Technical guide
The Technical Department for Transport, Roads and Bridges Engineering and Road Safety (Service d'tudes techniques des routes et autoroutes - Stra) is a technical department within the Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure. Its field of activities is the road, the transportation and the engineering structures.
Technical guide
This document is the translation of the work "Appareils dappui en lastomre frett Utilisation sur les ponts, viaducs et structures similaires" published in March 2007 under the reference 0716.
This guide has been written by a working group comprising: Jean-Franois Derais, Stra/CTOA Michel Fragnet, Stra/CTOA Gilles Lacoste, Stra/CTOA Yvon Meuric, Stra/CTOA Ludovic Picard, DREIF Yves Picard, Consultant Denis Davi, Stra/CTOA The following provided advice and observations: M. Dauvilliers (DREIF/LROP) H. Gurard (EGIS-SCETAUROUTE) P. Kirschner (SECOA) C. Nant (ETIC) G. Wattiaux (ETIC) P. Xercavins (PX-DAM Consultants)
The drawings were prepared by Jean-Pierre Gilcart (Stra) and the CETE of Lyon.
This guide cancels and replaces the technical guide entitled "Appareils d'appui en caoutchouc frett Utilisation sur les ponts viaduc et structures similaires" of September 2000 (reference: F0032)
Contents
Forew ord ............................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 1 - Introduction ......................................................................................... 7 1.1 Why replace the 2000 guide? ......................................................................................................... 7 1.2 Scope and content .......................................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Application of the standard NF EN 1337-3 in the French national context ..................................... 8 1.4 Scope .............................................................................................................................................. 8 1.5 Notations and symbols .................................................................................................................... 8 C h a p t e r 2 - C o m p o s it i on and description ................................................................ 9 2.1 General principles of composition ................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Component parts........................................................................................................................... 10 2.3 Manufacturing methods................................................................................................................. 14 Chapter 3 Behaviour and dime nsioning .............................................................. 15 3.1 - Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 15 3.2 The characteristics of bearings ..................................................................................................... 17 3.3 Dimensioning bearings.................................................................................................................. 19 3.4 Dimensioning verifications............................................................................................................. 22 C h a p t e r 4 D e s ig n p r i n c i p le s f or a structure w ith bearings .................................. 31 4.1 General points The regulatory context ....................................................................................... 31 4.2 - Dimensioning ................................................................................................................................. 33 4.3 Calculating horizontal force on support heads on a structure with standard bearings ................... 3 4.4 - Calculating horizontal force on a structure with sliding bearings ..................................................... 6 Chapter 5 - Controls ............................................................................................ 14 5.1 General principles ......................................................................................................................... 14 5.2 Production controls prior to CE marking ....................................................................................... 14 5.3 Controls on reception .................................................................................................................... 17 5.4 Controls on installation .................................................................................................................. 17 5.5 Controls of behaviour in service.................................................................................................... 18 Chapter 6 The pre-dimensioning and ve rification program.................................. 20 A p pe nd i x 1 C a lc u la t i on s f o r l a m i nat e d e l ast o mer ic be ar in gs f or use i n s e is m ic zones .................................................................................................................. 22 A1-1 Regulatory framework................................................................................................................. 22 A1-2 Design combinations and direction accumulation ...................................................................... 23 A1-3 - Dynamic calculation model.......................................................................................................... 24 A1-4 Using a behaviour factor............................................................................................................. 26 A1-5 - Recommendations....................................................................................................................... 26 A1-6 Further construction measures................................................................................................... 27 A p pe nd i x 2 T he d ur ab i l it y o f l a m i nat e d e l ast o mer ic be ar in gs w it h a slid i ng p la ne3 2 A2-1 The characteristic quantity of the functioning of a sliding bearing.............................................. 32 A2-2 Measures to be taken at the design stage.................................................................................. 32 A2-3 Measures to be taken at the manufacturing stage ..................................................................... 33 A2-4 Measures to be taken as part of the monitoring process ........................................................... 33
Laminated elastomeric bearings Use on bridges, viaducts and similar structures
A2-5 - Conclusion................................................................................................................................... 33 A p p e n d i x 3 - T a b le of dimensions ........................................................................ 34 A p p e n d i x 4 A s s i s it a n c e w it h d r a f t in g Pa r t ic u la r T e chnical Clauses (CCTP) ......... 36 A4.1 - Examples of clauses to be included in the chapter "quality of materials" ................................... 36 A4.2 - Examples of clauses to be included in the chapter "design principle....................................... 37 A4.3 - Examples of clauses to be included in the chapter "implementation" ....................................... 38 Bibliograph y .......................................................................................................... 40 General documents ................................................................................................................................ 40 Standards ............................................................................................................................................... 40 Bibliography specific to Appendix 1 ....................................................................................................... 41
Foreword
Bearings are important elements of a structure for which the notion of wear and durability is not inferior to that of the structure, as, in that case, they would be regarded as consumables. For this reason, particular care needs to be taken over their choice, quality, design and implementation. This is all the more true in that the cost of the product itself is disproportionate in comparison to that involved in interventions to raise the structure and repair the bosses: a ratio of 1 to 50 is considered the minimum. A study carried out by the Stra as to the causes of interventions on structures to repair bearings (of all types) revealed that that there were three completely equal origins: Defects arising from poor product quality (such as corrosion or de-bonding). Concerning this matter, the publication of the standard NF EN 1337 (after the French standards) regarding product specifications and CE marking for laminated elastomeric bearings are giving rise to improvement. Installation defects. Following the specifications of the guide "Environnement des appareils d'appui en caoutchouc frett" ("The environment of laminated elastomeric bearings" cf. Bibliography) is a sine qua non condition for improvements in this area. This guide does not cover installation. This is covered in the guide entitled "Environnement des appareils d'appui en caoutchouc frett ("The environment of laminated elastomeric bearings"). We do however stress the importance of including the specifications described in this document in Particular Technical Clauses (CCTP) and in the QAP (Quality Assurance Plans) and of ensuring their application. Problems arising from errors in dimensioning (a slide plate that is too short, an insufficient number of elastomeric laminations, insufficient plan dimensions, etc.). It is this third section that this guide intends to examine, as regards laminated elastomeric bearings. We would also like to highlight the importance of designing the deck, bearings and supports as an INDISSOCIABLE whole. It is from this perspective that the present guide has been drafted. Laminated elastomeric bearings (LEB) and pot bearings (PB) represent over 90 % of bearing used on bridges in France. Although at the extremities of the field of use, the reasons for choosing one type of bearing over another are quite obvious, they are less easy to discern in borderline cases. The choice of bearing type depends on a number of factors, including the load path, maximum rotation, horizontal displacement, durability, cost, the type of structure, the environment and structural arrangements. For this reason, it is difficult to determine the respective field of use of one method over another. For reactions of under 12 MN (calculated at ULS) on supports, laminated elastomeric bearings are wholly suitable. This value corresponds to plan dimensions of around 700 x 700 mm. Above 20 MN, pot bearings are preferable as they limit the bulk of the device. Between these two values, LEBs can be used, either by increasing the dimensions to 900 x 900mm for large structures, or by joining two smaller bearings. The latter solution is only easy to implement on box bridges and concrete slab bridges due to the space required for the bearings. They cannot easily be envisaged for girder bridges (composite or of prestressed concrete). However, in the event of large bearing rotations, LEBs may be suitable, but the thickness of the elastomer needs to be greatly increased, thus posing other problems. As regards horizontal displacement, the slide systems of PBs offer better quality and, therefore, higher durability. It is thus the displacement criteria that influence the choice. In any event, manufacturing constraints (mainly the size of presses) mean that the largest size of LEBs is currently limited to around 1000 x 1000 x 300mm as regards French manufacture (abroad, dimensions of 1200 x 1200 x 300mm can be reached). The cost of LEBs is lower than that of PBs. However, it must not be forgotten that the cost of bearings is a small percentage of that of the structure. In seismic areas, even for heavy load paths, LEBs are the preferred choice. In the absence of a fixed point, and taking into account the flexibility offered by LEBs, the overall behaviour of a structure in the event of moderate seismic activity is better. In the event of a strong earthquake, the LEBs would tear and replacing them would be less costly than for PBs.
`~=N=J=Introduction
1.1 Why replace the 2000 guide?
The guide that was published in 2000 was based on projected European standards or on those being drafted, which were, in any event, difficult to obtain directly from AFNOR. This explains the ambiguity of the document that was based on future standards at preparation stage, on structure design documents that had not been finalized either and on French standards regarding the verification of the bearing characteristics. This situation has now been clarified by the publication of all sections of the standard NF EN 1337 (except part 8 Guide bearings and blocked bearings) and the design standards (the Eurocodes used in this guide, at least). Furthermore, the publication of the sections of NF EN 1337 will, after the coexistence period (i.e. 31.12.2006), lead to the suppression of French standards on the same subject, in particular XP T 47.815. For these reasons, we deemed it necessary to revise the 2000 guide, to provide project designers with advice guidelines that take into account the most recent publications.
1.4 Scope
The rules set out in this technical guide are for the use of Bearings composed of elastomeric plates. These rules are only applicable to Bearings made of at least two elastomeric laminations bonded by vulcanization to metal plates (although the standard authorizes the use of bearings composed of a single lamination between two coated plates) (type B of the NF EN 1337-3) and if required, completed by sliding elements 3 (type D or E of the NF EN 1337-3) Anti-slipping or anti-lifting elements 4 (type C of the NF EN 1337-3).
2 3 4
Figure 2.1: typical composition of a laminated elastomeric bearing The base material is obtained by subjecting the raw material, mixed with various inert or reinforcing fillers, to a series of transformations. After treatment, the product is in the form of sheets a few millimetres thick. These are stacked with metal plates, which have previously been sanded and treated, in moulds, the dimensions of which match those of the product to be obtained. It is then compressed and vulcanized (by heating).
Figure 2.2: release from the mould on the press (photo SNAC) According to the amount of freedom authorized, a laminated elastomeric bearing is, as regards the elementary block, a mobile bearing. As well as the bearing rotations, displacements are accommodated in two directions. It is possible either to increase displacement capacity by adding a slide plane, or to prevent distortions using metal plates, thus making a fixed bearing. The scope of the standard (NF EN 1337-3, 1) specifies that only bearings of plan dimensions of under (1200 x 1200mm) are concerned.
NF EN 1337-3, 3.1
Figure 2.3: typical composition of a type B bearing according to the standard NF EN 1337-3 (fig. 2)
Figure 2.4: further lateral types of fixation on stainless steel slide plates
The upper part (or slide plate) can be fixed to the part of the structure in contact with the bearing. So as to follow displacements and to allow for checks during civil engineering inspections, these slide plates have a measuring rule. It is essential that the rule be positioned on the side where the inspector will probably take place. Furthermore, it is also highly recommended that the rules are set consistently within a same structure to ease operations. (cf. figure 2.5). To prevent them from being soiled during installation and service, these bearings must be fitted with a device that protects the slide plane (in all normal service circumstances). This device must be easily removable so that the bearing can be inspected and monitored. All these elements are defined in NF EN 1337-2, standardised through part 3.
7 8
NF EN 10025. The standard does not specify the part concerned, but it is parts 1 and 2. PolyTetraFluoro Ethylene or Teflon .
NN
Figure 2.5: an example of rule to monitor displacement (vertical bearing in an seismic-resistant stop) (photo Stra)
Anti-slipping bearings -with lugs (With type C bearings). NB: except in particular cases, lugs are only needed on one side. See also the device of figure 2.6. - glue-mounted (not shown) for low tangential forces (with type C bearings).
- with anchors.
Figure 2.7: design drawings of "fixed" bearings The drawing of the bearing with the anti-lifting system, copied from the standard, raises the following points: the drawbars must allow for rotations and it is advisable to position them in the axis of this rotation. The device must not hinder any displacement. It should not therefore be copied as is. It may be necessary to avoid distortion of the bearings. This is the case, in particular, when a line of fixed bearings needs to be created. The laminated elastomeric bearings are then fitted with a rigid metal structure that prevents horizontal travel of the deck whilst allowing the compression and rotation of the bearing. Figure 2.7 gives several examples of devices that may be suitable. These are, however, devices that are not often used and should be avoided as a solution with a type C bearing is preferable.
NP
Figure 3.1: table showing the different types of laminated elastomeric bearings according to NF EN 1337-3
Henceforth in this chapter, the reference of the paragraph concerned from NF EN 1337-3 will be specified in brackets in bold italics.
NR
Readers are reminded that this guide only deals with bearings of type B to E. Type A bearings (single reinforcement) or type F (non reinforced or strip bearing) are not used in civil engineering structures.
NF EN 1337-3 defines the geometric characteristics of the most widely used bearings. On a plan view, bearings are square, rectangular or circular in shape, although elliptic and octagonal shapes are also tolerated. The rules given in this document are for rectangular bearings. Please consult the standard as regards other shapes. Among type B bearings (multi-plated and coated on all sides, cf. figure 3.1), the following can be distinguished, in accordance with NF EN 1337: a) type B bearings defined in table 3 NF EN 1337-3. They include n+1 metal plates and n elastomeric laminations of a constant thickness. Their perimeter is coated with elastomer at least 4 millimetres thick and the upper and lower faces with a nominal 2.5mm thickness of elastomer (with a 0. + 2 mm tolerance). b) other type B bearings that include "active external half-laminations (cf. the table in appendix 3 of this guide). These are different in that the upper and lower elastomeric coatings are thicker. These are no longer simple protection coatings, but rather a half-lamination, the thickness of which is taken into account in the calculations defined in article 5.3.3.1 of NF EN 1337-3. It is suggested that they are designated with the number of intermediate laminations, mentioning the two external half-laminations or the external coatings. This gives the following example of a bearing designation: a x b; n(ti + ts); 2 e e.g. 200 x 300; 2 (10 + 3); 2 x 5, 400 x 500; 4 (12 + 4); 2 x 6, 700; 5 (16 + 5); 2 x 8 for a circular bearing. Figure 3.2 summarizes the characteristics of these bearings defined in NF EN 1337-3. Type B defined in table 3 of the standard With e = passive coating Type B With e = a half-lamination (examples of plan dimensions in appendix 3)
e = 2,5 mm e = ti / 2 Tb ts ti
Tb = 3 (ti + ts) + ts + 5mm n = 3 intermediate laminations, assuming that the coatings are not part.
ts Tb
Tb = 2 (ti+ ts) + ts + 2 ti/2 n = 2, the half-laminations can be taken into account in the calculation.
ti
e ts Tb ti
> 4 mm
According to the n number of intermediate laminations, three thicknesses required for dimensioning can be defined: Total nominal thickness of the bearing: Total nominal thickness of the elastomer: Average total initial thickness of the shear elastomer, including the upper and lower coatings. Tb = n (ti + ts) + ts + 2 e Te = n ti + 2 e Tq = n ti + 2 e Tq = n ti if e > 2.5 mm if e 2.5 mm
Indeed, if the nominal thickness of the coating is higher than 2.5mm, it must be taken into account in the design. Below that, it can be disregarded (EN 5.3.3).* * The advantage of a coating lamination of between 0.5 and 0.7 times the intermediate lamination is to ensure the same functions as the intermediate laminations and to better adapt them to the surface defects on the supports, without deforming the nearby plates. A thin coating lamination cannot absorb translation or almost any rotation and any defect in the flatness of the support can lead to localised slipping.
NT
Under dynamic effects, the standard recommends increasing the calculation value of the elastomer modulus (EN 5.3.3 note 2). Under the horizontal effect of operating loads10, we recommend a Gdyn modulus taken to be equal to 1.8 MPa in calculations. For seismic activity, please see appendix 1 of this document. There is a low temperature modulus G. In view of the climatic conditions of metropolitan France, it does not appear necessary to take it into account, as the National Application Document specifies. This would only be valid for ambient temperature of 25C and below, at which point the polychloroprene begins to crystallize. Some Nordic countries, Finland in particular, include a low temperature modulus G in their calculations, but only in regions with temperatures of below 30C.
10
For the vertical dynamic effects of operating loads, the modulus G should be used.
Verification of the deformation of slide plates (NF EN 1337-2 6.9.2) is only justified for difficult or specific applications (e.g. for type E bearings). In other cases, only the orders of magnitude need to be verified.
Fz
Under normal centred force Fz, a linear distribution of the distortion c is noted, linked to the shear in a layer of elastomer. Maximum distortion occurs at the middle of the large side b of the bearing. It is given by the formula (EN 5.3.3.2): N = 1,5 FZ c= G G Ar S
Fz
In this formula: G designates the conventional modulus of elastomer ( 3.2.2) with G = 0.9 MPa and Ar is the effective plan surface.
a
Figure 3.4: distortion of a bearing under axial force. To calculate Ar, the nominal lateral coating needs to be removed to obtain A1 (equal to the surface of plates A' reduced by the holes if there are any) and the horizontal deformations vx and vy need to be taken into account, that are caused by the horizontal force concomitant with the vertical force FZ.
NV
vx
a'
Figure 3.5: a surface reduced due to the effect of horizontal deformation.
We thus have
vy v avec A'= a'b' (if the plates do not have holes) A r = A' 1 - x a ' b'
The calculation of deformations vx and vy is relatively complex. As a first approach, we could often disregard the effect of vy and use the maximum value of vx. S is the form coefficient of the layer i in question:
avec l p = 2 (a '+b') et pour les feuillets des couches internes te = ti t e = 1,4 t i pour les feuillets des couches externes
A' S= lp t e
The standard also gives the means of estimating the total deformation vZ due to a vertical force FZ (EN 5.3.3.7):
vz = Fz t i A' 1 1 5G S 2 + E d b 1
With Eb = 2000 MPa S1: the form coefficient of the thickest lamination A' = a' x b': surface of the plates
This formula can be simplified as follows: v c = Fz T0 / A [1 / (5 G S12) + 1 / E b] This, however, is not logical insofar as, in the presence of external laminations, it is said that Si should be applied instead of S of these external laminations in their settlement calculation. The following formula would be more rational: Fz t i 1 1 vz = 5G S 2 + E avec E b = 2000 MPa A' d i b
Let us remember that in this formula, S designates the form coefficient of lamination "i" and that, in the event of a halflamination, the value of S is worth 2/1.4 times that of the intermediate lamination. The values obtained with this formula are slightly lower than those of the standard, thus making for a safer verification of the rotation stability (Cf. 3.4.1.3 below) and limiting any losses in contact with the support under the effect of rotations. Generally speaking, settlements obtained with these formulas are far too high in relation to the actual behaviour of the bearing, if we disregard the adaptation movements between 0 and 3 MPa. As an example, during tests, variations in pressure of between 5 and 15 MPa gave the following settlements:
Settlements Dimensions 200 x 300; 2 (8 + 2); 2 x 4 300 x 400; 3 (10 + 3); 2 x 5 400 x 500; 4 (12 + 3); 2 x 6 during tests 0.5 mm 0.6 mm 0.75 mm following the formula in the standard 1.16 mm 1.49 mm 1.93 mm following the modified formula above 0.98 mm 1.32 mm 1.76 mm
The standard specifies that the vertical deformation is only more or less proportional to the load after an initial settlement that we can estimate to be 2 mm. This value appears too high, especially when positioned on metal plates. Besides, a close look at a number of settlement tests reveals a very wide dispersion of results and this dispersion is difficult to explain. In fact, the calculated settlement value according to the standard indicates the maximum value obtainable on a compliant bearing. In some tests, settlement values can be observed that are twice as small as those of the normative calculation up to 8 Mpa and above 15 Mpa, they can be 3 times less than the calculated value. Consequently, bearing in mind this incertitude (together with note 2 of 5.3.3.7 of NF EN 1337-3), to ensure that the loading on bearings on the same line is uniform, it is highly advisable to plan for a combined installation (cf. 3.4.1.3). In the event of hyperstatic and highly rigid structures, testing is recommended in order to estimate the actual deformations of the bearings.
Fx
H
Fx
Under displacement vx or a horizontal force Fx, distortion is given by the formula (EN 5.3.3.3):
q =
vx F = x Tq G a b
q =tg
a
Figure 3.6: distortion of the bearing under a horizontal force In these formulas, the modulus G shall be taken as equal to 0.9 MPa for static loads and 1.8 MPa under dynamic effects (cf. 3.2.2). For simplification, for non-exceptional structures, displacements caused by wind are only considered at a static state. Furthermore, the project designer must compose the longitudinal and transversal forces vectorially, following the combinations of actions given in chapter 4 of this document (to obtain a force Fxy) when the case occurs.
ON
Mt
The value of the distortion , under the effect of the rotations a et b of the perpendicular axis on sides a and b of the bearing, is given by (EN 5.3.3.4):
(a'2 a + b'2 b ) t i =
2
t3 i
Mt
a
Figure 3.7: distortion of the bearing under a horizontal axis moment The restoring moment Mt is obtained according to the rotation by (EN 5.3.3.7):
Mt= G a'5 b' n t 3 KS i
In this formula, is the axis rotation parallel to side b of the bearing and n represents the number of internal laminations. Ks is given in the following table (cf. NF EN 1337-3, table 4): b/a Ks 0.5 137 0.75 100.0 1 86.2 1.2 80.4 1.25 79.3 1.3 78.4 1.4 76.7 1.5 75.3 1.6 74.1 1.7 73.1 1.8 72.2 1.9 71.5 2 70.8 2.5 68.3 10 61.9 60
K s = 26,2 e
b 1, 2785 ln a
+60
c, q and are the distortions calculated respectively under vertical force, horizontal force or displacements and deck rotations.
Moreover, the standard (EN 5.3.3.3) limits the distortion under horizontal force or displacements to 1: q < 1.
This limitation concerns force and displacements of both short and long duration. Furthermore, the load cases to be considered include concomitant force and displacement in two perpendicular directions that need to be composed vectorially for this verification. It should be noted that there is no limitation for c alone or Fz (other than that regarding buckling).
ts = m
with: Fz fy m
2,6 Fz ti Ar fy
Maximum applied vertical force, Yield strength of the steel of which the plates are composed (i.e. 235 MPa for S235 steel); Partial factor, the value of which is 1 in the National Application Document (cf. 1.3).
For bearings with varying thicknesses of elastomer layers or with plates that include holes, this formula is no longer valid and the standard should be consulted (EN 5.3.3.5, general formula). N.B: in cases where the bearings have high rotation requirements or are close to the buckling limit, it is advisable, for b'/a' < 1.24 ratios, to increase the thickness ts by 5 to 10 %.
Let us not forget that rotations a and b must include installation defects. These depend largely on care taken over the installation and the precision of deformation calculations during installation, but also on the extent of homogeneity inside the bearing. Wherever possible, an installation method that combines the surfaces should be used, for example with a mortar bed, caulking or the deck concrete cast-in-place. NF EN 1337-3 ( 7.1.4) is not clear about the values to adopt for installation defects, or about the way to take them into account. The following nominal values are therefore suggested:
0.003 radian in the case of combining methods 0.010 radian for structures placed directly onto the bearings.
OP
This formula is to be applied with the maximum reaction of the basic combination that has the highest Fz/Ar ratio and with a modulus of 0.9 MPa.
with: Fz,Gmin Minimum reaction under permanent load The most unfavourable concomitant vertical and horizontal force reaction
Fz and Fxy
N.B: except in cases where the bearing never returns to a position of zero displacement (vxy =0), the surface Ar must be taken equal to A to check the condition m 3 MPa. For the calculation of Fxy, we vectorially compose the horizontal force coming from all the concomitant actions and combinations of actions presented in chapter 4 of this document. Fxy is therefore composed of permanents or variable force applied directly to the deck (wind and breaking affects) and permanent or variable force from imposed deformations or distortions (temperature, shrinkage, creep, difference in level, etc.). The coefficient e is imposed by the standard in most cases: 1,5 K f F e = 0,1 + avec m = Z (en MPa) m Ar
K f = 0,60 pour le bton K f = 0,20 pour les autres surfaces y compris mortier en rsine
N.B: attention is drawn to the fact that most special mortars are not considered to be resin mortars. This coefficient may however have values below those given above. This is the case, for example, with bearings placed on painted metal sheets or on certain resins.
In conclusion, the verifications to carry out at ULS, under basic combinations, are summarized in the table of figure 3.9. Verification Limitation of distorsion Traction in the plates ULS Basic combinations = KL (c + q + ) < 7 et q < 1
ts= 2,6 Fz ti Ar fy a + b' b ) Kr
Limit in rotation
vz
( a'
Buckling stability
Fz 2 G a' S1 < Ar 3 Te
Fxy e Fz et Fz,Gmin A' 3 MPa
Non-slip
3.4.2 Assessment of actual contact surfaces and pressure to be distributed in the supports
3.4.2.1 Experimental results
All limitations given by NF EN 1337-3 are based on a shear modulus deduced from pure shear tests. However, the behaviour of a bearing in simple compression is more complex. The modulus varies in different points of the elastomer and is not consistent in accordance with the stress applied. Rotation further complicates shear distribution. This could be the cause of a number of heavings that have been noted on bearings in situ, under the effect of rotations applied to the deck. Indeed, even with a correctly-sized bearing, extreme rotations may cause decompression higher than the effect of the centred vertical load on the edge of a bearing. This decompression may well cause deterioration in the bearings. Experimental studies11 have enabled limit heaving curves to be established according to the rotation and the compression = Fz / A. These curves are given in figure 3.10, to illustrate the phenomenon observed in relation to the theoretical calculation. They justify the use of an adjustment coefficient Ka which represents the relation between the distortion due to compression c and distortion due to rotation , when heaving occurs. In theory, this coefficient is 1.00, but experience has shown that it can vary between the two values Ka min and Ka max (the maximum value Ka max varies from 2 to 2.75 respectively for an average pressure Fz/Ar of 0 to 50 MPa). As explained in 3.3.2.1 (as well as in note 2 of 5.3.3.7 of NF EN 1337-3), the wide dispersion of test results only allows for an approximate assessment of the minimum contact surface using calculation.
11
In particular tests carried out at as part of research at the LROP (West Paris Regional Laboratory).
OR
m = Fz / A r (MPa) 50
= F z / A' K a max en fonction de m Courbe scuritaire reprsentative des essais compression-rotation la limite du soulvement
K a min
40
30 m = 23,84 20
Limite normative
K a max = 2,47
thorique
Figure 3.10: compression-rotation behaviour prior to heaving. Determination of the adjustment factor Ka max.
12
3.4 .2.2.2 The design p rincip le for determin ing th e unifo rm p ressure and a possib le risk of h ea v ing (N.B: for simplification, only one rotation a of the axis parallel to side b is envisaged). Calculation according to the standard of the distortion criteria, Calculation according to the standard of the pressure m on the surface Ar, Determination of Ka max according to m (cf. figure 3.10), Calculation of the restoring moment, taking into account the maximum stiffness of the elastomer:
Mt =
If the 2 coating laminations are active, take n = n + 2 (e/ti)3, if not, take n' = n number of internal laminations. If the installation is combined, take = a 0.003. The value 0.003 rad corresponds to the "internal" precision of combined laying, a feature present in observations made during unsticking tests. Otherwise, take for the theoretical ULS value of calculations, increased by the installation precision (to be multiplied by 1.35 to obtain a ULS value). Calculation of the off-set of the result of the forces: excmax = Mt/Fz. a) If the value excmax is below a/6, they is no risk of heaving. There may however be contact loss without any real unsticking in the event of distortion coming from the displacement vx.
In this event, by simplifying, the value of the uniform pressure on the most stressed support is: unif = Fz / Aunif That is, on a surface of uniform pressure, Aunif = (a - 2 excmax - vx ) b The surface thus defined is that which should be taken into account for the diffusion of force in the supports (cf. table 4.4 of chapter 4). b) If the value excmax is above a/6, there is a risk of heaving.
In this case, an approximate calculation needs to be made of a coefficient Krs of reduction in surface contact by rotation using compression and rotation distortion values with the formula:
c
K rs =
3
K a max
represents the rotation distortion under an angle . The factor Ka max is given is the following table (as well as in figure 3.10): m (MPa) Ka max m (MPa) Ka max 0 - 10 2.00 32.5 2.62 12.5 2.05 35 2.64 15 2.17 37.5 2.67 17.5 2.29 40 2.69 20 2.38 42.5 2.71 22.5 2.44 45 2.72 25 2.50 47.5 2.74 27.5 2.55 50 2.75 30 2.58
Figure 3.11: table giving the values of adjustment factor Ka max according to the average stress m = Fz/Ar. The value of the new reduced surface is Krs (a - vx) b, from which m = Fz/Krs (a - vx) b and the minimum surface of uniform distribution is worth 2/3 of the preceding, therefore a uniform pressure of: unif = 3 Fz / 2 Krs (a - vx) b = 1.5 m The surface 2/3 Krs (a - vx) b is that which should be taken into account for the diffusion of force in the supports (cf. table 4.4 of chapter 4). In fact, we advise against the use of bearings in partial unsticking position under maximum loads. However, a contact loss of around 10% in service under basic combinations can be tolerated for small and medium-sized bearings. Under minimal loads, or in a provisional phase, a slightly higher unsticking can be envisaged. Obviously, the possibility of load diffusion in the supports will be checked.
OT
It is always preferable to add a lamination, so long as the non-buckling condition is still observed. N.B: in the case of a rotation in both directions of the bearing, the reduced surface in calculated in 2 steps, using the same method.
N.B: in the above example, this layout makes rotations difficult, which should be taken into account in the design.
3.5.3 Crosswise, several bearings that are intended to form a single point of support can be juxtaposed (figure 3.12 upper part). These bearings must be identical in composition and size. It must be remembered that such layouts should be justified, taking into account in particular rotations resulting from installation defects that are likely to exist crosswise. Generally speaking, it is inadvisable to place bearings that do not have the same dimensions perpendicular to the same point of support, due to differences in stiffness (figure 3.12). In the case of a skew bridge, with a number of girders, it is generally preferable to lay in the same line identical bearings, the size of which corresponds to that of the most stressed bearing, but paying attention to the minimum stress of the least stressed bearing in order to avoid slipping. 3.5.4 When bearings exert high compression stress on the supports, special precautions need to be taken. When the supports are made of reinforced concrete, allow for a minimum clearance of 10 to 15 cms in order to ensure correct stress distribution, the installation of the plates and their anchorages (figure. 3.14). In all cases, the recommendations relating to reinforced concrete constructions should be followed. 3.5.5 Care should be taken to position, insofar as is possible, the lower face of the bearing above the highest known water level or the hundred-year flood. 3.5.6 Bearing markings The position on the structure, the size and direction of any pre-settings, together with the installation direction must be clearly indicated on the bearings. 3.5.7 Replacing bearings In the case of a change of bearings on a bridge in service, as with any repair, when a replacement bearing is sized, this sizing will be a compromise between the calculation rules of the present document and the possibilities on the existing structure (available height, plan dimensions, etc.). To assess the adjustments to the present rules, contact the design department of the technical network offices.
Figure 3.14: an example of a construction layout, highlighting the necessity of plating perpendicular to the jacking location.
OV
PN
In the calculation example, to simplify, we will only consider the UDL, TSk and qfk loads, together with the braking loads, which give table 4.2.
N + 1.35 {UDLk + TSk + q fk,comb } + 1.5 {0. 6 Tk} 1.35 Gk,sup + Gk,inf + P + S + C + 1.35 gr2 + 1.5 Tk + 1.35 {0.4 UDLk + 0.75 TSk + 0.4 q fk,comb} 2 4 8
Table 4.2: the combinations chosen for the example Horizontal force that intervenes in the preceding combinations is to be calculated using the following methods: For braking: NF EN 1991-2 defines the breaking force to be applied to the deck as a fraction of the maximum load that can be put on the busiest lane of the load model 1 (NF EN 1991-2 4.4.1). These fractions are 10% for UDL distributed load and 60% for TS concentrated loads. If we take a class 2 structure, the main lane of which is 3 metres wide, the total braking force, in characteristic value, for a deck of length L is given by:
40 C
45 C
55 C
Temperature variations resulting from these maximum and minimum temperatures can be calculated according to a temperature T0 which is taken as equal to 10 C in the absence of any specification on the project. To calculate the positioning of bearings or their slide plates, NF EN 1991-1-5 recommends that a supplement be added to this temperature variation range. This supplement is 20 C, or 10 C if the installation temperature is specified. The
13
At the time of writing, the National Appendix is being updated in view of future publication.
interpretation that we give to this recommendation is that if the bearing is loaded at a temperature close to + 10C (equilibrium temperature), the supplement will be 10C. The coefficients of expansion provided for in the Eurocode are 1 x 10-5/C for concrete decks and 1.2 x 10-5/C for steel bridges (NF EN 1991-1-5 Appendix C). For decks of composite structures, NF EN 1994-2 specifies in paragraph 5.4.2.5 (3) that this coefficient must be taken as equal to 1.2 x 10-5/C for the calculation of expansion, and 1 x 10-5/C for the calculation of thermal gradients. We should also specify, even though the Eurocodes do not indicate it explicitly, that the calculation of forces distribution in the various bearings, and therefore the forces in the piers, should be carried out using the instantaneous modulus of concrete.
4.2 - Dimensioning
4.2.1 - Introduction
The best way to understand the procedure for calculating the dimensions of bearings is to use an example (which is not a real case and is only used to illustrate the procedure). We shall consider the dimensioning of laminated elastomeric bearings of a structure made of prestressed concrete cast-inplace (PSI-DP). The structure in question has 3 spans and an overall length of 62 m. The width of the slab is 12.30 m for a thickness of 0.90 m.
Figure 4.1: lengthwise section of the structure Each bearing line has two bearings. The forces and deformations imposed are summarized in table 4.3 (forces for a single bearing to basic ULS for the abutment C0. These forces are the result of a general dimensioning calculation of the structure (a computer calculation completed by manual notes that supposes a uniform distribution of forces on each bearing in a same line).
PP
V (MN)
(10 rad)
-3
Vx* (m)
Hx (MN)
Comb N
Maxi 1.35 Gsup + Gmin + S + C + 1.35 LMcara + 1.5 (0.6T) Mini Maxi 1.35 Gsup + Gmin + S + C + 1.35 gr2 + 1.5 (0.0T) Mini Maxi 1.35 Gsup + Gmin + S + C + 1.5 T + 1.35 LMfreq Mini Gmin (at service start date of the bearings)
0.055 0.055 -
N.B:
Table 4.3: calculated force and deformations The following calculations correspond to the recommended procedure for dimensioning a bearing.
with
vx = v1 + v2
v1 = maximum horizontal displacement due to temperature and shrinkage. v2 = maximum horizontal displacement due to breaking. vx = v 1 + v2 = v +
1
H x x Tq 2G a b
= 0,061 +
= 0.061 + 0.170 Tq
v1 = maximum horizontal displacement due to temperature and shrinkage. v2 = 0 vx = v1 = 0.080 m from which Tq 0.080 m For information, combination n 2 of table 4.3 gives us: Tq 0.070 m
We can choose 6 intermediate laminations of 12mm and 2 coatings of 6 mm, i.e. Te = 84 mm.
= = = = =
m2 m2 m m m
(not chosen because insufficient: A' < 0.18) (not chosen for this example) chosen
N.B: the surface A' is calculated taking into account a total coating of 2 x 5 = 10 mm. A bearing is generally chosen that is rectangular in shape, and with the smallest side a, parallel to the longitudinal axis of the structure, so as to allow maximum rotation (a < b). These leads to the choice of a bearing of 400 x 600. That is, with values a' = 390 mm b' = 590 mm and A= 2301 cm.
0,055 0,084 2 x 0,9 0,2301
The new total displacement calculation for combination n 4 (with actual A) is: v1 = 0,061 m v2 = = 0,011 m
vx = v1 + v2 = 0.061 + 0.011 = 0.072 m We therefore choose vx = max(0.070; 0.072; 0.080) = 0.080 m (combination n 8) Ar = The bearing is suitable. For information, combinations n 2, 4 and 8 of table 4.3 give us: Ar (comb 2) = 0.1888 m Ar (comb 4) = 0.1875 m Ar (comb 8) = 0.1829 m2 (see the example above)
0, 080 2 2 ( 0, 2301) 1 = 0.1829 m > 0.1800 m 0, 39
PR
The value of the vertical force is: Vmax = 4.50 MN corresponding to combination n 2 of table 4.3. (N.B: the combination of the maximum vertical load is not always preponderant). Average pressure of m =
Vmax Ar
4, 50 Ar
= 23.835 MPa
with Ar = 0.1888 m
The total thickness of the elastomer is Te = 7 x 0.012 = 0.084 m (Te was given in chapter 3). limit pressure lim = from which
2 x 0,39 x 0,9 x 9,783 2 a' G S1 = = 27.253 MPa 3 Te 3 x 0,084
condition checked
If this condition has not been checked, in particular due to the significant height of the elastomer needed to take the longitudinal displacement, sliding bearings or larger surface bearings should be used. For information, combinations n 4 and 8 of table 4.3 give us respectively: Ar = 0.1875 m m = 19.997 MPa Ar = 0.1829 m m = 20.886 MPa The preceding condition has been checked for these two combinations. lim = 27.253 MPa lim = 27.253 MPa
qd =
0,39 x 0,0087 x 0,012
0, 070 0, 084
= 0.833
2 x 6 x 0,012 + 2 x 0,006
Case n 2
Vertical force with displacement due to thermal effects and breaking (combination n 4 of table 4.3).
cd =
1, 5 Fz
1, 5 3, 75 0, 9 0,1875 9, 783
= 3.407
G Ar S
vx = 0.072
2
qd =
0, 072 0, 084
= 0.857
d =
cd =
1, 5 3, 82 0, 9 0,1829 9, 783
= 3.558
0, 080 0, 084
vx = 0.080
2
qd =
= 0.952
d =
from which
1 1 Fz ti 1 1 3,82 x 7 x 0,012 + = 0.00393 m, that is, 3.93 mm 5GS 2 + E = A' 0,2301 b 5 x 0,9 x 9,783 2000 1
2
Fz t i A'
1 5G S
2 1
Eb
a 'a + b 'b Kr
condition checked
PT
= 1.13 mm
Vz = 3.86 mm
a 'a + b 'b Kr
= 1.03 mm
NB: the value 0.07 is obtained by adding V1 (0.059 of table 4.3) and V2 (0.011) calculated for combination 4 of 4.2.4. min =
Vmin Ar
e = 0.1 +
1, 5 K f
= 0.1 +
Fx = (
0, 059 0, 084
Condition checked For information, combinations n 2 bis and 8 bis of table 4.3 give us respectively: Ar = 0.1900 m Ar = 0.1841 m min = 3.737 Mpa min = 4.074 Mpa e = 0.341 e = 0.321 Fx = 0.168 MN e Fd = 0.242 MN Fx = 0.192 MN e Fd = 0.241 MN
Ar f y
plates, with an yield strength of fy = 235 MPa). We then arrive at the value of minimum thickness, generally speaking, under maximum vertical force: ts =
2, 6 4, 50 0, 012 0,1888 235
= 0.00316 m
a = 0 .015 rad
2
Distorsions:
= a 0.003 as the faces are presumed to be combined n' = n + 2 (6/2)3 = 6 + 0.25 = 6.25 Mt = 2.47 [0.9 (0.015 0.003) x 3905 x 590)] / (6.25 123 75.3) = 174.6 MN.mm excmax = Mt / Fz = 174.6 / 4.500 = 38.8 mm The uniform pressure surface is a rectangle: 6 excmax = 232.8 < a = 390 mm OK. No risk of heaving
The intensity of the pressure unif is 4500000/143013 = 31.47 Mpa The new average pressure is distributed according to a triangular diagram on a width a: a = 242 x 1.5 = 363 mm, that is, a surface of 363 x 590 and an average pressure of 4500000/363 x 590 = 20.98 MPa < 27.253 MPa (non-buckling condition).
PV
Distorsions
Mt = 2.47 [0.9 (0.024 0.003) 3905 590] / (6.25 123 75.3) = 305.6 MN.mm excmax = Mt / Fz = 305.6 / 4.500 = 67.9 mm Krs = ( c / Ka max: 6 excmax = 407.4 < a = 390 mm NO
)1/3 =
(A heaving risk on around 2.5 % of the surface, without taking into account the horizontal displacement) The uniform pressure surface is a rectangle: a = 2/3 Krs ( a - vx ) = 2/3 0.975 (390 70) = 208 mm b = 590 mm, do Aunif = 122705 mm2
The intensity of the pressure unif is 4500000/122705 = 36.67 MPa The new average pressure is distributed according to a triangular diagram on a width a: a = 208 1.5 = 312 mm, that is, a surface of 312 590 and a pressure of 4500000/312 x 590 = 24.45 MPa < 27.25 MPa The buckling stability is thus verified for the most critical face of the bearing. If this was not the case, we would need to recheck this condition, making the average of the average stresses on the 2 interfaces. One of the interfaces is not subjected to any decompression, the other can be subject to heaving on the width a, de (390 312) = 78 mm, that is 23.6 % of the interface surface. By adding a lamination, there remains only a loss of contact that is mainly due to horizontal movements as shown by the study of the previous case. If 2 laminations are added, the buckling stability is not respected. A bearing 450 600; 5 (16 + 4); 2 8 meets the requirements of loads in this case without any risk of heaving and with the least pressure on the interfaces.
Table 4.4: the breakdown of pressure diagrams according to the type of load
4.3 Calculating horizontal force on support heads on a structure with typical bearings
4.3.1 General points
As was mentioned above, the horizontal force exerted on the deck (such as breaking and wind) depends on the characteristics of the supports themselves. In particular, if there is dissymmetry, this force is not distributed identically, which can be a reason for dimensioning different bearings. The same applies to force developed by the deck in accordance with the displacement imposed by deformations of the structure (such as shrinkage, creep and temperature). The forces are distributed according to the rigidity of each support. The rigidity R of a support is, by definition: 1 R = , being the displacement of the support head under the effect of a horizontal force unit. This displacement = 1 + 2 + 3 comes from the distortion of the bearing, the deformation of the body of the support and, finally, from the deformation of the foundation (figure 4.2). It should be noted that the stiffnesses R1 and R2 of a bearing are to be calculated for both cases indicated above: slow deformations and dynamic force. The Eurocode recommends using the instantaneous modulus of the concrete for the pier. However, as regards elastomer, its instantaneous modulus is to be used for dynamic force (cf. 3.3.2.2, Gdyn = 2 x 0.9 = 1.8 MPa) and its reference modulus (0.9 MPa) for slow deformations (such as shrinkage, creep and temperature).
4.3.2.1 - Deformation
The data represent variations of lengths l i of each span of a continuous deck. We thus know the relative displacement of bearing "i" in relation to bearing "1" situated on the far left: i - 1 =
li
1
i 1
= di
H1,i
1
= 0 we can deduce
1 =
R
1
n
1,i
di
R
1
1,i
2, i
= i
2, i
= H2
H2,i = H2
R2, i
2, i
Figure 4.3: elevation of the structure used as an example The support head displacement is as follows: Abutments: the abutments are presumed to be infinitely rigid, only the bearings distort. Taking into account two bearings per line, we therefore have: - under static force - under dynamic force: : u1 =
1 Te 2 Gab
1 2
= 0.1693 m/MN
u2 = 0.0847 m/MN
We presume that the abutments lie on very high-quality soil and that the foundation deformation is therefore negligible. Piers: all displacement caused by rotations and displacement of the foundation is shown in the table below. The displacement caused by the bearings is calculated as for that of the abutments. 4Q================Laminated elastomeric bearings Use on bridges, viaducts and similar structures
Pier (2) stat 0.0741 0.0091 0.0832 12.02 dyn 0.0370 0.003 0.040 25.0 stat
N.B: for illustration purposes, we have taken highly dissymmetrical values for the flexibility of the supports. It must be remembered that the flexibility of the piers must be taken in consideration of the instantaneous modulus of the concrete for dynamic loads and daily effects of temperature. The attention of the project designer is drawn to the fact that the bearing calculation must take into account the maximum instantaneous stiffness of the soil, whilst it is the minimum time dependent stiffness that is taken for the calculation of the foundations. 4.3 .2.3.2 Ho r izo n ta l fo rc e d ue to linea r var ia tion s of the d eck The relative displacements di of the supports in relation to the left-hand support are: Displacement support 2 = - 0.0152 = - 0.015 m Displacement support 3 = - 0.0152 - 0.0212 = - 0.036 m Displacement support 4 = - 0.0364 - 0.0152 = - 0.052 m
R
1
1, i
R
1
1, i
= 32.37
and so i= -
R
1 n 1
1, i
di
1, i
2 = - 0.015 + 0.0247 = 0.0065 m 3 = - 0.036 + 0.0247 = - 0.0117 m 4 = - 0.052 + 0.0247 = - 0.0269 m 4.3 .2.3.3 Ca lc ula ting the d istributio n of a break ing force The preponderant case is that of breaking force. The force is 0.60 MN14. The forces on the support heads will thus be: 11,81 = 0.60 x = 0.104 MN for the abutments H2,1 = H2,4 68,10 H2,2 H2,3 = 0.60 x = 0.60 x
25,0 = 0.220 MN for pier 2 68,10 19,48 = 0.172 MN for pier 3 68,10
14
Readers are reminded that the value suggested by the national annex to NF EN 1991-2 is 0.5 MN (cf. 4.1).
45
4.3 .2.3.4 - Summa ry The following table represents the deformations and forces calculated for a single bearing. It can be noted that differences in displacement are quite low, but the same does not apply to breaking force. These values are summarized in the table below (forces for one bearing). In this column, the calculation presumes a fixed point in the middle of the structure and uniform distribution of breaking on the 4 bearings. With the flexibility of the supports and the chosen bearings: Abutment 1 1 deformation (m) breaking (MN) 0.026 0.045 0.027 0.031 0.011 0.045 Pier 2 0.012 0.066
In this case, to simplify, as this is a common engineering structure, we will put the initial-size bearings on the abutments and piers. When all the calculations are completes, force on the abutments is slightly reduced in the event of breaking, but in an insufficient proportion to modify the bearings. Consequently, it is often of little use, in common cases, to make complex calculations taking into account this flexibility. Instead, more care should be taken over the initial dimensioning, not forgetting a combination load that may affect the size. These thus remain 350 x 450; 3 (12 + 3); 2 x 6 on abutments.
For the verification of an isolated bearing, the relation between the mobilizable force H and the concomitant vertical force is expressed: H = ( + PP + PL) V in which is the friction coefficient of the bearing for the vertical load V. PP is the installation precision of the bearing, corresponding to any defect in horizontality (PP is positive in the formula above). PL is any gradient voluntarily given to the sliding plane. PP and PL are positive in the preceding formula. In the calculation of the distribution of horizontal force, the installation precision PP is ignored, as it has already been accounted for by the weighting of the friction coefficient (a and r) from which H = ( + PL) V. It should be noted that any force due to breaking on the deck must be wholly assumed by the non-slide bearings. (cf. 4.4.1.4).
pressure on the PTFE, that we will take equal to Fz/A for type D bearings. We will take into account the actual surface of PTFE for E type bearings. Furthermore, pressure must be limited to 30 MPa.
E.g. a 4-span structure with two ordinary bearings on central piers and two sliding bearings on each of the abutments: n= 4 from which = 1 a = 0.5 max (1 + 1) = max = 5.3 % (taking into account the pressure p = 12.65 MPa) r = 0.5 max (1 - 1) = 0
15
cf. Bibliography
4T
Figure 4.4: the main dimensions of the studied structure The load paths are summarized in the following table: For a pier (2 bearings) C0 and C4 Permanent loads V max (MN) V min (MN) max rot (10-3 rad) min rot Traffic loads V max (MN) V min (MN) concom rot Vmax concom rot Vmin Thermal gradient V (MN) Rot (10-3 rad) (10-3 rad) (10-3 rad) 2.98 2.87 1.1 0.8 1.57 -0.56 -2.0 1.3 0.29 0.6 P1 and P3 17.88 17.76 -0.5 -0.8 3.74 -0.66 -0.5 0.2 -0.40 0.3 P2 18.34 18.32 -0.2 -0.2 3.78 -0.54 0 0 0.22 0
We show here the linear compressions taken into account for each span, as with the preceding case: End spans (1) and (4) Shrinkage/creep Uniform temperature Total 10.4 mm 20.8 mm 31.2 mm Central spans (2 and 3) 15.6 mm 31.2 mm 46.8 mm
The displacements are calculated as in paragraph 4.3. If there are sliding bearings, the difficulty lies in the fact that these bearings work up to a certain threshold. Below the sliding force, their flexibility is the same as if they were not sliding. Above, their flexibility is "infinite". An initial calculation thus needs to be made, taking them as non-sliding bearings and then, if the force corresponding to the displacement goes beyond the threshold, their flexibility needs to be replaced by a corresponding limit force and the balance of horizontal force needs to be recalculated.
We choose (thereby verifying the maximum stress of 30 MPa on the concrete): C0 and C4 1 bearing of 400 x 500 P1 - P2 - P3 2 bearings of 700 x 600*
* the values calculated for maximum and minimum reactions on piers takes into account a difference in stiffness of 15 % for each twinned bearing (cf. note of 5.3.3.7 of NF EN 1337-3).
Figure 4.5: the lay-out of pier bearings. For horizontal displacements, calculations are greatly simplified if we consider a point 0 in the geometric centre of the structure. In this case, the maximum displacements to take into account will be: C0 and C4 P1 and P3 P2 unit vi max 78 47 0 mm
This calculation immediately shows that abutment bearings of small size must be sliding as it would be impossible to stack enough layers of elastomer to absorb the displacement. With the principles of paragraph 4.2, we arrive at: C0 and C4 1 bearing of 400 x 500; 3 (12 + 3); 2 x 6 P1 - P2 -P3 2 bearings of 700 x 600; 6 (16 + 4); 2 x 8
4V
(static)
(static)
Sliding bearings on abutments have a friction coefficient of around 5.3 % on maximum load. Taking into account a maximum vertical force of 2.33 MN (for one bearing), the maximum limit sliding force per abutment is: Hlim = 0.053 x 2 x 2.33 = 0.25 MN
For maximum deformation, taken as equal to 6 x 10-4 (CP and uniform temperature), the relative displacements di of the bearings in relation to the left-hand support are: Displacement of support 1 = - 0.031 = - 0.031 m Displacement of support 2 = - 0.031 - 0.047 = - 0.078 m Displacement of support 3 = - 0.078 - 0.047 = - 0.125 m Displacement of support 4 = - 0.125 - 0.031 = - 0.156 m
R1,i di = -3.276
R
1
1, i
= 44.09
and therefore
0 = -
R
1 n 1
1, i
di
1, i
1 = - 0.031 + 0.074 = 0.043 m 2 = - 0.078 + 0.074 = - 0.004 m 3 = - 0.125 + 0.074 = - 0.051 m 4 = - 0.156 + 0.074 = - 0.082 m
The corresponding horizontal force can be deduced: C0 displacement H Hlim M MN 0.074 0.56 0.25 P1 0.043 0.52 P2 -0.004 -0.03 P3 -0.051 -0.43 C4 -0.082 -0.61 0.25
We can confirm that the bearings C0 and C4 slide. 2 n d itera tion Sliding bearings have zero stiffness. We replace the values of Ri for C0 and C4 by 0. The calculations gets more complicated, however, as we have to successively study three case scenarios, namely: The sliding bearings all have the same friction. Those of the supports situated on the left of the point 0 have a value equal to the minimum value ( 4.4.1.3), and maximum for thus situated on the right. And the opposite, namely the maximum values for the supports on the left and the minimum for those on the right. There are 4 sliding bearings on the full number of bearings. The friction coefficients are therefore ( 4.4.1.3): minimum a = max = 5.3 % maximum r =0
Case 1 the same friction coefficient value on the left and the right
In this case, we replace the value of the product Ri x di by the limit value of H for the supports C0 and C4. The calculation becomes: C0 Ri Sum Ri Ri x di or Hlim Sum Hi point 0 displacement H Hlim -2.105 120.65 0.072 0.25 0.25 0.041 0.50 -0.006 -0.05 -0.052 -0.45 -0.084 0.25 0.25 29.084 -0.235 -0.375 -0.666 -1.065 0.235 0 P1 12.019 P2 8.532 P3 8.532 C4 0
5N
We conclude that the maximum displacement in P 1 can be in P 2 in P 3 Under only permanent loads, the displacements are:
N.B: it must be understood that the presence of sliding bearings transforms the structure into a non-linear system. Strictly speaking, it is not therefore possible to superimpose the forces and displacements of each of these actions to combine them. However, that would lead to complicated calculations that are quite useless in relation to the differences in the values to be calculated. We could therefore simply consider that the displacement value due to the uniform temperature is the difference between the calculation with the maximum linear compression (here 6.10-4) and the linear compression due to permanent loads (2.10-4).
4.4 .2.4.2 Ca lc ula ting the d istributio n of a braking fo rce As regards breaking, it is presumed to be distributed only on non-sliding bearings. The value of the force assumed by the support is directly proportional to the stiffness of the bearing. We obtain: Pier 1 v1 Bearing Foundation + shaft Total Ri = 1
v
The sum of the stiffnesses is equal to 63.92. For a breaking force of 0.36 MN, the distribution is thus: 24,97 - pier 1 H1 = = 0.391 HT = 0.14 MN 64,92 - piers 2 and 3 H2 =
19,47 = 0.305 HT = 0.11 MN 64,92
4.4 .2.4.3 The in cidence on b earing ca lcula tions When verifying bearings, the preceding calculations give rise to a slight over-sizing of bearings on the piers, with those on the abutments having been correctly dimensioned from the start. When all the calculations have been completes, so as to adapt as precisely as possible to the forces and deformations applied to bearings, we could reduce the number of laminations. C0 and C4 1 bearing of 400 x 500 3 x (12 + 3); 2 x 6 (unchanged) 4 x (16 + 4); 2 x 8 P1 P2 2 bearings of 700 x 600 3 x (16 + 4); 2 x 8 6 x (16 + 4); 2 x 8 (unchanged) P3
As the bearings on the piers have been modified, we need to recalculate the distribution of forces. This calculation proves that the bearings on the piers are suitable.
5P
`~=R==Controls
5.1 General principles
Bearings are important elements of structures, such as bridges and viaducts, ensuring that they operate correctly. The durability of the structure depends on their quality, as does it remaining in a state of service. We can appreciate the need for quality bearings by the financial consequences of any failure on their part. Indeed, the costs incurred by having to change a failed bearing are out of all proportion in relation to the supply cost. The ratio is around 50 to 1 and is sometimes much higher. The life expectancy of bearings is the result both of their intrinsic qualities and of the care taken over this implementation. Together with the rational choice of the different types of bearings, the quality and the consistency of their manufacture also needs to be assured. The quality of these products depends on expertise in the manufacturing process. Quality Assurance provisions should enable you to: convey the quality required in terms of manufacturing methods obtain the quality required check that it has been reached justify subsequently that it has been reached and checked. As well as the general quality aspect, laminated elastomeric bearings have certain particularities: their manufacture and marketing requires equipment and investments that are prerogative of specialized companies their technology necessitates long and costly analyses and laboratory tests that can only be conducted on each construction site. The full range of these considerations has lead to the implementation of a certification procedure to assess compliance with the essential requirements defined by the Directive on products of construction (known as the DPC of 21/12/88) and which is validated by a level 1 CE marking (there is level 3 CE marking on bearings, which is not used on bridges). This CE marking depends on the standardised part of NF EN 1337-3.
This question remains open and negotiations are underway to try to implement a quality label that brings back this aspect of a regular annual control, in addition to the CE marking.
Figure 5.1: a distortion test to determine the modulus G and the shear strength. (photo Stra)
NR
Following the preceding test, the horizontal force is increased, at the same time as the vertical load is increased until a deformation is obtained corresponding to = 2.0. b) Compression behaviour in accordance with appendix H of NF EN 1337-3 The deformation of a test specimen is continually measured up to a pre-determined compressive stress. c) Rotation behaviour under an eccentric load in accordance with appendix J of NF EN 1337-3 The test consists: Either of measuring the rotation angle and any contact surface loss of the test specimen under an increasing and eccentric compressive force of a predetermined value Or of finding the eccentricity limit corresponding to a predetermined contact surface, under a fixed compressive force.
b) Determination of stress relaxation in shear with standard XP T 47.807 Under the following conditions: at an ambient temperature 23C 2C during a minimum test period of three months, under a compressive stress of 6 MPa and a distortion of tg = 0.7, the following results should be obtained: Rcst 20 %. DRC 23 C, C 25 % No defects accepted: bond, small cracks, larger cracks, breakdown, breakage, etc. These evaluations have not been chosen for the assessment for CE marking. However, French standards are maintained and it is possible to perform evaluation tests for specific situations.
e) Other standards, applicable to vulcanized elastomer and not to the finished product, enable any physical variations to be assessed and the results to be measured. It is the case, for example, with the standard NF ISO 1817: "determination of the effect of liquids (form oils)".
There is, however, nothing to stop you checking compliance by the performing of controls on reception. If the CE marking and the specifications of the standard have not been respected, the anti-fraud service should be informed. However, for a specific application, constructions managers are completely free to define a product that will be specific to the structure and will be manufactured solely for it. In this case, they should ensure, based on the standards NF EN and/or simply on national standard (cf. 5.2.2.2 and 5.2.2.3 of the test standards not taken up at European level in the EN standard) that the product is market-compliant. As regards the National Application Document of NF EN 1337-3, we recommend that construction managers use the examples of Particular Technical Clauses (CCTP) that are to be found in appendix 4.
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16 17
This operation is performed by jacking and can avoid the use of sliding bearings on the abutments. A Stra publication - reference F0230 and LCPC FASC13.
The EC8 puts elastomeric bearings into two classes: special elastomeric bearings and simple elastomeric bearings. The so-called special elastomeric bearings have to be tested according to a detailed procedure (EC8-2 appendix K and prEN 15129) that is relatively extensive and is applicable to all seismic-resistant insulation devices. Elastomeric bearings that have not undergone these tests on prototypes are called simple. The vast majority of laminated elastomeric bearings used in France today fall into the simple category. For this reason, this appendix deals with simple laminated elastomeric bearings.
0,3 Fy Fx 0,3 Fz
Fy 0,3 Fx 0,3 Fz
0,3 Fy 0,3 Fx 0 3 Fx Fz
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Figure A2: mass beam design model When a deck lies on laminated elastomeric bearings, it is the bearings that provide the most flexibility to the structure. It is therefore essential that they are taken into account in the dynamic model that enables the natural periods to be calculated. In theory, the bearing should be modelled by a multi-directional spring that functions both in traction-compression and rotation, that is, by six stiffnesses (figures A2 and A3).
Figure A.3: modelling using springs The stiffnesses should be calculated as shown in table A.2 (NF EN 1337-3, 5.3.3.7). In the vast majority of cases, the bearing can be considered as infinitely rigid in a vertical direction and infinitely flexible in rotation, resulting in the simplified formulation of the third column. Stiffness Kx and Ky Kz Complete formulae according to the notations of NF EN 1337-3 A.Gb / Te
1
ti 1 1 + 2 E b A 5 G b S1
K rectangular
Gb Gb
a 5 b n ti Ks D' 6 512 n t i
3 3
K circular
Kz
Table A.2: calculation of stiffnesses Ks is a tabulated parameter according to the relation b/a (NF EN 1337-3, article 5.3.3.7, table 4).
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A1-5 - Recommendations
Generally speaking, verifications to be performed are the same as for other loads. No heaving is permitted perpendicular to elastomeric bearings. Recommendations under seismic load combinations are detailed below (NF EN 1998-2, article 7.6).
The value given to m in the expression (5.2) of NF EN 1337-3 will be set by the national application document. The value currently recommended in NF EN 1998-2, is m = 1.15. Furthermore, the seismic calculation displacement must be allocated a reliability coefficient IS=1, 50 (recommended value, to be set in the National Annex of NF EN 1998-2).
q ,d 2,0
The distortion calculation takes into account the deformations imposed as specified above (cf. A.1.2).
A1-5.2 - Buckling
As for other loads, seismic combinations are used for verification:
Fz ,d Ar A1-5.3 - Slippage
2 a Gb S 3 Te
Here also, the same verifications are to be performed as for normal loads, but taking into account the seismic effect. However, the friction coefficient to use is that of the Service Limit State.
K Fxy,d 0,1 + f Fz,d m
where
m =
Fz,d Ar
and
m 3,0 MPa
Contrary to the specifications of NF EN 1337-3, this last clause is not to be checked under permanent loads, but rather under the most unfavourable seismic combination (probably when there is an upward vertical seism). In most cases, it will not be possible to check non-slip conditions in a seismic zone and anti-slipping devices will have to be implemented.
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The clearance must not be greater so as to limit the impact effects resulting from the movement of the deck, and the stop is designed to take up a force H equal to 40 % of the seismic design force. Figure A.4 shows one possible arrangement. This involves a reinforced concrete stop integral with the pier shaft. This stop penetrates into a recess made in the underside of the deck at a height of around 10 cm, sufficient for the transmission of force H. Seismic coupling thus constituted works equally well transversally and longitudinally.
Figure A.4: example of a stop Seismic couplings should be calculated according to the regulations adapted to their material. Verifications are to be performed at Ultimate Limit State with the nominal value of the weight taken up by the support concerned (in other words, Q will not be weighted by 1.35). The safety coefficients applicable to the materials are those corresponding to the basic combinations (EC8-2 DAN article 5.2). For reinforced concrete stops, the part of NF EN 1992-2 (EC2) that deals with short corbels can be applied. Care must be taken so as the stops do not bring about modifications that could adversely affect the life on the bearings (water discharge, jacking potential, hindering thermal expansion, etc.).
lov = lm + d eg + d es
The first term, lm, represents the minimum length of the support cover allowing the transmission of loads. A value lower than 40 cm should not be used. The last two terms represent the relative displacement between the deck and its support under seismic activity. It has two parts: des is the displacement calculated under seismic excitation (NF EN 1998-2, article 6.6.4 (3) A); deg is the actual displacement between two parts resulting from differential ground displacement (cf. figure A.6). It enables the relative difference between the foundations of the two supports to be taken into account, a factor that is not considered in the dynamic calculation of the structure (giving des). It must be assessed in accordance with the specifications of laws defining seismic action (NF EN 1998-2, 6.6.4 (3) and appendix D or guide AFPS 92). Verification should be carried out, for example, of the support rest when the longitudinal stops are unilateral devices placed on the crossheads of the abutments. It needs to be ascertained that the overhang of the bearing shelf is sufficient for the deck not to fall in the event of a relative variance between the two abutments. Similarly, for decks that are relatively rigid in design and for short structure, it can be sufficient to put transversal seismic couplings on the abutments. It then needs to be ascertained that the support rest is sufficient for the various piers.
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A2-5 - Conclusion
Whatever measures have already been taken, or will be taken at European Standardisation level, as far as the manufacture of sliding bearings is concerned, the risk and the gravity of disorders have to be assessed, along with the cost of replacing the bearings throughout the entire service life of the structure, as from the project stage.
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^=P=J=Table of dimensions
Type B bearing with e = half-sheet
Coating by 2 half-sheets, Tq < a'/3 and Tb max < 300 mm Dimensions a 100 100 150 150 150 200 200 200 200 200 250 250 250 250 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 350 350 350 b 150 200 200 250 300 200 250 300 350 400 250 300 350 400 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 350 400 450 6 x x x x Sheet thickness in mm 8 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 10 12 16 20 Dimensions 350 350 350 400 400 400 400 400 450 450 450 500 500 500 500 500 600 600 600 700 700 700 800 800 900 500 550 600 400 450 500 550 600 500 550 600 500 550 600 650 700 600 650 700 700 800 900 800 900 900 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Sheet thickness in mm x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
2.2.2
Article in the event of using laminated elastomer bearings with sliding planes A2.3 Bearing with sliding planes are to include perforations in the PTFE with lubrication and an appropriate protection of the sliding plane (cf. 7.3 and 7.4 of NF EN 1337-2). Note that the 5th paragraph of 4.4.4.3 of NF EN 1337-3 does not exclude the use of non-perforated PTFE sheets for type D bearings, if the structure designer has so specified.
3.3 et 3.4 The bearings shall be justified as indicated in 5.3.3 of the standard NF EN 1337-3, supplemented by the indications of 3.3 et 3.4 of the Stra guide, taking the following into account: - the external half-sheets that can be taken into account in the calculation - sheets of See Appendix 3 of the guide 10 mm are possible - The thickness of the plates, which can be taken as equal to at least 2 mm (cf. formula 12 of 5.3.3.5 of the standard NF EN 1337-3). 3.2.2 Under the application of 4.3.1.1 "Shear modulus at nominal temperature" of the standard NF EN 1337-3, the value of modulus G = 0.9 is applicable. The requirements under clause 4.3.1.3 of the standard NF EN 1337-3 "Shear modulus at very low temperature" are not applicable. Under the application of clause 4.3.3 "Compression stiffness" of the standard NF EN 1337-3, test 3 level is not a requirement*. Under the application of clause 4.3.5 "Static rotation capacity (and table 7)" of the standard NF EN 1337-3, only the test described in clause 4.3.5.2: "Eccentric loading test" is required. In the present Particular Technical Clauses (CCTP), the 3rd paragraph of the requirements is required Under eccentricity equal to 1/6 of the smallest plan dimension of the test sample, no defect shall be accepted ( defects, cracks, etc.) for a rotation angle of 0.025 rad". In the event of the angle not being reached, pressure shall be limited to 3.5 Gd * A' * S/1.5. In compliance with 4.3.7 of the standard NF EN 1337-3, the PTFE/elastomer shear bond test (and table 7) is required. Friction coefficient: 4.4.4 of the standard NF EN 1337-3 If using bearings with sliding planes. * Because these are manufactured parts containing polychloroprene (cf. 2.2.2 of this guide and the National Application Document). Except for a detailed, specific requirement that will then be included in this article.
In normal cases, to simplify, the correcting factor of 2/3 shall not be taken into account. Otherwise, take it into account in cases of specific justification and for applications in overseas departments and territories (DOM-TOM) where the effective bearing temperature does not drop below 5 C.
3.4.1.4
Under the application of 5.3.3.6 of the standard NF EN 1337-3 regarding the limit conditions for buckling stability, it is stipulated that, for simplification purposes, we shall, in formula (15) apply the maximum reaction under a basic combination and with a modulus G = 0.9. In compliance with 5.3.3.a of the standard NF EN 1337-3, the value of m = 1 is applicable to the present Particular Technical Clauses (CCTP). For applications corresponding to the scope of the present Particular Technical Clauses (CCTP), only the value of KL = 1.0* is to be taken into consideration.
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Example of clause In compliance with 5.3.3.4 of the standard NF EN 1337-3 "Design strain due to angular rotation", verification under rotation angles is to be performed at ULS. In compliance with 5.3.3.5 of the standard NF EN 1337-3 "Reinforcing plate thickness", the value of m = 1 is applicable to the present Particular Technical Clauses (CCTP).
Comments
3.4.1.3
The rotations a and b must include installation defects of a value equal to: To be completed following the instructions opposite This installation defect shall be added to the larger of the rotations a or b.
This depends greatly on care taken during installation. The standard NF EN 1337-3 ( 7.1.3) is not clear on the values to be adopted for installation defects, or on how they should be taken into account. The following standard values are therefore 0.003 radian in the case of combining proposed: 0.010 radian for structures placed directly on methods the bearings. For a specific application, constructions managers are completely free to define a product that will be specific to the structure and will be manufactured solely for it. In this case, they should ensure, based on the standards NF EN and/or simply on national standard (cf. 5.2.2.2 and 5.2.2.3 of the test standards not taken up at European level in the EN standard) that the product is market-compliant.
5.2.3
The fixing method used for the stainless steel sliding plates on the supports steel shall be submitted to the construction manager for approval. The position of the measuring devices, together with the dirt protection method shall be submitted to the construction manager for approval. As regards the dimensioning of the sliding plates, displacements shall be increased in both directions by 20 mm. Furthermore, the minimum displacement to be taken into account is 50 mm in the principal direction of the displacements resulting from the structure.
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General documents
Environnement des appareils d'appui en lastomre frett. Recueil des rgles de l'art. Stra /LCPC 10/1978. Rf. F 7810. The environment of laminated elastomeric bearings. A best practice guide. Stra /LCPC 10/1978. Ref. F 7810. Les appareils d'appui pot. Utilisation sur les ponts, viaducs et structures similaires. Guide technique. Stra. Aot 2007 - Rf. 0734 Annule et remplace le guide "Les appareils d'appui pot de caoutchouc dit en septembre 1999". Pot bearings. Use on bridges, viaducts and similar structures. Technical guide. Stra. August 2007 ref. 0734 Cancels and replaces the guide Rubber pot bearings, published in September 1999. Appareils d'appui en caoutchouc. Documents scientifiques et techniques. AFPC. 07/1994. Rubber bearings. Scientific and technical documents. AFPC. 07/1994. Instruction technique pour la surveillance et l'entretien des ouvrages d'art. Seconde partie: Fascicule 13 "appareils d'appui". Stra / LCPC. 2002. Rf. 0230 Technical instruction for the monitoring and maintenance of civil engineering structures. Part two: section 13 bearings. Stra / LCPC. 2002. Ref. 0230 MMOAR (Mmento pour la mise en uvre sur ouvrages d'art). MEMOAR (Implementation guide for civil engineering structures) See in particular the following: VIII-1: Appareils d'appui en lastomre frett Laminated elastomeric bearings VIII-3: Bossages des appareils d'appui Bearing bosses VIII-4: Vrinage/Calage Jacking/Wedging Note d'information technique n 27 sur l'application nationale de la norme NF EN 1337 (appareils d'appui structuraux). Stra. Dcembre 2006. The technical information note no. 27 on the National Application of the standard NF EN 1337 (structural bearings). Stra. December 2006.
Standards
NF EN 1337-1 Structural bearings. Part 1: General design rules NF EN 1337-2 - Structural bearings. Part 2: Sliding elements NF EN 1337-3 - Structural bearings. Part 3: Elastomeric bearings NF EN 1991-2 - Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges and its National Annex (to be published) NF EN 1992-1-1: Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: Common rules and rules for buildings NF EN 1993-2: Eurocode 3 Design of steel structures - Part 2: Steel bridges (to be published) NF EN 1991-1-5: Eurocode 1 Actions on structures - Part 1-5: General actions Thermal actions NF EN 1990: Structural Eurocodes: Basis of structural design and NF EN 1990/A1: Appendix A2 (application to bridges)
Rubber bearing series: T 47.806 - Dtermination du fluage en compression Determination of creep in compression Determination of shear stress relaxation Determination of the non-slipping condition Determination of salt fog resistance Determination of apparent Shore A hardness using a pocket durometer XP T 47.807 - Dtermination de la relaxation de contrainte en cisaillement. XP T 47.811 - Dtermination de la condition de non-glissement XP T 47.813 - Dtermination de la rsistance au brouillard salin XP T 47.814 - Dtermination de la duret apparente Shore A au moyen d'un duromtre de poche
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This technical guide is mainly intended for bridge designers. The contents should enable them to design laminated elastomeric bearings with a view to using them on bridges, viaducts and similar structures. The documents principally includes the following: A brief description of the various types of laminated elastomeric bearings and any specific related equipment The main regulations and standards The design criteria based on draft regulations drawn up by the CEN (European Committee for Standardization) The principle of controls for the CE marking A design methodology for a bridge project with application examples Lastly, it is supplemented by a series of appendixes on the design of this type of bearing in seismic zones, on the durability of laminated elastomeric bearings with sliding planes and examples of clauses to be included in performance specifications.
The Stra belongs to the scientific and technical network of the French Public Work Ministry (RST)
Reference : 0925A
This document may not be reproduced even partially without Stra's prior consent. 2009 Stra ISRN No. : EQ-SETRA--09-ED09--FR+ANG