A. Understanding Sentences 1.

The Concept of a Sentence

Many experts try to make definition about sentence. They express slightly different opinion about definition of sentence, but in general they have something in common. Oshima and Hogue (1991: 77) state that a sentence is a group of words that consists of at least one subject and one predicate and can stand by itself. While, Hornby (1974: 64) says that a sentence is the largest grammatical unit, consisting of phrases or clauses used to express a statement, question, and command. Then, Bolinger (1975: 32) defines a sentence as the minimum part of the language that expresses a complete thought. Similarly, Alexander (1988: 45) says that a sentence is a complete unit of meaning, both in spoken and written form. And, Lester (1990: 71) defines a sentence as a group of words that expresses a complete thought. Downing and Locker (1992: 42) divide sentence into two types. They are sentence grammatically and sentence orthographically (or sentence rhetorically). The first part is the highest unit and consists of one independent clause or two or more related clauses. The second part is unit that starts with a capital letter and end with a full stop. The sentence as orthographical or rhetorical unit is associated primarily with the written language. In conclusion, a sentence refers to the largest grammatical unit that consists of words, phrases, and clauses that present complete thought and can stand by itself. 2. The Types of Sentence

According to Werner (1985: 27), sentence can be categorized into three types. They are a simple sentence, a compound sentence, and a complex sentence. Briefly explanation about these sub-topics will be discussed respectively. a. A Simple Sentence

A simple sentence always stands as an independent sentence, which is capable of occurring on its own. A simple sentence has one subject and one verb (Werner, 1985: 227). While, Aarts and Aarts (1982: 80) say that a simple sentence is a sentence in which none of the functions is realized by a clause. It means that it does not contain subordinate sentence as realization of one of its function. To comprehend a simple sentence, a reader has to look at the key idea or the basic message from a sentence. This key idea is made up of two parts, a simple subject and a simple predicate. So, every sentence expresses at least one key idea or basic message (McWhorter, 1986: 62). Then, Niles et. al. (1981: 149) states that a sentence consists of action and who or what is doing. It means that it has a subject or who or what is doing, and a predicate or action. These are what

we call as core parts of the sentence. Niles adds that the core parts are parts that are most important to understand the meaning of a sentence. b. A Compound Sentence

A compound sentence is two simple sentences connected by conjunction. According to Oshima and Hogue (1991: 157), a compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together by using a semicolon and a comma followed by a conjunction such as and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so, etc. They also add that there are three ways to combine independent clauses to form a compound sentence. They are: With a coordinator There is a comma after independent clause and then followed by coordinators. For example: - I like playing football, but I do not like playing golf. With a semicolon The independent clauses in a compound sentence may be joined only by a semicolon. It may occur when the two independent clauses are closely related. For example: - I read a new story; my father reads a magazine. With a conjunctive adverb The independent clauses of a compound sentence can also be joined by a conjunctive adverb such as furthermore, however, otherwise, and therefore. The punctuation of conjunctive adverb is quite special where a semicolon may be used after the first clause and a comma after the conjunctive adverb. For example: - The students have to take the final exam; otherwise, they will receive a grade of incomplete. McWhorter (1986: 65) states that there are three reasons why an author combines two or more close related ideas into one sentence. The first is to clarify the ideas such as Randy was lonely and depressed, so he called his brother on the phone to talk things over. The second is to emphasize their connection such as The football team practices everyday; hot or rain weather never stop them. The last one is to show that they are equal importance. For Example: Some students decide to take final exam, and others choose to write a term paper. In the last example we can see that there are two ideas is combined. So, the second idea is important as idea in the first idea. It means that we have to read the two ideas.

c.

A Complex Sentence

A complex sentence should consist of a main clause and subordinate clause. According to Oshima and Hogue (1991: 61), a complex sentence contains one independent clause and two or more dependent clauses. Furthermore, Werner and Church (1985: 177) state that complex sentence is the sentence that has a main clause and at least one dependent clause. Independent Clause Independent clause consists of a subject and predicate that expresses a complete idea. It is called as main clause and it can stand-alone. For example: - When the telephone rang, I was still reading a book. Dependent Clause

Dependent clause consists of a subject and predicate but it does not express a complete idea. It is one that is not complete but performs a single function in a sentence (Aronson, 1984: 137). It means that this clause cannot stand by itself. For example: - When Marry gets home, she plans to relax for an hour. Here, the underlined clause has a noun and a verb, but it does not make sense until reader reads the entire sentence. It is being subordinate clause (dependent clause) because it cannot stand-alone by itself. The idea that we found in the subordinate or dependent clause may perform some functions in the following: 1. For description For example: - The old man, who wears the glasses, lives in America. 2. For expressing cause For example: - Because the cost of education has been rising, many students have financial problems. 3. For stating purpose or reason For example: - John has saved his salary for three years so he could buy a new house. 4. For describing the conditions or circumstances For example: - If Ahmad finished his work, he will go to the wedding party.

5. For expressing time relationships For example: - I am playing guitar while Marry is singing. Oshima and Hogue (1991: 162) add that there are three kinds of dependent clauses used in a complex sentence. They are as follows: 1. A dependent adverb clause It begins with an adverbial subordinate such as when, while, because, even though, although, so that, and if. The position of this clause can be found after or before an independent clause. If it is found before an independent clause, it should followed by a comma. And if it is found after an independent clause, no comma is used. For example: - Although women could own property, they could not vote. (Before) - Women could not vote although they could own property. (After) 2. A dependent adjective (relative) clause This clause begins with a relative pronoun such as who, whom, which, whose, or the relative adverb such as where, when, and why. It has function as adjective; that is, it modifies a noun. For example: - Marni who is unsocial person called her lecturer. 3. A dependent noun clause This clause begins with that, whether, and sometimes with if. Here, a noun clause has function as noun; that is, it can be a subject or an object of the independent clause. For example: - That the Earths temperature is raising concern scientist. - Scientist believed that the Earths temperature is rising. Based on the types of this dependent, McWhorter (1986: 62) states that the key idea is not obvious in long complex sentence. In this case, the students need to think about who or what is the sentence about and what is happening in the sentence in order to find a key idea. Example:

Burger World, which operates some 2000 fast food restaurants, plans to start working this spring, or at latest by early summer, on a new selfservice restaurant in Rochester, New York, which is designed to test many new ideas in energy saving and customer convenience. From this example, the answer for Who and what is the sentence is about? is Burger World. And, the answer for What is happening in the sentence? is plans. To figure out what an author is trying to express in their sentences, a reader needs to know in which each sentence has a subject and a predicate but may have a compound subject and predicate and may be combined in a variety of ways with other sentences to form compound sentences or complex sentence with adjective, adverb, or noun clauses. It is supported by Devine (1989: 189). He states that students who have some knowledge of the ways the writers put their information and ideas into sentences are in a better position to process those sentences rather than the students who do not. Then, Statman (1980: 16) states that without the ability to isolate the different parts of the sentence into meaningful units even a good advanced learner may have great difficulties in extracting meaning from a long complex sentence. It means that, a reader has to be able to determine which one is main idea, compliment or additional information from what he reads. Pearson and Johnson (1995: 16) say that longer sentences and more complex sentences tend to appear in passages that people have difficulty to understand. It means that, in understanding a long complex sentence, a reader should find the main clause. The idea of the main clause or independent clause is more important than the idea in subordinate clause or dependent clause. So, to be able to comprehend a long complex sentence, there are several ways need to be taken into account (Devine, 1989: 190): 1. What is a writer talking about in this sentence? 2. What seem to be his subject? 3. What is he saying about his subject? 4. What words and phrases the students can eliminate and still get the basic idea? 5. How can the students cut this sentence up into several shorter sentences? 6. How might the students say this sentence in their own? 3. How to Understand Sentences According to Zainil (2005: 96), understanding sentences can be done through recognizing complete sentences, understanding punctuations, word parts, context clues, core parts of simple sentences, and core parts of complicated sentences. The explanation of these part can be seen in the following: a. Recognizing complete sentences

This functions to identify the subject and predicate of a sentence, such as, The students is the subject and studies English everyday is the predicate of the complete sentence, The students studies English everyday. b. Understanding punctuations

This functions to comprehend the punctuations, such as, commas, semi colon, colon, and dash. Comma (,)

A Comma in a sentence that begins with a preposition means that the main clause is after the comma; for example, The man goes to the office is the main clause of the sentence, after having breakfast, the man goes to the office. Two commas, as the parenthetical use, mean the phrase or the clause between them is the additional information from the main idea of the sentence; for instance, who wears the glasses is the additional information separated by two commas in the sentence, The old man, who wears the glasses, is my father. Then, three commas or more show a list or series of the same kind; like, the fruit in the sentence, Marry buys apples, bananas, oranges, and mangoes. Finally, and indicate that the two clauses in the sentence have positive related ideas, and but shows the contrasting related ideas of the two clauses in the sentence. Thus, practice listening and speaking and practice reading and writing are the ideas that are positively related in the sentence, Some students practice listening and speaking, and other practice reading and writing. On the other hand, are diligent and are lazy are the ideas that are in contrast and closely related in the sentence, Some students are diligent, but other are lazy. Semi colon (;)

The semi colon separates the two sentences which have two closely related ideas; for example, attend the class and pay attention to the lecture are two closely related ideas of the sentences, The students attend the class; they pay attention to the lecture. Colon (:)

The colon introduces the additional information or examples that follow. butter, sugar, flour, egg, and vanilla are examples of the word, ingredients, in the sentence, The cake is made from the ingredients: butter, sugar, flour, egg, and vanilla. Dash (-)

It shows the phrase or clause between the dashes as the additional information in the sentence; for instance, Ahmad, Fajri, and Furkhon is the additional information in the sentence, The three young man Ahmad, Fajri, and Furkhon- play football in the street. c. Understanding word parts This functions to recognize the prefix, root, and suffix of words, such as, the word unpredictable in the sentence, The professor is unpredictable. The prefix un- means not; the root -predict- means guessing; and the suffix -able means referring to a condition. Thus, the word, unpredictable, means referring to a condition that cannot be guessed. There are a lot of other prefixes (a-, dis-, non-, un-, in-, ir-, im-, and il- that mean not, etc) and there are a lot of other suffixes (-able, -ment, -ness, -ation, -y, -ance, - ence, -ion, -ity that refer to a state, condition, or quality; -er, or, -er, -eer, -ee, and list that mean one who, etc). d. Understanding context clues

This functions to recognize the clues and understand the meaning of unfamiliar words. The clues can be grouped into: definition clue, example clue, contrast clue, inference clue, cause and effect clue, restatement clue, and modifier clue. Definition clues

Definition clues are the words or phrases; such as, means, is a, is the, are nouns, etc. is a in the sentence, Mr. Mahmud is famous lawyer in Bali defines Mr. Mahmud. Example clues

Example clues are the words or phrases as examples to clarify a difficult word. The clues are for example, for instance, such as, etc. The word fruit can be clarifies by the words after the clue, for example, in the sentence, My brother likes fruit, for example, apples, oranges, and mangoes. Contrast clues

Contrast clues are the words or phrases that show opposite meanings. The clues are but, although, on the other hand, even though, however, etc. The word but shows that the meanings of talkative and quite are in contrast in the sentence, That landlady is very talkative, but the landlord is quite. If one of them is understood, the other one can be predicted. Inference Clues

Inference clues are drawn as inferences from several equal expressions. The word versatile means successful in many aspects as an inference in the sentence, Zainil is a successful, Dr., Prof., lecturer, and husband. He is a versatile man. Cause and effect clues

Cause and effect clues are the clues that show the cause and effect in a sentence. The clues are because, so, consequently, as a result, etc. The word because shows the sentence after it as the cause and the sentence before it as the result in the sentence, Ann did not attend the class last week because she was sick. Restatement clues

Restatement clues are the clues that restate the meanings of the words or phrases before them. The clues are or, in other words, two commas, parentheses, dashes, that is, etc. The parentheses shows the restatement of the word freshman in the sentence, Muhardi is a freshman (first year) at the English department of State University of Padang. Modifier clues

Modifier clues are phrases, clauses, or a sentence (sentences) that modify unfamiliar words. They are all phrases beginning with repositions and all clauses which follow the nouns; they modify the nouns. The phrase in the room modifies the word student and the clause which is near the office modifies the word room in the sentence, The student in the room which is near the office is the best one in the class. e. Understanding core parts of simple sentences

Understanding core parts of simple sentences functions to recognize the subject and the predicate as well as to understand the headword of the subject and the headword of the predicate. The sentence, The good student speaks English and French, consists of the subject the good student and the headword of it is student and the predicate speaks English and French and the headword of it is speaks. f. Understanding core parts of complicated sentences

This part functions to recognize and understand the core parts, modifiers, and headwords of the subjects and the predicates of the complicated sentence. The complicated sentence, Minang Plaza, the supermarket near the bridge, carries a lot of things which are expensive, such as, wool hats, leather shoes,

gold rings and other items which are cheep, like, pencils, pens, writing pads for teacher to use at schools, has a subject and a predicate, phrases, and clauses as modifiers, and headwords for the subject and the predicate. In this case, the readers can apply the previous discussions for analyzing the sentence. B. Understanding Paragraphs 1. The Concept of a Paragraph

A paragraph is a group of sentences which discuss one main idea, existing on the topic sentence of a paragraph. According to Muhyidin (1988: 43), a group of sentences which tell about one topic or main idea is called as a paragraph. He also adds that a paragraph consists of three components: topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence. Topic sentence states main idea of the paragraph. The supporting sentences develop the topic sentence by giving examples, reasons, and facts. Then, concluding sentence ends the paragraph by restating or summarizing the ideas in it. Therefore, a good paragraph should have these three components. A paragraph is a group of sentences that clearly and concisely expresses one basic idea (Coffey, 1987: 72). It means that we cannot have more than one idea in a paragraph. While, Rooks (1988: 103) adds that a paragraph is a group of sentences which logically develop one subject is stated in the topic sentence. Similarly, McWhorter (1980: 70) defines paragraph as a group of related sentences about a single topic. She also divides a paragraph into three essential parts: topic, main idea, and details. The topic of a paragraph is the subject of the whole paragraph. The main idea of a paragraph is what an author wants you to know about the topic. An author usually directly states a main idea in one or more sentences within a paragraph. The main idea can be found in the first sentence, in the last, in the middle of the paragraph, or in the first and the last sentence. We can see it in the following example: Whenever possible, the good listener prepares in advance for the speech or lecturer he or she to attends. He or she studies the topic to be discussed and find out about the speaker and his beliefs. An effective listener, as you are beginning to see, takes specific steps to achieve accurate understanding of the lecturer. Furthermore, on arriving at the place where the speech is to be given, he or she chooses a set where it is easy to see, hear, and remain alert. Finally, when the speech is over, the effective listener reviews what was said and reads to and evaluators the ideas expressed. From this example we can find the main idea in the middle of the paragraph. The details in a paragraph are those facts and ideas which prove, explain, support, or given examples about the main idea of the paragraph. But, we have to know not all main ideas are directly stated. Some of them are implicit main ideas. In implicit main idea, a reader must formulate a main idea of a paragraph by himself.

Brereton (1982: 28) says that a paragraph is neat, a compact unit of writing. It is longer that a single sentence, but much shorter than an essay or a chapter. He also adds that a good writing comes in all shapes and sizes; in all types and styles. The structure and the style, then, should be simple and clear to the reader. Saraka (1980: 27) defines a paragraph as basic and logical unit of organization in writing in which a series of closely related sentences supply the reader with detailed information. And it explores, develops, and supports a single main idea. So, a paragraph does not have to be too long or too broad. It should be organized logically by giving only the real detailed information and develop about main idea or a topic sentence. According to McCrimmon (1950), a good paragraph should have four qualities: completeness, unity, order, and coherence. Differently, Leacock (1980: 135-136) states that there are 3 characteristics of good paragraph. They are: 1. Unity It means developing general idea governing the entire paragraph 2. Coherence It means one sentence follow another in clear and logical sequence. 3. Completeness It occurs when in supporting sentences are enough to explore topic sentence. 2. Paragraph Patterns, Signal Words, and Diagram in Reading Comprehension According to McWhorter (1986) who says that there are many kinds of paragraph patterns that are used in a paragraph. Usually, a writer indicates connections and relationships within individual sentences by using certain signal words. It is supported by Devine (1986: 167). He says that writers indicate connections and relationships with preceding and following sentences by signaling them with specific words. Darkin in Devine (1986: 193) adds that when readers know the signal words, they can more easily figure out the meaning of sentences in a paragraph. Then, Wassman and Rinsky (1993) say that signal words can help us to understand the information from the text. It means that signal words are very useful to comprehend a writers message in reading text. The use of a diagram will show the level of generality in a paragraph. First, we may find the most general information. Second, we may find a more specific statement and then the most specific information (Devine, 1986). Similarly, Wassman and Rinsky (1993: 167) states that outlining or mapping by creating a chart or diagram will simplify remembering the information when we are studying.

Furthermore, Zainil (2005: 100) states that understanding paragraphs have many functions, such as, to identify paragraph elements, transitions, references, and paragraph developments. These sub-topic will be explained respectively: a. Paragraph elements are the topic, topic sentence, and details of a paragraph. - The topic is the word or phrase as the subject of the paragraph. It is the answer of the question, What is the whole paragraph about? - The topic sentence is the sentence (subject-predicate) that states the topic of the paragraph. It is the answer of that question, What does the author say about the topic of the paragraph? It is usually at the beginning of the paragraph, but it can be in the middle, at the end, at the beginning and at the end of the paragraph, even it can be unstated in the paragraph. - The details are sentences that support the topic sentence of the paragraph. It is the answer of the question, How does the author support, explain, or prove the topic sentence of the paragraph. b. Transitions are the word or phrase that builds the smoothness of thought in the paragraph. They are words, such as, first, second, third, or initially, later, finally, etc. c. References are the words or phrases that substitute the original word or phrase in the paragraph. They are the words such as, they, he, it and the phrases, such as, the same, the problem, etc. d. Paragraph developments are the thought patterns in the paragraphs. McWhorter (1986) states that there are many kinds of paragraph patters that are usually used in a paragraph of a text, such as, illustration- example, definition, comparison and contrast, cause and effect, classification, and chronological order or sequence of events. - The illustration- example pattern has examples in the development of the paragraph. This pattern is explained by providing specific instances that illustrate it. We may give example of the topics that we study. We can use some example to illustrate or to support main idea and we can use list signal words for illustration- example. The following is the diagram of this pattern: Example: Electricity is all around us. We see it in lightning. We receive electric shocks when we walk on a nylon rug on a dry and then touch something (or someone). We can see sparks fly from a cats fur when we pet in the dark. We can rub a balloon on a sweater and make the balloon

stick to the wall or the ceiling. Our clothes cling together when we take them from the dryer. The paragraph above can be diagrammed as follows:

Electricity is all around us

Lightning Nylon rug Cats fur Balloon Clothing from dryer From the diagram, it can be said that electricity is all around us is the main idea of the paragraph. And lightning, nylon rug, cats fur, balloon, and clothing from dryer are examples which explain the main ideas. In other words, the main idea is supported by giving examples. Signal words that commonly used in this patter are, such as, for example, to illustrate, for instance, and in the case of. - The definition pattern has definitions in the development of the paragraph. This pattern defines something that makes it different from each others. The definition itself has two parts: part that tells the general class belongs to and part that describes how it is different from others. Example: An opossum is animal with a ratlike tail that lives in the trees. It carries its young in pouch. It is active at night and pretends to be dead Term Opossum when trapped. The first part of this paragraph is animal is a general class, while rest is General class group the part which differences each opossum from the other animals. Within the second part, a reader might interpret opossum withAnimalanimals. other Here, we can see the diagram of this paragraph as follows: Distinguishing features Ratlike tail Distinguishing features Lives in trees Distinguishing features Young in pouch

- The comparison and contrast pattern emphasize similarities and differences between ideas, theories, people, concepts, or events in the development of the paragraph. The comparison pattern focuses on similarities, while contrast pattern emphasizes the differences. It may be organized in different ways. We can list all similarities ant then all differences. After that, we discuss the first item, and presenting both similarities and differences; continue to do the same way for the second item. These patterns can be diagrammed as follows:

Example: Housing in New York City differs in several ways from that in most other cities of the United States. About 60 percent of New Yorks families live in apartment buildings or hotels. In other cities, most people live in New York City rent their homes. In other U.S cities, most families own their homes. About 70 percent of the housing in New York City is more than 3o years old, and over 300,000 families live in buildings that are more that 70 years old. Most other cities have a far larger percentage of newer housing. This paragraph discusses about housing in New York City. The signal words used is differ. This paragraph pattern can be diagrammed as follows:

Here, we may also use some other signal words for this patters such as: The signal words for comparison: compare similar like also resembles in the same way/manner similarly both in comparison parallels likewise correspondingly

The signal words for contrast: But Instead Differences Unlike in contrast bigger than nevertheless conversely rather than however less wordy differs from although on the other hand different yet as opposed to etc.

- The cause and effect pattern has the causes and effects described in the development of the paragraph. This pattern describes an event or action that is caused by another event or action. It explains how and why something happened. In this case, causal relationship between two or more event or actions are shown with cause and effect. Causes may be implied or directly stated and often multiple causes (MC) or multiple effects (ME) are as evident (McWhorter, 1994: 121). This patter can vary in some combinations such as: one cause and one effect one cause and multiple effects

multiple causes and single effect

multiple causes and multiple effects

Example: The car would not start this morning, the bus was 30 minutes late. I lost my office keys, and my secretary called in sick. Because of all these problems, I had a terrible headache by lunchtime. It can be seen that this paragraph try to explains multiple causes and single effect. The multiple causes are the car would not start, the bus was 30 minutes late, and my secretary called in sick. And the single effect is I had a terrible headache. The signal word used in this paragraph is because. Then, we may use other signal words in a paragraph, such as: The signal word for cause: Because An account of for this reason due to cause why

The signal word for effect: As a result Therefore thus in effect consequently result

The paragraph above can be diagrammed as follows:

- The classification pattern has classifications of the topic in the development of the paragraph. This pattern divides a topic into parts or categories based on common or shared characteristics. In this pattern, an object or idea will be explained by dividing into parts and describing each. Example: Horticulture, the study and cultivation of garden plants, is a large industry. Recently has become a popular are of study. The Horticulture field consists of four major divisions. First, there is pomology, the science and practice of growing and handling fruit trees. Then there is olericulture, which is concerned with growing and vegetables. A third field, floriculture, is the science of growing, storing and designing flowering plants. The last category, ornamental and landscape horticulture is concerned with using grasses, plants, and shrubs in landscaping. This paragraph explained that horticulture by describing its four areas of fields of study, such as, pomology, olericulture, floriculture, and ornamental and lanscape. The signal words used in this paragraph are: first, then, third, and last. But, there are many other signal words that can be used: Sorts Parts Numbers Methods Kinds categories characteristics classes classify divide element features several kinds types ways group

The paragraph above can be diagrammed as follows:

- The chronological order pattern has chronological events arranged in the development of the paragraph. Actually, there four forms of this pattern. They are chronological order refers to the arrangement of events in time, process focuses on the order in which procedures or steps are accomplished, order of importance expresses priority or preference, and

spatial order refers to physical location, position, or order. Let see the diagram bellows:

The signal words for this pattern are as follows: First Most important last During Stages Example: The process of making adjusting entries is very simple and logical. First for each account it is necessary to determine what is in the account, in example, it is balance. Next, it is necessary to determine what should be in the account. Finally, if there is a difference, the account is either debited or credited so that the final balance becomes correct. A corresponding credit or debit entry must be made to one or more other accounts so that the adjusting entry balances. The paragraph above tells us about the sequence how to make adjusting entries. The process is described in chronological order, beginning with the first process and ending with the last process. The ideas in the paragraph can be seen in diagram bellows: second above eventually steps third after finally at the end next last later etc.

Sometimes, a writer uses mixed pattern in which one pattern is combined with another pattern. We can see in the following example: In the beginning, I thought that the white world was very different from the world I was moving out of and I turned out to be entirely wrong. It seemed different. It seemed suffer, it seemed more polite, and, of course it seemed much richer from the material point of view. But I didnt meet anyone in that world who didnt suffer from the same affliction that all the people I had fled from suffered from and that was they didnt know who they were. They wanted to be something that they were not. And very shortly I didnt know who I was, either. I could not be certain whether I was really female, really talented or fraud, really strong or merely stubborn. In short, I had become an American. I had stepped into, I had walked right into, as I

inevitably had to do, the bottomless confusion that is both public and private, of the American republic. Here, the writer tries to combine one pattern with another pattern. It can be seen from the signal words used in the paragraph, such as, in the beginning, but, very shortly, and in short. So, it can be concluded that the paragraph does not belong to one pattern. REFERENCES

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