Abstract. The field of EFL writing in the Arab world suffers from being abstracted, depersonalised and product-oriented. To overcome this deficit, the present study was founded on the premise that writing-as-aprocess is uniquely suited to promoting the skills of critical thinking and self-reflection, since it is that very area of self-expression where ideas can be reviewed, reflected on and refined. This paper reports on a study of nineteen Saudi EFL university students reflections on writing in Arabic and English in a composition classroom at King Khalid University. Data were elicited via an open ended questionnaire emphasizing that this was to be a self-reflection on how the participating subjects normally write in Arabic and English. The study revealed positive results with regard to promoting students critical reflection in the service of EFL writing. Other positive indications included making a writing class a personal process, that is, a continual critical reflection on the problems posed by the EFL context; a search for meaning; a process of acknowledging students need to be understood; and a protocol of communicating perceptions. Plausible exp lanations of the emerging results are provided and implications for EFL/ESL composition teaching are accordingly drawn.
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In addition to this focus on the sentence level and on the linguistic features in teaching EFL writing in the Arab world, overt teacher-centeredness has a negative impact on the development of the writing of the learners (Liggett, 1983). As a result, EFL learners have problems in self-reflection; in expressing themselves adequately; and in formulating critical and analytical thoughts (AlHazmi 1998; 2007). A l-Sharah (1996), surveying the perceptions of 210 Jordanian EFL students of L2 writing in academic settings, reported that his subjects showed lack of awareness of important strategies such as outlining ideas on paper, group collaboration and peer conferencing. However, research into EFL writing methodology since the 1980s has overwhelmingly supported the process approach to writing (Krapels, 1991). As Asiri (2003: 41) notes, modern methodologies of teaching writing in the English as Second language (ESL) classroom emphasise co-operative learning between teachers and learners, and emphasise that learners should be given more opportunities to think critically, to initiate learning, and to express themselves. In her discussion on modern emphases in writing in a foreign language, Leki (1994) states: ... now students are writing about what they are interested in and know about, but most especially, what they really want to communicate to someone else, what they really want a reader to know .... For the most part, writing is easiest to do and is likely to have the highest quality when the writer is committed intellectually to expressing something meaningful through writing. Liggett (1983) says that learning should not be a threat to the ego; that learning only takes place when it is initiated by the learner, not when it is demanded by the teacher; that there are fewer limitations than we might imagine to what learners can do if they are actively and mentally engaged in the learning process. Justifying her assertion that writing has now become much more important in the ESL/EFL curriculum, Leki (1994) states that it is the one language skill where the language student has ... complete control over that ornery, slippery new linguistic code. This feeling of control can be very invigorating and satisfying. It is on this very subject of learner control and empowerment that Brown (1993), quoting Pennycook, reminds teachers of their mission to empower learners, to get them intrinsically involved in their own learning of English as a second or foreign language so as to gain a measure of control over their own lives. In EFL writing, in the Arab world as in anywhere els e, the object of curriculum development has now become one of exploring how to give learners a feeling of control; a sense of personal fulfilment; a measure of selfintegration in and through the material learned; the opportunity to think critically, to initiate learning, and to express themselves; and to engender an intellectual commitment to expressing something meaningful through writing (Daoud and Al-Hazmi 2002).
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Given that language teaching in the Arab world is dominated by a traditional, top-down, textbook-oriented, teacher-led methodology, where can one start to introduce the skills of critical self-reflection? Is it possible to ask students to attempt reflection and critical thinking when their competence in the target language is limited? This study was an attempt to introduce critical and selfreflective thinking skills into a traditional EFL writing class of pre-intermediate students at the King Khalid University in Abha, Saudi Arabia. The development of the study is outlined, and the reflections of the students are examined.
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taking of broader perspectives than does oral expression. Suitable written assignments, she believes, can stimulate classroom writers to enhance their active learning spontaneously. Writing, especially the process approach, is, by nature, a self-critical one. It lends itself to the kind of introspection that would prompt students to reflect on their understanding, and to communicate their feelings about what they know, what they are doing, what they are struggling with, and how they are experiencing their learning (cf. White and McGovern 1994).
4. The Subjects
Nineteen Arabic-speaking students, aged between 20 to 24 years, majoring in English as a Foreign Language at King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia, participated in this study. The subjects were enrolled in the Writing 314 class. The subjects were all male and came from similar socioeconomic backgrounds. The learners can be regarded as typical of the university population of Saudi Arabia in general, and homogeneous in cultural and prior educational background. Despite six years of English classes in school, and having completed three one-semester writing courses prior to this one at the university (Writing 010, Writing 114, and Writing 213), their language proficiency in absolute terms can only be termed as pre-intermediate.
5. Methodology
Taking into consideration, the subjects language ability and thinking ability, the researcher endeavoured to make writing lessons a communication event based on a common theme, as Ur suggests (1996:90). This w ould enable
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students to engage with subject-specific language and meaning in context. The author thus chose the topic writing about my writing. As a prewriting activity for this writing task, students were required to respond to an open-ended questionnaire the answers to which were intended to be incorporated by students in their essay "writing about my writing". These qualitative answers to the questionnaire were also used by the teacher (the researcher) as the data for the study. The author devised a questionnaire that, as Seliger and Shohamy (1990:172) maintain, would collect data on students attitudes, motivation and self-concept. The questions of the questionnaire (see Appendix 1) came from the author, Daoud and Al-Hazmi (2003), White and McGovern (1994), Quirke (1999), and other researchers in the same field of study (Deming 1987; Hawisher 1986). Questions in Part A (9 questions) focused on student perceptions of writing in the English writing and Arabic writing classes at the university. Questions in Part B (10 questions) dealt with how students write in Arabic and English. The focus of Part C questions (5 questions) was on the feelings of students towards reviewing and writing in both Arabic and English. Part D (6 questions) tackled the difficulties students face when writing; the writing tasks they consider the most difficult to do; and the difficulties they experience in revising their first drafts. The same questions were asked about writing in English as about writing in Arabic in order to bring the students perceptions of writing in English into greater relief. The questionnaire comprised general, open-ended questions, to be answered partly in class and completed at home. The questions of the questionnaire emphasized that this was to be a self-reflection on how they normally write in Arabic and English. Students, in group discussion, talked about the issues posed, framed oral responses, took notes, and then wrote their full answers at home. Students returned their answers to the teacher before the next class.
5.1 Analysis
The open-ended data which the questionnaire elicited were manually summarized and counted in percentages for the purpose of identifying emergent trends and patterns. Plausible explanations of the emerging results are provided and implications for EFL/ESL composition teaching are accordingly drawn.
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Good
Fair
Bad
Good
Fair
Bad
With difficulty
10
Percentage
53
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16
The third question was about the usefulness of Arabic and English writing courses which they had at university. 69% of the students claimed that such courses helped them in improving their writing. 2 subjects assume that these courses never helped them while 2 others see that they were boring. The urge for mastering writing in English for future jobs raises the students' responses to 95% with almost the same percentage for writing in Arabic. This clearly shows that the subjects of the study are aware of the needs and requirements of the Saudi job market. As for the meaning of the word composition, 63% of the students consider it 'expressing ideas' while 37% regard it as mere 'writing'. Similar results have
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been reported by Al-Sharah (1996) and Doud and Al- Hazmi (2003). For the subjects, the word 'revision' means 'correction' (53%) or 'discovering mistakes' (32%). This latter finding is widely supported in the literature on Arab EFL writers (Liggett 1983; Kharma 1985; Doushaq and Al-Makhzoomy 1989; Kharma and Hajjaj 1989; Halimah 1991; and Al-Hazmi 1998). Indeed, these researchers indicate that 'correctness' (the mechanical, superficial, manifest elements of writing) is the feature that students focus mainly on when composing and revising. This is probably because, as the abovementioned researchers report, teachers themselves concentrate mainly on these features in their teaching, and give feedback principally in this area. Question 9 asked the sample subjects if they ever write to themselves; keep personal diaries; or try to solve problems on paper. Only 43% of the students often write to themselves or keep personal diaries and 79% do not write about problems, while 85% do not solve their problems on paper. The respondents (Q8), on the contrary, see writing as a way of communication with others (74%).
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Table 2 Methods used in writing both in Arabic and English Select topic get info. write rewrite Select topic get info. write discus rewrite Start writing basics detailed explanation 1 5 2 11
32 2
5 2
16 2
5 2
11 5
5 1
11 2
5 2
5 1
11
11
11
11
26
11
11
Start spontaneously
Writing Method
Outline write
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among the language difficulties in writing. The most difficult task seems to be writing and reviewing long texts (68%) and the easiest is letter writing. This might be due to the fact that students get technical training in letter writing at school. 69% of the students mention that there is a relationship between enjoying writing a topic and its easiness. Enjoyment is directly proportional to easiness. Among the difficulties they mentioned when writing are linking and arranging ideas (47 %), reviewing ideas (16%) and other general difficulties (16%). Al-Hazmi and Scholfield (in press) reported similar results for another group of Saudi EFL university students: difficulties are experienced in discourse organisation, paragraphing and cohesion, as well as by some still at the lower levels of language, and in writing at length. Concerning their behavior when they face difficulties, 63% of the students declare that they refer to other sources when they face difficulties in writing, while 53% of them express their need for help.
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sparked the students ideas and thoughts, premised on their personal beliefs, concepts, experiences and views of what writing is about (cf. Kabilan 2000). The procedure followed in this study aimed at supporting students in 314 Writing Class in their thinking and reflection activities. The teaching strategy included teaching the skills of writing a first draft, which, at the same time, would involve reflection, introspection and a reciprocal communication of impressions, as well as meet the aims of the Writing 314 course. The study cannot claim that they achieved complex, deep-level meta-cognition given their limited means of self-expression. The participating students, however, reflected on, and expressed, their thoughts and feelings about their writing and their writing tasks. Furthermore, it is evident that any claim for having engendered reflective and thinking skills would require proof of permanent, sustained change, and that the skills could be transferred to other areas of reflection and cognition. This kind of proof delves into the realms of cognitive psychology, something that needs to be researched more thoroughly in a subsequent research project. A major recommendation of the present study is that EFL/ESL instructors be committed to afford writing students greater opportunity for introspection, sharing and communication. Deep-level reflection and critical thinking are vital strategies that might help learners in the acquisition of new EFL writing and language skills. Promoting thinking about ones own process of writing is appropriate, accountable and effective in the EFL context. Similarly, encouraging reflection and teaching thinking skills is part and parcel of teaching writing.
References
Al Hazmi, S.H. (2007). Current issues in English language education in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Modern Languages. Vol.17, pp. 129-150. Al Hazmi, S.H. (1998). The effect of peer feedback and self-assessment on the quality of word-processed ESL compositions. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Essex. Al-Hazmi, S. and Scholfield, P. (In Press). Enforced revision with checklists and peer feedback in EFL writing: The example of Saudi university students. King Fiasal University Journal. Al Arishi, A.Y. (1994). Practical ways to promote reflection in the ESL/FL classroom. Forum, Vol. 32 (2) April-June. Retrieved from the World Wide Web at http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol32/no2.htm Al Arishi, A. Y. and Tarvin, W.L. (1991). Rethinking communicative language teaching: Reflection and the EFL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 25 (1): pp. 9-27. Al-Sharah, Nayel. (1996). An investigation into EFL students perceptions of L2 writing in academic settings. Second Language Acquisition and Writing: A multidisciplinary approach. Proceedings. University of Southampton, UK, pp.110-124.
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Asiri, I.M. (1996). University EFL teachers written feedback on compositions and students reactions. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Essex. Bernstein, D. A. (1995). A negotiation model for teaching critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22 (1):pp 22-24. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook 1. The cognitive domain. New York: McKay. Brown, H.D. (1993). TESOL at twenty-five: What are the issues? In Silberstein, S. (ed.) State of the Art TESOL essays: Celebrating 25 years of the discipline. Alexandria (Virginia.) (USA): TESOL Inc. Daoud, S. and Al-Hazmi, S. (2002). Teaching writing through reflection and thinking. In Z. Syed, C. Coombe, and S. Troudi (eds.), TESOL Arabia Conference Proceedings: Critical Thinking a Reflection, Vol. VII, 335-359. 14-16 March nd 2002. Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. Daoud, S. and Al-Hazmi, S. (2003). Designing an EFL Writing curriculum for Arab students using the tenets of Counseling-Learning . King Khalid University Journal: Islamic and Arabic Studies and Humanities. Vol. 1, pp. 3-41. Deming, M.P. (1987). The effects of word-processing on basic college writers revision strategies, writing apprehension and writing quality while composing in the expository mode. Unpublished PhD thesis. Georgia State University. Doushaq, M.H. and AL Makhzoomy, K. (1989). A study of teachers evaluation of English composition in secondary schools in Jordan. Arab Journal for the Humanities, Vol. 9 (22): pp. 388-404. Halimah, A.M. (1991). EST Writing: Rhetorically processed and produced. A case study of Kuwaiti learners. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Essex. Hanley, G. L. (1995). Teaching critical thinking: Focusing on metacognitive skills and problem solving. Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 22 (1): pp. 68-71. Hawisher, G.E. (1986). The effects of word processing on the revision strategies of college students. Unpublished PhD thesis. University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign. Kabilan, M. (2000). Creative and critical thinking in language classrooms. The Internet TESL Journal Vol. 6 (2) June 2000. Retrieved from the World Wide Web at http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kabilan-CriticalThinking.html Kharma, N. (1985). Problems of writing composition in EFL: A contrastive rhetoric approach. Abhath al Yarmouk, Vol. 1: pp. 7-29. Kharma, N. and Hajjaj, A. (1989). Errors in English among Arabic speakers: Analysis and remedy. London: Longman. King, A. (1995). Designing the instructional process to enhance critical thinking across the curriculum. Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 22 (1): pp. 13-16. Liggett, M. (1983). Teaching English to Arabic speakers: Methodology materials development and classroom management. Cairo: American University Press. Pennington, M. (1995). The teacher change cycle. TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 29 (4): pp. 705-731. Quirke, P. (1999). Maximising student writing and minimizing teacher correction. In th Unity through Diversity, Conference Proceedings of the TESOL Arabia 4 International Conference, held in Al Ain (UAE) March 1998, Vol. 3: pp.12-20. Richards, J. (1990). Beyond training: Approaches to teacher education in language teaching. Language Teacher, Vol. 14 (2): pp. 3-8.
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Rogers, C.R. (1980). A way of being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Seliger, H.W. and Shohamy, E. (1990). Second language research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching: Practice and theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Vygotsky, L.(1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cole, M., Scribner, S., John-Steiner, V., and Soberman, E. (eds). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Wade, C. (1995). Using writing to develop and assess critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, Vol. 22 (1): pp. 24-28. White, R. and McGovern, D. (1994). Writing: A students book. English for Academic Study Series. Hemel Hempstead (Hertfordshire): Prentice Hall Europe. Wilson, B., Jonassen, D., and Cole, P. (1993). Cognitive approaches to instructional design. In Piskurich, G. (ed.). The ASTD handbook of instructional technology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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4- In your point of view, how important is writing in Arabic for your future job? .. 5- In your point of view, how important is writing in English for your future job? 6- What does the word Composition mean? .. 7- What does the word Revision mean? .. 8- Should you look at writing as a way of communication with another person? Why? Why not? .. 9- Do you ever write to yourself? Do you sometimes keep personal diaries? Do you try to write the problems that you face or try to solve them on paper? .. B. How you write in Arabic and in English 1- How do you write (a topic etc.) in Arabic? What method or process do you follow when you write? .. 2- How do you write (a topic etc.) in English? What method or process do you follow when you write? .. 3- Is there a difference between the process (or method) of writing (topics, letters etc) in Arabic and that in English? ..
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4- Is there a similarity or a difference between the way (or process) you follow when you write and the process approach that we discussed at the beginning of last week? Where is the similarity? Where is the difference? .. 5- Do you do anything in particular when you start the first draft of any topic? Does anything in particular happen to the way you work or the way you think? .. 6- Do you plan before you write? If the answer is Yes, do you plan in your mind or on paper? If the answer is No, how do you set about writing? .. 7- When you write, what is your main concern? Is it grammar, spelling and punctuation? Is it content (i.e. the ideas that you want to express or writing on something interesting)? Is it arrangement of ideas (i.e. that there should be an introduction, conclusion and recommendations; that is smoothness of ideas? .. 8- What do you do or do you concentrate on when you have to write to someone (e.g. your teacher)? .. 9- How much time do you spend when you write about things that are of no interest to you? Do you spend more time when you write about things that are of interest to you? .. 10- Do you review (i.e. read to correct/ edit/ change/ polish/ rewrite) the first draft of any topic? If you do review, answer the following questions: ..
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* Do you review all what you have written or just the important/ easy/ interesting parts? .. * How do you review? Do you review in your mind or on paper or by using both? .. ? When you review, what is you main concern? Is grammar, spelling and punctuation? Is it content (i.e. the ideas that you want to express or writing on something interesting)? Is it arrangement of ideas (i.e. that there should be an introduction, conclusion and recommendations; that is smoothness of ideas? .. How much time do you spend when you review things that are of no interest to you? Do you spend more time when you review things that are of interest to you? .. C. Your feelings towards reviewing and writing (in Arabic and in English) 1- How do you feel about writing in Arabic and in English? Do you feel upset/ excited/ or careless when you have to write any topic? How do you feel when you set about writing any topic? .. 2- How do you feel when you write the first draft of any topic? .. 3- How do you feel when you finish writing the first draft of any topic? ..
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4- What are the types of writing (i.e. a task or a written work like writing letters, writing a text, filling forms or writing short notes) that you enjoy most? What are the types of writing that you do not enjoy? .. 5- What are the subjects that you enjoy writing? What are the subjects that you do not enjoy writing? .. 6- If you review the first draft (see question 10 B), then answer the following questions: .. *How do you feel about reviewing what you have written? .. * What are the types of writing (i.e. a task or a written work like writing letters, writing a text, filling forms or writing short notes) that are the easiest and most interesting when reviewing? What are the types of writing that are the worst when reviewing? .. D. Difficulties that you face when writing and when reviewing (in Arabic and in English) 1- What are the difficulties that you face when writing? .. 2- What are the types of writing (i.e. a task or a written work like writing letters, writing a text, filling forms or writing short notes) that are the most difficult to you? Is there a relation between how much you enjoy a type of writing, and how difficult that type of writing is? Is this relation always there or is just sometimes? ..
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3- If you do review the first draft (see question 10 B), then answer the following questions: .. * What are the difficulties that you face when reviewing? .. * What are the types of writing (i.e. a task or a written work like writing letters, writing a text, filling forms or writing short notes) that are the most difficult in reviewing? What are the types of writing that are the easiest in reviewing? Is there a relation between the difficulty of reviewing a type of writing and how much you enjoy that type of writing and its subject, and how difficult that type of writing or the topic on which you are writing is? .. 5- What do you do when you face difficulties in writing or in reviewing? Do you leave writing or reviewing for a while and then go back to it later? Do you refer to notes or other resources? Do you refer to books? Do you give up and turn in your work? ..