be considered as the difference in power in the forward and reverse
directions when measured into a well matched load. All other things being equal, the higher the
return loss the better the cable. The system engineer should choose a transmission cable with a
return loss of 23 dB or better.
Please refer to the antenna parameter Section 6.2.5 for an explanation on how to convert VSWR to
return loss.
The peak power rating of a coaxial cable refers to the maximum amount of power that can be safely
sent over the coax. The power rating is determined by the type of insulation material and the
structure between the inner and outer conductors of the cable (dielectric).
Power rating is not expected to be a problem for low powered CDMA PCS applications, as
standard cable power ratings are rarely reached even for multiple carrier cellular configurations.
6.7.3.2 Physical Characteristics
The physical characteristics of coaxial cable should not be overlooked in the choice of transmission
line. Although from a system perspective, the goal may be to limit loss, site specific installation
criteria may limit the type of coaxial cable that can be used. The system engineer should consider;
the cable length required, minimum bending radius allowed, the weight of multiple cables, the
6
effects of wind loading, the ability to correctly mount/ground the cables and the cost of installation
and expansion.
Generally, thicker cables allow less loss over a given distance but require more substantial
hardware for mounting and grounding. The system engineer should plan for an achievable
transmission line loss during initial system planning, bearing in mind both the optimum cable
performance and the physical limitations of the cell site. During preliminary planning, it is
recommended that the system engineer plans for approximately 2-3 dB total transmission line loss
(including transition cables).
6.7.3.3 Choice of Transmission Line
The recommended type of transmission line in terms of performance versus cost, is foam dielectric
coaxial cable. The dielectric material used is a closed-cell, low density polyethylene foam which
prevents water penetration and allows for repeated bending. A solid corrugated outer conductor
results in low loss, high power handling and continuous RF/EMI shielding. The combination of
both a solid inner and outer conductor minimizes the potential for intermodulation generation. The
following table gives an example of typical foam dielectric cables and their respective attenuation
per 100 ft. at an operating frequency of 1850 MHz. At lower operating frequencies the attenuation
values would be lower.
Table 6-8: Transmission Line Performance.
6.7.4 Transition Feeder Cables (Jumper Cables)
While the system engineer is considering the transmission line loss within the link budget, the loss
of transition cables or Jumpers that may be required both at the antenna and equipment hardware
also need to be included. These jumpers will generally be required due to the physical limitations
of low loss thicker cable (i.e. the bending radius). The length of these jumper cables should be kept
to within a few meters and the associated loss of both the cable and connectors should be
calculated. The following table outlines a typical jumper cable type, Andrews 1/2" Superflex
operating at 1850 MHz. Different characteristics would result if the operating frequency was
changed.
Characteristic
Andrews
LDF5-50A
(7/8")
Andrews
LDF6-50
(1-1/4")
Andrews
LDF7-50
(1-5/8")
Attenuation dB/100ft @ 1850 MHz 1.88 dB 1.38 dB 1.19 dB
Impedance (Ohms) 50 50 50
Peak Power Rating @ 1850 MHz (kW) 1.45 2.20 2.96
DC Breakdown volts 6000 9000 11000
Diameter over jacket (mm) 28 39.4 50
Minimum bending radius (mm) 250 380 510
Cable Weight (kg/m) 0.49 0.98 1.36
6
Table 6-9: Transition Cable Characteristics.
6.8 RF Diagnostic System
The Motorola RF Diagnostic System (RFDS) is a self contained unit within the BTS architecture
that monitors and tests the RF paths of the BTS site. The aim of the unit is to identify faults or
deteriorated conditions that are sufficient to impair the performance of the cell site RF channels.
For the SC4812T (indoor) product, the RFDS is 19" rack mountable. The RFDS for the SC4812ET/
ET Lite is incorporated into the product (within the cabinet).
The RFDS connects to the RF paths of the cell site via pre-installed directional couplers (see above)
and the RFDS itself is comprised of the following equipment:
Directional Couplers
Controller Card
A Test Subscriber Unit
Up to 2 Antenna Selector Units
The RFDS measurement unit consists of directional couplers which sense and couple test signals
to and from the RF system, an RF switch that connects "test equipment" to the RF path under test
and a controller which is used to setup/execute tests via the RGLI card. Access points are provided
to allow external measuring instruments to be connected, this means that tests not performed by
the RFDS may be conducted. Examples are transmitter frequency, in-band transmit spurious
output, transmit occupied bandwidth and adjacent channel leakage.
The RFDS will allow remote testing through interface connections to the Operations and
Maintenance Centre-Radio (OMC-R) and/or the Local Maintenance Facility (LMF). The first
phase of RFDS implementation (with initial BTS installations) will support call termination
loopback and the following phases will include test features such as: call origination with
subscriber status reports, forward (Tx) pilot channel power, Tx/Rx antenna VSWR, and forward
FER rate.
The RFDS can improve system performance by providing a quick and efficient method of
detecting faults and it will provide the operator with the earliest notification of degraded equipment
performance.
Characteristic Andrews FSJ4-50B
Attenuation dB/100ft @ 1850 MHz 5.17 dB
Impedance (Ohms) 50
Peak Power Rating @ 1850 MHz (kW) 0.625
DC Breakdown volts 2500
Diameter over jacket (mm) 13.2
Minimum bending radius (mm) 32
Cable Weight (kg/m) 0.21
Table of Contents
7.1 Dual Polarized Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 3
7.1.1 Fundamental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 3
7.1.1.1 Dual Polarization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 3
7.1.1.2 Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 4
7.1.1.3 Diversity Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 5
7.1.1.4 Cross-Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 7
7.1.2 Isolation Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 11
7.1.3 Performance Impacts - Industry and Motorola Findings . . . . . . . 7 - 12
7.1.4 Antenna Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 14
7.1.4.1 Dual Polarized Antennas versus Singularly Polarized Antennas . . 7 - 14
7.1.4.2 Antenna Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 15
7.1.5 Transmission at 45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 15
7.1.6 Incorporation of Dual Polarized Antennas into a Link Budget . . 7 - 16
7.1.7 Dual Polarized Antenna Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 17
7.2 In-Building Distributed Antenna Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 18
7.2.1 In-Building System Architecture Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 19
7.2.2 Coaxial Cable System Design Using A Link Budget. . . . . . . . . . 7 - 20
7.2.2.1 Design Procedure Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 20
7.2.2.2 Gathering Building Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 21
7.2.2.3 Determining the Base Station Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 23
7.2.2.4 Estimating the Antenna Placement within the Building . . . . . . . . . 7 - 24
7.2.2.5 Selecting the Antenna Type: Omni vs. Directional . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 24
7.2.2.6 Choosing the Base Station Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 25
7.2.2.7 Choosing the Cable Topology: Splitters, Couplers, and Taps . . . . . 7 - 25
7.2.2.8 Estimating Cable Lengths from the Base Station to the Antennas . 7 - 30
7.2.2.9 Selecting the Coaxial Cable Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 30
7.2.2.10 Link Budgets For In-Building Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 32
7.2.2.11 Evaluating the First Pass and Iterating the Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 38
7.2.3 Active Coaxial Cable System Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 38
7.2.3.1 Downlink Amplifier Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 39
7.2.3.2 Uplink Amplifier Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 40
7.2.3.3 Optimizing Amplifier Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 45
7.2.4 Fiber Optics for In-Building Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 47
7.2.4.1 Fiber Optic Distribution System Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 47
7.2.4.2 When To Use Fiber Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 47
7.2.4.3 Fiber Optic System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 48
7.2.5 In-Building Antenna Systems Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 49
7.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 - 50
Chapter
7
RF Antenna Systems -
Advanced Topics
7
Chapter 7: RF Antenna Systems - Advanced Topics
NOTES
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7
7.1 Dual Polarized Antennas
The availability of sufficient antenna tower/platform space to house required cellular/PCS
antennas is becoming more and more of an issue in recent years with the addition of new wireless
technologies, both cellular and non-cellular. As a result, operators are looking for ways to reduce
the amount of physical equipment that is required to be mounted on the antenna tower or platform.
The use of dual polarized antennas offers one such solution, provided that the technology being
supported by them does not suffer a significant impact in performance as a result.
It is the goal of this section to present the fundamental concepts associated with dual polarized
antennas, discuss any potential performance impacts and provide guidelines that can be used to
assist the system engineer in deciding which dual polarization antenna design is optimum, if any,
for a particular CDMA application. The performance impacts provided in this section were made
from general observations taken from several different industry and Motorola studies that were
found on this subject.
7.1.1 Fundamental Concepts
In order to be able to make an educated decision as to which base station antenna polarization
scheme to use (single vs. dual, horizontal/vertical vs. slant 45, etc.), it is important to understand
the various fundamental concepts associated with polarization diversity. Some key concepts are
discussed below.
7.1.1.1 Dual Polarization
Conventional cellular and PCS antennas are typically 1/2 wavelength dipoles designed for vertical
(usually) or horizontal polarization. Recall that a dipole produces a linearly polarized signal. The
polarization itself is achieved by the specific placement of the elements within the antenna stack.
If the alignment produces an E vector (electric field vector) which is vertical with respect to the
earth, the antenna is considered vertically polarized. In contrast, if the alignment produces an E
vector which is horizontal with respect to the earth, the antenna is considered horizontally
polarized.
In a dual polarized antenna, the elements within the antenna housing are alternately placed. As
depicted in Figure 7-1 Dual Polarization Antenna Element Configurations, some antenna models
alternate the polarization from horizontal to vertical, others set the elements such that the
polarization is crossed at 45 (sometimes referred to as slant polarization).
7
Figure 7-1: Dual Polarization Antenna Element Configurations
PCS and cellular dual polarized antennas are orthogonally polarized (horizontal/vertical or slant
45). As will be discussed in more detail below, the antenna isolation and antenna cross
polarization suppression (antenna coupling effects) need to be considered. Orthogonally polarized
antennas have their polarizations ideally isolated and the cross polarization suppression is most
distant.
Much like a singularly polarized antenna, a dual polarized antenna is capable of handling multiple
frequencies. If so desired, a duplexer can be used with the dual polarized antenna to combine
transmit and receive signals onto one set of elements, although there are issues associated with this
configuration, as discussed in Section 7.1.2 and Section 7.1.5.
7.1.1.2 Diversity
In communication systems, diversity is used to increase the probability of receiving a given signal
(message), which improves the ability of interpreting that signal (message). Distinct parts are
needed so that if one part alone fails to deliver the message, perhaps a second part will succeed.
However, diversity is not simply a backup. Diversity is used to increase the probability of
receiving a good signal, whether two signal components are combined or the stronger of the two
signal components is selected. The use of the phrase signal components here is meant to
emphasize that one message or signal is transmitted, then split into separate components by various
means (such as reflection, refraction, scattering, etc.). The components of the message are then
used individually, or combined, to recompose the original message.
Examples of diversity being utilized in CDMA can be seen throughout the infrastructure. The
following is a brief list, differentiated by the type of diversity that is offered.
Y
X
V
1
V
2
x-y plane
Y
X
V
1
V
2
(front view)
Slant 45
x-y plane
(front view)
Horizontal/Vertical
7
Time Diversity: Error Control Coding, Data Repeat Schemes, Interleaving
Frequency Diversity: Carrier Bandwidth versus Coherence Bandwidth of the Channel
Path Diversity: Soft Handoff/Multipath Diversity
Spacial Diversity: Receive Antenna Diversity (as provided by the physical separation
of antennas)
Polarization Diversity: Receive Antenna Diversity (proposed topic of this section)
Spacial and polarization diversity are techniques used in what is commonly referred to as antenna
diversity. This section focuses on base station receiver antenna diversity, specifically that which
can be provided by dual polarization. Antenna diversity is approached with the hope that if one
radio path experiences deep fading, then a second independent path may have a signal with a
reasonable probability of not being in a fade at the same time.
Presently, commercial CDMA systems typically use two antennas at the base station for diversity
on the reverse link (subscriber to base station signals). As was mentioned in Chapter 6, the two
antennas are separated (normally a horizontal separation) by at least 10 wavelengths at 800 MHz
and at least 20 wavelengths at 1800 MHz. In this situation, the engineer assumes the signal
components into each antenna will have a polarization identical to the receive polarization
1
.
However, if a transmitted signal scatters, and one of the scatter components undergoes additional
scattering, eventually some signal components may change polarization. Polarization diversity
could then take advantage of this change. A system engineer could use a diversity antenna which
has a polarization which is unique as compared to the primary antenna. A dual polarized antenna
is, in fact, two antennas in a single housing with one antenna polarized orthogonal to the second.
7.1.1.3 Diversity Gain
Diversity gain measures the improvement in signal reception due to the utilization of a diversity
path. It is the difference in signal level between one reference signal and the signal received at the
output of the diversity combiner for a given probability or signal reliability. Signal reliability is the
probability that the signal is adequate for a given period of time under the conditions encountered
(usually measured between a 90% and 99% level)
2
.
Diversity gain can be measured as improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) or E
b
/N
o
in
CDMA. It is not a difference in SNRs, but rather a comparison between the final received SNR and
what that SNR would have been without diversity. In real-world conditions, it may be difficult to
measure the SNR, so measurements are typically taken of the signal plus the noise.
When a system engineer chooses to use antenna diversity, the type of diversity selected is based on
1. In CDMA, the base station transmit and receive antennas normally utilize linear vertical polarization.
2. Wahlberg, Ulrik. 1997. Polarization Diversity for Cellular Base Stations at 1800 MHz. Revision 1.0.
Allgon.
7
the probability of receiving an uncorrelated
3
signal. Generally speaking, in clean, high power, line-
of-sight paths, diversity may be unnecessary. However, in CDMA systems, receive diversity is
highly recommended to achieve desired capacity and performance. If the probability of the signal
to undergo a fade is high, then some type of diversity is normally used. [Note: In CDMA, even if
the signals are correlated, the diversity gain has been found to improve uplink capacity since the
subscribers transmit power required is reduced (see Section 7.1.1.4.1). CDMA also uses other
techniques such as convolutional encoding to help capture enough information from the signal to
understand the message.]
Diversity gain is affected directly by the correlation of the signal envelopes, branch imbalance and
also by the combining technique
4
. The greatest gain is achieved when two uncorrelated signals are
received with equivalent energy (balanced branches) and combined.
Two branches (of a dual polarized or spacial diversity antenna system) can be individually selected
or combined to improve the single branch performance. In a two branch selection diversity system,
it has been found that the potential savings in power offered is equal to approximately 10 dB (at
99% reliability, see Figure 7-2) as compared to a single branch. In a two branch combining
diversity system, the power savings (at 99% reliability) is equal to approximately 11.5 dB as
compared to a single branch, or a 1.5 dB improvement over selection diversity
5
. In CDMA, the
combining diversity method is used.
3. Correlation of signals literally means the same-ness of those signals.
4. There are four general methods used in selecting or combining signals in a diversity system:
- Selection Diversity
- Maximum-Ratio Combining (a.k.a. Maximal Ratio Combining)
- Equal-Gain Combining
- Switched Combining
5. Jakes, William C. 1974. Microwave Mobile Communications. New York. American Telephone and
Telegraph Company. Reissued in Cooperation with IEEE Communications Society. pp. 309-324.
7
Figure 7-2: Probability Distribution SNR for M-branch Selection Diversity System
7.1.1.4 Cross-Correlation
Cross-correlation is used to measure the correlation between two signal envelopes. In general, the
literature shows that diversity gain is best realized when the signal envelope cross-correlation
coefficient is under 0.7. If the signal envelope cross-correlation coefficient, on the other hand, is
equal to 1.0, then the system is identical to a system without diversity. This is a key concept to
remember. For CDMA systems utilizing spacial diversity, (at 1800 MHz) 20 wavelengths
separation is used between the main Rx and the spacial diversity Rx antennas. This separation is
necessary to achieve a signal envelope cross-correlation coefficient of less than or equal to 0.7.
Signal correlation is dependent on the path loss and fading conditions encountered as the signal
transverses space. The type of fading depends on the environment and has both small scale and
large scale characteristics.
Small scale fading (or fast fading) is that which creates deep and rapid amplitude fluctuations.
These deep fades are created by summing multiple signals, with random phases and amplitudes, in
a highly reflective environment. Normally, fast fading implies a Rayleigh fading distribution.
10 dB
Probability Distribution
SNR s for M-Branch
Selection Diversity System.
=SNR on one Branch.
7
The Rayleigh probability density function (pdf) is shown in Figure 7-3. If statistically independent
samples are considered, the reception of a weak signal from a Rayleigh pdf infers that the
probability of receiving a stronger signal (shaded area) with the next sample is quite good.
Figure 7-3: Rayleigh Probability Density Function
Large scale fading (slow fading) is used to describe fading which occurs over long distances
(several hundred or even thousands of meters apart). Large scale fading is normally due to
shadowing in both the terrain profile and the nature of the surroundings. This type of fading is log-
normally distributed and in urban environments has a standard deviation of approximately 10 dB.
While signals normally undergo large scale fading, it is in the small scale fading environments
where signal components are found to be uncorrelated, and therefore diversity combining makes a
significant impact.
The following examples show the difference in diversity gain if two correlated signals are received
as opposed to two uncorrelated signals.
7.1.1.4.1 Reception of Highly Correlated Signals and Their Effect on Diversity Gain
Consider a system with a spatially diversified pair of antennas, each of which is vertically
polarized. If a subscriber transmits a signal in an unobstructed environment (line-of sight) towards
the antenna pair, then the signal undergoes free-space path loss (assuming no reflection) and is
received, highly correlated, at each antenna branch (see Figure 7-4).
Figure 7-4: Reception of Highly Correlated Signals
Received signal envelope voltage r (volts)
Weak Rx
Signal
Probability of Receiving
a Stronger Signal
Two Vertically Polarized Antennas
(front view)
Original Signal
Faded Received Signal
Highly Correlated at Each Branch
7
If the system used a selection method, the gain achieved by utilizing diversity is zero since the
branches have identical received signals.
If the system combines the identical received signal energy using a maximum ratio combining
method, then the maximum gain achieved is 3 dB (i.e. doubling the power of a single branch). The
gain achieved will never exceed 3 dB for correlated signals. This also applies to equal gain
combining.
7.1.1.4.2 Reception of Uncorrelated Signals and Their Effect on Diversity Gain
Diversity gain is at its highest value when the signals received at the spatially separated Rx
antennas are uncorrelated. In this case, the received signals have different amounts of fading (see
Figure 7-5 Reception of Uncorrelated Signals). If the system uses selection or sampling methods,
then the signal with the greatest SNR (lowest FER) is chosen. For example, assume the signal
energy in branch A is four times as strong as that of branch B. In this example, diversity provides
a 6 dB gain over a system without the diversity antenna. Although in this example the mean signal
levels of each branch are not balanced, it is important to know that diversity gain is greatest when
the mean signal levels of the two branches are balanced.
If the system receives uncorrelated signals using a combining method, the maximum gain achieved
can vary significantly.
Figure 7-5: Reception of Uncorrelated Signals
To emphasize the importance of uncorrelated signals, assume the minimum receive level required
is set at Level RCV as shown in Figure 7-6. If the signals are correlated and a diversity combining
method is assumed, then the greatest improvement would be a 3 dB signal gain. If the original
signal was received below the minimum requirements, it is possible that the improvement due to
diversity combining may not be sufficient to provide a minimum number of good frames. In this
case, the frame erasure rate (FER), or SNR would be poor.
6
6. Here the assumption is that the signal portion doubles, but it is important to note that the noise also doubles.
Two Vertically Polarized Antennas
(front view)
Original Signal
Faded Received Signal
Uncorrelated at Each Branch
A B
7
Figure 7-6: Correlated Signal Diversity Gain
In Figure 7-7, two uncorrelated signals are combined. In this example, the system samples each
signal and the combined signal exceeds the minimum required receive level.
Figure 7-7: Uncorrelated Signal Diversity Gain
As a subscriber travels in dense clutter, such as urban and suburban environments, its transmitted
signal is reflected and undergoes various degrees of fading. Sometimes the base station antenna is
line-of-sight with the subscriber and sometimes it is shadowed. It is in these fading conditions that
the benefit of the diversity gain is intended to capture enough energy to interpret the message (see
Figure 7-8).
Level RCV (minimum)
Original Signal Correlated Signal Diversity Gain
{
{
Bad Frames
3 dB
Level RCV
Original Signal Uncorrelated Signal Diversity Gain Uncorrelated Signal
(minimum)
7
Figure 7-8: Uncorrelated Signal Diversity Gain
7.1.2 Isolation Considerations
As was discussed in Section 6.3.1, there are isolation requirements that exist between both Tx and
Rx antennas and between main and diversity Rx antennas that are primarily provided by the
physical separation. However, since both Rx antenna elements and possibly a third Tx antenna
element occupy the same dual polarized antenna housing, physical isolation requirements are
replaced by port-to-port isolation requirements. Port-to-port isolation is measured at the input of
the base station equipment between the bottom jumpers of the antenna.
As with physically separated base station antennas, if the isolation requirements are not met within
the antenna specifications, then the system engineer will need to consider using external band pass
filters (for the Rx band at the Rx ports) or duplexers.
Note that antenna isolation is not dependent on the angles and , as shown in Figure 7-9.
7
Figure 7-9: Theoretical Model for Base Station Polarization Diversity
7. Kozono, S. 1985. Base Station Polarization Diversity Reception for Mobile Radio. IEEE Transactions
on Vehicular Technology. Vol. VT-33. No. 4. pp. 301-306.
Signal A
Signal A
Fade Region
of
Signal A
As the subscriber travels, its transmitted signal is received with varying fades. If a signal is undergoing a deep fade, then
an uncorrelated signal can save the call (even if its mean energy level is weaker). Intuitively, when the signal is
in a fade, the slower the subscriber speed, the higher the probability of continued signal fading.
Minimum Required
Rx Signal Strength
Y
X
V
1
V
2
Z
X
x-y plane x-z plane
Multipath
Main Beam
(front view) (top view)
7
However, cross polarization suppression, or cross coupling, is dependent on and . It can be
shown
8
that because of this dependence, orthogonally polarized dual pole antennas are ideally
isolated. This is why dual polarized antennas are designed with orthogonal branches.
The orthogonality of a dual polarized antenna is specified by the antenna cross polarization
discrimination. This is the ratio of the outputs from the co-polarized and cross-polarized ports
when an antenna receives a signal from one plane (i.e. co-planar). As an example, if a horizontal/
vertical dual polarized antenna receives a signal which is vertically polarized, then the antenna is
considered to have good orthogonality if a very small portion of the signal is received at the
horizontal port. Likewise, a large portion of the signal should be received at the vertical port. Good
orthogonality has an antenna cross polarization discrimination value of about +20 dB (or greater).
Poor orthogonality can push the antenna cross polarization discrimination value down to 0 dB (or
less). Antenna cross polarization discrimination is generally required to be greater than +15 dB
9
.
[Note: The term antenna cross polarization discrimination (AXPD) differs from the term cross
polarization discrimination (XPD). AXPD is the measure of orthogonality of the antenna. XPD is
the power ratio of the antenna branches.]
7.1.3 Performance Impacts - Industry and Motorola Findings
Many studies on the performance of a polarization diversity system utilizing dual polarized
antennas have been performed throughout the industry. A consolidation of various findings is
provided below. For more detailed information, consult the provided references (see Section 7.3).
NOTE: Most of the studies observed were completed on systems other than CDMA. All studies
not done on CDMA systems focused on the signal envelope and therefore, focused on the signal
decorrelation and received signal strength.
10
In a cellular CDMA system, power control will
directly effect the received signal strength, making it a nearly impossible task to measure any
change from one diversity scheme to another. It is precisely because of the power control issues in
CDMA that Motorola chose to study the received E
b
/N
o
requirements. Branch imbalance and
signal correlation were included in the study. Branch imbalance, rather than the signal correlation,
showed a greater impact to the quality of the diversity scheme (the greater the branch imbalance,
the smaller the diversity gain). It is unclear at this time as to the impact polarization diversity may
have on CDMA specific issues such as power control. The power control is both an open and
closed loop process which relies on measured signal strength and E
b
/N
o
(for correction). If the loop
becomes imbalanced, the impact on capacity or quality could be significant.
8. Wahlberg, Ulrik. 1997. "Polarization Diversity for Cellular Base Stations at 1800 MHz." Revision 1.0.
Allgon.
9. This number may vary per antenna manufacturer. Motorola recommends a minimum 34 dB isolation
requirement between the Tx and Rx branches, therefore if the separation is rated to be 15 dB, the system
engineer will need to insert a duplexer to ensure at least 34 dB separation.
10. This is often referred to as continuous wave (CW) testing.
7
The effect of surrounding clutter type:
It has been shown
11
that clutter type greatly effects the ability of the signal to change polarization
sufficiently enough to be received decorrelated at the base station antennas. The denser the clutter,
the higher the probability of receiving a decorrelated signal at each polarization. This finding was
consistent throughout the studies. However, there appeared to be a greater branch imbalance if
horizontal/vertical polarizations were used as opposed to slant 45 polarizations, and it follows that
due to the large branch imbalance, diversity gain degrades.
The effect of subscriber unit antenna tilting:
Several studies transmitted signals utilizing varying degrees of subscriber transmit antenna
inclination. Some studies tested performance at several different angles; however, only tests at 0
and 45 subscriber inclinations were common in each study. Reviewing this aspect of the data, it
appeared that larger values in diversity gain were achieved when the subscriber was inclined at 45.
For example, a study provided in Vaughans paper showed that a subscriber transmitting at 45 had
a 1.7 dB improvement in diversity gain over a subscriber transmitting at a 0 inclination. In this
study, a horizontal/vertical polarized base station antenna was used and the data was collected from
an urban clutter environment. Similarly, if a slant 45 dual polarized base station antenna was used,
then a 0.3 dB improvement was shown for the subscriber transmitting at an inclination of 45
versus 0. The results from the latter study also shows that the slant 45 dual polarized base station
antenna performs more consistently than the horizontal/vertical polarization.
It is important to note that in all of the studies, the improvement of using polarization diversity
versus spacial diversity NEVER exceeded a 1 dB improvement (base station received power). In
most cases, the polarization diversity performed worse than spacial diversity. Although the worst
case results showed a 2.7 dB degradation, the polarization diversity was normally within 1 dB of
the spacial diversity results (base station received power).
The effect of branch imbalance and correlation:
The Motorola lab study
12
examined Rayleigh distributed signal envelopes. The test verified that
branch imbalance decreased diversity gain. The test also seemed to show that correlated signals
achieved greater gain than uncorrelated signals. This result seemed to counter the common finding
in diversity systems; however, the data was calculated using a combined-minus-maximum-
received-signal-strength equation and not the standard diversity gain equation. Diversity gain was
measured as the combined E
b
/N
o
into the system, less the maximum of the E
b
/N
o
received in either
branch. The maximum 3 dB gain achieved agrees with the maximum 3 dB gain of combining two
identical (correlated) signals (discussed in Section 7.1.1.4). The greatest input from the Motorola
studies was the observation that E
b
/N
o
and power control issues also needed to be addressed when
studying antenna diversity systems for CDMA technology.
11. Vaughan, Rodney G. 1990. Polarization Diversity in Mobile Communications. IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology. Vol. 39. No. 3. (August): 177-186.
12. Tobin, Joe, Rob Nikides, Devesh Patel, Edward Golovin. 1997. CDMA Dual Pole Antenna Testing -
Arlington Heights, IL. Version 1.0. Motorola.
7
Table 7-1 shows data Motorola collected in a field trial test in Israel
13
. It confirms that the branch
imbalance was a greater issue than the correlation. Remember, branch imbalance refers to the
amount of energy received at each branch, where correlation refers to the sameness of the signal
components received. This table goes on to show that the E
b
/N
o
requirement was larger for the dual
polarized antenna system (albeit very slightly), which also translates into a slight degradation of
performance. And finally, Motorola shows little change in diversity gain between the two diversity
techniques. This data was collected in an urban clutter environment.
7.1.4 Antenna Selection
The following sections provide additional information to consider before selecting a dual polarized
antenna.
7.1.4.1 Dual Polarized Antennas versus Singularly Polarized Antennas
The most obvious advantage with using a dual polarized antenna, is the elimination of a second
receive antenna unit (and possibly a third transmit antenna unit, if a duplexer or 3-port dual
polarized antenna is used). This saves on real estate and mounting hardware.
Due to the fact that elements are alternated, and the number of elements per pole are reduced,
antenna gain is typically decreased in a dual polarized antenna (or the length of the antenna is
increased to accommodate the extra elements). Therefore, improved diversity gain may be
achieved at the expense of antenna gain (for like-sized units). This may be an acceptable trade off,
if the diversity gain is sufficient and range is not an issue. Otherwise, the loss of signal due to
antenna gain may be intolerable. Therefore, dual polarized antennas should not be utilized to solve
range problems. If the longer unit is selected for improved gain, tower loading issues will need to
be readdressed.
13. Golovin, Edward. 1998. A Comparison of CDMA Reverse Link Performance with Base Station Spatial
and Polarization Diversity Reception (Motorola Israel Measurement Campaign in Urban Area at 900 MHz)
Version 2.0. Motorola.
Table 7-1: Motorola Data Table
Parameters
(average over
all locations)
Spacial
Diversity (two
vertically
polarized
antennas)
Polarization
Diversity (dual
polarized
antenna)
Diversity
Scheme &
CDMA Reverse
Link
Degradation
Branches Imbalance
& XPD (median)
1.15 dB 2.16 dB 1.01 dB
Cross Polarization
Correlation (XPC)
(median)
0.19 0.25 0.06
Mean E
b
/N
o
Measured Results
8.22 dB 9.08 dB 0.86 dB
Diversity Gain
(median)
4.89 dB 4.68 dB 0.21 dB
7
The front-to-back ratio is typically decreased in a dual polarized antenna as compared to an
optimized vertical antenna (this varies with antenna vendor). For CDMA systems, this translates
into a slight reduction in capacity due to an increase of interference seen from the adjacent sectors.
Some manufacturers have solved the size, gain, and front-to-back ratio issues by layering the
antenna elements on top of one another. This keeps the antenna parameters consistent with
singularly polarized antennas.
Due to the fact that multiple antenna elements share the same antenna housing, dual polarized
antennas are also particularly susceptible to intermodulation distortion.
If the antenna is experiencing problems, with only one antenna at a given site, there is no
opportunity to hot swap a line (i.e. no backup).
Dual polarized antennas, though seen as one antenna, will still require two separate transmission
lines (one for each polarization).
7.1.4.2 Antenna Selection Criteria
It is recommended that the system engineer consider three main polarization specifications when
choosing an antenna
14
:
Tracking of the radiation patterns radiated through two polarizations. Verifying
that the antenna radiation patterns (relative amplitudes) of the two branches are similar.
Unbalanced branches can impede diversity performance and create unequal coverage
footprints.
Antenna cross-polarization discrimination (XPD). In dealing with 3-sector sites,
orthogonality needs to be controlled over an angle of +60 off of bore sight. Cross-
polarization discrimination is generally required to be higher than +15dB. Due to
isolation requirements, Motorola recommends port-to-port isolation of at least 34 dB
(Tx-Rx).
Isolation. For details on antenna isolation requirements, please refer to Section 7.1.2.
7.1.5 Transmission at 45
Currently, the effect of transmitting the base station signal from an antenna which is polarized 45
from vertical needs further analysis. The emphasis on dual polarization antenna studies has been
on the receive signal only; however, Motorola recognizes that in CDMA, the open and closed loop
power control are of key importance. Figure 7-10 Tx, Rx and Diversity Rx Antenna Configurations
provides various examples of the transmitting techniques involved with the different diversity
antenna configurations.
14. Xiang, Jun. 1996. Diversity Antenna Systems for GSM900/GSM1800/PCS1900 Networks. Issue A.
Motorola.
7
Figure 7-10: Tx, Rx and Diversity Rx Antenna Configurations
If a horizontal/vertical polarized antenna is employed, then the vertical polarization element can be
used for both transmit and receive, and the horizontal polarization element can be used for diversity
receive. However, if a slant 45 polarized antenna is used, then regardless of which polarization
element is chosen, the signal will be transmitted at 45 from the vertical.
In many cases, the maximum capacity is limited by the forward link. Therefore, any degradation
to the forward link will typically impact the performance (i.e. coverage, capacity, and quality) of
the entire site. An analysis of how large an impact to system performance is introduced by the
forward link transmission of a 45 polarized signal is needed. Some believe if the clutter is
sufficient to induce scattering such that the reverse link variance in polarization is adequate to
utilize a dual polarized diversity scheme, then the forward link should also be sufficient. This
assumption cannot be readily made without testing, since path fading characteristics are normally
determined by the near field clutter.
It has been shown that in given situations (see Section 7.1.3), slant 45 polarization diversity is
superior to horizontal/vertical polarization diversity (although neither is as good as spacial
diversity). In order to leverage the advantages of slant 45 polarization and also minimize the risks
of transmitting with a 45 polarization, an alternate solution is to use an antenna designed with
three separate polarizations. An example of this type of antenna is shown in Figure 7-10. With this
type of 3-port polarization antenna, one port is polarized at +45 from the vertical, a second port is
polarized at -45 from the vertical, and a third port is vertically polarized.
Other considerations include the size of the antenna unit and the gain. A 3-port polarization antenna
would be even longer than a 2-port slant 45 antenna.
7.1.6 Incorporation of Dual Polarized Antennas into a Link Budget
Utilizing dual polarized antennas as a means of diversity may have an impact on the CDMA RF
link budget. The CDMA base station receiver sensitivity is comprised of several components, one
of which is the required E
b
/N
o
to meet a specified performance (FER). The benefit of diversity gain
is typically accounted for within the E
b
/N
o
value. Therefore, if a different diversity gain value is
Note: The arrows represent the direction of polarization.
Tx/Rx (main) Rx (diversity)
Spacial Diversity
Slant 45
Horizontal/
Slant 45 &
vertical in a
single unit
Dual Polarization Diversity
Tx/Rx (main)
Rx (diversity)
(either branch)
(either branch)
Tx/Rx (main)
Rx (diversity)
Tx
Rx (main)
Rx (diversity)
(either branch)
Vertical
7
obtained from the various antenna diversity schemes, then a different E
b
/N
o
value will be required.
This change in E
b
/N
o
will thereby impact the base receiver sensitivity and ultimately the maximum
reverse link path loss. One of the Motorola field tests (discussed in Section 7.1.3) shows that the
reverse E
b
/N
o
requirements are increased when using a polarization diversity scheme.
For the downlink, should a provider choose to use a 2-port slant 45 dual polarized antenna, the
base station transmit antenna would radiate with a 45 polarization. As stated in Section 7.1.5,
further studies are needed which analyze the effect that transmit inclination at 45 could have on
the forward link, and (specifically from a CDMA perspective) how this may effect the E
b
/N
o
performance.
When inputting the value for antenna gain, the system engineer should use the gain value given by
the antenna vendor.
7.1.7 Dual Polarized Antenna Summary
Unfortunately, the majority of the case data analyzed for this document was derived from field
experiments and not from well controlled laboratory settings. Consequently, conclusions drawn
from this data should be treated with a degree of skepticism, knowing that the environment in
which each test was conducted and the test performed, may have had an impact on the result.
With the exception of the Motorola test cases, data was collected with continuous wave (CW)
testing. For a CDMA system, CW testing may not be sufficient. Due to the power control in
CDMA, E
b
/N
o
measurements are preferred. This makes data comparison between studies (CDMA
vs. CW) extremely difficult.
In the past, most of the subscriber unit antennas were mounted onto the vehicle and their
transmission was assumed to be vertically polarized. Today, most of the subscriber units are
handheld and are subjected to hand-tilting. With the introduction of non-vertically polarized
signals, polarization diversity is assumed to be a potential option to improve signal reception. In
fact, it has been found that the tilt of the subscriber has less to do with the effectiveness of the
diversity scheme than the environment in which the subscriber and base station are located.
It is understood that scattering is required to change the polarization. Thus, dense urban
environments lead to more scattering and a higher probability of creating decorrelated signals with
respect to polarization (as seen by the base station antenna system).
In the proper environment (dense urban), polarization diversity performed well. Surprisingly, it did
not perform as well as a spacial diversity scheme, but was normally within 1 dB. (The worst case
shown was 2.7 dB which was seen in a suburban environment.) Taking into consideration the
losses incurred in transmission lines, connectors, duplexers and combiners, the loss in diversity
gain may be offset dependent on the quality of the antenna system. Decisions would need to be
made as to whether or not an estimated 1 dB degradation would be acceptable.
Diversity gain could be offset in a CDMA system by a capacity degradation taken by utilizing a
dual polarized antenna. There are two main issues around which dual polarized antennas may
7
effect capacity. The first is the effect it may have on the E
b
/N
o
performance. Reverse pole capacity
equations depend directly on target E
b
/N
o
values. Secondly, dual polarized antennas have smaller
front-to-back ratios than singularly polarized antennas which means they tend to introduce more
noise into the system (reducing capacity).
15
How significant a degradation on capacity is yet to be
determined.
Although the findings show that a dual polarized antenna with a slant 45 configuration performs
better than a horizontal/vertical configuration, a significant concern lies in what may happen to the
forward link and power control by transmitting with a 45 polarization. The horizontal/vertical
polarization configuration would at least leave one variable constant as compared to the present
spacial diversity scheme (the base station transmit antenna would continue to be vertically,
linearly, polarized). However, to achieve the same level of decorrelation in branches would require
a more dense clutter environment, and even then, studies show that horizontal/vertical polarized
antennas tend to have a large branch imbalance with the vertical branch being most dominant.
Ideally the choice would be to use the 3-port antenna model presented earlier which uses three
polarizations (vertical and slant 45). The cost and extra weight added (for identical antenna gain)
would need to be determined, and factored into the decision process.
Finally, the Motorola field tests found that the greatest factor to impact the diversity gain was
branch imbalance (more so than signal correlation). In measuring E
b
/N
o
requirements of a
polarization diversity system as compared to a spacial diversity system, it was found that there was
little change to the gain between the systems. The polarization diversity scheme showed a slight
(less than 1 dB) degradation in performance. This study was performed in an urban environment.
Whether or not to use polarization diversity is left to the system engineer. The recommendation is
to use this scheme if real estate is not available for spacial diversity, and the environment clutter
type is urban or dense urban. Isolation between ports needs to be strictly adhered to and Motorola
recommends a minimum of 34 dB between Tx and Rx ports. It is unknown how transmission at
45 may effect the forward link, and until further studies are performed, the system engineer should
be cautious in using this approach.
7.2 In-Building Distributed Antenna Systems
With the proliferation of portable cellular phones, wireless subscribers not only require service on
roadways, they also desire CDMA cellular service within buildings. Typical in-building
applications include:
Office Buildings
Airports
Hospitals
Shopping Malls
Hotels & Convention Centers
Sports Arenas
Colleges & Universities
15. This is dependent on antenna manufacturer.
7
Improving indoor coverage is an important step towards meeting the customers expectation. By
choosing the proper design philosophy, an indoor system will increase system capacity and
improve call quality. One approach to meeting the customer requirement for in-building coverage
is to increase the ambient power of the outdoor macro-cellular system, allowing signals to
penetrate outer walls and provide coverage within buildings. This method is used with limited
success due to the wide variation of building materials and their respective penetration loss. In
order to provide high quality in-building cellular service, it may be necessary to place the coverage
within the building through the use of Micro sites and distributed antenna systems.
Several methods of in-building coverage solutions exist including passive coax, active coax, fiber
optics, leaky feeder, Micro RF heads and hybrid combinations of these types. Each approach has
a unique set of attributes, which makes it most suited for a particular application.
7.2.1 In-Building System Architecture Overview
The goal of in-building system design is to distribute the RF signal uniformly throughout all of the
areas to be covered. The system should be easy to install, inexpensive, unobtrusive, and highly
reliable. Distributing antennas within the building, using coaxial cable, fiber optics cable or Pico
RF heads, can meet these requirements. Figure 7-11 illustrates a typical coaxial cable design
approach.
Figure 7-11: Coaxial Cable Design Approach
The coaxial cable approach uses splitters, directional couplers, or taps to direct the RF signal to
various locations within the building.
Current fiber optic distribution systems employ a star architecture. In large buildings, the fiber runs
may be reduced by distributing the fiber control units as in Figure 7-12.
RF Base
Station
Splitter, Tap, or
Directional Coupler
Coaxial Cable
Antenna
Ceiling
7
Figure 7-12: Fiber Optic Design Approach
Passive coaxial cable systems typically offer the most cost effective implementation solution for
small building applications. The term passive coax is used to describe a coaxial cable system that
does not have any active devices, such as in-line amplifiers. Coaxial cable systems that do employ
amplifiers are referred to as active coax systems. Because of their low cost, passive coax systems
should be used to distribute the RF signal whenever practical. The limitation of passive coax is that
the cable loss increases as the cable run length increases. Higher cable loss results in lower
downlink power and degrades the system uplink performance. For larger buildings, it may not be
possible to meet the coverage goals using only passive coax. For these larger applications fiber
optic distribution systems, active coaxial cable or Pico-Cell systems can be employed.
7.2.2 Coaxial Cable System Design Using A Link Budget
The following section (Section 7.2.2.1) provides a flow chart with the steps involved with
designing an in-building antenna system using a passive coaxial cable system design. The
remaining sections provide a brief description of the various steps provided in the flow chart.
7.2.2.1 Design Procedure Flow Chart
The flow chart shown in Figure 7-13 describes a process that can be used for estimating the design
of an in-building RF distribution system.
Details on each of the flow chart steps are given in the following sections.
Fiber Optic Cable
RF Base Station
Ceiling
Fiber Antenna Unit
Fiber Base Unit
7
Figure 7-13: Coax Design Flow Chart
7.2.2.2 Gathering Building Information
Before the design of the distributed antenna system can begin, some basic information about the
building, equipment locations and areas requiring coverage must be obtained. With this
information, the system planner can begin to construct the details of the design, such as the number
of antennas required throughout the building.
Phase I: Education
Motorola recommends training be provided for as many key people as possible, especially the
individuals who will be participating in the installation, optimization and trial stages.
Gather The
Building
Information
Determine The
Base Station
Location
Estimate The
Antenna
Placement
Select The
Antenna Types
Choose The Base
Station Type
Choose The Cable
Topology
Estimate The
Cable Run
Lengths
Select The Coaxial
Cable Type
Link Budget
Design
Meet Coverage
Requirements
Estimated Design
Is Complete
NO
YES
7
Phase II: System Requirements
Clear specifications and requirements are a key to any project. In-building antenna systems are no
exception. Motorola recommends extensive training and design sessions due to the special
requirements of in-building systems.
Phase III: Building Design Information
Building design information in the area of traffic requirements, coverage area, and building details
are needed.
Traffic requirements:
The number of subscribers for the system (this will be necessary to size the final
equipment)
The Average Holding time including Erlang studies of the call duration on the PBX or
landline
Peak traffic periods during the day
Desired Grade Of Service (GOS)
The type of back-haul spans should also be determined (i.e. Microwave, T1 or E1, etc.)
Coverage Area:
Floor plans, including a scale, are required. The plan dimensions should be clearly legible and
should detail the layout of the floor. The height of each floor and clearance above the ceilings
should also be detailed. In consultation with the customer and using the floor plans, the number of
floors and areas within the building requiring coverage can be determined. This decision can be
made by examining the probability that a call will be made (or received) in a particular area.
Locations that can be expected to see activity, such as an office space or conference room, should
be adequately covered. Locations where call activity will be minimal, such as storage rooms and
mechanical sectors, may not need to be covered. There will be a trade-off when determining the
coverage requirement. As an example, a design for 90% area coverage may be significantly less
expensive than a design for 100% area coverage. The coverage goal should be established prior to
beginning the system design and implementation.
Building Details:
Details on the building construction will help with the system design. An arrangement to ensure
complete building access must be agreed upon with the customer. Table 7-2 provides examples of
building topology that should be discussed to give a more detailed description of the areas to be
covered:
7
A second marked-up copy of the floor plans can be used to illustrate and describe where these
materials or obstacles are located.
The vertical elevator shafts, stairwells, fire escapes and any vertical duct or passageway should be
illustrated on the plan or cross-sectional diagram. Any in-building parking facilities should also be
described.
Photographs and/or video would also be helpful for more complex implementations.
A brief review should be done to see if the size of the passageways will be sufficient to transfer the
equipment from the delivery truck to the installation area. The equipment may need to be un-crated
before moving it into the building. The Telco rooms and PBX rooms should be clearly marked as
well. Considerations should be given to the provisioning of back-haul transmission connections.
A list of contacts from the customer, designating key individuals to support the project, must also
be defined. Individuals to address building code, electrical, plumbing, duct work, and structural
questions should also be identified. These individuals should be readily available to answer any on-
site questions, especially questions pertaining to cable runs and locations.
With the above information, a spreadsheet design procedure can be used to determine the amount
of equipment, cable and antennas required for the desired coverage area. Additionally, preliminary
plans for cable runs, equipment locations and antenna placement can be formulated.
7.2.2.3 Determining the Base Station Location
A survey of the building should be carried out to determine the equipment room location and check
the cable routing options. Using the floor plan drawings and inputs from the customer, an estimate
of the base station location(s) can be made. The base station should be located as centrally as
possible within the building. This will minimize the coaxial cable lengths and cable losses thereby
Table 7-2: Building Topology Examples
glass content open areas
re-bar sky lights
metal atriums
struts mezzanines
wire mesh fiberglass insulation
metal-skin walls steel beams
partial walls asbestos
full walls cubicles
floor thickness basements
floor materials tunnels
duct work ceiling plumbing
7
providing the best possible downlink and uplink performance. If there are multiple floors to be
covered, the base station should be located on the middle floor if possible. All design information
should be drawn on the building floor plans.
7.2.2.4 Estimating the Antenna Placement within the Building
The coverage (ERP) from an antenna is dependent on the cable loss from the base station to the
antenna. Therefore, RF distribution design is an iterative process. In order to start the process, an
estimate of the number of antennas and antenna placement within the building is required. Table
7-3 can be used to determine a first pass estimated coverage radius for each antenna.
Using this estimated coverage radius as a starting point, first pass antenna locations can be derived
and drawn on the building floor plans. In a future step, the drawing is used to calculate the cable
runs.
A concern with antenna placement is the maximum allowable received power at the subscriber. As
with any active device, the subscriber receiver is only designed to operate over a range of input
power levels. If the maximum input power level is exceeded, distortion will occur. The input power
level received at the subscriber is a function of the distributed antenna system ERP and the
minimum distance between the subscriber and the distributed antenna. As a rule of thumb, for low
gain, ceiling mounted antennas, the power into the antenna should not exceed 10 dBm. In general,
the antenna ERP should be set to a level that will result in no higher than -30 dBm at the subscriber.
If these design guidelines are not followed, distortion may occur when a subscriber is used in close
proximity to an antenna. This distortion will rapidly decrease as the subscriber moves away from
the antenna.
7.2.2.5 Selecting the Antenna Type: Omni vs. Directional
After estimating the antenna placement, the type of antenna(s) to be used must be selected. In
general, there are two types of antennas to choose from: omni-directional (omni) and directional
antennas. Omni antennas provide a uniform field pattern in 360 in the horizontal.
Directional antennas have increased gain in one or more directions at the expense of reducing the
gain in other directions. There are a number of directional antennas available for indoor use with a
variety of gain patterns.
Omni antennas can be employed in most cases. Directional antennas are useful when covering an
area that is shaped similar to the antenna gain pattern. For example, a long hallway might best be
covered by a "bow tie" antenna as in Figure 7-14 "Bow Tie" Antenna.
Table 7-3: Estimated Coverage Radius
Area Type Estimated Coverage Radius (Feet)
Office 200
Factory 350
Store 350
7
Figure 7-14: "Bow Tie" Antenna
7.2.2.6 Choosing the Base Station Type
There are several parameters that need to be considered when choosing the base station type to be
used. The primary variables are:
Channel capacity
Maximum downlink power
Physical size
Antenna system complexity
Installation and maintenance
Cost
For applications requiring only a few traffic channels and minimal forward power, a small
microcell product (limited capacity) may prove to be both economical and easy to install.
For applications requiring greater capacity or higher RF penetration, a larger BTS product, for
instance a macro site BTS, can be used.
The system designer will need to weigh the attributes of each BTS product to determine the best
BTS for their design. For instance, if passive coaxial cable is used to distribute the RF to antennas,
it may be preferable to use more BTS products to limit the length of transmission run and thereby
minimize cable loss (BTS is placed closer to area to be covered). If fiber optic transmission is being
used to distribute the RF, line loss is not as much an issue and therefore, the BTS can be located
further from the area to be covered.
7.2.2.7 Choosing the Cable Topology: Splitters, Couplers, and Taps
There will inevitably be a need to split a single coaxial cable branch into multiple branches. For
example, a main feeder run may have to be split into two branches to feed two separate antennas.
Bow Tie Antenna
7
There are several different approaches to accomplish this signal division:
RF taps
Power splitters or dividers
Directional couplers
Each method has benefits and limitations that must be considered.
7.2.2.7.1 RF Tap
An RF tap acts like a pin hole in a water hose. As the water (RF) flows past the hole, some leaks
out. The RF tap is basically a small antenna that is inserted into the main coaxial line which drains
a small portion of energy from the tapped branch into the new branch (see Figure 7-15 Schematic
Diagram of a Power Tap). The drained or coupled energy propagates down the new line.
Figure 7-15: Schematic Diagram of a Power Tap
Standard taps are available from commercial sources and provide a relatively inexpensive way to
branch from a main feeder.
The coupling loss indicates how much of the signal will enter the new branch. For example, if the
source line is at 0 dBm and the tap has a coupling loss of 12 dB, then the power in the new branch
will be -12 dBm. The majority of the energy continues to propagate down the main branch. A
typical application for an RF tap would be to branch several antennas off of a main branch. For
instance, RF taps could be used to provide an antenna for a meeting room with its own local branch
(see Figure 7-16 Typical Tap Application).
T h r u P o r t - 0 . 5 d B
T a p P o r t - 1 2 d B
C o a x .
T a p
7
Figure 7-16: Typical Tap Application
7.2.2.7.2 Power Splitter or Divider
The power divider uses a resistive network (or similar approach) to break one input into two or
more outputs of equal power. For instance, a two-way splitter may typically have a loss of 3.5 dB,
so a 0 dBm signal entering a 2-way splitter will exit as two -3.5 dBm signals (see Figure 7-17
Diagram of a Power Splitter).
Figure 7-17: Diagram of a Power Splitter
There are two components to the splitter loss. The first is the loss associated with actually splitting
the signal into multiple outputs, and the second is the insertion loss due to resistive loss. This is
why a two way splitter has 3.5 dB of loss rather than 3 dB. There are usually a large selection of
commercial power splitters available for use. A brief sample of various output ports and their
associated loss values are presented in Table 7-4.
Main Branch
Antenna
Antenna
Meeting Room
0 d B m I n
- 3 . 5 d B m
O u t
- 3 . 5 d B m
O u t
7
7.2.2.7.3 Directional Coupler
With a directional coupler, most of the signal is transmitted to the through port while a small
portion of the signal is diverted to the coupled port. This is similar to a tap; however, the method
used to couple the signal is different and, in general, more efficient (see Figure 7-18).
Figure 7-18: Schematic of a Directional Coupler
The directional coupler can be used in situations where a small amount of power needs to be drawn
off of a main branch with minimal disturbance. Directional couplers also come in a multitude of
values.
7.2.2.7.4 Cable System Distribution Examples
When selecting splitters, taps or directional couplers, there is a choice between parallel or series
power distribution. A parallel method would use a splitter to branch the main run into local runs.
A series method would use directional couplers or RF taps to divert power from the main cable run
to local runs. Both methods work equally well for short runs. However, as cable runs, antennas and
branches increase, the series method can provide increased power levels at antennas located
furthest from the base station. The benefit of series distribution can be seen in Figure 7-19 and
Figure 7-20.
Table 7-4: Typical Values for Power Splitters
# of Output ports Total Loss (dB)
2 3.5
3 5.8
4 7.0
8 10.0
I n
O u t P o r t
C o u p l e d P o r t
5 0 O h m T e r m i n a t i o n
- 0 . 5 d B
- 1 0 d B
1 0 d B C o u p l e r
7
Figure 7-19: Parallel Power Distribution Using a Power Splitter
In the case of parallel power distribution, the power reaching the antenna closest to the insertion
point (250 ft.) has 22 dB more power than the antenna furthest (1000 ft.) from the insertion point.
The non-uniform distribution of power will cause an increased coverage area for the antenna
closest to the insertion point and a decreased coverage area for the antenna farthest from the
insertion point.
Figure 7-20: Series Power Distribution Using Directional Couplers
In the case of series power distribution using directional couplers, three directional couplers will
be required: 15 dB, 10 dB and 6 dB. With directional couplers, the power delivered to each antenna
is more uniform than with splitters. In addition, there is an 8.5 dB improvement at the final antenna
using the series method as opposed to the parallel method. Overall, series distribution may be used
when a power improvement is required at a distant antenna, or when multiple cable runs becomes
cost prohibitive.
Often, a combination of parallel and series power distribution methods may be used. For example,
a power splitter can be used to divide a main branch into several sub-branches; then, directional
couplers or RF taps can be used to distribute power from the sub-branch to the antennas.
0 ft 250 ft 500 ft 750 ft
20 dBm
input
1000 ft
(-5 dB)
(-5 dB)
(-5 dB)
(-5 dB)
2-way Splitter
ERP = 11.5 dBm 3 dBm
-5.5 dBm
-10.5 dBm
0 ft 250 ft 500 ft
15 dB Coupler
10 dB
1000 ft 750 ft
6 dB
ERP =0 dBm 0 dBm -1 dBm
20 dBm
input
-0.4 dB -0.5 dB
-1.4 dB
-2 dBm
(-5 dB)
(-5 dB) (-5 dB)
(-5 dB)
7
7.2.2.8 Estimating Cable Lengths from the Base Station to the Antennas
Once the base station and preliminary antenna locations are marked on the floor plans, estimates
for the cable lengths, number of directional couplers, splitters, and taps can be made. The cable
runs should be located in standard cable areas within the building. If the standard cable locations
are not known, a good rule of thumb is to assume that the cable will run down the hallways. The
estimated cable runs and network components (couplers, splitters, and taps) should be drawn on
the building floor plans.
7.2.2.9 Selecting the Coaxial Cable Type
There are several alternatives to be considered when selecting the media for delivering the RF
signal from the base station to the antenna, and vice versa. Ideally the distribution media should
have the following characteristics:
Low loss
Flexible
Durable
Light weight
Fire resistant
Low cost
Minimum space requirement
There are several varieties of coaxial cable that can meet the above requirements for distributed
antenna applications. Each variety of cable has its own advantages. However, there are trade-offs
involved in selecting a cable type. For example, cable runs that do not require many turns and bends
can utilize typical foam dielectric coaxial cable. This type of cable has low loss, light weight and
excellent durability. The cable comes in a variety of sizes, with loss decreasing as diameter
increases. However, the larger sizes are less flexible, cost more and suffer from increased weight
and space requirements.
A large building with minimal turns and bends can use a larger diameter cable with lower loss. In
some cases, the standard low loss cable may not have enough flexibility for the particular
application. If the system has numerous turns, or sharp bends, a super-flexible cable may be
required. This type of cable trades increased loss for increased flexibility.
If the cable is to be placed in or near air handling spaces, the use of plenum rated cable may be
required. The plenum rating specifies that the cable meets certain fire resistance and smoke
producing specifications. Although most coaxial cables have a fire retardant option, a plenum
rating may be necessary (check local code requirements).
Low loss 7/8" coax may be a good choice for in-building applications. However, because of the
higher price of 7/8" coax, 1/2" coax may be desired.
7
7.2.2.9.1 Designing With Radiating (Leaky) Coax
Radiating (also known as leaky) cable is a type of coaxial cable which has holes milled in the outer
conductor as shown in Figure 7-21.
Figure 7-21: Radiating Cable
A small portion of the RF energy that is transmitted down the radiating cable leaks out from the
holes, hence the term "leaky" coax.
Radiating cable can be used in place of point source antennas to provide coverage within buildings
as shown in Figure 7-22.
Figure 7-22: Radiating Cable Implementation
Some of the advantages of radiating coax are that the coverage is more uniform and the radiated
power levels are low, which improves signal containment and reduces the risk of overloading the
subscriber unit. Although radiating cable can be used most anywhere, typical applications have
been for elevator shafts, long tunnels and for hallways.
A radiating coax system design is similar to a conventional coaxial cable design. A link budget can
be used to tabulate all of the system losses up to the radiating cable. Coupling loss and cable loss
per unit distance factors, which can be obtained from vendor data sheets, are used to determine the
power level radiated by the cable. The coupling factors are typically specified for a 20 foot distance
on either side of the cable as shown in Figure 7-23.
SC 6 0 1 or
SC 6 0 4
Spl i t t er , Tap, or
Di r ect i onal Coupl er
Radi ax Cabl e
Cei l i ng
BTS
Splitter, Tap, or
Directional Coupler
Radiating Cable
7
Figure 7-23: Radiating Cable Coverage
In this example, the input power is 10 dBm and the radiating cable loss per 100 feet is assumed to
be 5.0 dB. The power remaining at the end of the cable is 0 dBm. The power received at a distance
of 20 feet from the radiating cable is the power remaining at the end of the cable less the coupling
loss, which is assumed to be 66 dB for this type of cable.
An indoor propagation model can be used to estimate the path loss between the 20 mark and the
edge of the building to determine the worst case receive signal level.
If the cable is to be placed in or near air handling spaces, the use of plenum rated cable may be
required. Although most coaxial cables have a fire retardant option, a plenum rating may be
necessary (check local code requirements).
7.2.2.10 Link Budgets For In-Building Design
The link budget provides a means to determine the maximum allowable path loss between the base
station and the subscriber unit. The path loss ultimately determines the coverage area, which
equates to the amount of equipment necessary to meet the system performance goals. The actual
environment of the area to be covered can greatly influence the range to which a site will propagate.
The link budget analysis technique takes these environmental characteristics into account. The link
budget is an important part of the detailed design which must be done to ensure coverage quality
and reliability.
The link budget can be used for passive coax systems or active coax systems. The active design
parameters can be included in a spreadsheet tool, although it is more complex than a simple passive
design. However, with a combined passive and active design, "what-if" scenarios can be tested to
see if using amplifiers will improve system performance.
Motorola recommends that a passive design be considered first, due to its lower cost.
Figure 7-24 shows a block diagram of the components that enter into the link budget calculation
for both the passive and active cases.
Radiating Cable
10 dBM
Input Power
20 Feet
200 Feet
-66 dBm
0 dBm
-66 dBm
7
Figure 7-24: Link Budget Block Diagrams
For the passive coax system, the downlink received signal strength at the subscriber is calculated
by subtracting the network and propagation losses from the base station transmit power. The uplink
received signal strength at the base station is calculated by subtracting the propagation and network
losses from the subscriber transmit power. In both directions, the received signal level should be
at or above the receive threshold for satisfactory system performance.
With active systems, the amplifier gain must also be included in the link budget. The uplink noise
power changes due to the active components and must also be considered when analyzing the
system.
The propagation path loss is used to determine the maximum coverage radius from each antenna
as shown in Figure 7-25.
Amplifier
Lossy
Network
Base
Propagation
Loss
Lossy
Network
Active Coax
Base
Portable
Lossy
Network
Passive Coax
Propagation
Loss
Portable
Downlink
Base Tx
Power
+Amplifier
Gain
-Network
Loss
-Propagation
Loss
>= Portable
Rx Threshold
-Network
Loss
Uplink
+Amplifier
Gain
-Network
Loss
-Propagation
Loss
-Network
Loss
Portable
Tx Power
>=Base Rx
Threshold
Uplink
Downlink
Base Tx
Power
-Network
Loss
-Propagation
Loss
>= Portable
Rx Threshold
Portable
Tx Power
-Propagation
Loss
-Network
Loss
>=Base Rx
Threshold
Base Station
Base Station
7
Figure 7-25: Maximum Coverage Distance
A floor penetration loss component may also be included as part of the propagation loss within the
link budget analysis. Depending on the floor construction materials, it may be possible to cover
several floors using one antenna as shown in Figure 7-26. The additional propagation loss due to
penetrating the floors must be included in the link budget calculation when using this approach.
Suggested floor penetration loss factors are presented in Section 7.2.2.10.1.
Figure 7-26: Multiple Floor Coverage
7.2.2.10.1 Estimating In-Building Path Loss Using Statistical Models
Due to the existence of many variables in an indoor propagation environment, accurate path loss
prediction becomes difficult. These variables include floor/ceiling materials and various wall
construction materials and geometry, in addition to numerous obstacles between the transmitter
and receiver. Presently, there are several methods for predicting path loss for indoor environments.
Among these methods are deterministic models, such as ray tracing, site specific diffraction, and
wall/material loss models. All of these methods describe the path loss for a variety of
circumstances, with a fair amount of accuracy. Their major drawback is computational complexity
since they need to account for a large number of variables (such as wall size and material, location
of furniture, light fixtures, etc.). In addition, these methods are time consuming and costly.
200 Feet
Antenna #1 Antenna #2
Maximum
Coverage
Distance=160 Feet
500 Feet
Base
Floor Loss
Floor Loss
7
Another method is statistical modeling, which has proven to be effective in predicting path loss for
indoor environments. Statistical models are based on measurements recorded in various different
building types. The main advantage of using statistical models is the simplicity of representing the
path loss between the transmitter and a receiver. These path loss calculations are easily
implemented in a spreadsheet design tool. All equations in Table 7-5 express path loss as a function
of distance only. The path loss equations express the path loss in dB in terms of distance in feet.
Included in these models are linear regression methods based on measurements taken in two
Motorola facilities
16
.
Figure 7-27 shows the plots of the logarithmic models in Table 7-5.
Figure 7-27: Logarithmic Path Loss Models
Table 7-5: Path Loss Models
Model Name Path Loss Equation (dB)
Retail Store PL(d) = 22 Log(d) + 20.1
Suburban Office Bldg.
open plan
PL(d) = 24 Log(d) + 19.1
soft partition
PL(d) = 28 Log(d) + 17.0
hard partition
PL(d) = 30 Log (d) + 16.0
Motorola Cluttered PL(d) = 0.18(d) +71
Motorola Uncluttered PL(d) = 0.11(d) +55
University PL(d) = 0.19(d) + 63
Free Space @ 894 MHz PL(d) = 20 Log(d) + 21.1
Free Space @ 1900 MHz PL(d) = 20 Log(d) + 27.7
16. These measurements, except for the Free Space models, were made at cellular frequencies.
Log a rithmic Pa th Loss M od e ls
Dista nc e ( Fe e t)
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Retail Store
Open Office
Soft Wall Office
Hard Wall Office
Free Space
7
Figure 7-28 shows the plots of the linear models, based on measurements at Motorola facilities and
at a college university. Free space path loss is included in both figures as a reference. The Motorola
cluttered model is based on measured data from a Motorola office facility. The office area was
comprised of both hard metallic walls and soft walled cubes. The Motorola uncluttered model is
based on path loss measurements that were taken in open factory and distribution areas.
Figure 7-28: Linear Path Loss Models
The path loss curves represent the average path loss as a function of distance for a large number of
data points. Some areas within the building will have higher path loss and some areas will have
lower path loss than the average. The distribution of path loss values around the mean has been
found to approximate a log-normal (bell shaped) curve with a standard deviation in the range of
about 5 to 10 dB. A fade margin can be added in the link budget, if desired, to account for this log-
normal variation of received signal level. The fade margin can be adjusted to achieve the desired
percent area coverage.
In addition to these path loss models, floor attenuation factors (FAFs) have been developed by S.Y.
Seidel and T. S. Rappaport based on thousands of signal strength measurements taken in two
multiple floor buildings. A summary of their experimental results is listed in Table 7-6. The values
in Table 7-6 are the average floor attenuation factors with their respective standard deviations.
Table 7-6: Average Floor Loss Attenuation Factors
Location FAF(dB) (dB)
Office Building 1
Through 1 floor 12.9 7.0
Through 2 floors 18.7 2.8
Office building 2
Through 1 floor 16.2 2.9
Line a r Pa th Loss M od e ls
Dista nc e ( Fe e t)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 50 100 150 200 250
Motorola Cluttered
Motorola Uncluttered
University (CMU)
Free Space
7
The model that most closely resembles the particular area to be covered should be used. Each
antenna can have a different path loss model associated with it, depending on the area type that it
will cover.
Rather than using one of the statistical path loss models, it is possible to make on-site
measurements for the purpose of determining the path loss characteristics of a particular
environment.
7.2.2.10.2 Measuring In-building Path Loss
Signal strength measurements can be performed on-site, so that the transmit power requirements
can be evaluated and established. This information can be used to decide very accurately how many
antennas will be needed to provide adequate coverage throughout the building.
A test transmitter is set up in the area to be covered. An antenna is connected to the test transmitter
and signal strength measurements are recorded systematically within the expected coverage area.
These measurements may be taken manually with a measuring receiver or automatically with a
commercially available data collection system.
The data collection system produces coverage plots to determine the signal strengths within the
building. Since this is a downlink coverage measurement, care must be taken to insure that the
uplink coverage will also be adequate. A link budget tool can be used in conjunction with the
measured coverage data to insure that both the downlink and uplink coverage requirements are
met.
Figure 7-29: Measurement System Test Setup
This design approach is more costly due to the required on-site visit. Approximately one day is
required at the building location to view the equipment room, likely cable routes, and antenna
locations. A test transmitter can be set up in representative areas and coverage data can be collected
using a portable data collection system, or other test receiver. Using the on-site test results, an
accurate system design can be developed to meet the coverage requirements.
Computer or
Data Storage
Battery or
Power Source
Data Collection
System
Rx Antenna
Signal
Generator
8 - 10 ft.
Tx Antenna
Portable Unit Fixed Unit
7
7.2.2.11 Evaluating the First Pass and Iterating the Design
After all of the antenna link budget information has been calculated and the propagation path loss
determined using a path loss model or by actual measurements, the results can be compared to the
coverage goals. If the design does not meet the coverage requirements, a second pass should be
completed. The design may be improved by adding antennas, using lower loss cable and/or
changing the cable topology. Several iterations may be necessary to reach a point where all of the
coverage objectives are met.
If the analysis shows that the coverage margins are excessive, some antennas should be removed
to reduce the system cost. Depending on the implementation method and building structure, it may
only be necessary to use one antenna for every two or three floors of coverage.
If after several iterations, the coverage objectives cannot be reached using a simple passive coax
design, two alternatives can be investigated. These alternatives are:
Fiber optic distribution
Active coax distribution using bi-directional or uni-directional amplifiers to overcome
cable losses
The use of in-line amplifiers must be considered carefully because of the higher cost and
implementation and maintenance complexity. Employing lower loss coaxial cable and locating the
base station as near as possible to the center of the coverage area is recommended. If the system
cannot be designed using passive coax, then in-line amplifiers or fiber optics must be considered.
7.2.3 Active Coaxial Cable System Design
The following sections discuss the technical issues and design alternatives for active coaxial cable
system planning.
Bi-directional or uni-directional amplifiers can be used to overcome the cable and network losses
in an RF distribution system. Bi-directional amplifiers provide amplification in both the uplink and
downlink direction as shown in Figure 7-30.
Figure 7-30: Bi-Directional Amplifier
Downlink
Uplink
Bi-Directional Amplifier
7
This is in contrast to a uni-directional amplifier that only provides amplification in one direction.
A possible implementation for an uplink uni-directional amplifier is shown in Figure 7-31.
Figure 7-31: Uni-Directional Uplink Amplifier
In general, the bi-directional amplifier can be used when the uplink and downlink are nearly
balanced. A uni-directional amplifier can be used to improve performance when the system is
uplink limited, possibly due to the use of high power LPAs on the downlink.
7.2.3.1 Downlink Amplifier Design Considerations
The main concerns when using downlink amplification are the amplifiers maximum composite
output power, gain, and intermodulation performance. The amplifiers that are used in RF
distribution systems have a maximum composite output power that must be shared among all of
the carriers. In order to keep the intermodulation product levels within specification, the power
output per carrier must be limited to a maximum value based on the amplifiers specifications.
The downlink parameters related to an active system can be described as follows:
In-Line Amplifier Gain: The amplifier gain is usually adjustable within a given range.
If the calculated required gain is lower than the minimum amplifier gain setting, then an attenuator
must be used in front of the amplifier, as shown in Figure 7-32, to reduce the input signal level.
Uni-Directional
Uplink Amplifier
Duplexer
7
Figure 7-32: Downlink Amplifier Gain
Power Out of In-line Amplifier: The power out of the in-line amplifier is calculated as the input
power plus the amplifier gain. The calculated output power of the amplifier should not exceed the
manufacturers specification for the amplifier.
The amplifier gain is typically adjustable, thus the gain of the amplifier must be set at a level that
will insure that the maximum composite output power specification is not exceeded.
7.2.3.2 Uplink Amplifier Design Considerations
In order to fully understand the uplink performance characteristics of an active coaxial cable
system, it is necessary to understand some of the fundamentals of receiver system design. These
receiver system design basics are discussed as follows.
7.2.3.2.1 Receiver System Fundamentals
Noise Figure: By definition, noise figure (NF) is the difference between the input signal-to-noise
ratio and the output signal-to-noise ratio in dB.
NF = (S/N)in - (S/N)out (dB)
Minimum Amplifier Gain = 30 dB
Maximum Amplifier Output = 17 dBm Per Channel

Base
- 20 dB
27 dBm 7 dBm
37 dBm
+30 dB
Power =
Network Loss
Base
- 20 dB
27 dBm 7 dBm
17 dBm
+30 dB
Power =
Network Loss
-20 dB
Pad
Too High
In Spec.
-13 dBm
7
Figure 7-33 illustrates the effect of a 10 dB noise figure amplifier with 10 dB Gain.
Figure 7-33: Effect of a 10 dB Noise Figure Amplifier
The input signal and noise is amplified by 10 dB and the output noise is also increased by the noise
figure of 10 dB. Therefore, the total increase in the noise floor is 20 dB.
Noise Figure of a Lossy Device: The noise figure of a lossy device, such as a length of a coaxial
cable, filter, splitter, or attenuator is equal to the loss of the device. Figure 7-34 illustrates this
concept.
Figure 7-34: Noise Figure of a Lossy Device
The term kTB in this figure is used to represent the thermal noise in dBm. The thermal noise level
is the same at the input as it is at the output of a lossy device. However, the signal level has dropped
by the amount equal to the device loss. Therefore, the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the lossy
device is lower than that at the input by an amount equal to the device loss. Hence, the noise figure
is equal to the device loss.
Cascaded Noise Figure: When two or more system blocks are cascaded together as in Figure 3.20,
the cascaded noise figure formula can be used to determine the total system noise figure.
System NF
(dB)
=
10 dB Noise Figure
10 dB Gain
Input
Output
Noise = -127 dBm
Signal = -87 dBm
Power
Input S/ N = 40 dB
40 dB
Noise = -107 dBm
Signal = -77 dBm
Power
30 dB
Output S/ N = 30 dB
NF = 40 dB - 30 dB = 10 dB
30 dB Cable Loss
Input Noise = kTB
Input Power = Pin
Output Noise = kTB
Output Power = Pin - 30 dB
NF =(Pin - kTB) - (Pin - 30 dB - kTB)
NF = 30 dB
10Log
10
F1
F2 1
G1
--------------- -
F3 1
G1 G2
-------------------
F4 1
G1 G2 G3
-------------------------------- + + + +
7
Where F1, F2, F3, F4.... are the stage noise figures in linear terms, and G1, G2, G3, G4.... are the
stage gains (the gains will be less than one for lossy system blocks), also in linear terms.
Figure 7-35: Cascaded System Noise Figure
As seen in the network drawing, the blocks that are cascaded can be active devices or lossy network
devices such as coaxial cable, splitters, couplers, attenuators, or filters.
Sensitivity: The receiver sensitivity is defined as the minimum allowable receive signal level that
will result in a given audio quality, as specified by audio signal-to-noise ratio or audio SINAD.
SINAD is similar to signal-to-noise, and is defined as the ratio of the Signal plus Noise plus
Distortion to Noise plus Distortion. This can be related to a statistical number called the Bit Error
Rate or BER for digital systems.
SINAD = (S + N + D)/(N + D)
System sensitivity can be calculated as follows:
Where:
k Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 x 10
-23
W/(Hz K)
T Room temperature of 290 Kelvin
B Bandwidth of the carrier in Hz
NF Noise figure of the equipment
E
b
/N
o
Energy bit density over noise
R Information bit rate
The value kTB is the noise power at the receiver input due to thermal noise in dBm. For CDMA,
the thermal noise power is -113 dBm.
Base
Network
Loss
Network
Loss Amplifier
F4
G4
F3
G3
F1
G1
F2
G2
System NF
Sensitivity
dBm
kTB ( )
dBm
NF ( )
dB
E
b
N
o
( )
dB
B
R
---
,
_
dB
+ + =
7
As a point of reference, the SINAD for land line call quality ranges between 25 dB and 40 dB. In
order to have acceptable call quality in a fading environment, a higher minimum signal strength is
required.
When amplifiers are used, the uplink noise figure is increased and therefore the receive threshold
must also be increased by the same amount to maintain the same call quality.
7.2.3.2.2 Uplink Design Parameters
The main parameters of concern for an uplink amplifier are noise figure, gain and 3rd order
intermodulation performance.
The amplifier gain is typically adjustable within a specified window. Since the amplifier gain
enters into the cascaded noise figure it must be set as part of the design procedure. It is customary
to set the amplifier gain equal to the cable and network losses between the amplifier and the base
station as shown in Figure 7-36.
Figure 7-36: Uplink Amplifier Gain Setting
There is no advantage to increasing the amplifier gain above the level of the network losses. In fact,
raising the gain will degrade the system intermodulation performance because both the received
signal and the input noise are amplified equally. As such, there is no improvement in the output
signal-to-noise ratio when increasing the amplifier gain above the network losses.
7.2.3.2.3 Uplink Link Budgets For Active Coax Systems
The uplink parameters related to an active coax system can be described as follows:
Amplifier Noise Figure: The amplifier noise figure, which can be obtained from the
manufacturers data sheet is entered in dB.
Amplifier Gain: The amplifier gain is set equal to the network losses between the amplifier and
the base station.
Base Station Noise Figure: The noise figure for the Motorola base station is entered in dB. A
maximum value of 6 to 7 dB is normally used for the estimated design. Typical base station noise
figure values are approximately 4.5 dB.
-35 dB Cable Loss
-3.5 dB
Splitter Loss
-1.5 dB
Duplexer Loss
Uplink amp.
gain is set to
(1.5+3.5+35+1.5)
=41.5 dB
Base
TX
RX
-1.5 dB
7
Noise Summing Degradation: When two or more amplifiers are used in parallel within a network,
the noise power from each amplifier adds together. The end result is to raise the system noise floor.
Figure 7-37 illustrates this concept.
Figure 7-37: Noise Summing
Receiver Noise Rise: To determine the noise rise, which is the amount by which the uplink receive
threshold should be increased, both the cascaded noise figure and the noise summing degradations
are taken into account.
System Noise Figure Without Amplifiers: It is important to determine if the addition of uplink
amplifiers is actually improving uplink performance. The uplink system noise figure is calculated
for the case where amplifiers are not used and compared to when amplifiers are used. The noise
figure for the system, excluding amplifiers, is simply the sum of all of the uplink network losses
and the base station noise figure.
System Noise Figure With Amplifiers: The cascaded noise figure equation is used to determine
the system noise figure with in-line amplifiers. The noise summing degradation is also added in the
system noise figure calculation.
Amplifier Uplink Improvement: The amplifier uplink improvement is the difference between the
system noise figure without amplifiers (passive system) and the system noise figure with
amplifiers. Since uplink amplifiers can only overcome losses between the amplifier and the base
station, the addition of an in-line amplifier may actually degrade system performance. If the result
of an amplifier uplink improvement calculation is negative, then the amplifier has actually
degraded the system uplink performance.
System Level Receive Threshold: Assume that the uplink amplifier gain has been set to be equal
to the loss between the amplifier and the base station. The receive threshold is being increased to
overcome the noise added by the amplifiers. At first glance, it may appear that the amplifiers are
not improving system performance since the receiver noise is increased. However, the receiver
noise is likely increased by a few dB, while the uplink amplifier can overcome 30 to 40 dB of cable/
network loss, when properly located in the system.
Base
NF
A
NF
A
NF
A
NF
B
Path 1
Path 2
Path 3
Noise
Noise
Noise
7
7.2.3.3 Optimizing Amplifier Placement
Once it has been determined that an amplifier is necessary, the next step is to decide where the
amplifier should be located in the network. In general, the most improvement in coverage will be
obtained by placing the amplifier as near to the antenna as possible. On the downlink side, this will
reduce the line loss between the amplifier output and the antenna. On the uplink side, this will
provide the best improvement in system noise figure and sensitivity. There will usually be a trade-
off between how close the amplifiers are located to an antenna and the number of amplifiers needed
in the system. Figure 7-38 illustrates this idea.
Figure 7-38: Amplifier Location
In Configuration 1, the amplifier is placed after the splitter so that only one amplifier is required
for two antennas. In Configuration 2 the maximum improvement in system performance is
achieved by placing two amplifiers before the splitter/combiner.
Splitter
Splitter
C onfig ura tion 1
C onfig ura tion 2
Uplink Signal Direction
7
Figure 7-39 illustrates the performance trade-off associated with moving the amplifier further
away from the antenna.
Figure 7-39: Amplifier Performance vs. Location
-40 dB -5 dB
NF=10 dB
Gain = 40 dB
Gain = 0 dB For
Amplifier + Network
Base
NF = 7 dB
System Noise Figure = 16 dB
-5 dB -40 dB
NF=10 dB
Gain = 40 dB
Gain = 0 dB For
Amplifier + Network
Base
NF = 7 dB
-45 dB
Base
NF = 7 dB
Sc e na rio 1: No Amp lifie r
Using the Cascaded Noise Figure Equation
Sc e na rio 2: Amp lifie r Ne a r The Ante nna
Sc e na rio 3: Amp lifie r Fa r From The Ante nna
7
For Scenario 1: There is no amplifier and the system noise figure is simply the base station noise
figure plus the cable loss (NF = 52 dB).
For Scenario 2: An uplink amplifier is placed relatively near the antenna. This improves the uplink
noise figure by 36 dB (from 52 dB to 16 dB). The improvement is nearly equal to the loss between
the amplifier and the base station (Loss = 40 dB).
For Scenario 3: The amplifier has been located too close to the base station producing a system
noise figure of 51 dB. Only a 1 dB improvement in the system noise figure and sensitivity is
provided for this configuration. Scenario 3 demonstrates that there is no advantage to using an
uplink amplifier close to the base station.
In summary, placing the uplink amplifier close to the antenna is analogous to using tower mounted
amplifiers in a macro-cellular system. The amplifier gain compensates for the coaxial cable line
loss, thereby increasing performance.
7.2.4 Fiber Optics for In-Building Systems
The following sections provide information regarding fiber optic system architecture and design.
7.2.4.1 Fiber Optic Distribution System Architecture
A fiber optic distribution system employs a fiber optic base unit along with a number of fiber optic
antenna units to distribute RF throughout a building. Figure 7-40 illustrates the star architecture.
Figure 7-40: Fiber Optic Star Architecture
7.2.4.2 When To Use Fiber Optics
Fiber optic systems for distributing RF in buildings offer a number of advantages over coaxial
cable as follows:
Fiber Optic Cable
SC 614 or SC 611
Ceiling
Fiber Antenna Unit
Fiber Base Unit
RF Base Station
7
Low Cable loss: The attenuation of fiber cable is on the order of 1.5 dB per mile. For in-building
applications, the cable loss is negligible. This significantly eases the system design and
implementation tasks.
Installation flexibility: Since the fiber optic cable loss is negligible, deviations from the planned
cable route during the installation process will not affect the system performance. In coax systems
deviations from the designed cable route can result in more cable loss and degraded system
performance. Deviations from the planned cable route are common because the building drawings
used to lay out the cable runs are not always complete or up to date.
Reduced Interference: Optical cable does not radiate, which eliminates any electromagnetic
interference concerns for the optical cables.
Installation Ease: Optical cable is flexible and light weight, which simplifies the system
installation.
The main drawback to fiber optics is the relative expense. The fiber optic cable itself is generally
less expensive than coaxial cable; however, the cost of the active fiber base unit and the active fiber
antennas add to the system expense.
Fiber optic systems in general will not make good economic sense for smaller implementations,
where low cost coaxial cable can be employed to provide good system performance. For larger
facilities, where very long cable lengths may be required, either active coax systems or fiber optics
may need to be employed. For larger implementations, the cost of a fiber optic system is
approximately the same as an equivalent active coaxial cable system. Fiber optic systems have
several advantages over active coaxial systems:
Easier to engineer
Less sensitive to installation variations
Easier to install
Easier to maintain
7.2.4.3 Fiber Optic System Design
Fiber optic distribution systems are less complicated to design than active coax systems. The
downlink ERP and uplink receive threshold are essentially the same for every antenna unit. It
doesnt matter whether the antenna is located near to the base unit or at a great distance from the
base unit. If the propagation environment within the building is somewhat uniform, then the
coverage radius for each fiber antenna will be the same. If there are different propagation
environments, such as factory and office areas, then a different coverage radius would be expected
for each area type; however, within a given area type, the coverage radius from each antenna unit
would be approximately the same.
7
Estimated Number of Antenna Units
With the assumption that the uplink coverage is noise limited, the number of antenna units used
will govern the uplink coverage. This is because each fiber optic antenna unit and base transceiver
pair have active devices that contribute noise in the uplink direction as depicted in Figure 7-41.
Figure 7-41: Fiber Uplink Noise Summing
The noise sums together at the RF combiner. The total noise power increases and the coverage area
decreases as more antenna units are used. The reduced coverage radius is due to the increase in
uplink noise associated with adding more fiber links.
A good starting point for the fiber optic design is to assume that at least ten fiber antenna units will
be employed. Between one and ten antennas, the uplink coverage radius decreases very rapidly.
Above ten antennas, the uplink coverage radius decreases at a much more gradual rate. Even if only
a few antennas are expected for the initial implementation, it is preferable to design the system
using the coverage radius associated with ten antennas. In this way, there will be little impact on
system performance if additional antennas are required at a later date to expand the system.
7.2.5 In-Building Antenna Systems Summary
A number of in-building distribution system alternatives have been presented. Because the cost of
passive coaxial RF distribution systems is typically lower, it should be used whenever practical.
For larger facilities, fiber optics can be used to distribute the RF signal. Fiber offers the key
advantage of negligibly low cable loss, which eases system design and implementation. Another
alternative for larger buildings is to employ active coaxial cable systems. Care must be taken when
using in-line amplifiers to insure that amplifier gain and noise are properly accounted for.
The design process discussed here can be used to obtain an estimate of the in-building system
requirements. For larger, more complex buildings, or when a firm quotation is required, a more
accurate site survey method should be used.
Fiber
Antenna 1
Fiber Base
Transceiver 1
Fiber Optic
Cable
RF Signal
+ Noise
Noise
Noise
Portable
Fiber
Antenna 2
Fiber
Antenna N
Fiber Base
Transceiver 2
Fiber Base
Transceiver N
To Base Station
Fiber Base Unit
RF
Combiner
7
7.3 References
1. Wahlberg, Ulrik. 1997. Polarization Diversity for Cellular Base Stations at 1800
MHz. Revision 1.0. Allgon.
2. Jakes, William C. 1974. Microwave Mobile Communications. New York. American
Telephone and Telegraph Company. Reissued in Cooperation with IEEE
Communications Society. pp. 309-324.
3. Kozono, S. 1985. Base Station Polarization Diversity Reception for Mobile Radio.
IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology. Vol. VT-33. No. 4. pp. 301-306.
4. Vaughan, Rodney G. 1990. Polarization Diversity in Mobile Communications. IEEE
Transactions on Vehicular Technology. Vol. 39. No. 3. (August): 177-186.
5. Tobin, Joe, Rob Nikides, Devesh Patel, Edward Golovin. 1997. CDMA Dual Pole
Antenna Testing - Arlington Heights, IL. Version 1.0. Motorola.
6. Golovin, Edward. 1998. A Comparison of CDMA Reverse Link Performance with
Base Station Spatial and Polarization Diversity Reception (Motorola Israel
Measurement Campaign in Urban Area at 900 MHz) Version 2.0. Motorola.
7. Xiang, Jun. 1996. Diversity Antenna Systems for GSM900/GSM1800/PCS1900
Networks. Issue A. Motorola.
8. Rappaport, Theodore S., and Sandhu, Sandip, "Radio-Wave Propagation for Emerging
Wireless Personal-Communication Systems". IEEE Antennas and Propagation
Magazine, Vol. 36, No. 5, October 1994.
9. Fennick, John, Quality Measures and the Design of Telecommunications Systems.
Artech House, Inc., 1988.
Table of Contents
8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 3
8.2 Base Station Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 3
8.3 Synchronization Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 5
8.3.1 Global Positioning System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 5
8.3.2 Low Frequency Receiver (LFR). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 6
8.3.3 High Stability Oscillator (HSO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 7
8.4 Synchronization Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 7
8.5 Synchronization Source Antenna Planning and Installation . . . . . . . . 8 - 8
8.5.1 GPS Antenna/Preamplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 9
8.5.1.1 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 9
8.5.1.2 Cabling Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 10
8.5.1.3 Multiple Frame GPS Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 10
8.5.2 Remote GPS Antenna/Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 11
8.5.2.1 RGPS Receiver Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 13
8.5.2.2 Cabling Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 14
8.5.2.3 Multiple Frame RGPS Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 15
8.5.3 LFR Antenna / Preamplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 16
8.5.3.1 Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 17
8.5.3.2 Cabling Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 - 17
Chapter
8
Synchronization of the
CDMA System
8
Chapter 8: Synchronization of the CDMA System
NOTES
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8
8.1 Introduction
CDMA is based on a 1.2288 MHz per second chip rate. If this rate is offset by even a single chip,
code translation will be impossible. Synchronization is, therefore, the basis of a CDMA system.
This chapter emphasizes the reliance CDMA has on the GPS system and what backup timing
technology is available. Signal delays are accounted for by the software, mainly by awaiting frames
and counting chips. Timing is truly the heartbeat to CDMA.
A CDMA spread spectrum digital cellular system requires a much higher degree of
synchronization between base stations than other cellular technologies. As defined in the
Wideband Spread Spectrum Cellular System standard (EIA/TIA/IS-95), CDMA base stations must
contain a time base reference from which all time critical transmissions, including pilot PN
sequences, frames, and Walsh functions, must be derived. This time base reference must be time-
aligned to CDMA system time and must provide a means to maintain time alignment in the event
that the external source of system time is lost. CDMA system time is defined to begin on January
6, 1980 00:00:00 Universal Coordinated Time (UTC), which coincides with the start of GPS time,
but does not incorporate UTC leap second corrections to system time clocks (i.e. GPS time).
This chapter describes the clock / synchronization sub-system specifically developed to achieve the
required level of synchronization and provide a high degree of redundancy for the Motorola
CDMA Base Station product.
8.2 Base Station Synchronization
The following items are the key specifications which influence the design of the clock /
synchronization sub-system for CDMA base stations. They originate from the EIA/TIA/IS-95
standard entitled Mobile Station - Base Station Compatibility Standard Dual-Mode Wideband
Spread Spectrum Cellular System" and the EIA/TIA/IS-97D "Recommended Minimum
Performance Standards for Base Stations Supporting Dual-Mode Wideband Spread Spectrum
Cellular Mobile Stations".
CDMA System Time
Origin: IS-95 Specification, Section 1.2
Requirement: All base station digital transmissions shall be referenced to a common
CDMA system-wide time scale that uses the Global Positioning System
(GPS) time scale, which is traceable to and synchronous with UTC.
Frequency Tolerance
Origin: IS-95 Specification, Section 7.1.1.2
Requirement: The RF spectrum allocation shall not exceed + 0.05 ppm of the CDMA
frequency assignment.
8
Timing Reference Source
Requirement: Time-aligned to CDMA system time shall maintain time alignment when
the external source of system time is lost
Base Station Transmission Time
Requirement: Generation of the pilot PN sequence with respect to CDMA system time
shall not exceed + 1 s for CDMA channels from same base station,
should not exceed + 3 s between base stations (i.e. GPS Operational),
and shall not exceed + 10 s between base stations (i.e. GPS Failure).
IS-95 Section 7.1.5.2 specifies that all CDMA base stations should transmit their pilot sequence
within + 3 s of CDMA system time. CDMA system time is equivalent to GPS time. The primary
method of providing this degree of synchronization and absolute time information is through the
use of the GPS satellite network using a GPS receiver. To maintain system synchronization, should
there be a GPS failure, an alternative source must be available at all base stations in the network.
This source must keep a site within the + 10 s specified to restrict the maximum window size over
which a subscriber must search. Depending upon geographical location, Low Frequency
Navigational Broadcasts are an excellent source which can be used to provide indefinite
redundancy for a GPS failure. A free running rubidium oscillator is an option which provides
limited redundancy, since a base station will eventually drift out of synchronization due to
tolerances. These sources are graphically depicted in Figure 8-1, which shows the synchronization
architecture for a CDMA cell site.
8
Figure 8-1: CDMA Cell site Synchronization Architecture
8.3 Synchronization Sources
There are three (3) types of synchronization sources currently supported by the Clock
Synchronization Manager (CSM) card which offer various degrees of base station synchronization.
The supported reference sources are the Global Positioning System Receiver (GPSR), Low
Frequency (LORAN-C) Receiver (LFR) and High Stability Oscillator (HSO).
8.3.1 Global Positioning System
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a radio-navigation system that employs RF transmitters
in twenty-four (24) satellites. The satellite configuration when completed will guarantee that a GPS
receiver located anywhere on earth can receive RF signals from at least four (4) satellites 24 hours
a day (with unobstructed visibility). For commercial use, each satellite transmits unique bi-phase
pseudo-random-noise codes on the L-band carrier frequency of 1.57542 GHz. A GPS receiver
Spanline Interface
CDMA base station 1
LF
Receiver
GPS
Receiver
Spanline Interface
CDMA base station 2
LF
Receiver
GPS
Receiver
GPS
Sat.
1
GPS
Sat.
N
f
c
= 1.57 GHz N = 8 MAX
f
c
= 100 kHz
M = 6 MAX
LF
BROADCAST
TRANSMITTER
LF
BROADCAST
TRANSMITTER
Rubidium
Oscillator
Rubidium
Oscillator
M
S
C
8
decodes the spread spectrum modulations and uses triangulation techniques on the signals to
calculate precise latitude, longitude, altitude and timing information from a position on earth. GPS,
officially known as the NAVSTAR GPS (NAVigation System with Timing and Ranging Global
Positioning System) is operated by the Department of Defense (DoD). It consists of twenty-one
(21) operational satellites and three (3) spares circling the earth approximately once every 12
hours.
The GPSR, when used as a synchronization source for a CDMA cell site, offers several significant
advantages over the other alternatives. The system provides world-wide coverage, absolute system
time information, excellent accuracy, and all at a relatively low cost.
There are, however, some limitations associated with the use of GPS which prevent it from being
the total system solution for base station synchronization. The requirement for an unobstructed
view of the satellite orbits forces several restrictions on antenna placement and cabling at a cell site
(see Section 8.5). Several environmental factors (i.e. snow, sleet, debris, RF interference) can
severely degrade receiver performance. Field tests have shown that some receivers can be jammed
by intentional or non-intentional low power interference sources over a fairly wide range (1 Watt
up to 14 miles). Since the entire network is under DoD control and has important military
significance, the uninterrupted availability of the system can also be cause for concern. The
intentional introduction of clock jitter to the GPS timing signal commonly referred to as Selective
Availability (SA) was until recently used to limit the use of the GPS for hostile purposes. With the
cessation of SA other means of preventing the hostile use of the GPS may be employed such as
jamming or temporary interruptions of service.
8.3.2 Low Frequency Receiver (LFR)
Transmissions within the Low Frequency (LF) radio band are primarily ground based waves which
are not affected by changes in the ionosphere level. This is why LF radio frequencies (30 kHz to
300 kHz) exhibit only minor phase variations over time. For this reason, the LF band has been
primarily used for standard time and navigation broadcasts. There are many LF broadcasts
(LORAN-C, WWVB, MSF) which could be considered suitable for a synchronization source.
LORAN-C (LOng RAnge Navigation-C) is perhaps the most practical LF broadcast for this
purpose. This is due to the wide coverage and accurate timing signals transmitted by LORAN-C.
There are currently more than fifty (50) transmitters throughout the world, providing coverage over
most of the northern hemisphere. A LORAN-C transmitters coverage can extend from
approximately 1,500 to 2,000 miles. The domestic transmitters are run off of three (3) Cesium
clocks at each transmitter site, with eighteen (18) transmitters organized into six (6) chains across
the continental U.S (some transmitters are dual rated).
While LORAN-C does not broadcast UTC information, its signal is traceable to UTC. The use of
this transmission requires that initial synchronization be achieved by some other means (GPS).
LORAN-C does provide much greater coverage and is less prone to atmospheric disturbances as
compared to other LF sources which are UTC based (i.e. WWVB).
A precisely timed interval is broadcast by LORAN-C stations that is within + 200 s of its
prescribed time. By measuring this period with an operational GPS receiver and correlating it to
8
current GPS time, LORAN-C provides a widely available central synchronization source that can
easily maintain base station synchronization for a CDMA cellular network. While there is presently
little coverage in the southern hemisphere, plans are being considered for South America and other
potential CDMA markets.
By phase locking to the pulse train transmitted by a LORAN-C station, it is possible to synthesize
a clock having a stability of 1 X 10
-12
. The LFR can maintain a cell sites synchronization to IS-
95 levels indefinitely while receiving LORAN-C transmissions.
8.3.3 High Stability Oscillator (HSO)
The High Stability Oscillator (HSO) is an optional card that provides backup for the GPSR. It
contains a highly stable timing reference when there is a loss of the GPS signal, a GPSR failure, or
a primary CSM failure. The outputs of the HSO card are routed to each of the CSM cards in a
modem frame (CSM 1 and CSM 2). For the HSO to provide the specified performance, a minimum
operational period of 24 hours is required for oscillator stabilization and numerical compensation.
After the oscillator is stabilized, the HSO is capable of maintaining the synchronization initially
established by the GPS reference signal for a period of 24 hours with a maximum temperature
deviation of + 10C during the backup interval.
8.4 Synchronization Redundancy
As has been previously stated, the GPSR acts as the primary synchronization reference source for
the Motorola CDMA product line. Either an LFR or HSO can be employed as a backup timing
reference to the GPSR. The following list summarizes the strengths and limitations of the primary
and redundant timing reference sources. Because LORAN-C transmissions are synchronous to
UTC and GPS time, the LFR can provide extended backup intervals in the event of a GPS or GPSR
failure. The LFR is useful in sites that are difficult to reach for service or where extreme reliability
is required.
The HSO does not depend on the reception of a transmitted timing signal and therefore does not
require the installation of an external antenna and is also immune to external jamming. However,
the HSO only provides a limited backup interval.
8
The following provides a general comparison of strengths and limitations of the three
synchronization sources.
8.5 Synchronization Source Antenna Planning and Installation
This section is intended to provide some initial guidance for the system engineering activities
which will be required to properly install the synchronization antennas at a cell site. These are
general suggestions and should not be considered absolute requirements (unless so indicated).
It is recommended that the GPS and LFR antennas be rooftop mounted. For optimum performance,
both antennas should have a clear view within 20 of the horizon in all directions. It is also
recommended that the GPS and LFR antennas be located as far as possible from the main cell site
antenna tower. This will minimize tower shadowing, potential damage due to lightning strike and
falling ice, and reduce the possibility of receiver overload due to the strong fields present in close
proximity to the transmitter antennas. At cell sites employing the LFR backup, care should be taken
GPS Strength:
World-wide coverage
System time information
accurate to within + 1S
Signal unaffected by electrical
storms
Unaffected by Low Frequency
jamming sources
LORAN-C Strength:
Non-military system
Line of site view of transmitter
is not required
Reception is not affected by
snow, sleet or heavy rain
Unaffected by High Frequency
jamming sources
Capable of maintaining
network synchronization
indefinitely
HSO Strengths:
No antenna required
Immune to external jamming
sources
World-wide use
GPS Limitations:
Military significance (and control)
Unobstructed view of satellites required
Signal may be significantly attenuated by
snow, sleet or heavy rain
Jamming on carrier frequency possible
LORAN-C Limitations:
Poor coverage in southern hemisphere
Synchronous to UTC but no encoded
time standard
Signal may be affected by extreme
electrical storms.
HSO Limitations:
limited 24 hour backup
8
to physically separate the LFR and GPS antennas to reduce the possibility of common mode
failures (e.g. both antennas being damaged by lighting, falling ice, etc.).
While the above antenna installation configuration is optimum, variations are still possible for a
particular site. A site survey may be the most practical means for determining if a particular
location with questionable surroundings will provide acceptable performance.
8.5.1 GPS Antenna/Preamplifier
The GPS Antenna/Preamplifier unit is an active micro-strip patch which obtains power through a
DC bias on the coaxial cable. It is recommended that the GPS antenna be pole mounted to help
reduce shadowing and signal attenuation due to potential snow buildup or blown debris. The
surface of the antenna, must be mounted parallel with the horizon. For optimum performance, a
clear view to within 20 of the horizon is desirable. Any reduction in the view may result in reduced
satellite coverage, degraded receiver performance, and in extreme cases, temporary loss of the GPS
timing signal.
For an antenna location to be considered acceptable for cell site synchronization, a 24 hour survey
should be performed while noting the number of GPS satellites being tracked by the CSM. Antenna
installations which demonstrate the reception of less than four (4) GPS satellites during any part of
this 24 hour survey period may suffer from a high number of GPS Reference Source Failure
Trouble Notifications or increased BTS initialization periods. Attempts to improve the visibility of
the a GPS antenna should be made when less than four (4) satellites are tracked during the 24 hour
survey period.
8.5.1.1 Specifications
The Motorola Position and Navigation Systems Business (PNSB) Timing 2000 GPS Antenna is
the recommended GPS antenna for use with the CSM card in SC96/48/24xx CDMA Base Stations
due to its superior RF performance. The Timing 2000 GPS antenna is available from the Motorola
Wireless Networks Products (WNP) group with the following part number: 242884A. Complete
GPS antenna kits (including all necessary mounting hardware, weatherproofing materials,
lightning arrestor, etc.) are also available with the following part numbers: CGDSAWGPSKIT12,
CGDSAWGPSKITV5 or CGDSAWGPSKITV5A.
Note: The part numbers provided in this document are subject to change. Contact the
appropriate Motorola product/program manager for updates to the product part numbers.
The GPS antenna used with the CSM card should meet or exceed the following specifications:
Power Requirements: 5 V
DC
+ 0.25 V @ < 30 mA (DC bias supplied via coax by GPSR)
Gain: 10dB minimum, 25 dB typical, 26 dB maximum at 1.57542 GHz + 1.024 MHz
Noise Figure: < 2.5 dB
Altitude: < 5 km
Operating Temperature: -40
C to +85
C
Humidity: 0-85% non condensing 0
C to +60
C (when properly mounted)

8
8.5.1.2 Cabling Requirements
Selection and installation of the cable for the GPS antenna should be handled in the same manner
as the other external RF cabling required at a cell site. The following items should help guide the
selection of the RF cable type and connectors which will be needed for a particular cell site
installation. For additional information in determining the proper cable type, length, and
installation requirements, please consult Chapter 4, Antenna Description of the Motorola
"ONCORE USERS GUIDE", June 1998, Revision 3.2 and "Guidelines for JCDMA GPS Multi-
frame Antenna Splitting", Issue 1.1, October 14, 1997 by Richard Dickens, Motorola, Inc.
Impedance: 50 Coaxial Cable
Maximum receive system noise figure: < 4.0 dB loss @ 1575 MHz including all cable
loss, receiver noise figure, antenna LNA noise figure and in line amplifier noise figures
Antenna and cabling signal gain: 10 dB min., 26 dB max.
Note: The Clock Synchronization Manager (CSM) located in the Motorola modem frame has
the capability to compensate for the time delays introduced by the cable propagation
characteristics. For sites requiring long cable runs it may be desirable to compensate for
this delay, so the installer should record total cable length and the propagation factor for
the cable type used.
Additional lightning protection may be required at the cable entry point into the building if local
codes or operator policies warrant. (If used, this additional lightning protection device must be
included in the loss calculation). A protection device should be selected using the following
guidelines:
Carrier Frequency: 1575 MHz
Bandwidth: > 2.05 MHz + DC
Clamping Voltage: > 7 V
DC
8.5.1.3 Multiple Frame GPS Cabling
For most applications, one (1) RF GPS antenna can feed up to four (4) BTS frames with a 4:1
distribution amplifier (see Figure 8-2). It is recommended that a splitter have all output ports DC
coupled to the RF GPS antenna input, so that there is no dependency on the operation of a single
frame. By using a DC coupled GPS antenna splitter, any one (1) frame can provide the necessary
DC operating voltage to the RF GPS antenna.
When using an RF GPS signal splitter, it will be necessary to only use version SGLN1145DE and
later CSM cards. The SGLN1145DE CSM employs a GPS receiver which is capable of sourcing
an 80 mA GPS antenna current. A typical GPS signal splitter requires as much as a 50 mA
operational current. A signal splitter and GPS antenna configuration should be selected that does
not exceed a total operational current of 80 mA.
8
Care should be taken to insure that the overall GPS antenna system noise figure and gain
requirements specified in Section 8.5.1.2 are met when utilizing GPS signal splitters or in line
amplifiers. Please consult the "Guidelines for JCDMA GPS Multi-frame Antenna Splitting", Issue
1.1, October 14, 1997 by Richard Dickens, Motorola, Inc. document for system guidelines
regarding the proper use of GPS signal splitters.
Figure 8-2: Single and Multi-Frame RF GPS Configurations
8.5.2 Remote GPS Antenna/Receiver
The Remote Global Positioning System (RGPS) receiver is an alternative to the RF GPS receiver
which allows great installation flexibility. Because the RGPS receiver provides a digital interface
to the Base Station Equipment, RF cabling losses are not a factor in installation.
The RGPS receiver consists of a GPS antenna, GPS receiver, and a digital interface enclosed in an
Lightning
Arrestor
RF GPS
Antenna
Earth
Ground
IN
OutA OutB
OutC OutD CGDSHP58536A 1:4
Active GPS signal
splitter
GPS
Antenna Port
8
outdoor rated enclosure. The function of the RGPS head is to receive the GPS satellite signals,
process them, and output accurate timing information (GPS & UTC). The major difference
between a RGPS installation and a traditional GPS installation is the interface that is used to span
the distance between the antenna and the target equipment (either a BTS or pilot beacon). In a
traditional RF GPS setup, the distance is spanned with coax connecting the GPS antenna to the
GPS receiver. With Remote GPS, the distance is spanned with a digital interface between the GPS
receiver and the target equipment. The digital interface is less distance sensitive than the coaxial
interface. The overall function of the RGPS head is the same as that of a traditional RF GPS
installation, but the RGPS receiver has an additional feature to measure and compensate for the
greater cable lengths (delays) possible with RGPS. This circuit can be used to automatically
determine the time delay of the cable between the RGPS head and the target equipment. Cable
lengths of as great as 1 km can be used between the RGPS receiver and BTS connection. With the
use of a Remote GPS Distribution (RGD) card, multiple co-located frames can share one (1) RGPS
receiver. The various RGPS receiver installation configurations are depicted in Figure 8-3: Single
and Multi-Frame Remote GPS Configurations.
It is recommended that the RGPS head be pole mounted to help reduce shadowing and signal
attenuation due to potential snow buildup or blown debris. The surface of the antenna must be
mounted parallel with the horizon. For optimum performance, a clear view to within 20 of the
horizon is desirable. Any reduction in the view may result in reduced satellite coverage, degrading
receiver performance, and in extreme cases, temporary loss of the GPS timing signal.
For an antenna location to be considered acceptable for cell site synchronization, a 24 hour survey
should be performed while noting the number of GPS satellites being tracked by the CSM. Antenna
installations which demonstrate the reception of less than four (4) GPS satellites during any part of
this 24 hour survey period may suffer from a high number of GPS Reference Source Failure
Trouble Notifications or increased BTS initialization periods. Attempts to improve the visibility of
the a GPS antenna should be made when less than four (4) satellites are tracked during the 24 hour
survey period.
8
Figure 8-3: Single and Multi-Frame Remote GPS Configurations
8.5.2.1 RGPS Receiver Specifications
The following is a list of RGPS receiver specifications:
Power Requirements: Voltage Range +36 to +8 V
DC
@ 2.0 Watts
Altitude: < 5 km
Operating Temperature: -40
C to +75
C
R
G
D
Expansion Frames
Starter Frame
Lightning Arrestor
WNP CGDS0971017AA1
Cellsite
Ground
30-86433H02
30-86433H02
30-86433H02
3
0
-
8
6
4
3
3
H
0
2
01-86012H03
(Symmetricom Z3827A)
RGPS
RGPS Connetor
(See Note 2)
RGPS Receiver Cable
30-87465C0x or 30-86039Hxx
(See Note 1)
12 pin Deutsch
Connector RGPS Interface Cable
30-87465C0x or 30-86433Hxx
(See Note 1) 15 pin
Subminature "D"
Connector
RGD
SGLN5684AA
8
Humidity: 5% to 95% R.H., < 0.024 pounds of water per pound of air, non-condensing
per Telcordia standard
Physical Dimensions: 6.00" diameter, 6.38" height (excluding cable)
Weight: 24oz. (without mounting hardware)
Mounting: Threaded Pole Mount (3/4" standard pipe thread)
The RGPS receiver employs a six (6) twisted pair cabling interface which provides all necessary
power, data transmit, data receive and timing signals. As is shown in Figure 8-3, two (2) basic
cable assemblies are available for connection to the RGPS receiver. The 30-87465C0x assembly
is a fully terminated cable consisting of a twelve (12) pin "Deutsch" connector which connects to
the RGPS receiver and a fifteen (15) pin subminiature "D" connector which connects to the modem
frame or RGD card RGPS connector. An additional cable assembly is available for those BTSs
which employ a punch block RGPS cabling interface. The 30-86039Hxx cable assembly is
terminated on only one end with a twelve (12) pin "Deutsch" RGPS connector. The un-terminated
end of the 30-86039Hxx cable consists of individual 22 gauge wires for direct connection to a
punch block. The 30-86039Hxx cable assembly is typically used with SC3xx and SC4812ET type
frames.
The RGPS receiver cabling shall meet the following requirements:
Conductors: Six (6) 22 gauge twisted pairs (12 conductors) with overall foil shield
Characteristic Impedance: 120 + 20%
DC Resistance: < 7/100 m
Temperature Range: -40
C to +75
C
Near End Crosstalk Attenuation: > 56 dB at 1 MHz
Jacket Material: FEP Teflon
Insulation: FEP Teflon
Cable Drain Wire: 22 gauge
Connector:
The twelve (12) pin connector attached to the pigtail of the RGPS head is a Deutsch MMP21C-
2212P1. The twelve (12) pin connector attached to the cable which connects the RGPS head to the
BTS/shelter is a Deutsch MMP26C-2212S1. A diagram of the BTS to RGPS cable mating
connector is shown in Figure 8-4.
8
BTS to RGPS Cable:
Conductors: Six (6) twisted pair (12 conductor), 22 gauge, solid conductor
Maximum cable length: 1 km (3,280 feet)
The BTS to RGPS cable wiring definitions (pin out, wire colors, and signal description) are
provided in Table 8-1.
Figure 8-4: BTS to RGPS Cable Connector Diagram
Table 8-1: BTS to RGPS Cable Wiring Definitions
8.5.2.3 Multiple Frame RGPS Cabling
The Remote GPS Distribution (RGD) card allows a single RGPS receiver to provide timing to as
many as four (4) co-located CDMA modem frames. A typical RGD installation can be seen in
Figure 8-3. The RGD card provides individually buffered copies of the RGPS timing and receive
data signals to each of the connected modem frames. The RGD includes a Master Frame arbiter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11 12
Pin 1
BTS Connector
(15 Pin Subminature D)
(Plug)
RGPS Connector
(Deutsch MMP26C-2212S1)
(Socket)
BTS Connector
(15 Pin Subminiature D)
(Plug)
RGPS Signal
Descriptions
RGPS Cable
Color Code
(wire/stripe)
BTS Connector
Pin Number
RGPS_Tx+
RGPS_Tx-
1_PPS+
1_PPS-
Reserved
Spare
Green
Green/Black
Brown
Brown/Black
Red
Red/Black
1
9
2
10
No Connection
No Connection
RGPS
Connector
Pin Number
5
4
11
12
7
6
RGPS_Rx+
RGPS_Rx-
+28V_B
Power_RTN_B
+28V_A
Power_RTN_A
White
White/Black
Yellow
Yellow/Black
Blue
Blue/Black
4
12
7
14
8
15
3
2
10
8
1
9
Cable Drain - 13 No Connection
8
which selects one (1) frame to act as the RGPS controller. Should the selected Master Frame fail
or otherwise go off line, the RGD will select another active frame to act as the RGPS controller.
There are no dependencies on any single modem frame for proper RGD and RGPS operation. The
RGD supports a maximum cable length of 1 km (3,280 feet) between the RGPS receiver and a
BTS. See Figure 8-5 for a diagram and the following notes for additional requirements associated
with this configuration.
Figure 8-5: Remote GPS Distribution Box Diagram
Notes for Figure 8-5:
The maximum distance from the RGPS head to the BTS is 1 km (3,280 feet) (i.e. A + B4
above).
The maximum recommended difference between BTSs (i.e. B4 - B1 above) is less than
15.2 meters (50 feet) for the CSM to automatically compensate for all cable delays. If
the difference is greater than 50 feet, then a delay parameter will need to be configured
in the MM data base for each BTS.
The SC4812T has an RGD function incorporated into the top of the frame. Thus, the
maximum cable length for an expansion BTS is 50 feet for automatic delay
compensation.
Surge protection is required at the building entry point for the cable of the remote GPS
head prior to the connection of the remote GPS distribution box.
8.5.3 LFR Antenna / Preamplifier
It is important to select an antenna location which will not degrade the performance of the Low
Frequency Receiver. Since line of sight reception is not required for satisfactory performance at
LORAN frequencies, the installation of the antenna and preamplifier can be accomplished quite
easily, provided some basic concerns are addressed.
BTS-1
Remote
GPS
Head
Remote
GPS
Dist.
Box
BTS-2
BTS-3
BTS-4
B1
B2
B3
B4
A
1 km (3,280 feet) Max.
15.2 m Max. (see notes below)
8
The ideal location for the LFR antenna/preamplifier unit should be free of very large obstructions
at an angle of 30 above the horizon. For best performance, it is recommended to mount the LFR
antenna at least 10 feet above ground level and approximately 50 feet away from any co-located
high tension power distribution lines. The unit should be near an earth referenced metal structure
(building framework) which can be used to provide proper antenna grounding. A four (4)
conductor shielded cable connects the LFR antenna/preamplifier unit to the modem frame's MFIO
panel within the cell site building.
A site survey which measures performance levels can be a useful way to determine whether a
specific location will provide acceptable performance. The following performance criteria can be
used in such s survey:
Primary Station: Signal Strength > -8 dB (as measured by the LFR)
Alternative Stations: Signal Strength > -8 dB (minimum of two (2) additional as
measured by the LFR)
8.5.3.1 Specifications
The following is a list of LFR antenna/preamplifier unit specifications:
Power Requirements: 12 V
DC
@ 10 mA (DC bias supplied via differential pair by LFR)
Altitude: < 5 km
Operating Temperature: -40C to +85C
Humidity: 0-100%
Physical Dimensions: 3.5" X 3.24" base; 26.25" overall height
Weight: 52 oz. (including mounting bracket & hardware)
The cabling requirements for the LFR antenna are much simpler due to the low frequency nature
of this signal. The differential signal requires one twisted pair connection. A DC bias on this pair
provides power to the preamplifier unit. A second twisted pair connection allows preamplifier
calibration and fault detection capability. While the standard LFR kit includes a 150 terminated
cable assembly, the following information is provided in case variations are necessary for
particular installations.
8
Cable Requirements
The following is a list of LFR cable requirements:
Impedance: ~100 differential
Conductors: Two (2) twisted pairs 24 AWG with individual shields
Belden Cable Type: 9729
Maximum Length: 300 feet
Wiring Definitions
The following information provides the wiring definitions for LFR cable connectors:
To Modem Frame: Nine (9) pin Sub-miniature D Plug (male pins) (i.e. AMP 747952-1)
To Antenna / Preamplifier: Five (5) pin circular (i.e. TAJIMI TC1108-12A10-5M(8.6))
Grounding Guidelines
In order to insure a dependable ground path for proper signal reception, a corrosion resistant
connection must be attached to a conductive metal structure leading to a common earth ground. In
cases where metal structures at the antenna site may be struck by lightning, Motorola grounding
guidelines (Grounding Guidelines for Cellular Radio Installations) must be followed to assure
Pin Number Wire Color Signal Description
1 Red Antenna+ (Power & Signal)
6 Black (paired with Red) Antenna- (Power & Signal)
5 White Calibrator+
9 Black (paired with White) Calibrator-
3 Bare Drain (from shield)
Pin Number Wire Color Signal Description
D Red Antenna+ (Power & Signal)
E Black (paired with Red) Antenna- (Power & Signal)
A White Calibrator+
B Black (paired with White) Calibrator-
C Bare Drain (from shield)
8
maximum safety of personnel and equipment. The following wire size is recommended for
different grounding lengths.
14 gauge for runs < 40 feet
12 gauge for runs < 100 feet
Additional lightning protection may be added at the cable entry point into the building if local
codes mandate it. A protection device should be selected using the following guidelines:
Carrier Frequency: 100 kHz
Bandwidth: >> 35 kHz + DC
Differential Signals: 2
Clamping Voltage: > 15 V
DC
8
NOTES
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Table of Contents
9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 3
9.2 Cellular/PCS Inter-System Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 3
9.2.1 Intra-Band Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 4
9.2.1.1 AMPS Cells to CDMA Subscribers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 6
9.2.1.2 AMPS Subscribers to CDMA Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 9
9.2.1.3 CDMA Cells to AMPS Subscribers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 9
9.2.1.4 CDMA Subscribers to AMPS Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 9
9.2.2 Inter-Band Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 10
9.2.2.1 Preventative Measures: BS-to-BS Interference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 13
9.2.2.2 Preventative Measures: Subscriber-to-Subscriber Interference . . . 9 - 27
9.3 PCS and Microwave Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 28
9.3.1 PCS to Microwave Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 28
9.3.1.1 Coordination Distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 29
9.3.1.2 Propagation Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 30
9.3.1.3 Power Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 34
9.3.1.4 Microwave Receiver Interference Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 35
9.3.1.5 PCS to Microwave Interference Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 37
9.3.2 Microwave to PCS Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 38
9.3.2.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 38
9.3.2.2 Calculation of Nominal Noise Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 38
9.3.2.3 Calculation of Effective Interference Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 39
9.3.2.4 Calculation of Effective Noise Figure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 39
9.3.2.5 Microwave to PCS Interference Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 40
9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 - 40
Chapter
9
Inter-System
Interference (ISI)
9
Chapter 9: Inter-System Interference (ISI)
NOTES
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9
9.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide systems engineers/planners with a basic understanding of
several inter-system interference issues that can adversely affect CDMA system deployments. In
this chapter, CDMA is defined as being a general term that applies not only to 2nd generation (2G)
digital cellular, as defined in IS-95A/B, but also to 3G digital cellular, as defined in IS-2000.
Currently covered in this chapter are cellular/PCS inter-system interference, as well as 1900 MHz
CDMA and Microwave interference. For this discussion, there are no material differences between
2G and 3G-1X that would have to be dealt with for Intra-band and Inter-band interference issues.
In the future, any additional inter-system interference scenarios that arise will be addressed in later
versions of this document, as necessary.
9.2 Cellular/PCS Inter-System Interference
In real world situations, frequency spectrum is the most limited resource for implementing or
expanding cellular radio telecommunications systems. As cellular service continues to migrate
from the use of analog technologies to digital technologies such as CDMA, operators are often
faced with choosing one of two options:
Spectrum clearing, when deploying a CDMA system into an existing frequency band, by
clearing spectrum that was formerly used by other cellular technologies. Examples of
such deployments could include the clearance of AMPS analog spectrum for use with
co-existing 800 MHz CDMA systems and the clearance of TACS analog spectrum for
use with co-existing 900 MHz CDMA systems.
Spectrum Reassignment, when deploying a CDMA system in an alternate frequency
band previously unallocated for cellular use. Examples of this deployment strategy
could include the use of the AMPS band for CDMA in an area already using TACS and/
or GSM spectrum, and the use of the PCS 1900 MHz band for CDMA in an area already
using DCS 1800 MHz spectrum.
Associated with each of the above deployment options is the potential for interference between the
system being introduced and the currently existing, co-located cellular system(s). The severity of
this interference, and its impact, will depend mainly on how frequency spectrum is assigned to all
cellular systems that are required to co-exist in a given coverage area. The interference can be
divided basically into two categories that will be referred to here as intra-band and inter-band.
Intra-band interference corresponds to interference between co-existing systems that share the
same cellular frequency band allocations, such as AMPS and TACS. Inter-band interference
corresponds to interference between co-existing systems that utilize multiple cellular frequency
band allocations, such as:
AMPS with TACS and GSM, or
DCS 1800 with PCS 1900
9
9.2.1 Intra-Band Interference
Many cellular operators are installing, or have already installed, CDMA digital technology that
allows them to continue the process of expanding capacity in their currently existing AMPS, or
TACS, analog markets. These cellular operators may now be at the point where they want to install,
or are installing, the next phase of CDMA, namely IS-2000 1X technology having the same
spectral bandwidth of 1.23/1.25 MHz, but twice as many Walsh codes (128). For purposes of this
next step in technology migration, which enables greater throughput and data services, there are no
material differences between 2G and 3G-1X that would have to be dealt with for Intra-band and
Inter-band interference issues. In these markets, both CDMA and the currently operating analog
system must exist simultaneously and in some cases even share the same spectrum. As a result, in
addition to the possibility of increased blocking on the existing analog cellular system (due to
spectrum clearing), there exists the potential threat of inter-system interference between the co-
existing, co-frequency-band-allocation systems. This interference, referred to as intra-band inter-
system interference, exists typically between the base stations of one system and the subscriber
stations of the other, co-existing system (Figure 9-1).
Figure 9-1: Intra-Band Interference
Here, the interference arises as a consequence of the near-far effect, an example being created when
a nearby base station transmitter, serving one system, captures the receiver of a subscriber unit
being served by another system base station that is significantly farther away. The closer,
interfering base station transmitter is able to capture the victim subscriber unit receiver because of
the small propagation path loss between them. This interference phenomenon can have a
significantly greater effect on a new system being deployed with fewer cell sites than the other pre-
existing, co-band system. This is because the new system, with its fewer cell sites, creates greater
differences in the signal levels seen either in the Forward (downlink), or Reverse (uplink), RF
channels. Practically, this situation can be avoided by system planners if they strive to keep the cell
site ratio (B:A) as close to (1:1) as possible, where "B" indicates the number of new cell sites, for
system B, relative to "A," the number of old cell sites already existing in system A. Another
important aspect regarding the relationship between B and A is that the cell site base stations for
system A and B should be located very near each other, or co-located, as close as possible.
An example of an unbalanced situation, reflecting a cell site (B:A) ratio of (1:3), is depicted in
Figure 9-2. Here, a subscriber being served by system B could potentially be threatened with intra-
band interference to its receiver from cell site transmitters in the co-existing system A. System B
subscribers could potentially experience their worst operating performance at the edges of cells in
system B that lie close to the centers of the cells from system A.
System A System B System B
Cell Subscriber Cell
9
Similarly, if the system A subscriber is close enough to a non-co-located system B cell site, the
system A subscribers transmitter could also potentially cause interference to the system B cell site
receiver if the subscriber is transmitting at a high enough power level.
Figure 9-2: Example of a (1:3) Overlay
Depending on the actual overlay of the two co-existing systems, there exists the potential for four
different interference scenarios:
System A subscriber(s) interfering with System B base station
System A base station interfering with System B subscriber(s)
System B subscriber(s) interfering with System A base station
System B base station interfering with System A subscriber(s)
The above four scenarios are discussed in more detail in the following four sub-sections, using a
co-located AMPS and 800 MHz CDMA system as an example. Note that intra-band interference
is not a problem unique to CDMA, as it is a radio-systems issue. The same issues will occur with
a GSM system if overlaid on a TACS system in the same frequency band. All technologies have
the same set of contributing factors. Some key variables for the interfering transmitter are: ERP
(Effective Radiated Power, which is RF power directed towards the receive antenna), transmit
nominal power, and sideband emissions. A few key variables for a potential victim receiver are:
IM (Intermodulation) intercept point of the receiver, filter protection available, and gain of the
receive antenna system.
After the potential for interference has been assessed, corrective action can then be taken, if
required. Corrective action can be in the form of improving the filtering at the site. Or, it can be
related to any of the other variables noted above: improving Tx sideband emissions, adjusting ERP,
doing frequency planning, etc. In all cases, the potential for interference, and the best corrective
action, is site specific. There is no generic solution, so site engineering is required.
Recommendations for corrective action are addressed, where appropriate, in later paragraphs of
this section.
System B
System A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X - Potential Interference
Areas
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
9
One additional note that cannot be overlooked has to do with Rogue transmitters, which are
unauthorized and illegal transmitting units. Even though the existence of Rogue transmitters are
rare, the operation of just a single Rogue transmitter can cause problems for one or more sectors of
a CDMA system, if this Rogue unit has a relatively high RF power output. A common symptom
that is observed when a Rogue unit is transmitting is that the impacted CDMA cells will exhibit a
decrease in coverage area due to the elevated interference noise rise caused by the Rogue unit.
9.2.1.1 AMPS Cells to CDMA Subscribers
There are several potential inter-system interference mechanisms, but the dominant problem is an
interference product resulting from strong AMPS base station signals mixing in the front end of a
subscriber receiver, thereby creating unwanted signals that land inside the CDMA subscriber
receiver passband. The subscriber receiver intermodulation (IM) performance is essentially
identical for all technologies.
In order for this phenomena to occur, three things must happen simultaneously. First, the CDMA
subscriber unit must be physically close to the AMPS base transmitter site. Second, the AMPS
transmitter frequencies must create a third order mix. Third, the desired CDMA received signal
must be relatively weak.
Anything that can be done to overcome or inhibit any combination of the above mechanisms will
help in preventing an interference problem. For example, one of the easiest ways to prevent this
particular interference problem is to make sure that there is a CDMA base station located at each
one of the AMPS transmitter sites. Such a configuration was described earlier and is termed a (1:1)
one-to-one overlay. In this arrangement, the undesired mix products will still occur, but because
the desired CDMA signal from the local transmitter is always stronger than the mix products, the
problem is prevented. Hence, the first and third mechanisms are no longer contributors.
Usually, the problem will appear when an operator tries to deploy CDMA at fewer sites than every
AMPS site (usually during the initial phase of introducing CDMA into a market). The operator may
try to put CDMA base stations into fewer AMPS sites, to save initial system deployment costs. If
this ratio is about one-third of the AMPS sites, then it would be called a (1:3) overlay, reflecting
the (B:A) ratio. (See Figure 9-3).
9
Figure 9-3: AMPS System with a Larger CDMA Site Overlay
(cells marked a are potential CDMA sites)
In this case, it would be possible for the CDMA subscribers to be exposed to strong local AMPS
signals while trying to receive a weak CDMA signal from a great distance, because two-thirds of
the AMPS sites would lack a co-located CDMA transmitter. In fact, if the system is laid out on a
regular grid, with a (1:3) overlay, the AMPS base sites that lack co-located CDMA transmitters
will be exactly halfway between the CDMA base sites, thereby allowing the areas having the
weakest CDMA signals to have AMPS base sites located there.
It should be noted that a (1:1) deployment is a fix for reducing the interference between an
operators AMPS base stations and his own CDMA system, but this does not totally eliminate the
interference. There is still the possibility that a CDMA subscriber could experience interference
when in the vicinity of the other operators cell site in an area having a weak CDMA desired signal.
As a practical matter, high traffic areas will attract cells from both operators. As a result, the high
traffic areas will usually have CDMA base stations deployed in the same area which will produce
a strong CDMA signal in order to overcome these problems.
When there is an AMPS site without a co-located CDMA site, a subscriber may or may not
experience noticeable interference, depending on the number, level, and frequency of the AMPS
carriers, and the CDMA signal strength itself. Using a few simplifying assumptions, Figure 9-4
shows the relationship between the signal levels at which the interference will appear for an un-
modified IS-98 subscriber receiver, and for a subscriber receiver having either of two proposed
subscriber changes, namely a switchable attenuator, or a continuously variable attenuator.
9
Figure 9-4: Required CDMA Signal Strength vs. Interfering AMPS Signal Strength
As can be seen from the graph, the interference can be mitigated by reducing the AMPS signal
level, or by raising the CDMA signal level. The most likely way of increasing CDMA signal levels
would be to add one or more CDMA transmitter sites in the immediate vicinity of any potential
interfering AMPS transmitters.
Recently, a specification change for IS-98A has been proposed that addresses the need for
improved IM performance in the subscriber receiver. As the graph above clearly shows, the
proposed change allows for a wider front end dynamic range in the subscriber, either by utilizing
a variable attenuator, or a switchable attenuator, in the front end. The use of either of these
attenuators introduces approximately 20 dB of loss so that the subscriber can operate in a strong
signal environment (for example, if the received CDMA signal strength were greater than -79
dBm). The operator will still have to manage a minimum CDMA signal strength in accordance
with the anticipated interference levels that may be potentially encountered.
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
-45 -40 -35 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5
IS-98 spec (1% FER)
IS-98A spec (1% FER) w/ variable attenuator
IS-98A spec w/ step attenuator
A signal strength
Interfering AMPS si gnal Strength
(per carri er for 2 carri ers)
JSR 2/7/96
IS-98A; Step Attenuator
IS-98 Spec Level
IS-98A; Variable attenuator
R
e
q
u
i
r
e
d

C
D
M
A

S
i
g
n
a
l

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
Interfering AMPS Signal Strength
(per carrier for 2 carriers)
9
To facilitate assessing the impact of any potential inter-system interference, the Motorola CDMA
Simulator has been modified to include an interference zone simulation and prediction.
As for the potential for inter-system interference at 1900 MHz, this type of interference is not
expected to be a serious issue because the power levels are generally lower, the path losses are
higher, and the environment will not be one of an unbalanced overlay. Still, there may have to be
some engineering to provide interference control at the 1900 MHz band edges, where two different
operators meet on different site grids. This situation will not be unique to CDMA, as the subscriber
receiver intermodulation performance is essentially identical for all technologies.
In summary, the most desirable way to design a CDMA overlay is as a (1:1) deployment, although
it will still be necessary to review AMPS site placement in weaker CDMA coverage areas. If the
operator chooses to initially implement a lower density deployment, with something less than a
(1:1) deployment, then the design of both the A and B sides will need to be very carefully
engineered for interference control. If a lower initial cost is desired, then a system utilizing a (1:1)
deployment with omni cells is preferred over a system using (1:3) or higher deployments. This
would result in a system with the same number of sectors deployed, but not susceptible to the same
amount of system interference.
9.2.1.2 AMPS Subscribers to CDMA Cells
Narrowband AMPS subscribers are not viewed as posing a problem to CDMA cells. Out-of-band
AMPS subscriber Tx sideband emissions are not significant across the recommended 9 AMPS
channels comprising the CDMA guard band. In-band AMPS subscribers must be geographically
separated by a guard zone of sufficient path loss.
9.2.1.3 CDMA Cells to AMPS Subscribers
Although CDMA cells will have a lower Tx ERP, CDMA cells may still interfere with AMPS
subscribers that are far from an AMPS cell. The interference is caused by CDMA cell Tx sideband
emissions, which do not roll off as fast as those associated with a narrow band AMPS transmitter.
Note that this should not cause the same amount of system interference since the CDMA sites will
be co-located with the same AMPS system sites.
9.2.1.4 CDMA Subscribers to AMPS Cells
The CDMA subscriber Tx power is typically low, so low sideband emission power results.
However, a (1:3) overlay will significantly increase the probability of interference from CDMA
subscribers because all AMPS-only cells are located near the edge of the CDMA cells. CDMA
users near the AMPS sites will be at the higher power levels and offset in frequency by as little as
900 kHz from the center of the CDMA channel. Depending on the path loss from the CDMA
subscribers to the AMPS Rx cell sites, the CDMA subscribers might cause interference to the
AMPS receive signal.
9
9.2.2 Inter-Band Interference
Some cellular system operators who want to introduce digital cellular technologies into their
existing systems may prefer, instead, to deploy such digital systems like CDMA in an alternate
frequency band previously not allocated for cellular use in a given country. Examples of this type
of deployment strategy can involve the following:
Use of the AMPS band for CDMA, in an area already using TACS or GSM spectrum
Use of the TACS band for CDMA, in an area already using AMPS spectrum
Use of the PCS 1900 band for CDMA, in an area already using DCS 1800 spectrum
While implementing any one of the above examples might allow a new cellular system to be
deployed more readily (i.e. with little to no effect on the traffic performance of the existing analog
systems), there may be an increased threat of inter-system interference depending on what
operating spectrum is being used for the new and the existing cellular systems. To say this another
way, inter-band interference typically occurs between the base stations and/or between the
subscriber stations of two or more co-existing systems (see Figure 9-5), unlike the aforementioned
intra-band interference.
Figure 9-5: Inter-Band Interference
Thus, while inter-band interference is a radio-systems issue that is not unique to a particular
cellular technology and has been dealt with previously, what may be different with current
deployments is how eager some operators are in trying to co-locate multiple-band cellular
technologies affected by these issues. Such ambitious system deployments result in:
1. Less guard band than is recommended between two systems that must co-exist
2. Smaller antenna separation (along with less isolation between systems), due to high
system densities
3. More aggressive antenna sharing requirements between different technologies through
the use of combiners, duplexers, etc.
As a result, it is imperative to give proper consideration to the threat of these interference
phenomena and to take proper measures to prevent any potential system performance degradation,
such as a reduction in system capacity or RF link quality/reliability. It is the goal of this section to
provide such consideration.
System B System A System B System A
Cell Subscriber Subscriber Cell
9
As was mentioned previously, the threat and severity of inter-band interference between two or
more co-existing cellular systems using multiple frequency bands will depend on what spectrum is
assigned to each system. Table 9-1 shows how the AMPS/TACS/GSM spectrum has been assigned
by the EIA/TIA/ANSI standards organization, for AMPS spectrum, and by the ETSI standards
organization, for TACS/GSM spectrum.
In the 800/900 MHz band, extended bands EAMPS and ETACS overlap by as much as 22 MHz.
The end of the standard AMPS band at 890 MHz is also the beginning of the standard TACS band
(Figure 9-6).
Figure 9-6: AMPS/TACS/GSM Spectrum
Likewise, the DCS 1800 band overlaps the PCS 1900 spectrum by as much as 30 MHz (see
Figure 9-7).
Table 9-1: Cellular Spectrum Allocation
Standards
Body
Cellular Band
BS Tx / Sub. Rx
Operating Band
(MHz)
Sub. Tx / BS Rx
Operating Band
(MHz)
ANSI/ AMPS 869-894 824-849
EIA/TIA PCS 1900 1930-1990 1850-1910
TACS/ETACS 917-960 872-915
ETSI GSM 935-960 890-915
DCS 1800 1805-1880 1710-1785
8
6
9
8
7
0
8
8
0
8
9
0
8
9
1
.
5
8
9
4
9
1
7
9
2
5
9
3
5
9
4
2
.
5
9
5
0
9
6
0
8
7
2
8
8
0
8
9
0
8
9
7
.
5
9
0
5
9
1
5
8
2
4
8
2
5
8
3
5
8
4
5
8
4
6
.
5
8
4
9
B A A
A
M
P
S

A
A
M
P
S

B
E
T
A
C
S

B
T
A
C
S

B
/
T
A
C
S

A
/
E
T
A
C
S

A
A
M
P
S

A
A
M
P
S

B
B A A
T
A
C
S
R
e
s
e
r
v
e
d
/
G
S
M
G
S
M
G
S
M
E
T
A
C
S

B
T
A
C
S

B
/
T
A
C
S

A
/
E
T
A
C
S

A
T
A
C
S
R
e
s
e
r
v
e
d
/
G
S
M
G
S
M
G
S
M
BASE Rx/
Subscriber Tx
BASE Tx/
Subscriber Rx
9
Figure 9-7: DCS 1800 and PCS 1900 Spectrum
Table 9-2 provides a summary of the various interference scenarios that can result when attempting
to utilize these different spectrum allocations.
While the use of overlapping operating bands in co-existing systems would be unacceptable due to
the threat of co-channel interference, use of adjacent operating bands has already been
implemented in or is being considered for some markets. Due to the typical wide band nature of
cellular base station and subscriber station receivers, inter-system interference is also a threat in
this scenario.
Table 9-2: Inter-Band Interference Scenarios
Interferer Victim
AMPS-Band
Base Station
TACS/GSM-Band
Base Station
TACS/GSM-Band
Subscriber Station
AMPS-Band
Subscriber Station
DCS 1800-Band
Base Station
PCS 1900-Band
Base Station
PCS 1900-Band
Subscriber Station
DCS 1800-Band
Subscriber Station
D EF
1
9
3
0
1
9
9
0
1
8
5
0
1
9
1
0
A B C
A B C
1
8
8
0
1
8
0
5
1
7
8
5
1
7
1
0
D EF
DCS 1800
DCS 1800
PCS 1900
PCS 1900
BASE Rx/
Subscriber Tx
BASE Tx/
Subscriber Rx
9
There are four predominant inter-band interference mechanisms:
Interfering transmitter sideband emissions landing on-channel in a victim receivers Rx
frequency band.
Interfering transmitter intermodulation (IM) products landing in a victim receivers Rx
frequency band.
Victim receiver desensitization from an interfering transmit carrier.
Victim receiver intermodulation from two or more interfering transmit carriers.
9.2.2.1 Preventative Measures: BS-to-BS Interference
There are several options available to help prevent the occurrence of inter-band interference
between base stations. Some examples include:
1) Providing ample guard band between the co-existing systems. In this case, base station
transmitter equipment specifications for the interfering system and base station receiver equipment
specifications for the victim system would provide enough protection from potential interference.
2) Separating interfering and victim base station antennas as much as possible, both horizontally
and vertically, to provide the necessary isolation.
3) Providing adequate filtering of the interfering base station transmitter and/or the victim base
station receiver to achieve additional isolation.
Tx Filters would aid in attenuating transmitter intermodulation and/or sideband
emissions to levels low enough so that they would not cause interference to, and/or
desensitization of, the victim receiver.
Rx Filters would aid in attenuating off-channel signals that pose a threat of either
receiver desensitization or receiver intermodulation.
4) Modifying the frequency plan of either the interfering system or the affected system, on a site-
by-site basis, to minimize the possibility of interference.
5) Reducing interfering base station RF power.
9.2.2.1.1 BS-to-BS Interference Analysis Procedure
There are two steps involved in a BS-to-BS interference analysis procedure.
Step 1.
The first step in the analysis procedure is to determine the minimum isolation required between co-
existing base stations when just considering the relevant equipment specifications. The minimum
required isolation between an interfering base station Tx antenna and a victim base station Rx
antenna can be approximated by using some simple calculations that take into account various
transmitter and receiver specifications (as provided in Section 9.2.2.1.3), antenna gains, free space
9
path loss, etc. Typically, up to four such calculations are required, one with respect to each of the
aforementioned potential interference scenarios: interfering transmitter sideband emissions,
interfering transmitter IM, receiver desensitization, and receiver IM. See Section 9.2.2.1.2 for
further information regarding radio equipment interference mechanisms.
Which calculations to use for a given interference analysis will depend on what type of interference
is possible and where the potential interference may fall with respect to the victim base station
receivers operating spectrum. For example, if it is determined that no interfering Tx carrier
frequencies fall within or near the wide passband of a victim cellular receiver, then the receiver
desensitization calculation may not be required. Furthermore;
IF an interfering system utilizes just a single Tx carrier (as is possible with CDMA),
AND
IF there are no other interfering Tx carriers present to mix with it to create IM products
potentially falling within a victim receivers passband
THEN the transmitter IM and the receiver IM calculations would NOT be required
1
Step 2.
The second step in the analysis procedure is to take the largest isolation requirement and determine
if it is reasonable to achieve it solely through antenna separation. Required antenna separation for
a given isolation value can be approximated using free space path loss equations:
S
H
=[10
((PLmin - 32.44-20*(log(f)))/20)
]*1000 [EQ 9-1]
S
V
=10
(PLmin - 28)/40
* 300/f [EQ 9-2]
Where:
S
H
Minimum horizontal antenna separation, in meters, for use with non-co-located
sites
S
V
Minimum vertical antenna separation, in meters, for use with co-located sites
2
PL
min
Minimum required isolation
f Interfering base station transmit frequency, in MHz
1. Where appropriate, it is recommended that consideration be given to the possibility for future expansion
of the interfering system (resulting in the allocation of additional Tx carriers) when determining isolation
requirements in order to prevent any future interference scenarios.
2. NOTE: The vertical spacing decoupling equation (Equation 9-2) provides a rough estimate of required
antenna separation and does not consider near-field effects that can alter the actual isolation provided. It is
strongly recommended that appropriate on-site testing be completed to verify the actual isolation achieved by
vertical antenna separation.
9
Note that while other path loss models can be used to approximate antenna separation (such as
Hata, Okumura, etc.), it is recommended to use the above path loss equations as a worst-case
scenario.
If it turns out that the required antenna separation requirements are not reasonable between the co-
existing systems (e.g. too large), then appropriate filtering may be considered to provide the
remaining isolation. The amount of isolation provided from filtering will depend on the amount of
guard band available between interfering systems and the amount of attenuation needed in the
filters stop-band. The transmitter sideband emission and transmitter IM isolation calculations are
to be used with respect to any Tx filter requirements. The receiver desensitization and receiver IM
isolation calculations are to be used with respect to any Rx filter requirements.
If required, filter quantities should be ordered as follows. As a guide, order one set of Tx filters per
interfering base station, where the quantity of filters in a set would depend on the number of
interfering base station antennas present at the site. If Rx filters are required, order one set of Rx
filters for each affected base station that is either co-located or directly adjacent to an interfering
base station. Note that the need for Rx filters at a given affected base station may need to be
determined on a site-by-site basis considering actual antenna separation distances and the amount
of path loss between them.
9.2.2.1.2 Radio Equipment Interference Mechanisms
Inter-system interference scenarios addressed in this section are the result of several common
interference mechanisms that can occur either in the transmitter or receiver of a radio
communications system. The following radio equipment interference mechanisms are discussed
below:
Transmitter Sideband Emissions
Intermodulation (Tx IM, Rx IM, External IM)
Receiver Desensitization
1. Transmitter Sideband Emissions
Transmitter sideband emissions occur primarily in either the speech amplifier, oscillator and/or
modulator of the transmitter. Sideband emissions are created by the infinite bandwidth
characteristics of white noise modulating the Tx carrier. Most transmitter equipment specifications
require a minimum of 60 dB attenuation of sideband emissions with respect the mean power level
of the transmitter (see Figure 9-8).
9
Figure 9-8: Transmitter Spectral Mask
When sideband emissions fall within the passband of a sensitive communications receiver, it
creates interference. This can happen when transmitters operate near receivers with adjacent
passbands. The effect on the victim receiver is that of a reduction to the usable sensitivity for
desired channel performance. With this type of interference, no particular sound is created at the
receiver, just receiver noise (see Figure 9-9).
Figure 9-9: Interfering Transmit Carrier and Sideband Emission Spectrum
Emission profiles vary between different transmitter designs but, in general, have an energy
(depicted in the above figure as I
sideband
), that is some specified level below the carriers power
level, (I
out
). Table 9-4 and Table 9-5 in the following section provide Tx sideband emission
specifications for relevant technologies, listed both as defined values and as a function of I
out
. The
transmit sideband emission level must be received at the victim base station receiver below a
maximum allowable interference level (V
INT
), which results in a certain tolerable degradation in
receiver sensitivity. For example, most cellular/PCS receiver equipment specifications allow for a
maximum degradation in receiver sensitivity of 3 dB, which corresponds to a maximum on-
channel interference level equal to that of the receivers thermal noise floor (kTBF). In this case,
interfering transmit sideband emission levels would then need to be received by a victim receiver
-10
-70
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
0
f
60 dB
I
out
= Interfering BS RF equipment Tx
Interfering BS Tx Sideband Emissions Performance (dBc)
I
sideband
(dBm)
F
Tx
F
Rx
output power level (top of frame) in dBm
9
at a level below its thermal noise floor (e.g. V
INT
= kTBF). For example, tolerating a 3 dB
sensitivity degradation, a GSM receiver having a noise figure (F) of 4 dB and a channel bandwidth
(B) of 200 kHz would have a maximum tolerable interference level of -117 dBm:
V
INT,GSM
= GSM Rx thermal noise floor = kTBF
GSM
= -174 dBm/Hz + 10 * log(200 * 10
3
) dB-Hz + 4 dB = -117 dBm
In addition to I
sideband
and V
INT
, the following must also be accounted for in order to determine the
isolation required to avoid sideband emissions interference to a victim base station receiver:
Interfering base station feeder loss (I
feeder
) and antenna gain (I
ant
, which is equal to 0
dBi if co-located w/victim base station antenna)
Victim base station antenna gain (V
ant
, which is equal to 0 dBi if co-located with
interfering base station antenna), feeder loss (V
feeder
), receiver multicoupler/preselector
loss/gain
3
(V
RMC
), receiver bandwidth adjustment factor
4
(V
BWA
), and receiver
sensitivity (V
sens
)
The following relationship shows the minimum isolation, PL
min,Sideband
, required between an
interfering base station transmit antenna and a victim base station receive antenna to prevent
sideband emission interference:
[EQ 9-3]
2. Intermodulation (IM)
Intermodulation, or IM, can occur anywhere in the transmission path from the transmitter to the
receiver. IM is caused by non-linearities in transmitter circuitry, receiver circuitry, and/or along the
RF path from the transmitter to the receiver. Severity of the IM process will depend on the number
of IM products involved, their signal strengths, and bandwidths.
IM can be detected as either a distinctive sound or as noise. For example, with 3rd-order, FM-
modulated IM, an analog receiver hears two voices, one loud and distorted and the other normal.
On the other hand, IM produced by two or more signals, where at least one of them is a CDMA
signal, would be detected by the user of analog receiver as noise.
3. The amount of available multicoupler/preselector loss (V
RMC
) will depend on the amount of guardband
between the two systems. It is expected that for most cases this loss will be minimal considering the very
gradual roll-off attributed to these normally wideband filters. In fact, some multicouplers and preselectors
contain LNAs that may have gain rather than loss in-band. In those cases, V
RMC
would have a negative value.
4. The V
BWA
term is necessary to adjust the sideband emission power specification, I
sideband
(listed in Table
9-4 and Table 9-5 in units of dBm/30 kHz), to that of the channel bandwidth of the victim receiver. For
example, V
BWA
for a CDMA receiver would be equal to 10*log(1228800/30000) = 16.12 dB.
PL
min Sideband dB ( ) ,
I
sideband dBm 30kHz ( )
I
feeder dB ( )
I
ant dBi ( )
V
ant dBi ( )
+ + =
V
feeder dB ( )
V
RMC dB ( )
V
BWA dB ( )
V
INT dBm ( )
+
9
For this discussion, the IM types will be divided into three categories:
Transmitter IM
Receiver IM
External IM
While the three categories of IM are distinctly separate matters, which are subject to different
engineering considerations, the frequency relationships applying to IM products are common.
Frequencies of IM products can be defined in the following manner:
Fundamental Frequencies - referring to the center frequencies of the signals from
which IM products are derived.
Harmonics - corresponding to the whole number multiples of a fundamental frequency.
Order - corresponding to the classification of IM products according to the sum of the
harmonics of the constituent frequencies (e.g. 2
nd
, 3
rd
, 4
th
,... N
th
).
For example, a 3
rd
order IM signal centered at frequency C could result from the combination of
the 2
nd
harmonic of a signal whose fundamental center frequency is A and a second signal whose
fundamental center frequency is B:
C = 2A + (1)B (where order = 2 + 1 = 3)
Some examples of 2
nd
through 5
th
order intermodulation products are provided in Table 9-3.
Some generalizations can be made concerning IM products. First, the signal strength level of
harmonic decreases rapidly with its order (e.g. 3A would be weaker than 2A). Second, higher order
IM products may require too many different transmitters to be keyed simultaneously (e.g.
A+B+C+2D+2E) for the IM to occur. Lastly, even order IM products almost always fall out of the
local systems operating bands. For these reasons, the third and fifth order intermodulation
products are the more prevalent and therefore more prone to cause IM interference.
Table 9-3: Example IM Products
Order Intermodulation Products
2
nd
A+B, A-B
3
rd
2A+B, 2A-B, 2B+A, 2B-
A, A+B+C
4
th
2A+2B, 2A-2B, 3A+B,
3A-B
5
th
A+4B, A-4B, 4A+B, 4A-
B, 2A+3B, 2A-3B...
9
The following sections discuss the three categories of IM.
Transmitter Intermodulation (IM)
There are at least two distinctive types of Transmitter IM:
Multi-carrier LPA IM
Transmitter-to-Transmitter IM
Multi-carrier LPA IM can occur as a result of the amplification of different RF carriers by a
common linear power amplifier. In this case, any resulting transmitter IM products that fall inside
of the Tx frequency band or close to it cannot be attenuated by RF filtering, and thus tend to all be
of approximately the same power level. Any transmitter IM products that fall well outside of the
Tx frequency band could be attenuated by RF filtering.
Transmitter-to-Transmitter IM can occur inside the transmitter circuitry if two or more transmitters
are installed closely together (and thus offering low isolation). Conducted transmit intermodulation
is the effect of frequency mixing in the final amplifier stage of one interfering carrier transmitter
with the outputs of others. The non-linear final amplifier circuit generates the IM and the antenna
radiates it. The result is that unwanted channel power may be generated in the interfering
transmitter and land in the victim receivers Rx band (see Figure 9-10).
Figure 9-10: Transmitter IM
When transmitter IM products fall within the passband of a sensitive communications receiver, it
creates interference. The effect on the victim receiver is that of a reduction to the usable sensitivity
for desired channel performance.
Reradiated signals are subject to a mixing loss in the IM-producing transmitter, which can be
defined by the dB difference between the power of the incoming signal and outgoing
Tx A
Freq.
870.57
MHz
Tx B
Freq.
892.89
MHz
8
7
0
.5
7
a
n
d
a
lso
8
4
8
.2
5

8
9
2
.8
9
a
n
d
a
ls
o
9
1
5
.2
1
M
H
z
r
a
d
ia
te
d
* IM Products are formed in
transmitter final amplifier and
* Receiver
Freq. = 848.25
or 915.21 MHz
M
H
z
r
a
d
ia
te
d
are radiated.
LOW
ISOLATION
9
intermodulation. A typical value for this loss is 60 dB. Most transmitter equipment specifications
require a minimum of 60 dB attenuation of IM signals with respect to the mean power level of
either transmitter, equivalent to this mixing loss.
Power levels of potential transmitter IM products vary between different transmitter designs but,
in general, have an energy (depicted in Figure 9-11 as I
IM
), that is some specified level below the
Tx carriers power level (I
out
).
Figure 9-11: Interfering Transmit Carriers and Intermodulation Spectrum
As with transmitter sideband emissions, all transmitter IM products falling within a victim base
station receivers passband must be received at a level below a maximum allowable interference
level (V
INT
), which results in a certain tolerable degradation in receiver sensitivity. Table 9-4 and
Table 9-5 in the following section provide Tx IM specifications for relevant technologies, listed
both as defined values and as a function of I
out
.
In addition to I
IM
and V
INT
, the following must also be accounted for in the calculation:
Interfering base station feeder loss (I
feeder
) and antenna gain (I
ant
, which is equal to 0
dBi if co-located w/victim base station antenna)
ant
feeder
), and receiver multicoupler/
preselector loss/gain (V
RMC
)
min,TxIM
interfering base station transmit antenna and a victim base station receive antenna to prevent Tx
IM interference:
[EQ 9-4]
Receiver Intermodulation (IM)
Receiver IM occurs when two or more off-channel signals enter and drive a receivers RF amplifier
or 1
st
mixer stage. The nonlinear nature of the electronic devices commonly used in receiver
I
IM
(dBm)
F3
Tx
X X =
F1
Tx
F2
Tx
F
Rx
I
out
= Interfering BS RF equipment Tx
output power level (top of frame) in dBm
Interfering BS Tx IM Performance (dBc)
PL
min TxIM dB ( ) ,
I
IM dBm ( )
I
f eeder dB ( )
I
ant dBi ( )
V
ant dBi ( )
V
f eeder dB ( )
V
RMC dB ( )
V
INT dBm ( )
+ + =
9
amplification and mixing circuits leads to the production of undesired responses, such as IM, in
addition to the desired response (see Figure 9-12). The closer to saturation that an amplifier or
stage is driven, the worse (higher in level) the IM products become.
Figure 9-12: Receiver IM
If one or more of the victim receiver-produced IM products falls on or near a frequency to which
the victim receiver is tuned, the effect is that the product will be an interferer to the desired receive
channel. Since the receiver is most sensitive to this in-band product, the IM must be reduced at this
point by signal level reduction of one or more of the mixing frequencies.
Tolerance to receiver IM will vary between different receiver designs. In general, performance will
be limited by a maximum allowable interfering (e.g. receiver IM-producing) signal level as
received at the victim receiver (depicted in Figure 9-13 as V
IMR
), which is some specified level
above the receivers Rx sensitivity, V
sens
.
A given receivers ability to combat receiver IM, is quantified by its intermodulation rejection
specification, or IMR. To prevent receiver IM, interfering signal(s) must be received at a signal
strength lower than a level as determined by the receivers reference sensitivity and IMR
specifications:
F
Rx
< (V
sens
+ V
IMR
)
Tx A
Freq
870.57
MHz
Tx B
Freq
892.89
MHz
8
7
0
.5
7
M
H
z

8
9
2
.8
9
M
H
z
o
n
ly
r
a
d
ia
te
d
* IM Products are formed in
receiver amplifier or mixer.
* Receiver
Freq. = 848.25
or 915.21 MHz
o
n
ly
r
a
d
ia
te
d
HIGH
ISOLATION
9
Figure 9-13: Victim Receiver Out-of-Band Intermodulation
Table 9-6, Table 9-7 and Table 9-8 in the following section provide receiver IM specifications for
relevant technologies, listed both as a defined value and as a function of V
sens
.
In addition to V
IMR
and V
sens
, the following must be taken into account in the calculation:
Interfering BS RF equipment Tx output (top of frame) power level (I
out
), feeder loss
(I
feeder
), and antenna gain (I
ant
, which is equal to 0 dBi if co-located w/victim base
station antenna)
ant
feeder
RMC
)
min,RxIM
receiver IM:
[EQ 9-5]
The resulting isolation requirements can be achieved through both antenna separation and filtering
of the interfering transmitter(s) and affected receiver(s).
External Intermodulation (IM)
External IM is created by passive, non-linear elements in the transmission path from transmitter to
receiver such as antennas, combiners, duplexers, cables, connectors, etc. and other elements in the
immediate vicinity of the transmission line, such as guy wires, tower joints, anchor rods, etc. Here,
signals are picked up by these elements and reradiated as IM products (see Figure 9-14).
X =
F1
Tx
F2
Tx
F
Rx
V
IMR
= BS Max Allowable Out-of-band, Receiver
Victim BS Receiver IM Rejection Performance (dB)
V
sens
= Victim BS Receiver Sensitivity (dBm)
= kTBF + S/N - Processing Gain
*
* if applicable
IM-Producing Rx Signal Level (dBm)
PL
min RxIM , dB ( )
I
out dBm ( )
I
f eeder dB ( )
I +
ant dBi ( )
V
ant dBi ( )
V
f eeder dB ( )
V
RMC dB ( )
V
IMR dBm ( )
+ =
9
Figure 9-14: External IM
Locating the actual source of external IM may be very difficult. There are really no preventative
measures with respect to external IM other than to conduct thorough periodic maintenance of
elements in and around the transmission path. However, while low-order external IM created in the
antenna path system can easily cause interference to base station receivers that share the same
antenna, resulting IM signal levels are usually low enough that they wont create interference to
subscribers or other base stations.
3. Receiver Desensitization
Receiver desensitization, also known as receiver blocking, is usually caused by strong off-channel
interfering signals that fall within or just outside the often wide passband of the receiver. If the
interference is strong enough, bias conditions can be changed on certain receiver stages, causing
them to lose gain. This makes the receiver less sensitive to any desired signals. The ability of a
receiver to receive an intended signal in the presence of these interfering signals is measured by its
desensitization or blocking level specification. Associated with this level, is an allowable
degradation in Rx sensitivity, usually 3 dB.
While its negative effects might not be immediately noticeable in a desired received signal,
receiver desensitization could result in an increased susceptibility to fading and a reduction in
channel capacity. Example causes of receiver desensitization are interfering Tx carrier power level,
transmitter sideband emissions and transmitter IM products.
Desensitization levels vary between different receiver designs but, in general, have an energy
(depicted in Figure 9-15 as V
block
), that is some specified level above the receivers Rx sensitivity,
V
sens
. Off-channel interfering signal(s) must be received at the victim base station receiver at a
level below V
block
.
AN
ELECTRICALLY
NON-LINEAR
OBJECT
Rx
Tx1
Tx2
IM
INTERFERENCE
9
Figure 9-15: Victim Receiver Out-of-Band Desensitization
The Rx sensitivity level, V
sens
, is a certain number of dB above or below the receivers thermal
noise floor (kTBF) and is a function of the receivers required S/N ratio (E
b
/N
o
, C/I, etc.) and
processing gain (CDMA only). Processing gain is equivalent to the receivers channel bandwidth
in Hz (B) divided by the Rx data rate in Hz (R). An example calculation for 8 kbps CDMA with
an E
b
/N
o
(S/N) of 7 dB and a receiver noise figure (F) of 6 dB is provided below:
V
sens,CDMA
= kT (dBm/Hz) + 10*log(B
CDMA
) (dB) + F

(dB) + S/N
CDMA
(dB) - 10*log(B
CDMA
/R
CDMA
) (dB)
= -174 + 10*log(1.2288*10
6
) + 6 + 7 -10*log(1.2288*10
6
/9600) = -121.2 dBm
Table 9-6, Table 9-7 and Table 9-8 in the following section provide desensitization specifications
for relevant technologies, listed both as defined values and as a function of V
sens
.
In addition to V
block
and V
sens
, the following must also be accounted for in the calculation:
Interfering BS RF equipment Tx output (top of frame) power level (I
out
), feeder loss
(I
feeder
), and antenna gain (I
ant
, which is equal to 0 dBi if co-located w/victim base
station antenna)
ant
feeder
RMC
)
min,Desense
receiver desensitization as a result of the presence of strong off-channel signals:
[EQ 9-6]
V
block
= Victim Max Allowable BS Receiver
V
sens
= Victim BS Receiver Sensitivity (dBm)
F
Tx
F
Rx
Blocking/Desense Level (dBm)
= kTBF + S/N - Processing Gain
*
* if applicable
PL
min Desense dB ( ) ,
I
out dBm ( )
I
f eeder dB ( )
I +
ant dBi ( )
V
ant dBi ( )
V
f eeder dB ( )
V
RMC dB ( )
V
block dBm ( )
+ =
9
9.2.2.1.3 Equipment Specifications
I
sideband
, I
IM
, V
block
and V
IMR
will vary with equipment type. Typical values, based on standard
equipment specifications are provided in Table 9-4 through Table 9-8 below.
Table 9-4: Partial Example of Base Station Transmitter Specifications
Technology
(Specification)
Maximum Transmitter Sideband
Emission Level, I
sideband
(dBm/30 kHz)
Maximum Transmitter
IM Power Level, I
IM
(dBm)
AMPS
(IS-20A)
< Larger of -31 or (I
out
- 78)
@ |f-f
c
| > 90 kHz
< (I
out
- 60 dB)
800 MHz
CDMA
(IS-97A)
< (I
out
- 45)
@ 1.98 > |f-f
c
| > 0.75 MHz
< (I
out
- 60)
@ |f - f
c
| > 1.98 MHz
< (I
out
- 45)
@ 1.98 > |f-f
c
| > 0.75 MHz
< (I
out
- 60)
@ |f - f
c
| > 1.98 MHz
Table 9-5: DCS 1800 Base Station Transmitter Specifications (GSM 05.05)
Offset Range
From Tx Carrier
(kHz)
Maximum Transmitter Sideband
Emission Level, I
sideband

(dBm/30 kHz)
Maximum Transmitter
IM Power Level, I
IM
(dBm)
200 < (I
out
- 30) < (I
out
- 30)
250 < (I
out
- 33) < (I
out
- 33)
400 < (I
out
- 60) < (I
out
- 60)
600 to <1200 < -27 <-27
1200 to <1800 < -30 <-30
1800 to <6000 < -37.2
a
a. AMPS IS-20A lists a sideband emission level in dBm/300 Hz. GSM 05.05 lists sideband emission levels
in dBm/100 kHz for frequency offset ranges > 1800 kHz. A conversion to dBm/30 kHz is used here to be
consistent with units used for other specification values.
<-32
> 6000 (I
out
- 85.2)
a
< Larger of -36 or (I
out
- 70)
9
Table 9-6: Partial Example of Base Station Receiver Specifications
Technology
(Specification)
Maximum Receiver
IM Level, V
IMR
(dBm)
Maximum Receiver
Desense/Blocking Level, V
block

(dBm)
TACS > (V
sens
+ 65)
> -50
(for signals falling within TACS A band)
> -23
(for signals falling within TACS B band)
900 MHz GSM
(GSM 5.05)
> - 43 (See Tables 3-6 and 3-7)
900 MHz CDMA
(China IS-97A) > (V
sens
+ 72)
> (V
sens
+ 50)
@ 0.9 > |f-f
c
| > 0.75 MHz
> (V
sens
+ 87)
@ |f-f
c
| > 0.9 MHz
PCS 1900 CDMA
(J-STD-019)
> (V
sens
+ 72)
> (V
sens
+ 50)
@ 0.9 > |f-f
c
| > 0.75 MHz
> (V
sens
+ 87)
@ |f-f
c
| > 0.9 MHz
Table 9-7: In-Band GSM Base Station Receiver Blocking Specifications (GSM 05.05)
Offset Range
From Intended Rx
Carrier
(kHz)
Maximum Receiver
block

(dBm)
600 to <800 > -26
800 to <3000 > -16
Table 9-8: Out-of-Band GSM Base Station Receiver Blocking Specifications (GSM 05.05)
Frequency Band
(MHz)
Maximum Receiver
block

(dBm)
0.1 to <915 > 8
980 to <12750 > 8
9
Note that the values in the previous tables are worst case and are based solely on the methods of
measurement as outlined in each technologys specification documentation. Actual values may
vary according to both base station equipment manufacturer and desired quality of service
(SINAD, E
b
/N
o
, BER, FER, data rate, etc.). With this in mind, vendor-specific documentation and
system design constraints should be obtained to determine more accurate and/or appropriate data
for a given interference analysis.
9.2.2.2 Preventative Measures: Subscriber-to-Subscriber Interference
The severity of interference between subscribers will depend on the subscriber densities of each
system involved and the distances between them, because both the interfering transmitters and the
affected receivers are moving with respect to one another and are in random positions relative to
one another. The likelihood of experiencing interference will also depend on the power control
capabilities of the interfering subscriber transmitter(s) and the affected subscriber station
receiver(s).
As Table 9-9 illustrates, interference between subscriber stations is generally less of a problem than
between base stations.
Since intermodulation requires two or more interfering signals at precise frequency spacing, the
probability of any resulting product causing interference could therefore be very low. Therefore, it
Table 9-9: Inter-Band Interference Comparison
Subscriber Station-to-
Subscriber Station
Base Station-to-
Base Station
Antenna
Separation
Distance
Variable Fixed
Path Loss
Variable Fixed
# of Distinct Tx
Frequencies-
FDMA/TDMA
Systems
1 per subscriber
(narrow-band carrier)
> 1 per
Base Station
# of Distinct Tx
Frequencies-
CDMA Systems
1 per subscriber
(wide-band carrier)
> 1 per
Base Station
Power/channel
Low High
Antenna Cross
Polarization Loss
Variable Fixed
9
is reasonable to conclude that most Subscriber-to-Subscriber interference is typically caused by Tx
sideband emissions. In areas subject to a high density of pedestrian subscriber traffic (for example,
in a shopping mall, subway station, etc.), this interference could be significant enough to affect call
quality or cause a dropped call.
Unfortunately, there is little that can be done to prevent Subscriber-to-Subscriber interference other
than to address the potential for interference in the actual physical design of both the interfering
and victim subscriber units so that sufficient isolation is provided. This, however, seems to be an
unlikely possibility as subscriber performance requirements (again, generated by distinctly
different standards bodies: ANSI/EIA/TIA and ETSI) typically do not address inter-band
interference issues of this nature.
Note that frequency plans could also be modified to help prevent interference in certain areas,
depending on the technologies involved. However, in high-traffic areas which are of the most
concern, frequency plan flexibility may be limited.
9.3 PCS and Microwave Interference
Within the US 1900 MHz band, there are over 4,500 microwave links, the majority of which are 5
MHz (300 channel) or 10 MHz (600 channel) analog FM-FDM systems. The chart below
illustrates where these links are centered with respect to the PCS MTA and BTA license bands.
Figure 9-16: The PCS Spectrum
9.3.1 PCS to Microwave Interference
PCS license requirements essentially dictate that any PCS system may not cause any harmful
interference into incumbent microwave systems. Detailed interference analysis is needed to
determine the interference potential of PCS into microwave systems.
9
Recommendations and guidelines for analyzing potential interference into microwave systems are
provided in the Telecommunications Industry Associations (TIA) Bulletin, TSB-10-F. The four
main considerations detailed in Bulletin TSB-10-F are:
Coordination Distances
Propagation Models
Power Aggregation
Microwave Receiver Interference Criteria
These considerations must incorporate interference from all system sources and subscriber units.
As a result, the term PCS transmitter can refer to a base station or a subscriber unit. Please refer to
the Bulletin for more information. The following sections will summarize the four main
considerations.
9.3.1.1 Coordination Distances
It is necessary to determine a search area around each PCS transmitter within which the process of
interference analysis needs to be undertaken. This is known as the Coordination Distance. The
primary factors governing the coordination distance for a PCS transmitter are its antenna height
and EIRP. In general, the PCS base station transmitter will define the coordination distance. The
minimum Coordination Distance is calculated by using the following formula set:
; [EQ 9-7]
[EQ 9-8]
[EQ 9-9]
[EQ 9-10]
[EQ 9-11]
Where:
D Coordination distance
P EIRP (dBm)
H
T
Transmitting antenna height above average terrain (m)
D
L
Free Space distance (km)
D
D
Diffraction distance (km)
D
LT
Distance to horizon (km)
DLT 2.56 HT ( ) =
DL 10
51.87 P +
20
-----------------------
,
_
=
DD
65 1.85DLT P + +
0.106 DLT 33.6 + ( ) 0.899 + log
------------------------------------------------------------------------ =
DS
19.9 0.12 DLT P + +
0.1156 5.6
5
10 DLT
----------------------------------------------------------- =
D min DL max D DS , ( ) , ( ) =
9
For example, a typical PCS BTS with an antenna height of 30 meters and an EIRP of 100 Watts
requires a coordination distance of 275 km.
The following graph shows the coordination distances for a PCS transmitter with 30 and 90 meter
antenna heights, over a wide range of EIRP values.
Figure 9-17: Example Coordination Distances
As can be seen, the distances involved are substantial and may even extend beyond the MTA/BTA
(Major Trading Area / Basic Trading Area) license boundary.
9.3.1.2 Propagation Models
To determine the level of interference into a microwave system, it is necessary to calculate the
signal strength of the PCS signal at the microwave receiver. In traditional microwave systems, the
free space path loss calculation is used in link planning. However, with the lower antenna heights
of PCS transmitters, the effects of local clutter must be considered. For this reason, the Hata model
with suburban correction is used as the base propagation model. In addition, because of the large
coordination distances, propagation beyond the transhorizon (the point at which line of sight
communications between two fixed antennas is no longer possible) must also be considered. The
forward scatter loss model is used for propagation beyond the horizon.
The Hata and forward scatter loss models are used for both the subscriber unit and the base station
path loss calculations. However, different correction factors are set to account for differences in
antenna heights.
9
9.3.1.2.1 Basic Propagation Models
Free Space Path Loss
The free space path loss calculation is represented by the following equation:
[EQ 9-12]
Where:
d distance (km)
f frequency (MHz)
Hata Model
The Hata based propagation model (suburban area) is represented by the following equation:
[EQ 9-13]
Where:
L
pcs
Loss between PCS and MW antennas using the modified Hata model.
PCS antenna height correction factor
Forward Scatter Loss (Troposcatter) Model
The actual distance to the transhorizon is calculated by using the smooth earth transition method,
which specifies the receiver and transmitter antenna heights above the average elevation along the
path. Assuming no clutter or terrain obstacles, the smooth earth transition distance (transhorizon)
is represented by the following formula:
[EQ 9-14]
Where:
d
h
Transition distance (km)
h
pcs
PCS antenna height above average terrain (m)
h
mw
Microwave antenna height above average terrain (m)
The recommended equation for forward scatter loss, adjusted for hourly median loss, is as follows:
[EQ 9-15]
L
fs
32.44 20 d ( ) log 20 f ( ) log + + =
L
pcs
69.5 26.16 f ( ) 13.82 h
mw
( ) 44.9 6.55 h
mw
( ) log [ ] d ( ) h
pcs
( ) 2
f
28
------
,
_
log
2
5.4 log + log log + =
h
pcs
( )
d
h
4.123 h
pcs
h
mw
+ ( ) =
L50 29.73 30 f ( ) 10 d ( ) 30 ( ) N H h , ( ) + log + log + log + =
9
Where:
L
50
Hourly median transmission loss 50% of the time (dB)
f Frequency (MHz)
d Path length (km)
d
h
Smooth Earth Transition Distance
[EQ 9-16]
Where:
H
h
9.3.1.2.2 PCS Base Station Correction Factors
The same basic Hata model is used for path loss calculations for both subscriber unit and base
station sources. However, a correction set is applied to account for differences in antenna heights.
The Hata model from above and the following correction factors should be used for microwave
antennas below 180 m and PCS antennas below 60 m.
For PCS antennas below 9 m (ground level subscriber unit sources), the following Hata suburban
correction factor equation is used:
[EQ 9-17]
For PCS antennas between 9 m and 60 m (base station sources), the Hata large city correction
factor equation is as follows:
[EQ 9-18]
Outside of these ranges, the free space path loss formula should be used to predict the propagation
loss to the transhorizon. The following graph shows the relationship between the three propagation
models at both PCS downlink frequencies. As previously mentioned, the local clutter has the effect
of increasing the propagation loss above that of free space path loss. This in turn results in the
transition from the Hata model to the troposcatter model occurring further out than the transhorizon
distance.
d dh ( )
8.5
-------------------
milliradian ( )
N H h , ( ) 20 5 h + ( ) 4.343h + log =
d
4000
------------
1.063
3
10
2
0.27
hpcs ( ) 1.1 f ( ) log 0.7 [ ] hpcs 1.56 f ( ) log 0.8 [ ] =
hpcs ( ) 3.2 11.75 hpcs ( ) log [ ]
2
4.97 =
9
Figure 9-18: Propagation Curves for High PCS Antennas
Downlink PCS Frequency = 1960 MHz
9.3.1.2.3 PCS Subscriber Unit Correction Factors
Subscriber transmissions will be a significant factor in the interference analysis as, unlike the base
station, the subscriber unit is not fixed and will try to access the PCS system in various locations.
For PCS subscriber units on the street, the recommended loss model is the mean Hata suburban
model, Equation 9-7, with the suburban correction factor as stated in Equation 9-15. Refer to the
following figure.
Figure 9-19: Propagation Curves for Low PCS Antennas
Uplink PCS Frequency = 1880 MHz
Transition Point
Transition Point
9
One of the most significant issues of interference into microwave systems is line of sight situations.
The most common occurrence of this will be from a subscriber unit located in a high rise building
or on a balcony. In this case, path loss figures approaching free space loss may be experienced
between the subscriber unit and microwave antennas.
It is possible for this situation that the subscriber units interfering signal will be stronger than the
aggregated powers of many base station transmissions at the microwave receiver. In urban
environments, the probability of an elevated subscriber unit is greater. Thus, the impact of the
subscriber unit interference sources on the microwave receiver will be more substantial than in
residential areas.
TSB-10-F, Section F-4.4.1.1 provides statistical adjustments to the mean Hata suburban model to
account for the above effects.
9.3.1.3 Power Aggregation
When considering the interference level into a microwave receiver, the combined effect of all the
PCS transmitters in a service area must be considered. The aggregated power will be a function of
the total number of PCS transmitters (both base station and subscriber units) included within the
service area.
Figure 9-20: Example Aggregated Service Area
Statistical methods for aggregating the PCS transmitter powers may be used to determine the
expected spatial PCS distribution within the service area. As a default, uniform distribution of
powers should be assumed. From the specified distribution, the aggregated interference signal can
be determined by using either analytical techniques or Monte Carlo simulation methods.
M
i
c
r
o
w
a
v
e

M
a
i
n

B
e
a
m
Microwave Site
Angle Theta
9
9.3.1.4 Microwave Receiver Interference Criteria
Three interference criteria are used to determine if a PCS system will interfere with microwave:
1. Carrier to Interference
2. Threshold Degradation
3. Reliability
All three forms of interference criteria should be assessed utilizing the analysis procedure in order
to determine which microwave systems require relocation because they are vulnerable to
interference, as well as to demonstrate non-interference into other microwave systems situated
within the coordination distance.
9.3.1.4.1 Carrier to Interference
The Carrier to Interference criteria is used to specify the threshold at which an unwanted signal will
cause harmful interference upon the wanted signal. For single frequency transmission systems, a
single C/I ratio may be quoted for the receiver. However, with multi-channel microwave systems,
the C/I criteria is expressed in terms of a curve representing the allowable C/I ratio at a specific
frequency separation of an unwanted signal from the center of the microwave carrier.
The C/I curves are calculated based on the transmit power spectral densities of both the microwave
and PCS systems, as well as the receiver selectivity of the microwave system. The power spectral
density, the number of channels, the modulation type, and the bandwidth play an important role in
determining the shape of the curve. The following graph is an example of such a curve for both
GSM and CDMA carriers as interferers.
Figure 9-21: Example C/I Curves for a 10 MHz Microwave Receiver
9
9.3.1.4.2 Threshold Degradation
Threshold degradation is the reduction in the microwave receiver sensitivity caused by an
interfering PCS signal. Bulletin TSB-10-F states that the maximum interfering signal level for
analog receiver threshold degradation in Bulletin TSB-10-F links can be represented by the
following equation:
[EQ 9-19]
Where:
I
max
Maximum interfering signal level, dBm
R
t
Receiver threshold, dBm
F
The difference between the operating fade margin and that required to meet the
outage objective, dB
S
e
Effective selectivity of the victim receiver to the interfering signal, dB
(f
s
) Interfering signal frequency at which S
e
is defined, MHz
For example, if the microwave receiver sensitivity is -80 dBm, then the co-channel interfering PCS
signal must be -90 dBm or less to avoid degrading the sensitivity of the receiver (assuming no
degradation due to fade margin).
9.3.1.4.3 Reliability
Reliability is an all-encompassing term that describes how well the microwave link guarantees
communications. In general, because link failures are mostly attributable to fading having very
short durations, the microwave link reliability measures can be expressed in either of two main
forms:
Availability, quoted as a percentile, such as 5 nines (99.999%) or 6 nines (99.9999%)
Annualized outage time (seconds)
For most microwave links, the operator defines a minimum required reliability. Reliability within
a microwave link is, in fact, a function of the fade margin allocated for the link. A reduction in the
fade margin will reduce the availability and increase the outage time per year. It is not uncommon
for the microwave link to have been over-engineered, which means that the fade margin allocated
is in excess of the reliability required. Thus, a 1 dB degradation or more caused by a PCS interferer
may not always compromise the minimum required reliability.
I
max
R
t
F
S
e
f
s
( ) 10 + + =
9
Calculating Outage Time:
[EQ 9-20]
Where:
T Annual outage time (seconds)
r Fade occurrence factor
T
o
(t/50)(8*10
6
) = length of fade season (seconds)
t Average annual temperature in
o
F
CFM Fade Margin (dB)
I
o
Space Diversity Improvement Factor = 1 for non-diversity, > 1 for diversity
Calculating Availability:
[EQ 9-21]
Where:
A Annual availability (%)
T Annual outage time (seconds)
9.3.1.5 PCS to Microwave Interference Summary
The methods and procedures required to perform microwave interference analysis are complex.
Thus, this section serves to demonstrate the fundamental aspects of the process. A full guide
detailing all scenarios is beyond the scope of this document. Therefore, it is recommended that
Bulletin TSB-10-F be used as a reference when considering any in-depth PCS to Microwave
interference analysis.
Note: Detailed analysis is best performed with the use of an automated microwave interference
analysis tool.
T
rTo
CFM
10
-------------
,
_
10
Io
---------------------------------- - =
A
31.4496
6
10 T
31.4496
6
10
----------------------------------------
,

_
100 =
9
9.3.2 Microwave to PCS Interference
In contrast to PCS to microwave interference, there are no recommendations or guidelines
presented by the TIA for the calculation of microwave interference into PCS systems. The PCS
system supplier must therefore determine the appropriate method and levels.
The relocation of microwave links degraded by the PCS systems will naturally remove the majority
of sources of microwave to PCS interference. However, it should not be assumed that no
interference will occur.
9.3.2.1 General Considerations
Interference to PCS base stations is best characterized as a degradation to the receiver noise figure.
The degradation to the noise figure produces an effective noise figure, which must then be used in
the link budget for the affected cell or sector. The reason interference can be treated as noise is that
the de-spreading following the receiver filtering will result in widening of the interferers spectrum
such that it is seen as a noise rise.
The procedure for calculating the effects of microwave interference on the PCS base stations
(BTSs) can similarly be applied in calculating the effects of microwave interference on the PCS
subscriber units. However, it must be remembered that the subscriber unit receiver has a higher
noise figure, and its selectivity is different from that of the base station. Hence, the calculations
should reflect these differences.
9.3.2.2 Calculation of Nominal Noise Floor
The nominal noise floor is set by the bandwidth of the receiver and its noise figure. For example,
the noise figure of some base station receivers is designed to be 6 dB. The corresponding noise
bandwidth of these base station receivers is approximately 1.25 MHz.
Given:
Nominal Noise = N
nom
Thermal Noise = N
th
(dB) = -174 dBm/Hz
Noise Figure = NF(dB) = 6 dB
Noise Bandwidth = f
nb
= 1.25 MHz
The nominal noise is the linear sum of these three parameters, in dB:
N
nom
(dB) = N
th
(dB) + NF(dB) + 10 Log (f
nb
)
= -174 dBm/Hz + 6 dB + 61 dB Hz
= -107 dBm
9
To calculate the nominal noise floor in a subscriber unit receiver, the appropriate noise figure for
the particular unit type must be substituted for the noise figure quoted for the base station receiver.
All compliant subscriber units guarantee a noise figure of 10 dB, which compares to a 6 dB noise
figure for the base station. The net result is that the subscriber unit receiver has a noise floor that
is 4 dB higher than that for the base station.
9.3.2.3 Calculation of Effective Interference Power
The receiver filtering and the spectrum of the interferer establishes the effective interference
power. The receiver filtering can be determined by the receiver desense curve. Since the desense
specification includes the effects of processing gain and receiver E
b
/N
o
, these must be removed as
the first step in the process. This is easy to do, as their effect is equal to the desense at 0 Hz channel
offset, which is nominally 14 dB. Define the following:
Receiver Filtering = |H(f)| = - (Desense(f) - Desense(0)),
Where:
f Frequency offset from the carrier frequency in Hz
Note, the minus sign in the above equation is due to the fact that desense is a positive quantity. The
spectrum of the interfering signal must also be known,
Interferer Power = G(f)
Effective interference power is calculated as the integrated product:
Effective Interference Power = I
eff

=
Performing rectangular integration is adequate in most cases, allowing the calculation to be
completed by using a summation of the products.
9.3.2.4 Calculation of Effective Noise Figure
The effective noise in the receivers bandwidth is the sum of the nominal noise power and the
effective interference power, i.e.
Effective Noise = N
eff
= N
nom
+ I
eff
H f ( )
2
G f ( ) f d

9
Expressed in dB:
Effective Noise (dB)= N
eff
(dB)
= 10 log (N
nom
+ I
eff
)
The ratio of the effective noise and the nominal noise is the effective noise figure:
Effective NF = NF
eff

= N
eff
/N
nom
Expressed in dB:
Effective NF (dB) = 10 log [(N
nom
+ I
eff
) / N
nom
]
If I
eff
= N
nom
, the Effective NF is increased by 3 dB.
9.3.2.5 Microwave to PCS Interference Summary
Any interference in-band to the 1.25 MHz channel will directly add to the nominal noise power of
either the base station or the subscriber unit. Therefore, with a 4 dB higher receiver noise floor, the
subscriber unit is less sensitive than the base station. If it is assumed that an interfering signal 10 dB
below the receiver sensitivity will cause a 1 dB increase in the signal to noise ratio, then the
interfering signal at the subscriber unit must be 4 dB greater than that at the base station to cause
an equivalent effect.
Whether either the base station receiver or the subscriber unit receiver is more severely degraded
by a microwave interferer is determined on an individual basis. This determination includes
dependencies such as the location of the microwave transmitter relative to the PCS system
coverage area, and also the heights of both the base station antenna and the subscriber unit antenna.
9.4 References
1. ANSI IS-20A, Recommended Minimum Standards for 800-MHz Cellular Land
Stations, May, 1988, Sections 3.4.1 and 3.4.4.
2. ANSI J-STD-019, Base Station Compatibility Requirements for 1.8 to 2.0 Ghz Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) Personal Communications Systems, August, 1995.
3. Clapp, Scott (Motorola), Inter-band Interference Control, August 15, 1998.
4. EIA/TIA IS-97-A, Recommended Minimum Performance Standards for Base Stations
Supporting Dual-Mode Wideband Spread Spectrum Cellular Mobile Stations, June,
1996, Sections 9.4.3, 9.4.4 and 10.5.1.
9
5. ETSI/GSM 05.05, Digital Cellular Telecommunications System Radio Transmission
and Reception, July, 1996, Sections 2, 4.2.1, 4.7.2, 5.3 and 6.2.
6. Leonard, Terry (Motorola), CDMA to GSM Base Station Interference Control, May 5,
1997.
7. Tajaddini, Mohammad (Motorola), Analysis of AMPS B Band and GSM Systems
Interference in Co-Located Sites, December 15, 1993.
8. United Kingdom Total Access Communication System Mobile Station - Land Station
Compatibility Specification, Issue 4, Amendment 2, February, 1995, Sections A.7 and
A.8.
9. Wilcox, Gordon (Motorola), Radio Frequency Interference in Two-Way Radio
Systems, November, 1975.
10. TIA/EIA IS-97-D, Recommended Minimum Performance Standards for cdma2000
Spread Spectrum Base Stations, March 30, 2001.
(See http://www.3gpp2.org/Public_html/specs/index.cfm for more information.)
9
NOTES
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I - 1 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Table of Contents
I.1 Terms and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I - 3
Appendix
I
Terms and Acronyms
I
Appendix I: Terms and Acronyms
NOTES
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I
I.1 Terms and Acronyms
AGC - Automatic Gain Control
AMR - Alarm, Monitoring and Reporting Card
AMPS - Advanced Mobile Phone System/Service
ARP - Average Rated Power
ATCH - Actual Traffic CHannels (including SHO)
BBX - Broad Band Transceiver card
BBX-R - BBX Redundant
BBX I/O - BBX Input Output card
BDC - Baseband Distribution Card
BHCA - Busy Hour Call Attempts, the number of call attempts during the busiest hour of the day
BSC - See CBSC
BSS - The Base Station System consists of one BSC and its associated BTSs
BTA - Basic Trading Area
BTS - The Base Transceiver Sub-System includes the equipment necessary to implement a CDMA Digital
Cellular Base Station
BTS Cluster - A group of BTSs controlled by a single BSC
BTS Site - The location where a particular BTS resides
CCP - CDMA Channel Processor
CDMA - Code Division Multiple Access
CBSC - The Centralized Base Site Controller consists of the Mobility Manager and Transcoder
CCITT - International Consultative Committee for Telegraph and Telephony is a standards committee that
recommends specific implementations of various communication protocols
CPU - Central Processing Unit
CSM - Clock Synchronization Module
C7 - CCITT #7 or Signaling System #7 (SS7)
CW - Continuous Wave
dBc - Decibels below carrier
dBd - Decibels referenced to a half wave dipole
dBi - Decibels referenced to an Isotropic radiator
dBm - Decibels referenced to a milliWatt
DDC - Duplexer with integrated Directional Coupler
DoD - Department of Defense
EAMPS - Extended Advanced Mobile Phone System/Service
E
b
- Energy per Bit
E
c
- Energy per Chip
I
EIRP - Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
ELPA - Enhanced Linear Power Amplifier
EMI - Electro-Magnetic Interference
ERP - Effective Radiated Power
ETCH - Effective Traffic CHannels
F - Noise Factor
FER - Frame Erasure Rate
Frame - an enclosed rack of equipment
FWT - Fixed Wireless Terminal
GHz - Giga-Hertz (10
9
Hz)
GLI - Group Line Interface
GOS - Grade Of Service, the blocking probability.
GPS - Global Positioning Satellite system used to synchronize Sites around the System
GSM - Global System for Mobile communications (at 900 MHz) - Previously known as Groupe Special
Mobile (Pan-European digital cellular standard). GSM900 is used only when necessary to differentiate it
from DCS1800.
HDII - High Density Analog Base Station
HSO - High Stability Oscillator
IM - InterModulation
IPi - InPut intercept point
ISI - Inter-System Interference
ISO - International Standards Organization
I
o
- Total interference density
kbps - kilo bits per second
kHz - kilo-Hertz (10
3
Hz)
km - kilometers
kTB - Thermal noise calculated from the product k x T x B, where k = Boltzmanns constant (1.38x10
-23
W/HzK), T = room temperature in degrees Kelvin (290 K), and B = bandwidth (in Hz)
LFR - Loran Frequency Receiver card
LMF - Local Maintenance Facility
LNA - Low Noise Amplifier
LORAN-C - LOng RAnge Navigation Low Frequency Broadcast
LOS - Line-Of-Sight
LPA - Linear Power Amplifier amplifies multiple carriers
LTMS - Laboratory Test-oriented Mobile Station
MAWI - Motorola Advanced Wideband Interface
I
Mbps - Mega bits per second
MCC - Multiple Channel CDMA card
MF - 1. Multifrequency 2. Modulated Frequency 3. Modem Frame
MHz - Mega-Hertz (10
6
Hz)
MPC - Multicoupler Preselector Card
MS - Mobile Station
MSC - Mobile Switching Center
MSF - European Low Frequency Broadcast of Standard Time
MSI/O - The physical termination card for the RF Modem Frame (similar to the BIB)
MTA - Major Trading Area
NAMPS - Narrowband Advanced Mobile Phone Service
NF - Noise Figure
OH - OverHead Channels
O & M - Operations and Maintenance
PA - Power Amplifier
PCM - Pulse Code Modulation
PCS - Personal Communication System
POTS - Plain Old Telephone Service
PSTN - Public Switched Telephone Network
PTCH - Physical Traffic CHannels (including SHO+OH)
PN - Pseudo-random Noise spreading sequence
QoS - Quality of Service
RF - Radio Frequency
RFMF - RF Modem Frame
RFDS - The Radio Frequency Diagnostic Sub-system monitors the performance of the BTS
RGD - Remote GPS Distribution box
RGPS - Remote Global Positioning Satellite
RL - Return Loss
Rx or RX - Receive
RXDC - Receiver Distribution Card
SBN - Side Band Noise
Sector - An RF coverage area segment
Shelf - Generic name used to describe a mechanical enclosure, included in several types of BSS Frames
SHO - Soft HandOff
SIF - Site Interface Frame
I
SNR - Signal to Noise Ratio
Span Line - A T-1 (1.544 Mbps) or E-1 (2.048 Mbps) transmission link
TCH - A Traffic CHannel is a single voice or data channel. Normally considered to be on the BTS side of
the BSC and/or on the air interface.
TDA - Time Difference of Arrival
TDMA - Time Division Multiple Access
TDR - Time Domain Reflectometer
TIB - Telco Interconnect Board
Trunk - A Trunk is a single 64 kbps voice or data channel (DS-0) on a given span line between the BSC
and MSC.
Tx or TX - Transmit
TRX - Transceiver
TTA - Tower Top Amplifier
USDC - United States Digital Cellular, based upon the IS-136 specification
UTC - Universal Coordinated Time
VSWR - Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
WiLL - Wireless Local Loop
II - 1 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Table of Contents
II.1 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II - 3
Appendix
II
Glossary
II
Appendix II: Glossary
NOTES
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II
II.1 Glossary
Active Set
The pilots associated with the Forward Traffic Channels assigned to the subscriber. It is the base
station that assigns all active set pilots to the subscribers.
Attenuator
A device for reducing the energy level of a signal without introducing distortion. Also called a pad.
Blocking
The inability of the calling subscriber to be connected to the called subscriber because either all
paths are busy, or because idle paths in the calling group cannot be accessed by idle paths in the
called group.
Candidate Set
The pilots that are not currently in the Active Set but have been received by the subscriber with
sufficient strength to indicate that the associated Forward Traffic Channels could be successfully
demodulated. As a property of the Mobile Assisted HandOff (MAHO), the subscriber promotes a
Neighbor Set or Remaining Set pilot to the Candidate Set when certain pilot strength criteria are
met, and then recommends the pilot to the base station for inclusion in the Active Set.
Channel
1) A particular member of a group, that is associated with a unique time slot. Each member is
associated with one port in the switch; either an RF channel, a land trunk, a three-party conference
circuit, or a tone signalling port. 2) A particular member of an RF group that has a unique
frequency. 3) For a TDMA air interface, it describes the unique frequency and time slot allocation
for a single call. 4) For a CDMA air interface, it describes the Walsh code assignment allowed for
the subscriber unit.
Directional Coupler
A bi-directional coupler carrying Tx and Rx RF signals to and from the antennas. It includes a port
which allows the signals to be routed to the RFDS for direct measurement of in-band forward (Tx)
signals without service interruption.
Erlang
A measure of telephone traffic intensity equivalent to the average number of simultaneous calls.
Alternatively, it is the total circuit usage in an interval of time divided by that interval. Thus, 1
Erlang equals 3600 call seconds per hour or 36 CCS per hour.
EAMPS
Extended Advanced Mobile Phone System - Refers to additional voice channels defined as an
extension to the AMPS systems. Analogous to ETACS in TACS systems.
II
Neighbor Set
The pilots that are not currently in the Active Set or the Candidate Set, but are likely candidates for
handoff. Neighbor Set pilots are identified by the base station via Neighbor List and Neighbor List
Update messages.
PILOT_ARRIVAL
The pilot arrival time is the time of occurrence of the earliest arriving usable multipath component
of a pilot relative to the subscribers time reference.
PILOT_INC
The pilot PN sequence offset index increment is the interval between pilots, in increments of 64
chips. Its valid range is from 1 to 15. The subscriber uses this parameter in only one manner, to
determine which pilots to scan from among the Remaining set. Only valid pilots (i.e. those pilots
that are multiples of PILOT_INC) will be scanned. For the subscriber, PILOT_INC impacts only
the scanning rate applied to Remaining pilots. It accomplishes this by reducing the number of
Remaining pilots that need to be scanned.
For the base station, the effect of the PILOT_INC is different. In the base station, it is used in
properly translating pilot phase back into pilot offset index. The consequence is that the operator
may artificially increase the separation between valid time offsets. By selecting a PILOT_INC of
2, for instance, an operator chooses to limit the number of valid offsets to 256 (i.e. 0, 2, 4,..., 508,
510) instead of 512. The increased separation means that the pilot arrival must be larger before
adjacent offset ambiguity is possible and consequently the likelihood of a strong adjacent interferer
is reduced.
PILOT_PN
The pilot PN sequence offset (index), in units of 64 PN chips. It ranges from 0 to 511. Every
transmit sector will have an offset assigned to it. This parameter is set for each sector.
PILOT_PN_PHASE
The subscriber reports pilot strength and phase measurements for each active and candidate pilot
in the Pilot Strength Measurement Message (PSMM) when recommending a change in the handoff
status (i.e. mobile assisted handoff). The subscriber computes the reported PILOT_PN_PHASE as
a function of the PILOT_ARRIVAL and the PILOT_PN. The pilot arrival component represents
the time delay of the pilot relative to the time reference or, in other words, how skewed the pilot is
from the subscribers concept of system time. Note also that the subscriber does not identify pilots
by their offset index directly, but by their phase measurement. If the pilot arrival was larger than
32 chips (1/2 of a pilot offset or 4.8 miles), then this could undermine the ability of the base station
to properly translate pilot phase into pilot offset index (given a PILOT_INC of 1).
Remaining Set
The set of all possible pilots in the current system on the current CDMA frequency assignment,
excluding pilots in the other sets. These pilots must be integer multiples of PILOT_INC (defined
above).
II
Reuse Pattern
The minimum number of cells required in a pattern before channel frequencies are reused, to
prevent interference. Varies between cell configuration type (omni, sector, etc.) and channel type
(traffic, control). The pattern shows assignments of adjacent channels to minimize interference
between cells and sectors within the pattern area. In CDMA, reuse pattern refers mainly to the
pattern of the pilot assigned to each sector in the system.
SRCH_WIN_A
This parameter represents the search window size associated with the Active Set and Candidate Set
pilots. The subscriber centers the search window for each pilot around the earliest arriving usable
multipath component of the pilot. Note that in contrast to the neighbor or remaining set search
windows, the active/candidate search windows "float" with the desired signals. That is to say that
the center position of the search window is updated every scan to track the new location of the
earliest arriving multipath component.
SRCH_WIN_N, SRCH_WIN_R
These parameters represent the search window sizes associated with Neighbor Set and Remaining
Set pilots. The subscriber centers the search window for each pilot around the pilots PN sequence
offset using timing defined by the subscribers time reference.
In general, a neighbor search window, SRCH_WIN_N, will be sized so as to encompass the
geographic area in which the neighbor may be added (a soft handoff add zone or initial
detection area). The largest a neighbor search window need be is such that it is sufficient to cover
the distance between the neighbors, , plus an accommodation of the time-of-flight delay
(approx. 3 chips).
To illustrate these relationships better, consider the following scenario. A subscriber monitors a
neighbor pilot. The neighbor search window is centered on the neighbor pilot offset. This centering
is relative based on timing derived from the time reference. When the pilot strength of a neighbor
pilot recommends promotion to the candidate set, then the search window will be tightened to the
active search window size. The active search window is sized to compensate for delay spread only
and is therefore smaller than the neighbor search window. In addition, the active search window
locks onto and tracks the candidate pilot.
System Time
All base station digital transmissions are referenced to a common CDMA system-wide time scale
that uses the Global Positioning System (GPS) time scale, which is traceable to and synchronous
with Universal Coordinated Time (UTC).
Time Reference
The subscriber establishes a time reference which is used to derive system time. This time
reference will be the earliest arriving multipath component being used for demodulation. This
reflects the assumption that the subscribers fix on system time is always skewed by delay
associated with the shortest active link.
3R
II
NOTES
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III - 1 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Table of Contents
III.1 Watts to dBm Conversion Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III - 3
Appendix
III
Watts to dBm
Conversion Table
III
Appendix III: Watts to dBm Conversion Table
NOTES
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III
III.1 Watts to dBm Conversion Table
The following table provides a conversion from Watts to dBm.
Table III-1: Watts to dBm Conversion Table
Watts dBm Watts dBm Watts dBm Watts dBm Watts dBm
200 53.010 174 52.405 148 51.703 122 50.864 96 49.823
199 52.989 173 52.380 147 51.673 121 50.828 95 49.777
198 52.967 172 52.355 146 51.644 120 50.792 94 49.731
197 52.945 171 52.330 145 51.614 119 50.755 93 49.685
196 52.923 170 52.304 144 51.584 118 50.719 92 49.638
195 52.900 169 52.279 143 51.553 117 50.682 91 49.590
194 52.878 168 52.253 142 51.523 116 50.645 90 49.542
193 52.856 167 52.227 141 51.492 115 50.607 89 49.494
192 52.833 166 52.201 140 51.461 114 50.569 88 49.445
191 52.810 165 52.175 139 51.430 113 50.531 87 49.395
190 52.788 164 52.148 138 51.399 112 50.492 86 49.345
189 52.765 163 52.122 137 51.367 111 50.453 85 49.294
188 52.742 162 52.095 136 51.335 110 50.414 84 49.243
187 52.718 161 52.068 135 51.303 109 50.374 83 49.191
186 52.695 160 52.041 134 51.271 108 50.334 82 49.138
185 52.672 159 52.014 133 51.239 107 50.294 81 49.085
184 52.648 158 51.987 132 51.206 106 50.253 80 49.031
183 52.625 157 51.959 131 51.173 105 50.212 79 48.976
182 52.601 156 51.931 130 51.139 104 50.170 78 48.921
181 52.577 155 51.903 129 51.106 103 50.128 77 48.865
180 52.553 154 51.875 128 51.072 102 50.086 76 48.808
179 52.529 153 51.847 127 51.038 101 50.043 75 48.751
178 52.504 152 51.818 126 51.004 100 50.000 74 48.692
177 52.480 151 51.790 125 50.969 99 49.956 73 48.633
176 52.455 150 51.761 124 50.934 98 49.912 72 48.573
175 52.430 149 51.732 123 50.899 97 49.868 71 48.513
III
Watts = [10
(dBm/10)
] / 1000
dBm = 10 Log(Watts * 1000)
dBm = dB + 30
70 48.451 46 46.628 22 43.424 0.94 29.731 0.46 26.628
69 48.388 45 46.532 21 43.222 0.92 29.638 0.44 26.435
68 48.325 44 46.435 20 43.010 0.90 29.542 0.42 26.232
67 48.261 43 46.335 19 42.788 0.88 29.445 0.40 26.021
66 48.195 42 46.232 18 42.553 0.86 29.345 0.38 25.798
65 48.129 41 46.128 17 42.304 0.84 29.243 0.36 25.563
64 48.062 40 46.021 16 42.041 0.82 29.138 0.34 25.315
63 47.993 39 45.911 15 41.761 0.80 29.031 0.32 25.051
62 47.924 38 45.798 14 41.461 0.78 28.921 0.30 24.771
61 47.853 37 45.682 13 41.139 0.76 28.808 0.28 24.472
60 47.782 36 45.563 12 40.792 0.74 28.692 0.26 24.150
59 47.709 35 45.441 11 40.414 0.72 28.573 0.24 23.802
58 47.634 34 45.315 10 40.000 0.70 28.451 0.22 23.424
57 47.559 33 45.185 9 39.542 0.68 28.325 0.20 23.010
56 47.482 32 45.051 8 39.031 0.66 28.195 0.18 22.553
55 47.404 31 44.914 7 38.451 0.64 28.062 0.16 22.041
54 47.324 30 44.771 6 37.782 0.62 27.924 0.14 21.461
53 47.243 29 44.624 5 36.990 0.60 27.782 0.12 20.792
52 47.160 28 44.472 4 36.021 0.58 27.634 0.10 20.000
51 47.076 27 44.314 3 34.771 0.56 27.482 0.08 19.031
50 46.990 26 44.150 2 33.010 0.54 27.324 0.06 17.782
49 46.902 25 43.979 1 30.000 0.52 27.160 0.04 16.021
48 46.812 24 43.802 0.98 29.912 0.50 26.990 0.02 13.010
47 46.721 23 43.617 0.96 29.823 0.48 26.812 0.01 10.000
Table III-1: Watts to dBm Conversion Table
Watts dBm Watts dBm Watts dBm Watts dBm Watts dBm
IV - 1 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002
Table of Contents
IV.1 Complementary Error Function Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV - 3
Appendix
IV
Complementary Error
Function Table
IV
Appendix IV: Complementary Error Function Table
NOTES
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IV
IV.1 Complementary Error Function Table
The following Complementary Error Function Table is supplied for the readers reference. Note
that the value of x within Q(x) is the sum of value in the first column of a specific row plus the value
given in the top row. For example, Q(0.76) corresponds to 0.2236 and Q(2.42) corresponds to
0.0078.
Table IV-1: Complementary Error Function, Q(x)
Q(x)
x 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.5000 0.4960 0.4920 0.4880 0.4840 0.4801 0.4761 0.4721 0.4681 0.4641
0.1 0.4602 0.4562 0.4522 0.4483 0.4443 0.4404 0.4364 0.4325 0.4286 0.4246
0.2 0.4207 0.4168 0.4129 0.4090 0.4052 0.4013 0.3974 0.3936 0.3897 0.3859
0.3 0.3821 0.3783 0.3745 0.3707 0.3669 0.3632 0.3594 0.3557 0.3520 0.3483
0.4 0.3446 0.3409 0.3372 0.3336 0.3300 0.3264 0.3228 0.3192 0.3156 0.3121
0.5 0.3085 0.3050 0.3015 0.2981 0.2946 0.2912 0.2877 0.2843 0.2810 0.2776
0.6 0.2743 0.2709 0.2676 0.2644 0.2611 0.2579 0.2546 0.2514 0.2483 0.2451
0.7 0.2420 0.2389 0.2358 0.2327 0.2297 0.2266 0.2236 0.2207 0.2177 0.2148
0.8 0.2119 0.2090 0.2061 0.2033 0.2005 0.1977 0.1949 0.1921 0.1894 0.1867
0.9 0.1841 0.1814 0.1788 0.1762 0.1736 0.1710 0.1685 0.1660 0.1635 0.1611
1.0 0.1586 0.1562 0.1539 0.1515 0.1492 0.1468 0.1446 0.1423 0.1401 0.1378
1.1 0.1357 0.1335 0.1313 0.1292 0.1271 0.1251 0.1230 0.1210 0.1190 0.1170
1.2 0.1151 0.1131 0.1112 0.1093 0.1075 0.1056 0.1038 0.1020 0.1003 0.0985
1.3 0.0968 0.0951 0.0934 0.0917 0.0901 0.0885 0.0869 0.0853 0.0838 0.0823
1.4 0.0807 0.0793 0.0778 0.0764 0.0749 0.0735 0.0721 0.0708 0.0694 0.0681
1.5 0.0668 0.0655 0.0643 0.0630 0.0618 0.0606 0.0594 0.0582 0.0570 0.0559
1.6 0.0548 0.0537 0.0526 0.0515 0.0505 0.0495 0.0485 0.0475 0.0465 0.0455
1.7 0.0446 0.0436 0.0427 0.0418 0.0409 0.0401 0.0392 0.0384 0.0375 0.0367
1.8 0.0359 0.0352 0.0344 0.0336 0.0329 0.0322 0.0314 0.0307 0.0301 0.0294
1.9 0.0287 0.0281 0.0274 0.0268 0.0262 0.0256 0.0250 0.0244 0.0239 0.0233
2.0 0.0228 0.0222 0.0217 0.0212 0.0207 0.0202 0.0197 0.0192 0.0188 0.0183
2.1 0.0179 0.0174 0.0170 0.0166 0.0162 0.0158 0.0154 0.0150 0.0146 0.0143
2.2 0.0139 0.0136 0.0132 0.0129 0.0126 0.0122 0.0119 0.0116 0.0113 0.0110
2.3 0.0107 0.0105 0.0102 0.0099 0.0097 0.0094 0.0091 0.0089 0.0087 0.0084
IV
2.4 0.0082 0.0080 0.0078 0.0076 0.0074 0.0072 0.0070 0.0068 0.0066 0.0064
2.5 0.0062 0.0060 0.0059 0.0057 0.0056 0.0054 0.0052 0.0051 0.0049 0.0048
2.6 0.0047 0.0045 0.0044 0.0043 0.0042 0.0040 0.0039 0.0038 0.0037 0.0036
2.7 0.0035 0.0034 0.0033 0.0032 0.0031 0.0030 0.0029 0.0028 0.0027 0.0026
2.8 0.0026 0.0025 0.0024 0.0023 0.0023 0.0022 0.0021 0.0021 0.0020 0.0019
2.9 0.0019 0.0018 0.0018 0.0017 0.0016 0.0016 0.0015 0.0015 0.0014 0.0014
3.0 0.0014 0.0013 0.0013 0.0012 0.0012 0.0011 0.0011 0.0011 0.0010 0.0010
3.1 0.0010 0.0009 0.0009 0.0009 0.0008 0.0008 0.0008 0.0008 0.0007 0.0007
3.2 0.0007 0.0007 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0006 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005
3.3 0.0005 0.0005 0.0005 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004 0.0004
3.4 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0003 0.0002
3.5 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002
3.6 0.0002 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
3.7 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
3.8 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001
3.9 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Table IV-1: Complementary Error Function, Q(x)
Q(x)
x 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09

RF Planning Guide

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RF Planning Guide

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CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF

3 - 10 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002

3 - 21 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002

3 - 24 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002

---------------------------------- 2 0.230259 ( ) 3.6 ( ) 2 0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )

3 - 39 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002

------------------------------ 2 0.230259 ( ) 2.4 ( ) 2 0.230259 ( ) 2.5 ( ) ( )

3 - 56 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002

3 - 60 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002

4 - 18 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002

C (when properly mounted)

9 - 40 CDMA/CDMA2000 1X RF Planning Guide Mar 2002

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