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System Development Life Cycle

System analysis and design in a six-phase problem solving procedure for examining an information system and improving it. This six-phase make up what is called the system development life cycle (SDLC). The SDLC is defined as the step-by-step process that many organizations follow during systems analysis and design to build an Information system or IT project. Whether applied to thousands of employees or a twoperson graphic design business, the phase in systems analysis and design are the same procedure. 1. Conduct preliminary analysis, proposed alternative solutions, describe costs and benefits of each solutions, and submit a preliminary plan with recommendation. 2. Systems Analysis:- Gather data, analyse the data and make a written report. 3. Make a preliminary design and then a detailed design and write a report 4. Acquire the hardware and software and test the system 5. Convert the hardware, software, and files to the new system and train the users. 6. Audit the system, and evaluate it periodically.
1. Preliminary investigations

2. Systems Analysis

3. Systems design

4. Systems Development

5. Systems implementation 6. Systems maintenance

The First Phase: Conduct a Preliminary Investigation The first phase, preliminary investigation, a system analyst conduct a preliminary analysis; determine the organizations objectives and the nature and scope of the problem. The analyst then proposes some possible solutions, comparing costs and benefits. Finally then, he/she submits a preliminary plan to top management, with recommendations. Objective: To conduct a preliminary analysis, propose alternative solutions, describe costs and benefits, and submit a preliminary plan with recommendation. In order to achieve the objective, you need to ask questions, do research, and try to come up with a preliminary plan.

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A. Conduct the preliminary Analysis In this step, you need to find out what the organizations objectives are and the nature and scope of the problem under study. Determine the organisations objectives: Even if the problem pertains to a small segment of the organization, you can not study it in isolation. You need to find out what the objectives itself are. Then you need to see how the problem being study fit in with them. The following helps you to define the objectives of the organization.

1. Read internal documents about the organization. These can include original corporate charters, prospectuses, annual reports, and procedures manuals. 2. Read external documents about the organization. These can include news articles, accounts in the business press, reports by security analysts, audits by independent accounting firms, magazines, and more. 3. Interview important executives within the company within the particular area you are concerned with, you can also interview key users. Some of this may be done face to face, Internet and phone may be needed when dealing with people over a wide geographical area. Determine the nature and scope of the problem: You may already have a sense of the nature and scope of the problem. This may derive from the very fact that you have been asked to do a systems analysis and design project. However, with a deep understanding of the goals of the organization, you can now take a closer look at the specifics. Is too much time wasted on paperwork? On waiting for materials? How pervasive is the problem within the organization? Outside of it? What people are most affected? In what ways? Etc. your interviews and reading should give you a sense of the character of the problem.

B. Propose alternative solutions In delving into the organizations objectives and the specific problem, you have already discovered some solutions. Other solutions can come from interviewing people inside the organization, customers or clients affected by it, suppliers, and consultants. You can also study what competitors are doing. With this data, you then have three choices. You can leave the system as is, improve it, or develop a new system. Leave the system as is: Perhaps the problem really isnt bad enough to take the measures and spend the money required to get ride of it. This is often the case. Improve the system: May be changing a few key elements in the system upgrading to a new computer or new software, or doing a bit of employee retraining, efficiencies might be introduced over several months, if the problem is not serious.
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Develop a new system: If the existing system is truly harmful to the organization, radical change may be warranted. The new system could be hardware or software. This means changes in every part and at every level.

C. Describe cost & Benefits Whichever of the three alternatives is chosen, it will have costs and benefits. This step, you need to indicate what these are. The changes or absence of changes will have a price tag, of course, and you need to indicate what it is. Costs may depend on benefits, which may offer savings. There are all kinds of benefits that may be derived. A process may be speed-up; cost may be cut, streamlined or modernized through elimination of unnecessary steps. Input errors or redundant output may be reduced. Systems and sub-systems may be better integrated. Users may be happier with the new system. Customers and suppliers may interact better with the new system.

D. Submit a preliminary plan Now you need to wrap up all your findings in a written report. The readers of this report will be executives (likely top managers) who are in a position to decide which direction to proceed from here. Make no changes, change a little, or change a lot. You should describe the potential solutions, costs and benefits, and indicate your recommendations.

The second phase: Do an Analysis of the System In the second phase, systems analysis, a systems analyst gathers data, using the tools of written documents, interviews, questionnaires, observation, and sampling. Next he/she analyses the data, using data flow diagrams, system flow diagrams, and decision tables. Finally, the analyst writes a report.

Objective: gather data, analyse the data, and write a report. In this second phase SDLC, you will follow the course that management has indicated after having read your phase 1 report. This phase will consider how people positions and tasks will have to change if the new system is put into effect.

A. Gather data In gathering data, there are a handful of tools that systems analysts use, most of them not terribly technical. They include written documents, interviews, questionnaires, observations, and sampling.
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Written documents: A great deal of what you need is probably available in the form of written documents: reports, forms, manuals, memos, business plans, policy statements, and so on. Documents are a good place to start because they at least tell you how things are or were supposed to be. One document of particular value is the organizations chart. The chart shows the level of management and formal lines of authority. Interviews: Interviews with managers, workers, clients, suppliers, and competitors will also give you insights. Interviews may be structured or unstructured. Structured interviews only questions you have planed and written out in advance. By basing only on that one without asking other questions. You can ask people identical questions and compare their answers. Unstructured interviews also include questions prepared in advance, but you can vary from the line of questions and pursue other subjects if it seems productive. Questionnaires: are useful for getting information from large groups of people when you cant get around to interviews everyone. Questionnaires may also yield more information because respondents can be anonymous. In addition, this too is convenient, is inexpensive, and yields a lot of data. However, people may not return their forms, results can be ambiguous, and with anonymous questionnaires youll have no opportunity to follow up. Observation: No doubt youve sat in a coffee shop or on a park bench and just done people watching. This can be a tool for analysis too. Through observation you can see how people interact with one another and how paper moves through an organization. Observation can be nonparticipant or participant. If you are nonparticipant observer, and people know they are being watched they may falsify their behavior in some way. If you are a participant observer, you may gain more insight by experiencing the conflicts and responsibilities of the people you are working with. Sampling: If your data-gathering phase involves a large number of people or a large number of events, it may be simple to just study a sample. That is you can do a sample of the work of 10 people instead of 100, or more instances of a particular transaction

B. Analyse the data: Once the data is gathered, you need to come to grip with it and analyse it. A variety of analytical tools, or modeling tools, are available. Modeling tools enable a systems analyst to present graphic, or pictorial, representation of a system. The modeling tools are data flow diagrams systems flow charts, connectivity diagrams, grid charts, and decision tables. Data flow diagrams (DFD): A DFD graphically shows the flow of data through a system. A DFD diagrams the processes that change data into information. Data flow diagrams have only four symbols, which makes them to use. The symbols in all are four types. The first is the entity (or external entity) rectangle, shows the source or destination of data outside the system. The flow of data or vector arrows is the second symbol, which indicates the path of the data. Process rectangles
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are the third with rounded rectangle corners, which indicates how input data is transformed into output. Data store is the last one which shows where data is held, whether filling cabinet or hard disk.

1) Entity (process)

2) Flow of data

3) Process rectangle (Alternative process)

4) Data store (Stored Data)

Systems flowcharts: It is another tool, and also called the System flow diagrams. A systems flowchart diagrams the flow or input of data, processing, and output, or distribution of information. Unlike a data flow diagram, a systems flowchart graphically depicts all aspects of a system.
Start

To cal. for Total cost based on unit cost and quantity.

Enter Qty

On forms N Qty Unit cost Total

Is it valid?

Y Enter unit cost

Y
N Is it valid Y Cal. Total Cal. Exit

End

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Connectivity diagrams: A connectivity diagram is used to map network connections of people, data, and activities at various locations. It is really a communication tool.

ABC office

ZUC

Our Hotel

Dim Qty as integer Dim UC as Dim TC as Qty = Val (text Qty)

ABL Restaurant

Grid charts A grid chart shows the relationship between data on input documents and data on documents Names (input) Kwabena Kofi Yaa Ama Reports (output) Excel VB

English

Twi

Decision tables: A decision table shows the decision rules that apply when certain conditions occur and what actions to take. That is, it provides a model of a simple, structured decision-making case. It shows which conditions must take place in order for which action(s) to occur. Decision rules 1 2 Y Y Y Y N N 3 Y Y N 4 N N Y 5

Conditions if And if And if Actions then do Then do Then do

N Y Y

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Decision table design the logic of a program Accra Traffic Light Conditions Red? Amber? Green? Action Stop Wait for change Proceed with condition Error call Police Y Y Y Rules Y Y Y N N N N Y N N Y Y N N N Y N Y N Y N Outcome X X X X X X X

Zenith University College Gardener Conditions Grass Bushy? Contain Weeds? Y Y Rules Y N N N Y N Outcome Action Cut the Grass Apply weedicides Do something else water the grass X X X X X

C. Write a Report Once you have completed the analysis, you need to document this phase. This report to management should have three parts. First, should explain how existing system works. Second, it should explain the problems with existing system. Finally, it should describe the requirements for the new system and recommendations on what to do next. The output here enables managers reading the report to call a halt or otherwise, you will be called upon to move to next phase (phase 3)

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The Third Phase: Design the System In the third phase, systems design, the analyst does a preliminary design, next a detail design, and then writes a report. The preliminary design may use prototyping and CASE tools and project management software. The detail design defines requirements for output, input, storage, and processing and system controls and backup. Objective: Is to do a preliminary design and then a detail design, and write a report. This phase of SDLC, essentially you will create a rough draft and then a detail draft of the proposed information system. A. Do a preliminary design A preliminary design describes the general functional capabilities of proposed informational system. It reviews the system requirements and then considers major components of the system. Usually several alternative systems are considered, and cost and benefits of each evaluated. Three main tools that may be used in the preliminary design are:Prototyping tools: Prototyping involves building a model or experimental version of all or part of a system so that it can be quickly tested and evaluated. A prototyping is a limited working system developed to test out design concepts. A prototyping allows users to find out immediately how a change in the system might benefit them. Prototyping are built with prototyping tools. These are special software packages that can be used to design screen displays. For e.g., a systems analyst might develop a menu as a possible screen display, which users could try out. The menu can then be redesigned, if necessary. Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) Tools: Are another type of software tool. CASE tools are software that provides computer-automated means of designing and changing systems. There are many packages of such specialized software. CASE tools may be used at almost any stage of the system development life cycle, not just design. So-called front-end CASE tools are used during the first three phases: preliminary analysis, systems analysis and systems design to help with the early analysis and design. So-called back-end CASE tools are used during the two later stages, systems development and implementation to help in coding and testing, for instance. Project management software: Are programs used to plan, schedule, and control the people, costs and resources required to complete a project on time. Project management software often uses Gantt charts and PERT charts. A Gantt chart uses lines and bars to indicate the duration of a series of tasks. The time scale may range from minutes to years. The Gantt chart allows you to see whether tasks are being completed on schedule. A PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique) chart shows not only timing but also relationship among the tasks of a project. The relationships are represented by lines that connect boxes describing the tasks
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B. Do a Detail Design A detail design describes how a proposed information system will deliver the general capabilities described in the preliminary design. The detail design usually considers the following parts of the system, in this order: output requirements, input requirements, storage requirements, and system controls and backup. Output requirements:- What do you want the system to produce? That is the first requirement to determine. In this first step, the systems analyst what media the output will be; whether hard (permanent) copy and /or soft (temporary) copy. He/She will also design the appearance or format of the output, such as headings, columns, menu and so on. Input requirements:- Once you know the output, you can determine the inputs. Here, too, you must define the type of input, such as whether keyboard or direct input. You must determine in what form data will be input and how it will be checked for accuracy. You also need to figure how much volume the system can be allowed to take in.

Storage requirements:- You need to define the files and databases in the information system. How will the files be organized? What kind of storage devices will be used? How will they interface with other storage devices inside and outside the organization? Processing requirements:- What kind of computer or computers will be used to handle the processing? What kind of operating system will be used? Will the computer or computers be tired to others in a network?

System controls and backup:- Finally, you need to think about matters of security, privacy, and data accuracy. You need to prevent unauthorized users from breaking into the systems, for example, snooping in peoples private files. You need to have automatic ways of backing up information and storing it elsewhere in case the system fails or is destroyed.

C. Write a Report All the works of the preliminary and detail designs will end up in a large, detailed report. When you hand over this to senior management, you will probably also make some sort of presentation or speech.

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The Fourth Phase: Develop the System. This phase consist of obtaining the hardware and software and then testing the system. Then fourth phase begins once management has accepted your report containing the design and has green lighted the way to development. This is the phase that will involve the organization in probably spending substantial sums of money. It could also involve spending a lot of time. However, at the end you should have a workable system. A. Obtaining the Hardware Its possible your new system will not require obtaining any new hardware. Its also possible that the new hardware will cost millions of cedis and involve many items: mainframes, mini-computers, microcomputers, monitors, modems and more. The organization may find its better to lease rather than to buy some equipment due to changes in price every-time. B. Obtaining the Software: With the hardware acquired and the software bought or written, you can now start testing the system. Testing is usually done in stages called unit testing and then system testing. - Unit testing: In unit testing, individual parts of the program are tested, using test data. If the program is written as a collaborative effort by multiple programmers, each part of the programs is test separately. The unit or programme testing can be top-down or bottom-p - System Testing: In system testing, the parts are link together and test data is used to see if the parts work together. The kind of data used at this point may consist of actual data used within the organization. The systems are also tested with erroneous and massive amounts of data to see if it can be made to fail or crash. At the end of this long process, the organization will have a workable information system, one ready for the implementation stage. Alpha testing: testing conducted by the designers Beta testing: testing conduced by the end users ( prototyping)

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The Fifth Phase: Implement the System This fifth phase, system implementation consists of converting the hardware, software, and files to the new system and train the users. The conversion may proceed in four different ways: Direct, parallel, phase, or pilot. Whether the new information system involves a few handheld computers, telecommunication network, or expensive mainframes, the fifth phase will involve some close coordination in order to make the system not just workable but successful. A. Converting to the New System: Conversion, the process of converting from an old information system to a new one, involves converting hardware, software, and files. Hardware conversion may be as simple as taking away an old pc and plunking a new one down in its place. Or it may involve acquiring new buildings and putting in elaborate wiring, climate control, and security systems. Software conversion means making sure the application that worked on the old equipment can be made to work on the new. Should old programs be retained, and can the system be compatible to run the old programs data. File conversion means converting the old files to new ones without loss of accuracy. For example, can the paper contents from the other folders in the personnel department be input to the system with a scanner? Or do they have to be keyed in manually, with the consequent risk of errors being introduced? Four ways for handling the conversion are: - Direct approach: This means the user simply stops using the old system and starts using the new one. The risk of this method should be evident. What if the new system doesnt work? If the old system has truly be discontinued, there is nothing to fall back on.

Old system
-

New system

Direct implementation all at once change.

Parallel approach: This implementation means that the old and the new system are operated side by side until the new system has shown it is reliable. Obviously there are benefits in taking the cautious approach. If the system fails, the organization can switch back to the old system. The most difficulty of this method is the expense of paying for the equipment and the people to keep two systems going at the same time.
Old system

Parallel implementation the two systems are run at the same time.
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New system

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Phased approach: phased implementation means that parts of the new system are phased in gradually, perhaps over several months. As with the parallel approach, this strategy is prudent, although it can be expensive.

New system Old system

Phased implementation is a step-bystep change.

Pilot approach: Pilot implementation means that the entire system is tried out but only by some users or particular branch. Once the reliability has been proved, the system is implemented with the rest of the intended users or branch. This approach still has its risks, since all of the users or branches in a particular group are taken off the old system. However, the risks are confined to only a small part of the organization.
Old system N. S.

Pilot implementation one part is tried first within the organization

In general, the phased and pilot approaches are the most favoured methods. In an organization where the peoples perform different jobs, phased is the best. Then where the workers perform the same tasks Pilot is the best. Eg. Banks

B. Train the users Training is done with a variety of tools. They run from documentation to videotapes to live classes to one-on-one, slide-by-slide teacher-student training. Sometimes training is conducted by the organizations own staff; at other times it is contracted out.

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The Sixth Phase: Maintain the System The last phase, systems maintenance, consists of keeping the system running through system audits and periodic evaluations. Even with the conversion accomplished and the users trained, the system wont just run itself. There is a Sixth-and never-ending-phase in which the information must be monitored to ensure that it is successful. Maintenance includes not only keeping the machinery running but also updating and upgrading the system to keep pace with new products, services, customers, government regulations, and other requirements.

Tools that are considered in maintenance phase are auditing and evaluation Auditing: means an independent review of organization informations information system to see if all records and systems are as they should be. Often a system analyst will design an audit trail. An audit trail helps independent auditors trace the record of a transaction from the output back through all processing and storage to its source. Evaluation: it is the one which is usually done by an accountant, is one form of evaluation. Other evaluation may be done by the system analyst or other systems analyst. Evaluation may also be done by a user or client who is able to compare the workings of the system against some preset criteria.

Benefits Expected from SDLC/adopting a structured approach to analysis & design

A useful module for the stages while it is possible to produce a computer system that is effectively a copy of an existing manual system, it is important to be aware of the serious limitations of this approach: The approach works when the ff very limited assumptions apply: A computer system is expected to copy the existing manual system. The system is not expected to change overtime. No evaluation or redesign (reprototype) of the system is expected. It is also assumed that the existing system is clearly understood by those working with it. In the current fast moving business environment, users are often not clear about the system they want. A further limiting assumption is that processes do not require data from outside the immediate system under consideration, and also that no data from the system will be required by other systems. To overcome these limitations a structured approach to analysis has been developed. In this approach, the existing physical system simply provides a starting point for the more important logical model of the system. A logical model ignores both the current media on which data is stored, and current organization of data records. A description of who currently carries out data processes is also considered to be relatively unimportant.

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This top down approach provides much more robust systems design where information requirements precede any attempt to specify the constraints that the physical system will ultimately impose on the system. The high emphasis placed on rigorous documentation and charging of the data relationships in the system allows effective communication between analysts and users, and encourages the design of programmes that are straightforward to code, easy to test (through their modular make up) and amenable to future alteration, based on the ff: - Initiating: Identification of opportunities or problems to be solved by BIS - Feasibility: accessing cost-benefit and acquisition alternative. - Analysis: accessing the user & business requirements. - Design: producing specifications for the approach of producing a structured for the BIS - Build: coding, documenting, data migration, & testing. - Implementation: Installation, testing & changeover - Maintenance & review: live system review and update. The lasting benefits are found in the effective design of the database and permanent documentation of the system.

Overview of Computer Software

Software

System software

Application Software

Software Management Programs OS Utilities Security Monitor Performance Monitors DBMS Network Mgt Systems

Software Development Programs -

Bespoke or Tailor-made

General purpose

Off-the-shelf Packages

Programming Language Translator Programming Language Editor Tools CASE Packages

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Application Software (Packages)

It comprises the programs that are written specifically to achieve results appertaining to the computers activities to meet a users information needs. This application software is a user-orientated a s opposed to system software which is computer-orientated. (That is two major types of software in computer, system software and application software). The applications software performs useful work on general-purpose tasks with little modification or on modification. Characteristics There are prewritten programs purchased off-the-shelf by the user They are very important to non-specialists, in business or home and for beginners. There is a wide range and variety of packages which continues to increase. The quality continues to improve.

Versions of application software (packages) in business and finance available in different computers Popular application packages include: - Word processing, eg MS Word, Word perfect, Word Star - Spreadsheet, eg Lotus 1-2-3, MS Excel, Supercalc - Database management, eg MS Access, dBase IV, DataEase - Graphics, eg PageMaker, Corel Draw, MS-Publisher - Communications, eg Smartcom, Internet, E-mail - Presentations, eg MS-PowerPoint - CAD,CAM. Eg Word processing: are packages used to treat words by means of computer in the form of creating, editing, saving, spelling and grammar checking and printing documents. In nature this application refers to all jobs which are secretarial in nature such as Writing (preparing) letters, memos, reports, manuscripts and more. Even todays Ms-word can be used to design websites. Spreadsheet: consists of rows and columns for manipulating numeric data. Examples standardizing Students results, budgets, sales projection, etc. Allows a user defined formulas to analyse, displays and summarize data in even graphical forms. Database management: consists of groups of data files. Use for storing large amount of data which can easily be retrieved, rearranged, quickly and efficiently. Graphics: enables users to present information in the form of charts and graphs or to create custom complex freehand artswork. Communications: Manages the transmission of data between computers over wireless or wired Channels.
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Presentations: application packages that enables users to present works to audience in slide form. CAD(CAM): computer aides design (Manufacturing) application software programs for designing products and structures. Architects use for designing buildings and work spaces, and engineers for electronic devices, design cars, planes etc. For enhancing creativity and efficiency in many industries.

Acquiring software
The selection of software based on the specification by the systems analyst. Application software can be categories into 3 main groups: - Bespoke or In-house or tailor-made system - General purpose packages - Off-the-shelf packages.

Bespoke or In-house or Tailor-made systems

The systems are designed for a particular purpose to fit the organisations needs. They may be produced inhouse or from outside Software Company. Advantages - They should precisely fit the organisations information needs. - The organisation has complete discretion (caution) over data structures - Easy to modify the system to fit changing needs - The system can be integrated with other applications within the organisation. Disadvantages - Costly to develop and test - Development takes a long time, which delays the implementation of the system. - The company has to bear all the costs - There is a greater probability of bugs (program error) in a bespoke system because it can only be tested by a few users.

Cost of Adopting Application - Equipment cost include: Computer & peripherals Ancillary equipment eg stationary handling Installation costs relate to the infrastructure: New building The computer room wiring, air-conditioning & more
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Development costs: Changeover costs including file creation & system testing Consultancy (consultants fees) Software Personnel costs which include one-off & ongoing costs: Staff training including course fees, materials & accommodation Staff recruitment and relocation Staff salaries and pension fund Overheads Redundancy payments Operating costs (running costs) Accommodation costs Consumable materials eg Disks, stationary Maintenance of all equipment, especially computer hardware Stand by arrangement Heating/power/insurance/telephone, data transmission

Advantages (Benefits) of adopting application packages - Spreadsheet also called worksheet is a multi-purpose method eg spreadsheet that is usable for a variety of planning, modeling and forecasting break-even analysis, etc. - Implementation of an application is quicker and possible cheaper - System design, programming and system testing are minimized - Efficiency in terms of speed, storage requirements and accuracy - System documentation is provided with the packages - Portability from the existing computer to any new computer adopted by the company or the user. - ClipArts: database for pictures or graphics - User interface or friendly and easy to run - Sharing: import or export of data from different applications - Savings in operating costs such as staff costs and consumables - Relatively cheap because the huge development costs are spread over a large customer base - Often good support in terms of user groups, magazines and after sales service eg. On-line support and telephone hot-lines. - Purchasing application package(s) usually consist on disk or tape which can easily be re-installed. - They are likely to be available almost immediately with different versions.

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Disadvantages of application packages - May not meet special needs:- Application packages are designed to meet the needs of different users and they may not be exactly suitable to your taste. - Continuity of support and guarantee:- No maintenance agreement, of this updates and later versions are not free need to be purchased separately. - Different packages used by the organisation may have incompatible data structures.

Off-the-shelf / Specific software

Software designed to do a particular task but one that can be used by many different businesses. Examples include banking systems software, payroll software and accounting software such as tasbooks, SAGE, etc. this software usually purchase from a software vendor. Examples are Entertainment, Education, Science, & Engineering, Business 9accounting, Sales, Management, TPS), etc.

Generic/General Purpose Packages General purpose packages (such as database systems) can provide approximate solutions to a range of different problems and can be used for different organizations with similar tasks. Generic software is also referred to as general purpose software and is software designed to be used in a number of applications i.e. it is generally available and can then be customized. Examples include word-processing, spreadsheet and database software. For example spreadsheets can be adapted to a users particular needs e.g. to work out farm accounts, to create graphs of student grades etc Many of these packages can also be tailored so that they can be adapted to fit a specific solutions. Advantages: - They are consistently much less expensive than setting up a bespoke system. - They are available more quickly than a bespoke system will be - The package can be used for a number of different applications - It is likely to have expertise in the organisation who is already employed to modify it to their taste. Disadvantages - Data must be structured to fit the requirements of the package. - The limitation of the package must be adapted by the organisation - The results or implementation may not fit the information needs of the organisation as well as a bespoke package would.

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Summary
System development life cycle (SDLC)
Knowledge of systems analysis and design helps you explain your present job, improve personal productivity, and lessen risk of a projects failure. The initiative of suggesting analysis and possible change in an information system may come from users, managers, or technical staff. The typical six (6) different SDLC phases are: 1. Preliminary investigation:- conduct preliminary analysis, Proposed alternative solutions, describe costs and benefits of each solution, and submit a preliminary plan with recommendation. 2. Systems analysis: gather data, analyse the data and make a written report. 3. Systems design: make a preliminary design and than a detailed design and write a report. 4. Systems development: Acquire the hardware and software and test the system. 5. Systems implementation:- convert the hardware, software, and files to the new system and train the users. 6. Systems maintenance:- audit the system, and evaluate it periodically.

Threat s or risks to computer systems Information technology can be disabling by a number of concurrencies, it may be harmed by people, procedural, and software errors by electromechanically problems and by dirty data. The risks are: - Errors and accidents, eg people errors, procedural errors - Natural and other hazards, eg fires, flood, terrorism - Crimes against information technology, eg theft of hardware - Viruses, eg file virus, boot-sector virus - Computer criminals. Eg employees, hackers and crackers, professional criminals. Hackers are those who gain unauthorized access to computer systems for the challenges or even the principles of it. Crackers with unauthorized access to information technology but do so for malicious purpose

Methods to minimize the risks Security is a system of safeguards for protecting information technology (or computer systems) against disasters, systems failure, or unauthorized access that can result in damage or loss. These are: - Identification and access:- To establish a proof of identify. - Encryption:- Altering of data so that it is not usable unless the changes are undone - Protection of software and data:- Organizations educating employees about making backup disks, protecting against virus, control of access, people controls, audit controls and more. - Disaster Recovery planning:- A method of restoring information processing operations that have been halted by destruction or accident.
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CABF

SOFTWARE EVALUATION
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Portability : availability of data transfer, import and export to / from other applications Scalability: can it handle the processing demands of wide range of end users when it is needed. Performance; what are its need, capacity and through put Cost: what is the lease or purchase price is it affordable, and the cost of operations and maintenance Reliability : what are the risks of malfunction and its maintenance requirements Usability and human-machine interface: it should be user friendly, suitable for the attended user. Compatibility: is it compatible with the current software in use whether the Os or application software. Transferability of data: can the data on that system be transferred to different programs, how long can data be converted from the old to the new or vice versa. 9. User support: what can of support is available does it cost is it a telephone support internet support. 10. Upgradeability: when are upgrades likely to become available? Does it cost or its free, time and effort needed 11. Resource requirements: does it require extra hardware, staff and /or system software

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