Source: HVAC Systems Design Handbook

Chapter

3
HVAC Engineering Fundamentals: Part 2
3.1 Introduction A heating, ventilating, and air conditioning system is designed to satisfy the environmental requirements of comfort or a process in a specic building or portion of a building and in a particular geographic locale. Designers must understand a great deal beyond beyond the basic HVAC system and the outdoor climate. They must also understand the process and/or the comfort requirements. In addition, designers must understand how the building is or will be constructed and whether the construction is suitable for the stipulated use. For example, a warehouse cannot be used as a clean room without a great many modications and improvements; to attempt to air-condition it to clean room specications without making the necessary architectural and structural revisions would be futile. While most examples are not so extreme, many HVAC systems do not perform because the basic building is unsuitable. It is also necessary to understand the use of the building or even the use of each part. How does this use affect occupancy, activity level, humidity, temperature, and ventilation requirements? 3.2 Comfort

Comfort is a highly suggestive word, reecting sensations that vary greatly from one individual to another. For HVAC purposes it can be dened only in general or statistical terms. Research by ASHRAE over many years has identied the major factors contributing to comfort: temperature, relative humidity, air movement, and radiant effects. Attempts have been made to
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combine these factors to obtain a single number index called the effective temperature1 or comfort index. The type and quantity of clothing and the level of activity also affect comfort, but these factors vary so greatly that they cannot be quantied. Typically the air system is designed to control temperature always and humidity sometimes. Good control of air movement (from supply grills and diffusers) is also needed to improve the comfort index. Most people do not like a draft (local air velocity over 100 feet per minute), but in some hot industrial environments a high rate of airow at the work station may be necessary. Radiant effects are often beyond the control of the HVAC designer but should be taken into account in the HVAC design. Typical radiant effects are caused by windows or lighting xtures or by cross-radiation among people in large groups. Radiant effects can sometimes be offset by providing radiant panels, which are cooled or heated as needed. There is an interesting graph that plots the percentage of people who are dissatised at any given temperature. It can be interpreted to read a range of general comfort between 70 and 75F, but it also shows that there is no temperature at which everyone will be satised.2. 3.3 HVAC Cycles

Figure 3.1 is a schematic representation of an elementary air system mechanical cooling cycle. While dehumidication is not an essential part of the cooling cycle, it usually occurs when the cooling medium is colder than the dewpoint temperature of the air. The cooling load, Qc in the conditioned space is a combination of internal and external loads and is usually dealt with by circulating air through the space, with the entering air having a lower temperature and humidity than the desired space condition. The supply air absorbs the load by increasing to the space design conditions and is then returned to the air handling unit (AHU), where it is again cooled and dehumidied. Most spaces require some ventilation air (usually outdoor air), which is mixed with the return air at the AHU, imposing an additional cooling load, Qv . If the outdoor air enthalpy is less than

Figure 3.1

Mechanical cooling cycle.

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Figure 3.2

Mechanical heating cycle.

the space enthalpy, Qv will be negative, and some free cooling will be obtained. Work energy, Qw, is required to circulate the airusually a fan driven by an electric motorand this work energy becomes part of the cooling load. Some additional work, Qp, is done by driving refrigeration machines and condenser or cooling tower fans, and this energy must also be accounted for in the design. Ultimately all this heat energy is dumped to a heat sinkusually water or atmospheric air. Notice that the work portions of this cycle are parasitical. The heat they contribute must be removed, reducing the overall system efciency. Figure 3.2 shows schematically an elementary heating cycle, again using an air-handling unit. In this cycle the ventilation load is usually negative (cooling), but the work factors contribute to the building heat. Thus most air systems are more efcient on the heating cycle than the cooling cycle, when efciency is dened as the heating or cooling divided by the energy input. In Figures 3.1 and 3.2 convective and radiant losses (and gains) from piping, ductwork, and equipment have been neglected for simplicity. These factors may become important in large systems. Later chapters describe many of the different types of system arrangements that occur in practice. 3.4 Control Strategies

No HVAC system can be designed without a thorough knowledge of how it is to be controlled. Psychrometrics is helpful in control system design since the psychrometric chart that describes the system cycles also indicates control points and conditions to be expected. Controls are discussed in Chapter 9. 3.5 Architectural, Structural, and Electrical Considerations

The architectural design of the building provides the basis for those heating and cooling loads relating to the building envelope and to oor areas. The orientation, amount and type of glass, and shading factors are crucial to the proper calculation of solar loads and daylighting effects.

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Structural and architectural factors determine the space and weight-carrying capacity available for HVAC equipment as well as piping and ductwork. Electrical requirements for the HVAC equipment must be carefully and completely communicated to the electrical designer. The characteristics of the electrical systemvoltage, frequency, reliability, etc.affect the HVAC design and specications. (See Chapter 13.) Detailed and careful communication among the members of the design team is an absolute necessity in the design process. 3.6 Conceptual Design

The problem-solving process of Chapter 2 should be a prelude to any HVAC design concept. In most cases a formal study is not made, but the general process is followed informally. The nal decision is heavily biased by the desires of the client and architect as well as the experience and strengths of the HVAC design engineer. It is easy under these conditions to do things as they have always been done and to avoid innovation. This approach is less expensive for the designer and avoids discussion and possible argument with the client, who is more often concerned with cost than with innovation. Still, the competent designer must be conversant with all types of systems and control strategies in the event that the client wants suggestions for something new and different. This background is only developed through experience and study. Study is simply learning from the experience of others. This book was written for that purpose. There is a fundamental rule for any design: keep it simple. No matter how complex the criteria may be, look for the simple way to solve the problem. This way is most likely to work in the real world. 3.7 Environmental Criteria for Buildings

A building or a space within a building may be used in many different ways. For each of these applications the HVAC designer must determine the general criteria from personal experience or study and then add the special requirements of the user of the facility. The ASHRAE handbooks contain chapters on many common and exotic applications. The discussions that follow are limited to some of the more common applications. In every environment there are concerns for temperature, relative humidity, sound level, air quality, and noise. In general, the higher the standard to be met, the more expensive the system will be to install and, probably, to operate.
3.7.1 Residences

Two essential residential criteria are comfort and the need of occupants to adjust the controller set point. In larger residences (over 2400 square feet)

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the use of multiple or zoned systems should be considered. Zoning is essential in apartments and hotel guest rooms. First, cost and operating cost are always concerns, as are simplicity and an acceptable sound level.
3.7.2 Ofces

Basic needs are comfort and an adequate ventilation rate, especially if smoking is allowed. (See Chapter 22 for a discussion of air quality.) Controls are usually designed to be nonadjustable by occupants. Zoning must be provided to compensate for use, occupancy, and exterior exposure. The ideal HVAC system should be exible enough to allow for adding or rearranging zones as use changes. Background noise level should be in the range of 30 to 40 decibels (DB).
3.7.3 Hotels and Motels

A small residential motel must usually meet only residential criteria in terms of zoning. A large resort or conference hotel has many varying needs. The building may include public areas, such as lobbies, restaurants, health and recreation facilities (swimming pools are not unusual), meeting rooms, retail shops and ballrooms, as well as behind the scenes facilitieskitchens, laundry, repair shops, ofces, storage, HVAC and electrical equipment, employee lounge, etc. Each area has different HVAC requirements. Comfort requirements will apply in most cases, with due allowance for occupant density and activity level. Kitchens are often cooled indirectly by transferring air from adjacent areas. Transfer air should be ltered. Laundries and pool areas have high humidity problems that must be addressed, usually by high exhaust air rates. Meeting rooms have high occupancy rates; cross radiation from people usually suggests lower design temperatures for comfort. Zoning and individual guest room control are essential. Auxiliary heat at entrances may be needed even in mild climates. Through-the-wall independent HVAC units are popular in motels and some hotels. They have a low rst cost but are often noisy.
3.7.4 Educational Facilities

A school is more than classrooms and ofces, though these constitute the major portion of most schools. Comfort criteria apply in classrooms and ofces, including special-purpose rooms for music, laboratories, practice rooms, study halls, and lunchrooms. Auditoriums, with or without stages, have criteria peculiar to theatersa need for somewhat lower temperatures due to high occupant density, a low background noise level, and avoidance of drafts in what is typically a high airow rate situation. Many elementary and high schools have smaller, distributed AHUs, single or multizone, with a central plant source of heating and cooling. In singlestory schools, rooftop self-contained units are sometimes used. At the

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college or university level the facility takes on an institutional character, with emphasis on higher-quality equipment and systems, with longer life and lower maintenance costs. There are many special-purpose buildings with widely varying HVAC requirements. Central HVAC plants are often used with elaborate distribution systems. (See Chapter 8.)
3.7.5 Theaters and Concert Halls

The acoustic design of a good theater or concert hall should be such that electronic amplication is not needed. The HVAC system must not produce a noise that will interfere with the audiences enjoyment of the performance. Refer to Chapter 21 on sound and note that the recommended background noise criteria level for a concert hall is NC 25. This is not easy to achieve; it requires careful design and construction of the building and the HVAC and electrical systems. The HVAC designer will prot from earnest discussion with the acoustical consultant for this type of facility.
3.7.6 Laboratories

Laboratory facilities associated with education, public health, or industry can have very complex requirements, including humidity control and high levels of cleanliness. Most laboratories require high rates of exhaust and makeup air. The HVAC designer must work with the user to determine the precise criteria for the facility. Because the user in a research laboratory seldom knows exactly what is needed, the HVAC design must be exible enough to satisfy a wide range of contingencies. This tends to be costly but is necessary in order to properly utilize the lab facility. Heat reclaim systems are especially helpful here.
3.7.7 Hospitals

Hospitals are always interesting and challenging for the HVAC designer because of the wide variety of environmental conditions required in various departments. The operating suite, with heavily clothed staff working under hot lights, requires a design temperature of 65 to 70F with a relative humidity of 50 to 60 percent and a high percentage of outside air when in use. This requires at least high-efciency lters and high airow rates. These or similar criteria are established by public health authorities. Nurseries do not require high airow rates but do require about 55 percent relative humidity. Patient room requirements vary depending on usagei.e., isolation rooms require exhaust with no recirculation to other parts of the hospital. Public areas and ofces may be treated as in any other building. Laboratories and treatment rooms require special treatment with no recirculation. There may be requirements for air pressure relationships to keep air moving from higher-quality to lower-quality environments. Exhaust air from contaminated spaces must be scrubbed.

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HVAC Engineering Fundamentals: Part 2 3.7.8 Manufacturing Facilities

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Process environments dominate in manufacturing applications of HVAC. Typical applications include close control of temperature (plus or minus 1F is not unusual) and humidity (plus or minus 5 percent RH is typical). These criteria can be met only by the use of carefully designed HVAC systems with high-quality controls. Clean rooms require high ow rates but have normal or low heating and cooling loads. The typical solution is to provide a small HVAC system with a supplemental high ow rate fan system. (See Chapter 6.) Electroplating and painting facilities require high rates of exhaust air ow, usually with ltering. Machining operations generate an oil mist, which is carried in the air and deposited everywhere. The HVAC system can be designed to control this problem to some degree. Flammable vapors are often of concern; some processes generate heat and combustion products. Many processes offer opportunities for heat reclaim. Industrial hygiene criteria complement HVAC criteria in these environments. 3.8 Designing for Operation and Maintenance

Over the life of the HVAC system the operating and maintenance cost will greatly exceed the initial cost. The system design can have a substantial effect on both energy and labor costs. A system that is difcult to maintain will likely not be properly maintained, with a consequent increase in energy costs or loss of system function. The HVAC designer should observe the following criteria: 1. Keep it simple. Complexity breeds misunderstanding and is a cause for dissatisfaction or failure. 2. Provide adequate space and accessibility for equipment. This includes ease of access, space for maintenance and repair, and access for removal and replacement of large equipment items. Because this involves the cooperation of the owner and architect, the HVAC designer must be prepared to justify the needs on a basis that takes into account the life cycle cost. 3. In the specications, require written maintenance and operating procedures. A collection of manufacturers maintenance bulletins is useful as a reference but is not a procedure. A well-written operating or maintenance procedure should be simple and straightforward, not longer than one or two pages, and easy for personnel to understand. Anything more complex or lengthy will probably not be used. The schematic ow and control diagrams from the contract drawings become the primary material for these procedures. 4. Require the contractor to provide basic training for the operators. List the items to be covered and the training procedures. The HVAC

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designer should also remind the building owner or operator of the need for continual training or retraining of operating and maintenance personnel. There is an economic stake in this since inadequate maintenance will result in higher operating costs. This is also a part of system commissioning, which is discussed in Chapter 15. 3.9 Codes and Standards

Throughout this book the reader will nd many references to various codes and standards. The designer must comply with such as they relate to the location of the facility and the equipment being selected. They serve as guidelines for the quality and performance requirements applicable to the project.
3.9.1 Codes

Codes specify the minimum requirements of the system, especially as they relate to capacity and safety. They are established by the local, state, or national code authority, and projects are inspected for conformance. There are local, state, and national codes as well as an international organizations. Historically most governmental codes are based on standards developed by the various industries and sometimes by equipment manufacturers. Within the last few years the International Code Council (ICC) has been created by agreement among the local governmental bodies. That organization holds hearings and issues a new revision about every three years. The latest, as of this writing, is the 2009 version. The local codes are now generally based on the ICC code, but the designer must be clear about what the local code says.
3.9.2 Standards

Standards are developed by the industry as a means of comparison of quality and performance among the products manufactured by members of the industry. Standards may also include a great many application requirements, as described in this text. Most of the standards applicable to HVAC are promulgated by ASHRAE. (See the chapter on codes and standards in the ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals.) 3.10 Summary

In this chapter we have discussed the fundamentals and philosophy of designing HVAC systems in very broad terms to provide a background for the technical details in succeeding chapters. While all the details are necessary to develop a functional system, the designer must never lose sight of the objective of HVAC systems: to provide a suitable environment for comfort or a process.

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References
1. 2. 3. 4. ASHRAE Handbook, 2001 Fundamentals, p. 8.12. Ibid., p. 8.19. Ibid., Chapter 6. ASHRAE Handbook, 2003 HVAC Applications, Chapters 34 through 41.

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HVAC Engineering Fundamentals: Part 2

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