Hydrocarbon Technology. The Use of Hydrocarbons As Foaming A

Hydrocarbon
Technology
The Use of Hydrocarbons
as Foaming Agents and
Refrigerants in Household
Refrigeration
Dr. Peter Baz

GTZ - CFC - Phase-Out Projects
Dr. Klaus Meyersen
Advisor to GTZ - CFC -
Phase-Out Projects
Dirk Legatis
HEAT / Household Energy
Appropriate Technologies
Eschborn, 1996
Thanks to the Greenfreeze Original
and the people who helped it along!
BMZ Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit
und Entwicklung
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
For the full or partial reproduction of anything published in this yearbook

proper acknowledgement should be made to the original source. Any
opinions expressed herein are entirely those of the authors.
4. Edition 05.02.96
You may download this document directly from our GTZ BBS
(Phone++49-6196-797396, up to 14.400 baud), Area "GTZ" or order it per
E-Mail
GTZ-GATE-FCKW@GEOD.GEONET.DE via Internet.
Contents
1. Editorial 1
2. Aims of the GTZ-CFC-Phase-Out-Support 5
3. The Status of Hydrocarbon Technology 11
4. The 12 Advantages of Hydrocarbon Technology 15
5. Hydrocarbons as Refrigerant in Domestic Refrigerators 25
6. The Use of Natural Refrigerants 50
7. History of HC Refrigerants 69
8. The Development of ODP/GWP Free Appliances in Europe Using
Hydrocarbon Technology 132
9. Natural Fluid Based Refrigeration 151
10. GTZ-Layout China Project 223
11. Application Form Hydrocarbon Technology 239
12. Application Form Cyclopentan Technology 259
13. GTZ Hydrocarbon Technology Information Service 279
List of On-line available Files in the Hydrocarbon Technology Mailbox279
Literature Database 292
14. GTZ Know-How Cooperation Partners 356
dkk 358
Foron 367
Henneke 377
Liebherr 403
Plasttechnik Greiz 407
Index 425
GTZ Yearbook 1995 Editorial 1
1. Editorial
Since the beginning of 1994, also the start of the GTZ projects to support
the CFC-phase out, the Hydrocarbon Technology gained further ground.
We hope to have contributed to this development with our support, which is
rendered by GTZ under contract of the Bundesministerium für
Zusammenarbeit (BMZ).
The Hydrocarbon Technology is now an acknowledged and widely

supported technology within the Multilateral Fund. Yet compared to other,
already firmly established CFC-substitutes, hydrocarbons need still further
public support, especially in their function as refrigerants: there are still large
information gaps, there are still many questions and there are still some
doubts about this ecologically most favourable technology.
It is our hope, that with this first technically oriented publication, the "GTZ
Yearbook 96" we may help to dissolve as many open questions as possible.
This Yearbook 96 is aimed primarily at the decision seeking person in
article-5-countries in industry as well as in governmental organisation,
dealing with the CFC-substitute topic and looking for up-to-date information.
We hope that this Yearbook may contribute towards decisions in favour of

adapting the Hydrocarbon Technology as a CFC-substitute.
GTZ is co-operating with the Multilateral Fund Secretariat, the Worldbank,

the other Implementing Agencies of the Montreal Protocol, as well as with
environmental agencies, like USEPA, and federal aid agencies, such as the
Swiss Development Cooperation, to assist on the technical aspects of
Hydrocarbon Technology. Our main effort is to secure the technical support
of the German industry who is most experienced in this technology.
Another important aspect of this GTZ support is the dissemination of the

relevant know-how to article-5-countries. GTZ maintains e.g. an on-line
databank on Hydrocarbon Technology, of which this Yearbook is an excerpt
so to say, since all this information published here is a fraction of the
information available via electronic means. With this hydrocarbon
information service we hope to supplement the official technical information
and documentation of the fund through UNEP.
GTZ Yearbook 1995 MF Status 2
Earlier this year we published a special issue of GTZ’s "Akzente", also on

Hydrocarbon Technology, which "tells the stories of the hydrocarbon
pioneers", in Germany, China and India, highlighting their decisions and
experiences. This was widely distributed, further copies are available on
request from GTZ.
We kindly ask for reactions to these publications. We particularly ask for

suggestions towards improvements for the next issue, a GTZ Yearbook 96.
Thanks in advance for your support.
Dr. Peter Baz
Dr. Klaus Meyersen
Dirk Legatis
GTZ Yearbook 1995 Addresses 3
Contact Addresses:
Dr. Peter Störmer

GTZ CFC-Phase-Out-Projects
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH
Dag-Hammarskjöld-Weg 1-5
Postfach 51 80
D 65760 Eschborn
T 0049 -6196 - 79 3198/ F - 73 52/ Modem 73 96
Dr. Klaus Meyersen

Advisor/ Co-ordinator to GTZ CFC-Phase-Out-Projects
CorporateProcessModeration
The Other Art to consult
Augustusbogen / Kästrich 59
D 55116 Mainz
T 0049-6131-9954-91/ F -92
E-Mail 101526,2742@COMPUSERVE.COM
Dirk Legatis
HEAT Ltd./ Household Energy Appropriate Technologies
Limburger Strasse 29
D 61479 Glashütten
T 0049 - 6174 - 96 40 77/ F - 61 209
E-Mail 100102,330@COMPUSERVE.COM
All can be reached via e-mail: GTZ-GATE-FCKW@GEOD.GEONET.DE

GTZ Yearbook 1995 GTZ-Aims 5
2. Aims of the GTZ-CFC-Phase-Out-Support

Dr. Peter Baz
GTZ CFC-Phase-Out-Projects
Dr. Klaus Meyersen

Advisor and Co-ordinator to GTZ CFC-Phase-Out-Projects
____________________________________________________
1
Focus on Hydrocarbon Technology
GTZ has chosen to promote hydrocarbon technology within the framework
of the Multilateral Fund in the belief that this technology, which has no lobby
(unlike the other, more chemically-oriented substitutes supported by large
chemical companies), needs and deserves public money and support as the
environmentally most friendly form of CFC-phase-out in the domestic
refrigeration sector.
By financially promoting the use of natural gases, and through its support for
Foron, a company in Eastern Germany, Greenpeace Germany in 1990 has
adopted a form of positive intervention that is rather unconventional for an
environmental organisation. By actively promoting a new technology and co-
operating with the industry, Greenpeace has demonstrated economic
foresight in its endeavours to preserve and protect the environment. This
triggered the world-wide movement towards hydrocarbons.
Keen environmental awareness on the part of the German public has

helped to set the global politico-economic stage for implementing CFC- and
FC-free solutions. Similarly, the German industry has been quick to convert,
thus achieving - and signalling to the world - cutting-edge technical
competence marked by skilfulness, composure and also a willingness to
make this know-how available to other countries.
Consequently, a spate of new ideas and activities aimed at protecting the

ozone layer have emerged and now need to be interlaced with the technical
and scientific competence that has been gained in the course of conversion
to produce a premier package of "hydrocarbon technology". The GTZ
support will co-operate and contribute toward that goal.
Considering the dynamic situation in Europe, the refrigerating equipment

sector suggests itself as a suitable and important field for hydrocarbon
substitution, one for which Germany’s established hydrocarbon technology
provides an inexpensive, forward-looking alternative to CFC’s and FC’s.
That technology, however, has not yet been transferred sufficiently to
article-5 countries. Thus, a know-how and technology transfer program for
substitution technologies of German origin needed to be established as part
of this GTZ project and know-how was made available to China and India in
94/95 to be continued on a worldwide basis for 1995/97.
2
The Concrete Objectives of the GTZ-CFC Phase-Out-Project
The conversion of refrigerator industries in article-5-countries, seems still to
be hindered
• by the limited access to know-how on
• appropriate technical alternatives, machinery and equipment
• experiences with substitute refrigerants and refrigerator production
• financial implications of the conversion
• marketability of ODS free products
• how to find financial and technical help
• where to find assistance.
At the same time, it is in our opinion necessary to avoid, that:

• refrigerant industries select those CFC substitutes who contribute to
global warming
• and have less than optimal effects on the energy efficiency of
refrigerators;
• the dependency of developing countries on the import of refrigerants and
equipment increases.
GTZ will try to give as concrete and as direct support in these areas as
possible.
The very first concrete objective of GTZ’s CFC project was to quickly
convert a production line for household refrigerators at a major Chinese
factory. Then to arrange and accompany consultancy services and
conversion expertise for other interested enterprises, putting them in a
position to make well-founded decisions and to submit relevant applications
to the Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol.
The first phase 1994/95 is geared to industry support. In the second phase
1995/97 GTZ objectives will likely also address the repair sector. It probably
would be very worthwhile to help refrigerator repair companies convert their
service package. Since a lot of experience is accumulating in Germany in

the meantime, we will look for leading repair enterprises as models,
hopefully using their demonstration and, hence, multiplier functions and
correspondingly broad potential impact. Preparations for that kind of
assistance could be made this year in the form of, say, market audits and
structural analyses.
3
Direct Concrete Bilateral Support Based on Practical Experience
According to the MP, Germany - like all donor countries - may spend up to
20% of its donation on direct bilateral projects between „Article-5 countries“
and Germany. These projects, however, must follow the rules of the MF
exactly and must be approved by the Executive Committee of the
Multilateral Fund. They offer the chance of very direct, fast and cost-
effective support which, we believe, is all very helpful in protecting the
ozone layer. With the development of this promising hydrocarbon
technology in Germany, the German government wants to take the
additional responsibility of introducing this technology where it is yet
unknown - hopefully with the support of all available German resources.
The most essential principle of the GTZ phase-out support is, that this
assistance and guidance is given only through experienced personnel who
has personally experienced the process of factory conversion to
Hydrocarbon Technology.
Since the beginning of 1994, Germany has been pursuing this possibility
through two GTZ model projects, one in China in close cooperation with the
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and one in India in
cooperation with the Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC).
The China Project

The China Project, the conversion of one factory line of Haier Qingdao was
a straightforward industry-to-industry supported project, with Liebherr/
Germany acting as the general contractor; this project was done in
cooperation with USEPA. The Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund
approved this project in March 95; the cyclopentan foaming was going in
production in summer 95; the isobutan refrigerant part, which is funded by
US bilateral funds, will follow in fall 95. The project is labelled as a
demonstration project by the secretariat of the Multilateral Fund.
The Indian Project

The Indian Project will have an interim test phase, during which two of the
four leading Indian companies will examine the implications of their decision
for a given refrigerant. This is extremely important for them - as it is for all
other companies in a similar situation - since these companies have their
own compressor manufacturing. Therefore to them choosing the refrigerant
is a much bigger and much more far-reaching management decision, since
choosing 134a definitely means starting from scratch with a new
compressor design, whereas with hydrocarbon blends or even isobutan
there is a good chance that the already existing parts and modules of the
old CFC-line of compressors can be used. With Swiss and German support,
two Indian companies will construct cyclopentan pilot plants, since they are
confident of this aspect of hydrocarbon technology. The aim is to use the
resulting cyclopentan-foamed prototypes to test and optimise - with the help
of German industrial partners - three refrigerant alternatives: isobutan,
blends of propane/ butane and 134a. These efforts will be supported within
the framework of a large nation-wide Indian project on hydrocarbon
technology involving the Ministries of the Environment and the Department
of Explosives, official institutions such as the Indian Institute of Technology
(IIT) and the National Chemical Laboratories (NCL) to procure all relevant
facts on hydrocarbon technology under "article-5-country" conditions. The
findings will be made available to Indian industry in due course. And it is the
hope of SDC and GTZ that this Indian project will have numerous and
positive ramifications in many „article-5 countries“.
Support to be continued 96/97

With the recognition and success of these two projects in China and India,
the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development
(BMZ) is considering starting another 2-year project this fall 95 - again on a
limited financial basis - to extend support for this type of technical
hydrocarbon technology also to other „article-5 countries“ during the early
planning stages as well as in the implementation phase.
4
On-Line Information Service on Hydrocarbon Technology
In addition to these projects, actively pursued in the field, GTZ has
established a small on-line information service, which will be further
supplemented and constantly up-dated as long as there is a demand for it.
This information service will try to give prompt answers to all relevant
questions that may arise concerning hydrocarbon technology. Anyone may
file a request; the information given will be public domain; and no copyrights
are involved but the pledge to quote the sources when published further. At
present this service can be accessed in two ways: through direct modem
support by dialling the GTZ-CFC-Phase-Out-Project in Eschborn/ Frankfurt/
Germany via (49)-6196-79-7396 or by Internet E-mail via GTZ-GATE-
FCKW@GEOD.GEONET.DE. This service provides information on various

aspects of hydrocarbon technology, including GTZ publications, selected
scientific publications, Greenpeace documentation, model hydrocarbon
projects, templates for MF applications, information about the Montreal
Protocol, etc., which can be downloaded to any computer so that access to
the information is free and no one has to "re-invent the wheel“.
3. The Status of Hydrocarbon Technology

Dr. Klaus Meyersen
Advisor and Co-ordinator to GTZ CFC-Phase-Out-Projects
____________________________________________________________
1
The situation vis-à-vis hydrocarbon technology in the Multilateral Fund and
by the Executive Committee:
Acceptance Now for Both: Cyclopentan and Isobutan

GTZ / Germany and USEPA / USA have initiated the very first "full
hydrocarbon project," with cyclopentan foaming and (!) isobutan as the
refrigerant, in a bilateral project approved by the Executive Committee of
the Multilateral Fund in the March 1995 meeting. It had been given the
status of a "demonstration project" by the Multilateral Fund Secretariat. With
this acceptance of the isobutan refrigerant (cyclopentan for foaming was
already approved in the middle of 1994 and is now in fact the "world
technical standard"), hydrocarbon technology has now been accepted in full
by the MF and the World Bank, UNDP, UNIDO, UNEP as implementing
agencies.
In this March 95 meeting the ExCom adopted for the first time a method of
setting priorities for projects to cope with the fact that there were at this time
twice as many project requests as money available to the MF.
In working out the method of setting priorities the ExCom "recognised that in
some domestic refrigeration projects using hydrocarbon technologies there
are significant costs related to the provision of safety equipment and agreed
that in calculating the cost-effectiveness of such projects, the safety-related
costs should be identified and deducted from the total cost before the cost-
effectiveness calculations are made. These costs would, however, be
considered in determining the level of project costs and funding."(exact
wording; UNEP/OlL.Pro/ExCom/16/20/ page 8)
This made hydrocarbon technology a preferred technology in a sense, since

in future it will allow the extra cost involved for the safety - due to its
flammability - of this otherwise environmentally most favourable technology,
to be deducted from the incremental cost calculation when compared with
other technologies (and then added to the project costs for funding when
the project is approved; the Juliy ExCom-Meeting is said to have limited

these safety costs to 35%).
Thanks to close cooperation with the US in this joint project, these decisions
accomplished the GTZ objective of bringing to this new technology full MF
attention and approval.
2
The consequences for projects already approved in earlier meetings:
A Later Switch to Isobutan is Possible

As a consequence of these decisions, there is now an opportunity for a
country or a company to change to isobutan / cyclopentan without going
back to the MF for approval if there are projects already approved - but not
yet implemented - on "non-isobutan" and/ or "non-cyclopentan" technology.
This is valid provided that the project stays within the approved incremental
costs and that a corporate "partner" experienced in factory conversion to
hydrocarbons is found and can act as advisor and supervisor in project
execution.
GTZ provides this as standard support in their own bilateral projects, right
down to the "approval stamp" of the German TÜV (the German Federal
Agency for Safe Technology) which can certify safety in „Article-5 countries“
according to German safety standards.
GTZ is at present arranging close cooperation with the World Bank and
other implementing agencies to further support all projects in which such a
switch to hydrocarbons is requested by a country / company. Worldbank
requires only "notification" of an intended switch.
We believe that allowing this switch to hydrocarbon technology is indeed

very important, since otherwise responsible countries with the good
intention of an early CFC phase-out would be excluded from using state-of-
the-art technology.
In my opinion the MF ExCom may even have to go a step further since this
"late switch" will soon be common practice: I have heard of a number of
intended project changes world-wide. The MF may then have to allow the
extra costs of safety to be added to projects already approved, as they now
do for new projects. A test case is needed for consideration and approval by
the ExCom, and GTZ is willing to support such a case. One of our
objectives would be clarification through a comparison of the relative costs

of 134a and isobutan projects, since there is room for doubt until the cost
effectiveness of hydrocarbon technology has been proved in actual cases.
GTZ Yearbook 1995 12 Advantages 15
4. The 12 Advantages of Hydrocarbon Technology

Opportunities for Article-5-Countries
Approved by the Multilateral Fund
Developed in Germany
Supported by GTZ
A Personal Opinion
Dr. Klaus Meyersen

Advisor and Co-ordinator to GTZ CFC-Phase-Out-projects
____________________________________________________________
Monday, February 5th. 1996
Preface
My considerations deal mainly with the use of hydrocarbons as refrigerants
(isobutane, blends of propane/butane), since I experience that this
application of hydrocarbons rises most of the questions. Cyclopentan as the
foaming agent I see already firmly established as the world-standard
foaming agent for the insulation of household appliances. It will therefore
only be mentioned in passing.
I would like to point out that the aspects of hydrocarbon technology

presented here and the views expressed on this technology vis-à-vis the
Multilateral Fund of the Montreal-real Protocol are my personal opinion.
Since I am frequently asked about various aspects of hydrocarbon
technology and the present situation within the Multilateral Fund of the
Montreal Protocol, I thought it might be useful to put my knowledge in
writing, and thus to take advantage of my contacts on various levels of the
Montreal "scene" to pass on this information. I express my view primarily as
advisor to the Federal German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ),
which promotes hydrocarbon technology, but I also try to convey my
observations from and to many MF meetings and committees - such as the
Executive Committee, the OORG etc. - dealing with this technology.
On one hand, the introduction of hydrocarbon technology in the domestic

refrigeration industry has gained astonishing momentum in recent months.
On the other hand, large political and administrative bodies, such as the
Montreal Protocol, are so slow in facilitating information flow to the
"executive level" (by which I mean the level of the people actually using it!).
So I hope - by using my semi-official contacts - to help accelerate the

information flow within the wider scope of the Multilateral Fund and GEF up
to the speed at which this new technology is gaining ground, so that the
"executive level" in article-5-countries and other countries which would like
to convert, has a chance to be informed quickly and thus to consider this
technology as early as possible. - - - - - - -
My opinion
The Hydrocarbon
Technology offers
advantages
on all three levels,
the global level,
the national level,
the enterprise level.
1
The most important aspect in introducing this technology is on the global
level:
No Further Contribution to Global Warming
The starting point 1990 for the unbelievably rapid development of this
technology in Germany and Europe was Greenpeace’s position that only
the environmentally most friendly technology - hydrocarbons - should be
used, since 134a still has a factor 1200 over the carbon dioxide standard.
So it may indeed only be a minor contribution to global warming in total,
compared to other carbondioxide emission sources, it stays a signal for a
better ecological solution that became available with the hydrocarbons.
Unfortunately the Montreal Protocol is bound to support the ozone

protection only in a narrow sense, hence will not pay for the additional
positive effect this technology has on global warming. However, this
advantage is well recognised by all bodies, the Multilateral Fund as well as
the Implementing Agencies and is getting their support. Although the
regulations do not allow extra payment, in a way this global warming
contribution is acknowledged in exchange for the extra costs on safety in so
far, as the costs for safety are not taken into account when compared to
other technologies, but will be paid for to a certain degree.
2
The most promising facts about hydrocarbon technology however are on
the enterprise level:
The Technical Advantages will be the (!) Driving Force
There are likely more than 5 million refrigerators already produced in

Germany, Europe and now also in China, without any reported accident
during daily use. Although it was the ecological advantages that got
hydrocarbons off the ground in the first place, today it is clearly the other
advantages in regard to production and daily use which are emerging and
are seen clearly now. These are hard economic facts that will interest the
industry. I am convinced that these facts will be the future driving force for
hydrocarbon technology world-wide. Facts like energy-saving, "whispering"
refrigerators, readily available materials, savings in compressor design,
virtually no refrigerant losses in production, extraordinary reliability of the
cooling system, no fees on licences and patents, as well as the assurance
that no second conversion will be charged on the enterprises in later years,
these facts will interest any manufacturer world-wide. And that will keep this
technology moving on.
3
Not fully addressed yet is the advantage on the national level:
The National Advantage of Know-How Independence
In the past this technology started with the ecological merits (Greenpeace;
no global warming) which convinced the greens everywhere. Last year the
economical advantages became obvious, which will eventually impress the
industry everywhere in the world. However this technology needs a further
push now. The most political argument I find still missing so far in world-
wide argumentation, in particular with all the queries going on about know-
how supply: the Hydrocarbon Technology leads to independence from
Western / Northern know-how (no patents, no licenses)! This is an issue for
each company but also for the highest political level in each country, in
particular in China, India, and this will also apply to Russia and other states
being supported by the GEF. Governments seem to have for too long
allowed themselves to stay "neutral" in the economically based strive for
"chemistry base technologies". However, these technologies, hydrocarbon
and ammonia, support all governments and companies in their attempts to
lessen dependence. This technology offers the chance to adapt national

"natural" solutions. Instead of being fixed to this little financial support the
MF can render, instead of arguing at length about the money getting more
scarce and about the ever-changing rules and regulations which are
therefore are getting tighter, just go ahead and do it! In this public money
game everybody seems to make fools of himself in the long run. These
large article-5-countries do have the means, should and could (!) easily pull
their policy, people and other resources together and do it! By now it is
proven to be simple, everybody can do it. The ever-ongoing attempts by the
North to keep control and make profits are perfectly matched in this
psychology game by the other side due to lack of political awareness and
determination in up-to-now know-how "dependent" countries. This to me
looks like an "old" attitude, a basic reluctance to really take on responsibility
for one’s own problems. After all, everybody (!) is using the comfort of
cooling, increasingly so after 1987, the year of the MP! So, to me it seems
time has come for all of us to grow out of this behaviour of the past and start
with new thinking. Germany and Switzerland, I am certain, would be willing
to assist further in any move for self-help.
4.
The 12 Advantages in detail as I see them today (there may be many
more!):
Advantage 1
No ozone-Depletion
No ozone-depleting effect is the prerequisite of all other cfc-substitutes
Advantage 2
No Global Warming
No global-warming effect was the starting point of the whole hydrocarbon
movement
Advantage 3
No Second Conversion
No second conversion - such as the one hanging over all halogen
compounds (e.g. 134a) - in the long run. 134a still contains halogens;
fluorine instead of chlorine. The use of fluorine gives me, as a chemist, a
more than uneasy feeling, since it is one of the most reactive of all elements
and forms the strongest acid known. Even if all living scientists were to
swear that it doesn’t harm the atmosphere, I would feel better if we do not
shoot it up there. After all, yesterday’s solutions often seem to create today’s
problems - as did CFC’s.
Advantage 4
Energy saving
There is an energy-saving effect with an optimised refrigeration system of
up to 10% over CRCs and 134a. This means a further life-long contribution
not to accelerate global warming - already a serious selling point in Europe
with the newly introduced, compulsory energy labelling.
Advantage 5
Quiet Refrigerators
The physical properties of isobutane hydrocarbon refrigerators make for
quiet, "whispering" refrigerators - an additional marketing aspect in Europe.
Advantage 6
Hydrocarbons readily available
The hydrocarbons cyclopentane and isobutane will probably (contrary to
e.g. 134a) be readily available in most "Article-5 countries" and other self-
relying countries as soon as there is a certain market for them, since they
involve no synthetic chemistry, just purification. A realistic approach on
purity demands (presently 98% pure; 99% was sought a year ago; future
??%) will further ease the situation.
Advantage 7
New Compressors self-made
For companies with their own line of compressor manufacturing, this
technology offers at least a possibility - and in most cases it is a real chance
- to develop new compressors for isobutane or a propane/butane-mixture on
their own, at relatively low cost, out of their old CFC-compressor modules,
whereas 134a definitely requires a completely new design. With conversion
to hydrocarbon there is in some cases a slight gain, in most cases equal
level in energy consumption compared to CFC.
Advantage 8
Extraordinary Reliability
The most convincing argument, however, is the reliability of this system,
which is bound to have fewer compressor failures. The close chemical
connection between isobutane and mineral oil, which are both hydro-
carbons, means that there is no interfering chemical interaction, which in the

case of CFC- and FC-compounds leads sooner or later to corrosion and
hence to compressor failure, mostly due to moisture from high humidity. But
hydrocarbon compressors run "forever": test runs show that 4 million hours
can be conservatively expected (80,000 hours - 15 years - is the current
desired standard and the average lifetime of refrigerators so far). This high
reliability feature was probably the main reason why German industry,
impatient with the problems caused by hydroscopic 134a-oils, converted
twice within two years despite the double costs of conversion. This
sensitivity towards humidity is, of course, greatly increased in the tropical or
subtropical climates of most "Article-5 countries". This is why German
manufacturers publicly expressed to the MF their concern that in these
countries 134a will result in a high failure rate and recommended
hydrocarbon technology for any company with a technical basis for
conversion to hydrocarbons.
Advantage 9
Virtually no refrigerant losses
The only disadvantage of hydrocarbons is their flammability, which requires
careful design and thorough employee and service sector training. The
European refrigerator industry shows that it can be done.
After all, the world has learned to live with a similar open system with gas
escaping freely: the cigarette lighter. No one worries about people carrying
three cigarette lighters - the flammability potential of a household
hydrocarbon refrigerator - in pockets or handbags, where they bounce
around a lot more than a kitchen fridge does!
Ironically I have the suspicion, that this only disadvantage is at the same
time a further advantage. Looking at the ODS phase-out effects of
hydrocarbons may result a considerable and additional contribution, al-
though it is one of the hidden effects, more in the grey area of a guilty
conscience, not openly spoken about since it is embarrassing, none I could
find in any official document yet: Due to the danger of flammability these
substances are naturally handled with utmost care. This has the effect that
there is virtually no "losses" in the manufacturing process. On the other
hand manufacturers handling CFCs as well as 134a experience
considerable losses in these technological processes; I am told that
sometimes the amount purchased is 1.8 times bigger than that which finally
leaves the factories in form of the manufactured goods, the rest - another
80%! -goes somewhere, likely due to the attitude, "it is harmless to me".
This leads to the remark of one of the leading German manufacturers, that
"the Hydrocarbon Technology forces us to work with this care we should
always have worked with".
Advantage 10
No extra Servicing Equipment
The tenth advantage for using isobutane lays in the service sector and is
another economical benefit: There is no extra servicing equipment
necessary for isobutane over CFC, whereas 134a requires a complete new
system additionally.
Further on servicing:
Although in this paper I am dealing only with the industrial sector I should at
least mention the service sector, since servicing hydrocarbons arises a lot of
worries against this technology. Handling hydrocarbons in the service field
can be as safe as CFC or 134a as far as the danger of accidents due to the
flammability is concerned, the situation in Germany proves this.
The use of hydrocarbons in the servicing sector offers another considerable
contribution to ozone protection, if one considers that in many countries,
particularly in low CFC-consuming countries, the by far larger amounts of
CFC are used in the service sector and those will be saved.
The usage of isobutane and/or blends as the refrigerant may by the way
open a whole bundle of benefits in the service sector, e.g. due to the
required care in handling, for example using ready filled cartridges may in
the end make not only servicing safer, but less costly.
Dealing with the service sector will be part of the GTZ projects 1996/97,
since in particular in the area of retrofitting substantial amounts of CFC
could be phased out the quiet way.
Advantage 11
Technically simple to adopt
This Hydrocarbon Technology is relatively simple to adopt by comparison to
"Chemicals". As already mentioned, e.g. same oils, same compressor type
any factory is used to means less strain and stress on management and
work floor. This offers a whole range of tailor-made adaptations of this
technology into the real existing situation, which is different in each factory.
So, generally spoken, here is a chance for each in-house engineering
department to come up with their "own" solution!
Advantage 12
No Patents,
No Licenses,
No Dependence
What was said about the independence this technology offers at the
national level, applies, of course, to the company level as well. Here is the
chance for any company taking the lead in setting up their own technical
development, taking the lead in the market, taking the chance to set
engineering consultancy for other countries as soon as have been through
the process themselves. A good and convincing example is Haier Qingdao,
after conversion of one of their factory lines now offers co-operation in the
introduction of Hydrocarbon Technology to any Indian company. In turn
Indian industry may offer this to rest of the world in about one year’s time.
5
The Outlook:
The Hydrocarbon Domino is Running
It is the conviction of people working actively in hydrocarbon projects that

this technology needs another good push - now. But soon market forces will
keep it running! And that is the best that can be hoped for any ecologically-
well-based technology. My plea to you is: Help to keep the hydrocarbon
domino running in the right direction! Thanks.
GTZ Yearbook 1995 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants 25
5. Hydrocarbons as Refrigerant in Domestic

Refrigerators
FORON HAUSGERÄTE GmbH
Eberhard Günther
Arnsfelder Strasse 4
D-09518 Niederschmiedeberg
(Reprint from IIR Conference 1994 Proceedings

"New Applications of Natural Working Fluids
in Refrigeration and Air Conditioning"
May 10 - 13, 1994 Hanover, Germany)
International Institute of Refrigeration
177, Boulevard Malesherbes, F-75017 Paris (France)
___________________________________________________________
1. Preface
After having detected the detrimental influence of chlorinated fluorocarbons
(CFC) to ozone layer, a goal-directed search for substitutes to be used in
cold-vapour refrigerating process has begun. However, alternative
refrigerating techniques have also got ever increasing importance. Although
household refrigerators contain only a small quantity of CFC in the
refrigerating circuit, they became a topic in substitute investigations very
early. This can be attributed, on one hand, to the widespread application -
more than 60 million refrigerators are being produced per year on world-
wide scale - and, on the other hand, to the fact that a refrigerator is
considered an absolute necessity by many people thus being distinguished
by high acceptance.
The idea that production of household refrigerators in countries abounding
in population such as e.g. India and China is steadily increasing and an
alternative to CFC has to be provided there very early also plays an
important role in this respect.
2. Ozone Layer and Greenhouse Effect

The starting point of discussion on substituting CFC was first the
conservation of the ozone layer of earth. This target is also in full
compliance with the stipulations laid down in Montreal Protocol.
In the past, the knowledge consolidated to an ever increasing extent that the
reduction of greenhouse effect has an equal importance. To promote this
recognition process, organisations for environmental protection e.g.
Greenpeace have made big efforts.
Consequently, solutions have to be found upon selection of refrigerants that
will prevent any depletion of ozone layer (ODP = 0) and, in addition, will not
contribute directly (GWP = 0) or only indirectly to a minimum extent to global
warming.
3. Techniques for Refrigeration

More than 60 million household refrigerators annually produced world-wide
function according to the cold-vapour refrigerating process except 1 million
absorbers.
In 1990, an assessment was made for Germany that the share of

households in energy consumption comes up to 25 %, among this, 8.2 %
for coolers and 8.4 % for freezers.
Thus, a market share of 4.15 % is obtained for both categories that should
not be underestimated, see figure 1.
Due to intensive development work, the energy consumption of household

refrigerators could be halved in the period from 1975 till 1990. In the year
2000, the same assessment will be made for the period from 1990 till 2000
(figure 2000).
Thus, it becomes evident that the cold-vapour refrigerating technique has

passed an intensive process of accommodation. A considerable share in
this development is held by the hermetic compressor as proved by figure 3.
Notwithstanding this positive tendency of development, this corresponds
only to a value of 39 % regarding the CARNOT process and to about 53 %
of the efficiency of virtual comparative process upon isentropic
compression. As regards energy utilisation, producers of refrigerators and
power stations seem to be in a similar situation.
A comparison of cold-vapour refrigerating installation to other refrigerating
processes such as absorbers, STIRLING or PELTIER processes and the
absorption process with ZEOLITH water as shown in figure 4 also illustrates
the actual energetic superiority of cold-vapour process. The energy yields
known in applying these processes are between 12% and 31% of CARNOT
process.
4. Selection of Refrigerants
The question applied in this subtitle means: What was the reason for
FORON to leave the internationally traced way to apply the refrigerant R
134a as substitute for R 12 and to stake on hydrocarbons in 1992? The
answer has two aspects.
First of all, our company, as former East German monopolist, was in a
desolate economic situation due to the reunification. Therefore, it was easier
for us, as compared to our competitors, to absorb ideas coming from
outside i.e. from Greenpeace and the Dortmund Institute of Hygiene and to
use hydrocarbons as refrigerant. As outlined by Prof. Kruse at a hearing
session in the German Bundestag, hydrocarbons were simply forgotten
when searching for substitutes.
Another reason to be stated here quite frankly was that FORON made use
of the better technological solution implying hydrocarbons as refrigerant to
stand out against the market as confirmed later on. The decisive criterion,
however, was the sudden confrontation with a refrigerant featuring almost
no difference to R 12 regarding its thermodynamic properties although we
had already learned to accept refrigerant R 134a due to comprehensive
investigations.
That is to say, reason stood at the beginning.

Figure 5 shows the family tree of fluorine and chlorine derivatives of
hydrocarbons. Consequently, only pure hydrocarbons meet the
requirements to prevent ozone-layer depletion and to have no direct global
warming potential.
Upon searching for a suitable hydrocarbon, the following criteria were

agreed upon:
• equal or similar specific refrigerating capacity as compared to

R 12
• equal or better COP for the comparative process of a virtualcold-vapour
refrigerating installation.
Figure 6 contains a juxtaposition of the coefficients of performance

pertaining to the comparative process of a virtual cold-vapour refrigerating
installation referred to R 12 for CECOMAF-LBP test conditions and field-
experienced application conditions in refrigerators. The energetic benefits of
the mix R 600a/R 290 and R 600a in contrast to R 12 and, in particular, R

134a become clearly evident.
In figure 7, a comparison of specific cooling capacity is shown, again
referred to R 12.
Here, the best coincidence with R 12 has been obtained for the mix of
propane/isobutan with a ratio of 50/50. For isobutan, a considerable
correction of working volume has to be effected. For proving the
thermodynamic properties of different refrigerants, theoretical investigations
were carried out by means of provided simulation programs on hermetic
refrigerant compressors over a wide range of applications. Figure 8 shows a
comparison for refrigerants R 12, R 290/R 600a and R 600a.
Here, the essential proof could be furnished that equal or even better
coefficients of performance are achieved when using hydrocarbons as
refrigerants as compared to the refrigerants R 12 or R 134a. The different
load moments can be compensated by appropriate motor corrections.
These theoretical investigations were confirmed by experiments under
selected conditions. The results are summarised in figures 9, 10, 11 and 12.
The following can be derived from considerations made with regard to

refrigerant selection:
• The existing compressor design versions are generally appropriate for

hydrocarbons.
• Upon exact motor allocation, energetic improvements can be achieved in

contrast to R 12 and R 134a.
• An R 12 substitute with hydrocarbon as single-fluid refrigerant does not

exist.
• The double-fluid refrigerant R 290/R 600a with 50 per cent by weight

each corresponds approximately to R 12 as regards its cooling capacity.
• For achieving equal cooling capacity as to R 12 and the use of isobutan,

corrections of working volume will be required.
The possible application of mineral oils has turned out to be a benefit for
hydrocarbons, however, with a higher viscosity class than R 12 since there
is a very intensive solubility of refrigerant in oil considerably decreasing
viscosity.
Another benefit implies the essential thermal relief of compressor shown in

figures 11 and 12. This instance has advantageous influences on service
life, particularly under high ambient temperatures as found in many
emergent countries.
Even for other applications e.g. heat pump, this thermal benefit is utilised
when using hydrocarbons, in particular, for elevating the condensation
temperature.
5. Energetic Efficiency of Refrigerators

The better energetic properties of refrigerant mix R 290/R 600a proven on
compressor shall be transferred to the refrigerator and shall bring about an
equally good energetic behaviour there.
Whereas no modifications on refrigerating installation were required
between R 12 and R 134a (except compressor), slight detail changes had to
be implemented in the cooling circuit when using R 290/R 600a. This refers
particularly to evaporator and capillary tube.
Figure 13 shows selected refrigerators using R 12 and hydrocarbons as
refrigerant.
Energy consumption of refrigerators was reduced up to 19%, in some
cases, an equal value as compared to R 12 could be reached "only".
After FORON started manufacture of first refrigerators with refrigerants on
world-wide scale on March 15, 1993 a lot of experience could be acquired
leading to the fact that pure isobutan has been applied as refrigerant in our
company since March 1994.
Two reasons can be identified for this:
The vapour-pressure curve included in figure 14 clearly shows the smaller

mechanical load for refrigerant R 600a. This will bring about considerable
acoustic benefits with equal energetic behaviour. This benefit, however, has
to be purchased by comprehensive modifications to be made on
compressor. The required working volume for a definite cooling capacity is
approximately double as high as shown in figure 4.
Due to the tendency towards essential improvement of heat insulation,

compressors with ever smaller cooling capacities are required for new
series of household refrigerators built. Thus, working volumes smaller than
2 cm³ are prevailing for the refrigerant mix R 290/R 600a which can only be
implemented hardly. Necessary doubling of working volume for isobutan is
the appropriate way out here.
The trend towards isobutan, however, may also result in a revival of the
intensive discussion held in Europe in the middle of the eighties about the
application of rotating piston compressors in household refrigerators.
Essential disadvantages such as internal leakproofness and cooling
capacity limit at 100 W are influenced to a considerable extent.
6. Demands made on Technical Safety

Hydrocarbons figure among the group of flammable refrigerants. Use of
such refrigerants in household refrigerators calls for clear answers to
questions regarding safety during manufacture, transportation, purposeful
application and servicing of such appliances. Such questions have to be
answered very carefully because an entire branch was upset by them.
Since there were no clearly defined stipulations during development of
refrigerators, maximum safety demands were elaborated. In such technical
safety regulations as e.g. DIN EN 2711, the statement is made for
transporting and storing flammable or caustic fluids and gases that single-
shell metallic compounds such as pipes, bins etc. perfectly joined with each
other by welding, soldering or other equivalent techniques are technically
leakproof.
Irrespectively of the mass of hazardous substances, there is no danger area
outside these components. This could have been applied for refrigerators
with hermetically tight cooling circuit (state of the art of gas engineering).
The safety concept made out together with Bavarian and Saxon
Engineering Control Associations and taken as a basis in the FORON
company, however, starts from the fact that leakages might be possible.
The following requirements were consequently derived:
Fundamental requirement
• The appliances have to be designed so that fire and explosion hazards due
to refrigerant mix with air even as consequence of unfit or careless
manipulations are prevented as far as this can be implemented.
Demands made on appliance design.

• The components of refrigerant circuit have to be designed, arranged and
fastened so that protection against leakage’s due to mechanical
damages even due to unfit or careless manipulations is ensured as far
as possible.
• Refrigerant-carrying components should not be used as spacers when
erecting the appliances.
• Dead spaces in the outside area of appliance shall be avoided upon
designing the appliance.
Protective covers for electric equipment (e.g. thermostat and light push-
button) serving for stabilisation of permitted refrigerant-air concentration
parameters have to be designed and fastened so that they can be
dislocated only by means of tools. Protection against accidental contact
and/or water can also be ensured by means of these protective covers.
Demands made on electric equipment Interior of appliance:

Electric equipment (possible ignition sources) should not be arranged in the
interior of appliance. Such equipment should also not be introduced in the
interior.
Exception:
The electric devices are conceived for use in potentially explosive areas of
zone 2 as per DIN VDE 0165.
Minimum demand regarding type of protection: IP 54.
Exterior of appliance
Electric equipment can be installed in the exterior of appliance after having
proved that a refrigerant concentration of 0.5 lower explosion limit is not
exceeded in immediate vicinity of their switching contacts upon leakage’s in
the cooling system.
Demands made on leakproofness of cooling system

Particular attention is paid to the implementation of demand for ensuring

leakproofness in cooling system. The following conditions have to be
checked:
• constructive prerequisites (minimising nondetachable joints in cooling
system)
• technological prerequisites e.g. testing techniques including several
forced routine tests regarding leakproofness by means of highly sensitive
testing equipment
• Check observation of maximum working pressures permitted
determination of dead overpressure in the chiller at an ambient
temperature of 63°C
• determination of working overpressure in the appliance (suction and
pressure sides) when approaching an ambient temperature
For practical implementation of this concept as well as for meeting all

demands made by Engineering Control Association (TÜV) or Trade
Supervisory Authority for safety of appliances and manufacture, the
following essential modifications had to be made in contrast to R 12
manufacture:
separate strength test of high-pressure and low-pressure sides of

refrigerating installation
location of evacuating and charging devices in a separate compartment.
For improving and permanently checking the quality of manufacture, a new

charging unit to be applied optionally for hydrocarbon mix and individual
components with a charging accuracy of < 1 g was installed additionally
determining the degree of evacuation prior to the charging procedure.
The results of strength test, final leakproofness inspection and electric test
are recorded and acquired by computer.
This sequence ensures maximum safety and excellent quality of products.
7. Servicing Household Refrigerators using Hydrocarbons as

Refrigerant
Construction and mode of function of chillers comply with those of
conventional design versions using CFC refrigerants including the following
main components: compressor, evaporator, condenser and capillary tube.
All these sub-assemblies have been matched with the specific parameters
of refrigerant and with the particular appliance.
Error diagnosis is as compared to appliances using CFC refrigerants. This

means for the service man to proceed as carefully as hitherto known during
repairs on sub-assemblies of refrigerant circuit.
A filter drier is installed between condenser and restrictor in order to ensure
cleanliness and dryness. Constructive design, drier medium and capacity
are identical with the parameters pertaining to refrigerant R 12.
The charged refrigerant quantity required for the operation of chiller is
reduced approximately by factor 3 due to the physical properties of
hydrocarbons and due to the measures taken for the decrease of charged
quantity i.e. the quantities of this refrigerant to be charged for household
refrigerators will amount to about 10 - 50 g.
Since refrigerants of group 3 are concerned as per European standards,

recharge of repaired chillers with volumetric feed via visual inspection
through inspection glasses cannot be applied; quite a usual procedure for R
12.
Due to the application of an exactly metered recharge cartridge, this

procedure can be eased considerably and carried out without any faults.
Since there are no chemical contact reactions between R 12 and
hydrocarbons, the service equipment can be used for refrigerant
R 12.
The simpler solution implies accomplishment of charging procedure
applying usual refrigerant filler hoses in connection with a vacuum pump,
servicing aid and recharge cartridge. This is shown in figure 15. This
procedure brings a weight decrease of more than 50% as to equipment for
the service man and a cost reduction of more than 60% when purchasing
the equipment together with the benefit of volume reduction in the service
van for equipment to be transported.
Instead of this conventional solution, the charging station usually applied for
refrigerant R 12 can also be used without any problems. An additional
connection only has to be retrofitted on the pressure gauge assembly for
by-passing the charging cylinder (figure 16).
Here, the same service equipment for technical servicing can be used for
appliances with refrigerant R 12 as well as with hydrocarbons.
Application of hydrocarbons will not require any peculiarities for the
necessary joining procedures upon replacement of the components of
refrigerant circuit. Such usual techniques as brazing or press fitting (lock
ring) have stood their test in practice.
Refrigerant recharge cartridges are made available by FORON as spare
parts.
8. Remarks concerning Situation in Emergent Countries

Upon selecting hydrocarbons as refrigerant, we also tried to take the
situation in emergent countries into account. According to our opinion, it is
not possible to apply new technologies exclusively in the advanced
industrial countries.
Due to the physical properties of hydrocarbons, compressors and
appliances can be produced according to the manufacturing techniques
known for R 12 by means of the installations provided for R 12.
Thus, the possibility will exist to apply the technique developed by FORON
on a world-wide scale for the sake of environment.
The refrigerant changeover can be implemented in already existing plants
without profound modifications and without high capital expenditure. This
refers to the changeover of PUR foam systems to the blowing agent
cyclopentan, too. The results obtained in our company during changeover of
equipment (figure 13) can also be achieved there. This statement is also
proved by the experience acquired by European and Asian manufacturers
during the changeover of refrigerators to hydrocarbons. The energetic
improvements thus obtained are frequently much more higher when
effecting further accommodation of cooling installation.
It should also be stressed here that the safety concepts elaborated together
with the Engineering Control Association are applied in respectively
matched form.
9. Conclusion
The statements made in this paper shall furnish proof of the fact that
hydrocarbons are not only a substitute for CFC and HFC in the branch of
household refrigerators but also represent an excellent alternative for the
solution of such global problems as ozone-layer depletion and global
warming. The possibility of continued use of already existing production
plants for compressors and household refrigerators without any profound
technological modifications is particularly profitable. The use of
hydrocarbons also gives a reply to the actually prevailing TEWI discussions.
When using refrigerants without any direct global warming potential (GWP =
0), the greenhouse effect can only be attributed to the energetic behaviour
of appliances indirectly via CO2 output of power stations.
The output value in Germany is 0.55 kg CO2/kWh.
The application of hydrocarbons, maybe a mix of propane/isobutan or pure

isobutan, will ensure improved energetic behaviour due to the substance
parameters. Practical implementation of this in connection with safety
concepts for operating and producing refrigerators is an interesting
engineering job. If disadvantages are detected upon TEWI investigations on

refrigerators with hydrocarbons, this will be a safe sign for the fact that an
interesting engineering job has not yet been completed successfully.
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GTZ Yearbook 1995 Natural Refrigerants 50
6. The Use of Natural Refrigerants

A Complete Solution to the CFC/HCFC-Predicament
Prof.dr.techn. Gustav Lorentzen

NTH, N-7034 TRONDHEIM, Norway
(Reprint from IIR Conference 1994 Proceedings

"New Applications of Natural Working Fluids
in Refrigeration and Air Conditioning"
May 10 - 13, 1994 Hanover, Germany)
International Institute of Refrigeration
177, Boulevard Malesherbes, F-75017 Paris (France)
___________________________________________________________
1. Introduction
We have heard a great deal lately of the harmful effects to the environment
when halocarbon refrigerants are lost to the atmosphere. This should not
really have come as a surprise since similar problems have happened over
and over again. Numerous cases are on record where new chemicals,
believed to be a benefit to man, have turned out to be environmentally
unacceptable, some times even in quite small quantities (DDT, PCB, Pb....
etc.). In the present situation, when the CFCs and in a little longer
perspective the HCFCs are being banned by international agreement, it
does not seem very logical to try to replace them by another family of
related halocarbons, the HFCs, equally foreign to nature [1]. It has already
been suggested that HFC 134a may be decomposed by sunlight in the
troposphere and form acid and poisonous substances [2,3]. If this should
turn out to be true, we may have to face yet another catastrophe, even
worse than the CFC experience. In any case it must obviously be much
preferable to use natural compounds, which are already circulating in
quantity in the biosphere and are known to be harmless as I have
advocated for years with only lukewarm response.
About 50 different substances have been more or less extensively used as

working media over the 160 years of refrigeration history. Most of them
have been discarded as unsuitable for various reasons, but a fair number of
choice remains to adapt to varying conditions
of application. Among them are a number of "natural" substances like, for

instance, air, water, nitrogen, ammonia, hydrogen, helium, hydrocarbons
and carbon dioxide, which all have possible application in the refrigeration
technology of the future.
The ideal refrigeration or heat pump cycle for a given purpose is defined by
the boundary conditions of the application and completely independent of
the refrigerant used. The concept of the Carnot process as the ideal
reference is only valid in the case of heat absorption and rejection at
rigorously constant temperatures which can be closely approached by
isobaric evaporation and condensation of a pure medium. In most practical
cases heat will be exchanged with finite flows of liquid or gas with a more or
less pronounced temperature glide. For the temperature lift and drop by
compression or expansion the reversible adiabat is the natural ideal in most
cases. In the common case of air cooling, using ambient air or water as a
heat sink, the reference cycle may look something like the heavy drawn
circuit in the T-s-diagram, Fig. 1. In order to achieve an acceptable
efficiency the real cycle should approach the theoretical ideal as closely as
practically possible. The possibilities are limited by the processes we are
able to realise in the available types of equipment, compressors, expanders
and heat exchangers, within economic limitations.
Rational compressors and expanders will operate near adiabatically since

the surface area of their working space is much too small to provide any
appreciable heat exchange. Considerable exergy losses occur as a result of
internal friction and other irreversibility’s. Philips and Vuilleumier machines
differ in that they have advanced heat exchangers built into their active
working volume, but even so they are far from achieving the desired near-
isothermal processes. Liquid injection (or wet suction) is often proposed as
a means of cooling in all types of compressors, but introduces additional
losses far in excess of the theoretical gain [4]. We are by no means able to
produce the arbitrary "polytropes", so popular in theoretical analysis.
Figure I - Example of the theoretical cycle for a common refrigeration

application (thick lines 1-2-3-4-1) and the real cycle 1’-2’-3’-4’
Heat exchangers (evaporators, condensers etc.) require a temperature
difference for functioning, depending on the surface area which has to be
decided on economic criteria. The corresponding exergy loss is often
increased as a result of poor matching of the temperature curves of the
refrigerant and outside transport medium. Gliding temperatures can
certainly be generated in gas cycles, by use of zeotropic mixtures or
approached by staging, but it is rarely possible to get a perfect fit in heat

absorption and discharge at the same time.
As a result of these various difficulties the real cycle will always differ very
considerably from the ideal. As a typical example a normal refrigeration
process is plotted in Fig. 1, using realistic performance data for the system
components. The power consumption, excluding motor and transmission
losses, is represented as the area 1 ’-c-d-2’-3’-a-b-4’-1’, and is several times
larger than theoretically required. Correspondingly the true efficiency of
common refrigeration and heat pump systems is very low and often in the
range 10 to 30 per cent. The possibilities for further improvement are
considerable.
While the thermophysical properties of the refrigerant have no influence on

the theoretical cycle and affect the Evans-Perkins process (some times
erroneously referred to as "reverse Rankine") only slightly through their
influence on the superheat and throttling loss, their effect on the other
thermodynamic losses is considerable. Most important in order to limit the
heat transfer, flow resistance and compressor losses are a low molar mass
and suitably high pressure at working conditions. The common halocarbons
are not particularly effective in these respects. The popular comparison of
refrigerants on the basis of their theoretical performance in the Evans-
Perkins cycle can therefore be very misleading.
After a brief reference to the status of gas cycle systems, the following
pages will discuss how a few natural refrigerants, ammonia, propane and
carbon dioxide, can be used to advantage to cover the needs of most
normal refrigeration and heat pump applications, using conventional
compressor systems.
Fig. 1
2. Gas Cycle Machines

So called "cold air machines" as first introduced by Gorrie in 1844, were
used extensively during the final decades of last century and well into this
one, mainly for marine refrigeration. They were large, steam driven,
reciprocating machinery, open on the suction side for direct cooling of the
cargo holds, and the air was often cooled during and after the compression
by direct water spray. The compressor cooling presumably had some effect
in the large volume slow moving machines. Even so, the power
consumption was excessive, the equipment was very bulky and space
consuming, and there were troubles with icing up of the system, oil fumes in
the air etc. The cold air machines were therefore quickly replaced by
ammonia or carbon dioxide plants as they were developed to satisfactory
reliability.
The open cycle cold air machine or heat pump may seem very attractive by
its simplicity and environmental advantage, and numerous attempts have
been made over the years to revive the idea, eliminating some of its
drawbacks by using turbo or other high speed rotary machinery. The
problem of excessive power consumption remains, however, Fig. 2A. The
system is used some times for air conditioning in military aircraft, where
compressed air is available from the jet engine and low extra weight is
considered more important than fuel economy. It has been proposed for
special services like cooling of deep mines by using compressed air from
the surface to drive pumps or other mining machinery, or for sporadic
freezing of products, using discarded aircraft turbines. None of these ideas

have found any wide application.
It is clear that the open cold air system has little chance of gaining any
importance for refrigeration or heat pumps in the normal temperature range
unless a significant break-through should occur. This does not seem very
likely at the present time.
For lower temperatures, below say 200 K, the situation is quite different.
Fig. 2a and 2b
Open transcritical cycles with counterflow heat exchangers have been used
to condense air and other "gases" for more than 100 years, and similar
arrangements are applicable for space cooling. Fig. 2 B. More recently high
pressure closed gas cycles have been developed, using hydrogen or helium
very effectively (Philips etc.). At high pressures, high temperature lift, using
thermal regeneration and high heat transfer gas, the problems associated
with the open cold air machine are greatly reduced.
3. The Refrigerant Revolution

The first halocarbon refrigerant, R-12, was introduced in the USA in the
early thirties. 20 years later the new compounds had conquered the greater
part of refrigeration applications the world over, starting with the smaller
equipment and air conditioning, gradually penetrating into even the large
industrial area. Ammonia only has remained the preferred choice in the
latter field.
One may well wonder why this revolution happened so quickly at the time,
in spite of many practical difficulties in the beginning. Important factors were
certainly the heavy advertising, an effective system of technical information
and well organised effort by the manufacturers to solve the various
problems as they occurred. But I am sure an equally powerful motive for
change was the possibility to use simple and cheap construction methods,
copper tubing, light screw or solder fittings, cheap automatic control
equipment. hermetic motors etc. Small leaks did not matter much since they
would not be noticed until refill became necessary, and this was a simple
and relatively cheap operation. not without interest to the service firms and
refrigerant supplier. The work could be done by people with limited
qualifications, and we ended up with a contractor industry structure and lack
of professionalism which contribute strongly to the problems we are facing
today.
Now we have to revert to systems which must be absolutely tight and stay
tight over their lifetime. We have to design for safety, even though some
refrigerants may be combustible or even poisonous. We will have to rebuild
the professional and responsible attitude of former days. If we manage this,
we have at our disposal a series of natural, cheap and thermodynamically
excellent working media.
I have no doubt that practically all normal refrigeration and heat pump
needs in the future can be adequately served by three abundantly available
natural refrigerants: Ammonia, Propane (or hydrocarbon mixtures) and
Carbon Dioxide. This will require a concentrated effort to recover lost
development during a half century of halocarbon domination. As a result we
can expect a better and more energy effective technology, free of
environmental problems and the monopoly of big chemical companies.
In the following we will take a brief look at some important aspects of the
candidate refrigerants mentioned. Some characteristic data are compiled in
Table I in comparison with common halocarbon alternatives:
4. Ammonia, the prooven Refrigerant
After 120 years of extensive usage a tremendous amount of practical
experience with this refrigerant exists. There is no doubt about its excellent
thermodynamic and transport properties, much superior to those of any
halocarbon. It is a well known fact that an ammonia plant always has a
considerably better energy efficiency in practice, when compressor speed,
piping dimensions and heat transfer equipment are decided on economic
criteria. Other important advantages are tolerance to normal mineral oils,
low sensitivity to small amounts of water in the system, simple leak
detection, unlimited availability and low price. All these factors contribute to
its sustained popularity and wide application.
It is true that ammonia is poisonous and can burn with air, although these
defects have often been grossly exaggerated. In reality it is 10 to 50 times
less toxic than chlorine, for instance [5]. Its lower ignition limit is as high as
15,5% by volume, 3 to 7 times that of common hydrocarbons and natural
gas, and the combustion heat less than half. Experience shows that
accidents are extremely rare, be it by poisoning or explosion. A recent
investigation indicates that fatal cases are at least as frequent with
halocarbon refrigerants [6].
An invaluable asset of ammonia is its strong, penetrating and to most

people unpleasant smell. Ironically enough this may be the reason for the
exaggerated fear, while it is in reality a most valuable safety factor. The gas
is easily detected at a concentration as low as 5 ppm in air, and it takes a
1000 times higher content before there is any real danger. The margin of
safety is thus extremely generous and it takes very special circumstances
for any critical situation to occur. An analysis of known cases shows that
extreme negligence and violation of elementary safety precautions are
invariably the cause.
It is very simple in principle to build an ammonia plant to any required level

of safety. The gas is much lighter than air and easily vented away, and it is
highly soluble in water. By simply placing the ammonia containing
equipment in a closed and reasonably tight compartment or box and
ventilate it to a safe place over the root or a built-in water reserve, any risk
of external leakage dung operation can be eliminated. The ventilation can, if
need be, be controlled by a gas sensor Distribution ot cold to the places of
usage must. of course, be done by a safe secondary refrigerant in premises
accessible to the public, except for very small capacities. Work on ammonia
equipment for repair or service must be carried out by qualified personnel.
The need to use indirect cooling is the one considerable drawback of
ammonia (and other combustible refrigerants) since most available brines
are quite viscous at low temperatures, with high pumping power
requirement and poor heat transfer. There is presently a strong
development to improve on this situation, and new brands are constantly
brought on the market [7].
The objection is often heard that an ammonia plant is more expensive than
its halocarbon equivalent, and this is certainly true if it is a special one of a
kind installation. But there is no reason it should be that way under equal
conditions of production. On the contrary ammonia has a number of strong

points which can actively reduce first cost:
The optimum compressor speed is inversely proportional to the square root

of the molar mass of the refrigerant [4]. An ammonia machine needs less
than half the swept volume of one for R-22 with the same capacity.
- The size of piping and armatures can be reduced in the same ratio
- The heat transfer area of condenser and evaporator can be reduced as a

result of the excellent heat transfer efficiency of NH3.
These considerable savings should more than compensate for the extra
cost of a brine pumping system and casing.
A development on the lines described is retarded by the lack of suitable
small ammonia compressors and control equipment in the market and the
scarcity of people with practical experience of this refrigerant. In particular
cost effective small hermetics are needed, although some "canned motor"
type machines are already available. More suitable evaporator designs are
also required. The liquid/gas volume ratio for NH3 is very low and the
problem of correct distribution and wetting of the heat transfer surface in
"dry evaporators" is correspondingly even more difficult than for the
halocarbons. Some type of flooding seems indicated.
The progress is now well under way, however, and we can expect a rapid
growth in NH3 usage in the next few years. One exception is turbo
machines, where a working medium with a somewhat hither molar mass is
desirable.
5. Propane, a promising Alternative

Propane and Ethylene have been used successfully as working media in
large refrigeration plants for many years, notably in the petrochemical
process industry. Mixtures of hydrocarbons, adapted to the desired
temperature glide, give excellent service in the enormous condensation
trains for natural gas. 45 years ago propane was tried in small refrigeration
systems of conventional design without any problem and with excellent
performance [4].
Propane (C3H6, R-290) has excellent thermodynamic properties, similar to

those of ammonia (or R-22 for that matter). The molar mass of 44 is ideal
for turbo compressors and only about half to one third of that of its
halocarbon competitors. Its transport properties are correspondingly better,

although they do not quite match those of NH3. Propane is compatible with
normal lubricating oils and machine building materials, universally available
and low in price. Its physiological properties are comparable with those of
the CFCs, although it has no harmful decomposition products in a fire
except possibly CO at incomplete combustion.
The only important disadvantage of hydrocarbon refrigerants is that they are

combustible with a very low ignition concentration limit (Table I), and this
drawback has been blown up to unreasonable proportions. As a fact they
are popular fuels available everywhere and used with simple precautions
even in private homes, caravans and small boats. With reasonably careful
design it must be even more simple to ensure safety in a hermetic closed
refrigeration circuit.
Inside the working system it is physically impossible to create an explosive

mixture. The amount of air required would exceed by far the limits permitting
of normal operation. Any risk is therefore associated with leakage to the
outside and can be eliminated by suitable enclosure and ventilation as
described for ammonia. Even greater care is required in repair and service,
however.
Propane is an obvious alternative to ammonia in ad kinds of refrigeration
and heat pump application. Direct cooling is possible in small systems,
when the charge is low enough to avoid any explosion risk in rooms where
leakage may occur. One advantage is that the hardware can be very similar
to CFC practice and familiar to service personnel. Propane can of course be
mixed with other hydrocarbons to adjust the pressure and generate gliding
temperatures.
After years of hesitation hydrocarbon refrigerant is beginning to find

application in household equipment. A 50/50 mixture of propane and
isobutan (R-290/R-600a) is used to approach the pressure and capacity
characteristics of R-12 [8]. It is hard to see that the small charge of typically
less than 50 g can represent any danger, and extensive analysis and
practical testing in the USA and Germany have confirmed its safety. Also,
millions of Platen/Munters refrigerators, charged with ammonia and
hydrogen (!), have been used over the years without any accidents except
an occasional "bad smell".
It is hard to see why hydrocarbons cannot provide a solution for other small
equipment as well.
In large systems using turbo machinery propane has a particular advantage

in that its molar mass is near the ideal to achieve the optimal Mach number
with an impeller tip speed adjusted to the strength capabilities of modern
materials and design. This favours a compact design with a minimum
number of stages.
6. Carbon Dioxide, the unique Refrigerant

Carbon dioxide was a commonly used refrigerant from the late 1800’s and
well into our century. Due to its complete harmlessness it was the generally
preferred choice for usage on board ships, while ammonia was more
common in stationary applications. By the advent of the "Freons" and R-12
in the first place, the use of CO2 was rapidly interrupted. The main reason
for this development was certainly the rapid loss of capacity at high cooling
water temperatures in the tropics, and not less the failure of the
manufacturers to follow modern trends in CO2 compressor design towards
more compact and price effective high speed types. Time is now ripe for a
re-assessment of this refrigerant for application with present day
technology.
Disregarding air and water, CO2 is certainly the refrigerant coming closest
to the ideal of harmlessness to the environment [9]. With regard to personal
safety, it is at least as good as the best of halocarbons. It is non-toxic and
incombustible, of course. By release from the liquid form about half will
evaporate while the remainder becomes solid in the form of snow and can
be removed with broom and dustpan, or just left to sublimate. Most people
are already familiar with the handling of "dry ice". In the case of accidental
loss of a large quantity, a good ventilation system is required in order to
eliminate any risk of suffocation, in particular in spaces below ground level.
In this respect the situation is the same as for any large halocarbon plant.
It is some time maintained that the high pressure of CO2 could constitute a
special danger in the case of accidental rupture. Actually this is not so since
the volume is so small. In the same way as the product P*V is
approximately the same for all systems with the same capacity, the same
holds for the explosion energy, regardless of the refrigerant used.
As a fact, the high pressure and correspondingly low specific volume is

perhaps the greatest advantage. The pressure level is close to the optimum
for modern machine technology, as demonstrated by fields like power
engineering, oil hydraulics and other processes, where it can be chosen
freely. The Philips machine is another example, working at about 100 bar. In
the vicinity of the critical point heat transfer is also particularly effective. All
this makes for a very compact and cost effective design.
CO2 also has a number of further advantages:
pressure close to the economically optimal level greatly reduced
compression ratio compared to conventional refrigerants complete
compatibility to normal lubricants and common machine construction
materials easy availability everywhere, independent of any supply monopoly
simple operation and service, no "recycling" required, very low Price.
One problem of this refrigerant, and in some applications an important

asset, is its relatively low critical point of 31°C. With condensation well
below this temperature, in a cool climate or in a low stage of a cascade
system, it works with condensation like any other refrigerant. As the critical
temperature is approached or even exceeded, the losses by superheat and
throttling increase. It turns out, however, that in some cases this can be
compensated by much improved compressor performance as a result of
very low pressure ratio and small volume requirement. This has been amply
demonstrated by the motorcar air conditioning system, which is fully
described in reference I l01.
There is no doubt that CO2 can be used with similar success in other small
refrigeration systems as well. For larger capacities it may be worth while to
take measures to reduce the losses by superheat and throttling. One
obvious way is by staged compression and expansion, Fig3. Another
tempting solution can be to recover expansion work in using a suitable
engine, since the properties of CO2 make this feasible.
With a conventional refrigerant like R-12 most of the theoretical expansion

work comes from the flash gas and the P-v diagram becomes very thin, with
a low mean pressure, Fig 4. For CO2 the situation is quite different, with
most of the work in the liquid phase, a high mean pressure and small
volume requirement. An expansion aggregate becomes a cost effective
element in large installations, I l ll.
In some cases the characteristics of a trans critical process are particularly

well adapted to the application, when a strongly gliding temperature of heat
discharge is desired. Most heat pumps extract low temperature heat from
the immense reservoir of the environment (air, water, rock ...) and a process
with constant temperature evaporation is therefore quite suitable rejection at
essentially cons with gliding temperature 0T.
Such a process can be at Fig. 6. In order to get a sat absorbing medium

(water), of 90-100 bar or higher. Tl 0°C, the discharge temperature about
70-80°C. This temper the discharge pressure and a 100 mW heat pump
with identical boundary conditions for the purpose. They give off the thermal
energy at a higher temperature to a finite stream of air or water with limited
heat capacity, resulting in a more or less gliding temperature. The amount
of temperature change can range from a few degrees in a small direct
condensation air heater, 15-20 K for normal "split units", up to 30-40 K in
large district heating networks and even more in some industrial
applications and direct tap water heating.
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
This causes a very considerable excess power requirement in the normal

type of cycle with condensation and heat rejection at essentially constant
temperature, Fig 5A. What one should really have is a cycle with gliding
temperature output as indicated schematically in Fig. 5B.
Such a process can be approached by a transcritical cycle, using CO2 as

working medium, Fig. 6. In order to get a satisfactory fit to the near
logarithmic temperature curve of the heat absorbing medium (water), the
discharge pressure should be well above critical, in the order of 90-100 bar
or higher. This means that when the evaporation temperature is for instance
0°C, the discharge temperature in single stage compression with dry
saturated suction will be about 70-80°C.
Fig 5
Fig 6
This temperature can be adjusted in a certain range, up or down, by varying

the discharge pressure and suction gas state as illustrated schematically in
Fig 6B. using a conventional suction gas heat exchanger, or, possibly, some
liquid injection The flexibility in the direction of a temperature reduction is
rather limited, however Lowering the pressure too much will deteriorate the
temperature curve fit in heat exchange, while wet suction rapidly leads to
poor compressor performance. The single stage system shown is therefore
most suitable when the required temperature glide is higher than 40-50 K,
depending on the heat source temperature. In such cases it may easily
reduce the specific power consumption by up to 40 per cent compared to
the conventional process, improving the COP correspondingly.
For most applications we need heat pumps with a smaller temperature

glide. This problem is readily solved by a system of staged compression, to
give a discharge temperature close to the desired level. Fig. 7 gives an
example of a two stage arrangement, suitable for a modern low temperature
district heating application with a heating range for instance 35-60°C. The
temperature-entropy chart compares the transcritical CO2-process with a
conventional R-12 system for the same capacity and temperature
requirement. The power saving achieved by the better temperature fit in
heat transfer is a good 20 per cent
Another good example of the efficient use of CO2 in commercial

refrigeration is given in a second paper to this meeting [12].
7. Water Vapour Systems

Open cycle water vapour systems are used occasionally for direct
evaporation chilling in situations with low relative time of operation, when
the high power consumption is of minor importance compared to investment
and labour costs. The vapour volume to be compressed is enormous, in the
same order of magnitude as for an open cold air cycle of similar capacity.
Steam ejectors are normally applied. The most typical example is the
cooling of truckloads of lettuce in California. More recently a similar system
has been introduced for the production of ice slurry [13].
Fig. 7
Water has also been proposed as a refrigerant in regular systems using

turbo- or special rotary compressors [14, Liz. The physical dimensions of
these machines become very large and price must be a problem.
In the high temperature heat pump area on the other hand, water is an ideal
working medium. It has been used extensively for many years in open
systems for concentration of liquids by evaporation, Fig. 8. Since the
temperature lift is limited to what is required for heat transfer (plus possibly
some boiling point elevation) the COP becomes very high, up to 20 or more
in some cases. The low lift also permits the use of simple and relatively
inexpensive single stage turbo compressors.
For open or closed cycle heat pumps in a multitude of industrial applications

in the temperature range upwards of 80-100°C water is the obvious choice.
In this field refrigeration gradually merges with steam engineering.
8. Conclusions
Release to the atmosphere of chemicals which are foreign to nature
involves a great risk, as amply demonstrated by the CFC experience and
many other similar cases in recent years. It is clearly desirable to choose as
refrigerants "natural compounds", which are already present in quantity in
our biosphere and known to be harmless.
Suitable such compounds exist to satisfy our requirements for all common
applications of refrigeration and heat pumps. Some changes in current
design and practice will certainly be required, but are immediately possible
on the basis of existing knowledge. In the conventional refrigeration and
heat pump domain three refrigerants will be sufficient to satisfy normal
requirements: Ammonia, Propane and Carbon Dioxide. More often than not
they can do the job better than the present halocarbons; cheaper and with
less power consumption.
Most people regard the present ban on the CFC/HCFCs as a tremendous

problem. True, it is going to cost the society billions of dollars, nobody
knows how many. But for the refrigeration industry it opens immense
opportunities; an opportunity to improve technology, more development
work, more production, more business.
Problems are the root of progress and are bread and butter to the engineer.
Fig. 8
9. References
1. Lorentzen, G.: "Application of Natural Refrigerants" IIR Annex 1993,
Gent, p. 55-64.
2. Banks, R.E.: "Scepticism about R- 134a justified" Refrig. Air. Condit.,
Sept. 1993, p. 16.
3. Rosin, H.: Hygiene - Inst. Dortmund, Speech at IKK 93, Essen,
referred to in Scan Ref. 1993, No. 6, p. 4-5.
4. Lorentzen, G.: "Leveringsgrad og virkningsgrad for kj01ekompressorer
(Volume and energy efficiency of refrigeration compressors)",
Fiskeridirekt0ren, Bergen, 1940.
5. Anon.:"Ammonia Toxicity Monograph" The Inst. of Chem. Engrs., 1988.
6. Lunde, H. and Lorentzen, G.: "Accidents and critical situations due to
unintentional escape of refrigerants." Paper to appear in Int. J. Refrig., June
1994.
7. Granryd, E. and Melinder, A.: "Koldbarare tBr indirekta kyl- och
varmepumpsystem (Refrigerants for indirect refrigeration and heat pump
systems)" Scan Ref. 1993, No. 6, p. 29-34.
8. Meyer, A.:"Der FCKW-freie Kuhlschrank der Foron Hausgerate GmbH"
Luft u. Kaltetechn.. 1993, No. 1, p. 3-4.
9. Lorentzen, G.: "Revival of CO2 as a refrigerant" Refrigeration beyond the
crisis, Inst. of Refrig., London, 1993.
10. Lorentzen, G. and Pettersen, J.: "A new, efficient and environmentally
benign system for car air conditioning". Int. J. Refrig., 1993, No. 1, p. 4-12.
11. Lorentzen, G.: "Large heat pumps using CO2 refrigerant" IIR Com. B
1/2. Gent 1993, p. 191-97.
12. Lorentzen, G.: "Use of CO2 in commercial refrigeration" IIR Com. B2,
Hannover, May 1994.
13. Paul, J.: "Binary ice-technologies for the production of pumpable ice-
slurries"
The Inst. of Refrig., London 1993.
14. Mads H. and Minds, G.: "Energy saving in process cooling by use of
water as a refrigerant" IIR Com. 1/2, Gent 1993, p. 75-85.
15. Nyvad, J. and Elefsen, F.: "Energy efficient cooling by use of cycloid
water vapour compressor" IIR Com. 1/2, Gent, 1993, p. 67-74.
GTZ Yearbook 1995 History of HC 69
7. History of HC Refrigerants
Greenpeace report “Back to the Future”
A Survey of Essential Information Regarding Hydrocarbons vs. HCFC-141b

and HFC-134a in Domestic Refrigerators
Prepared for Greenpeace

By : John Maté
September, 1994
Acknowledgements: ‘Back To The Future’ was commissioned by

Greenpeace USA and Greenpeace International Ozone Campaign.
The document was peer reviewed, with invaluable changes and information
added by Tracy Heslop, Melanie Duchin, Steve Kretzmann.
© Greenpeace USA/J. Maté
___________________________________________________________
Introduction
The decision regarding which alternative refrigerants and insulation blowing
agents are most suitable for replacing ozone depleting CFCs in domestic
refrigeration, should be based on such criteria as: environmental
compatibility; safety requirements; energy efficiency; technological
compatibility with existing equipment; appliance service considerations;
cost factors; availability; recovery considerations; and short and long term
global market prospects. Ultimately, such decisions must be based on what
is best for the ozone layer and the atmosphere.
During 1993/94 the natural refrigerants, hydrocarbons R290 (propane) and

R600a (isobutan), or blends of R290/R600a, have emerged as the major
contenders against the synthetic compound HFC 134a for market
acceptance as refrigerant substitutes to CFC 12. Similarly, another
hydrocarbon, cyclopentan, is successfully competing for market share
against HCFC-141b in insulation foam blowing.
Greenpeace, along with an increasing number of engineers and scientists,
maintains that the future of environmentally safer refrigeration lies with
natural substances, such as hydrocarbons, CO2, ammonia, water, air.1

(see Appendix B) Among these natural substances, hydrocarbon
technologies are the most readily available at the present time for
commercial production of domestic refrigerators.
Hydrocarbons are flammable, a risk factor which is over emphasised by the

proponents of HFCs and HCFCs. The flammability of hydrocarbons can be
easily mitigated through adequate safety measures in production and
product design. This has been demonstrated both in engineering research,
and in the marketplace, through the rapid spread of the hydrocarbon based
Greenfreeze technology in Europe, and in Asia. (Appendix A) Indeed, as
one looks at the range of products and appliances that utilise flammable
materials, such as electricity, natural gas, oil and gasoline, it is clear that
society has chosen to mitigate and accept the risks posed by these
flammable materials in exchange for the goods and services they provide.
(Appendix D)
However, the negative environmental impact of both HFCs and HCFCs, that
is, significant contributions to global warming, and in the case of HCFCs,
significant contributions to ozone depletion, cannot be adequately mitigated.
Considering all of the above criteria, with the exception of their
flammability, hydrocarbons are superior to their synthetic counterparts--
HFCs and HCFCs.
The use of hydrocarbons in domestic refrigeration predates the invention of

the “miracle” compounds --CFCs--in the early ‘30s. In the United States, in
the mid ‘30s, out of 60 different refrigerator brands, 11 used isobutan as
1 (a)Lorentzen, Gustav (Prof. dr.techn. ,Trondheim, Norway) : "The Use of Natural

Refrigerants, A Complete Solution to the CFC/HCFC Predicament": Paper reprinted in
the pre-print copy of the “Proceedings of the International Conference: New
Applications of Natural Working Fluids in Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: A
Contribution to Reduced Global Warming and Energy Consumption” (May 10-13, 1994,
Hannover, Germany) : International Institute of Refrigeration, Commission B2 :
Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-General for Energy (DG XVII)
(b)Paul, Joachim (Integral Technologie GmbH, Flensburg/Germany), "Water as Alternative

Refrigerant": Paper reprinted in the pre-print copy of the “Proceedings of the
International Conference: New Applications of Natural Working Fluids in Refrigeration
and Air Conditioning: A Contribution to Reduced Global Warming and Energy
Consumption” (May 10-13, 1994, Hannover, Germany) : International Institute of
Refrigeration, Commission B2 : Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-
General for Energy (DG XVII)
refrigerant. The refrigerant charge in those refrigerators is estimated to

have been approximately 1.5 kg (3.3 lbs), of isobutan. 2 In comparison,
today’s hydrocarbon refrigerators, with hermetically sealed compressor
systems, use between 30 to 70 grams (1-2.5 oz.) of refrigerant, depending
on the size of the refrigerator. (Appendix C) That is 20-50 times less
refrigerant used under much safer conditions.
The recent advent of hydrocarbon technology in domestic refrigeration

represents a positive technological reach “back to the future”. A reach to
the past in order to secure the future.
All of the major European companies will have switched their full line of
domestic refrigerators to hydrocarbon “Greenfreeze” technology by the end
of 1994. Unfortunately, the American refrigeration industry, suffering from
environmental and economic myopia, is resistant to making the inevitable
conversion. Consequently, the American industry --by clutching on to
obsolete, polluting transitional technologies-- is in danger of losing its
competitive edge, and the American consumer is denied the right of access
to an environmentally safer appliance. Furthermore, American industry
risks technological isolation and loss of export markets, as the rest of the
world switches to HCFC and HFC free refrigerators.
American industry’s reluctance to embrace the new Greenfreeze technology

seems to be driven by short term investment/profit considerations rather
than long term industrial strategy or environmental concerns. “On
December 1, 1992 the London Financial Times reported that Du Pont had
invested $450 million in HCFC and HFC production, and expects to hit the
$1 billion mark in 1995, with an expected recovery period for the investment
of no less than ten years. The company claims to require another ten to
twenty years of HCFC and HFC production to profit above and beyond
recouping their investment. Consequently, the production and phase out
dates for HCFCs and HFCs are not based on the availability of safer
technologies or substances, and therefore the needs of the ozone layer.” 3
2 Granryd, Eric; Tengblad, Niklas; Nowacki, Jan-Erik, “Propane as Refrigerant in a Small

Heat Pump: Safety Considerations and Performance Comparisons”, Paper presented
at the International Conference - New Applications of Natural Working Fluids in
Refrigeration and Airconditioning, 10-13 May, 1994, Hannover, Germany.
3 Greenpeace International, “HCFC’s and HFC’s: The Bad Gamble” , January, 1993:Paper
reprinted in the “Proceedings of the Ozone Safe Cooling 1993 Conference”: published
by Greenpeace USA (1994): p.30
The present study, “Back to the Future”, compiles some of the essential
information regarding cyclopentan and isobutan in comparison to HCFC-
141b and HFC-134a. The scope of the study does not include other
alternative technologies for domestic refrigeration, for example, Stirling
cycle refrigeration or vacuum panel insulation, which certainly merit
extensive consideration. In the long term, these may prove to be cleaner
for the environment, and more efficient, than hydrocarbon based
technologies.
The study is based on the premise that for the present, in contrast to
HCFCs and HFCs, conversion to hydrocarbon technology in domestic
refrigeration not only makes sense from an environmental but also from a
long term business perspective.
Part I : Comparison of Cyclopentan and HCFC-141b as Blowing

Agents for PUR Foam Insulation in Domestic Refrigeration
“ In the past two years cyclopentan has emerged as the most promising zero
Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP) alternative to CFC-11 as a blowing agent
for rigid insulation foam.” 4 (UNEP)
“The Montreal Protocol stipulates that each Party shall endeavour to ensure
that HCFC’s use is limited to those applications where other environmentally
suitable alternative substances or technologies are not available.” 5
(UNEP)
4 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Industry and the Environment:

“Cyclopentan : A Blowing Agent for Polyurethane Foams for Insulation in Domestic
Refrigerator-Freezers”: Information Paper, OzonAction Information Clearinghouse,
OzonAction Programme, July 1994: p.1
5 UNEP, “Elimination of CFCs from Domestic Refrigeration Manufacture”: Op.cit., Part 2, p.4
A. Environmental Compatibility of Cyclopentan and HCFC-141b

1. Ozone safe blowing agents for insulation in domestic refrigeration are
essential for the protection of the ozone layer as "blowing agents are
released into the atmosphere during the lifetime of an appliance" . 6
Japanese appliance manufacturers estimate that 25% of the foaming agent
escape in 10 years as the polyurethane insulation deteriorates.7
2. The global CFC consumption in the foam sector in 1990 was 174,000
metric tonnes. The global usage of CFCs in appliance foams in 1990 was
38,000 metric tonnes [approximately 21% of the total CFC used in the foam
sector]. 8
3. In 1991, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel of the

Montreal Protocol, estimated that “...150,000 tonnes of HCFCs a year would
be required to achieve a CFC phase out in foam plastics in the developed
countries in 1995”.9 The importance of making the right choice for the foam
blowing agents in domestic refrigeration is further amplified when we add
the projected growth in domestic refrigerator/ freezer production in
developing and industrialised countries. The December 1991, Technical
Options Committee of the Montreal Protocol, projected “an annual
production growth rate of refrigerating capacity (arising from both more and
6 Ballhause, Herr. Dr. (Liebherr-Hausgerate BmbH), “Hydrocarbons Provide Zero ODP and
Zero GWP Insulation for Household Refrigeration”: article presented by Herr. Dr.
Ballhaus at the October 12, 1993, Technology Transfer, Weltbank Montreal Fund
OORG-Meeting, as reprinted in “Proceedings of the Ozone Safe Cooling 1993
Conference” (October 18-19,1993, Washington, D.C. ), published by Greenpeace USA
(1994), p.471.
7 Greenpeace Japan, “CFC Substitutes Will Not Save the Earth: The Environmental Impacts
of Refrigerants and Insulation Foaming Agents for Household Refrigerators in the
Developing Countries”, October 1993: p.9
8 UNEP, “Cyclopentan”, Op. cit. p. 2
9 TEAP Report 1991: Montreal Protocol On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer: “1991
Assessment: Report of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP)”,
December, 1991: Section 8, p.11
from bigger cabinets) of 15% for developing countries and 7% for developed
countries .” 10
4. PUR foam: “Mainly CFC-11 has been used to produce foams for
insulation in domestic refrigerator freezers...Rigid polyurethane foams
continue to be the dominant insulation used in domestic refrigerator-
freezers...It is estimated that approximately 75-80% is used in refrigerator-
freezers and the remaining 20-25% is used in other appliances such as
display cabinets, water heaters, portable coolers, commercial appliances
and vending machines....” 11
“The total amount of CFC-11 used [for the manufacture of polyurethane
insulating foam in the refrigerator and freezer industry is projected to be ]
16,000 tonnes in 1994.” 12
5. “The domestic refrigerator-freezers manufacturing industry expects to

complete transition from CFCs (in industrialised countries) in 1995”.13
Thus, making the right choice for an alternative blowing agent is all the more
pressing as “today there are only two serious contenders being considered
by those moving to CFC-free foam blowing: HCFC-141b and
(cyclo)pentane...” 14
6. Ozone Destroying Potential (ODP) and Global Warming Potential (GWP)

of HCFC-141b:
a. ODP of HCFC-141b: HCFC-141b is an ozone destroyer, with an

ozone depleting potential (ODP) of 0.11, one of the highest among
10 TOC Report 1991: Montreal Protocol: “1991 Assessment: Refrigeration, Air Conditioning
and Heat Pumps: Technical Options Committee”: December, 1991: p.86
11 UNEP, “Cyclopentan”, Op.cit, p.2
12 UNEP, “Proposed Three-Year plan and Budget of the Multilateral Fund (1994-1996)”,
Submitted by the Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of
the Montreal Protocol at the Open-Ended Working Group of the Parties to the Montreal
Protocol: August, 1993, Geneva, p. 11
13Ibid. p.1
14 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Industry and the Environment:

“Elimination of CFC from Domestic Refrigeration Manufacture : Refrigerant, Foam
Blowing Agent”:
HCFCs.15 The acceptance of HCFCs as "transitional substances" in

general, has been a measurement of their ozone depletion potential (ODP).
ODP measures a particular chemical’s capacity to destroy ozone over a
200- to 500-year time period. Using this measurement, HCFCs appear to
have only 1-11% of the destructive capability of CFCs, or stated another
way, “to be 89-99% better for the ozone layer than CFCs".
However, as the eminent American atmospheric scientists, Susan

Solomon and Daniel Albritton concluded in 1992, "long-term ODPs were
not appropriate for making short-term (decade scale) forecasts [of HCFC
impacts on ozone losses]" 16. Since the greatest degree of ozone
depletion is expected within the next ten years, it is a mistake to use the
long-term ODPs of HCFCs for crafting policies to protect the ozone layer in
the short- to mid-term.
A more accurate measure of a chemical's capacity to destroy ozone

is chlorine loading potential, or CLP, which is not based on long-term
models as ODPs are, but on more straight forward calculations and
observations of how much chlorine pollution actually gets into the lower
and upper atmosphere in the short- to medium-term.
When CLPs are used as the measurement, HCFCs prove to be

significantly more damaging than their ODPs make them appear. For
example, The United Kingdom's Stratospheric Ozone Review Group
reported that the relative impact, in terms of chlorine loading, of emissions
of HCFC-141b after 10 years would be over half that of a similar emission of
CFC-11, yet its long-term ODP is only [.11]. 17 Mr. Kajiwara, Senior
Managing Director of the large Japanese Matsushita Refrigeration
Company cited the ODP of HCFC-141b for the company’s 1994 decision
15 Ibid. , Part 2 : 1.2
16 Solomon, S. and D. Albritton, "Time Dependent OzoneDepletion Potentials for Short- and
Long-Term Forecasts", Nature, 1992, 357:33-37).
17 UNEP, Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion (1991 update):Stratospheric Ozone

Depletion. Chapter 6 - Evaluation of Ozone Depletion and Chlorine Loading Potentials
(ODPs and CLPs).
to switch to cyclopentan, stating "its ODP is not zero... [and] to protect the
ozone layer, ODP should be decreased to zero, first of all". 18
b. GWP of HCFC-141b: HCFC-141b has a global warming

potential (GWP) 1800 times of CO2 (20 year time scale).
7. Direct Global Warming Potential of CO2, CFC-11, CFC-12, HCFC-141b,
HFC-134a and the Hydrocarbons Cyclopentan, Propane, and Isobutan: 19
(Table 1) * “GWP of the hydrocarbons is due entirely to GWP of the CO2
resulting from decomposition.” 20
Gas Lifetime 20 year 50 year 100 year 200 year 500

(years) year
CO2 1 1 1 1 1
CFC-11 55 4400 4300 3400 2400 1400
CFC-12 116 7000 7600 7100 6200 4100
HCFC-141b 11.4 1800 1100 610 370 210
HFC-134a 15.6 3200 2000 1200 730 400
Cyclo-pentan weeks <3* <3* <3* <3* <3*
Isobutan weeks <3* <3* <3* <3* <3*
Propane months <3* <3* <3* <3* <3*
8. ODP & GWP of cyclopentan: Cyclopentan has zero ozone depleting

potential (ODP), and very low global warming potential (GWP).
18 Kajiwara Mr., Senior Managing Director of Matsushita Refrigeration Company: Letter to

Greenpeace Japan: May 9, 1994
19 Sources
(a) “Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion 1991”:(Sponsored by: World Meteorological
Organization, UNEP, NASA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.K.
Department of the Environment), p. 7-18. ; and
(b) 3rd. Report by Inquiry Commission of the German Parliament: “Protection of the
atmosphere”,1990: from Table reprinted in the “Proceedings of the Ozone Safe Cooling
1993 Conference”, Op.cit., p.41; and
(c) TOC Report 1991, Op. cit. p.65
20 TOC REPORT 1991, OP. cit. p.66

9. Summary: Clearly, cyclopentan is environmentally more compatible than

HCFC-141b in terms of its ODP and GWP.
B. Safety Considerations: Cyclopentan and Flammability

1. Flammability of cyclopentan: Cyclopentan is a highly flammable gas, with
a lower flammability limit of 1.4-7.8%. The lower flammability limit of HCFC-
141b is 7.3-16.0%. Flammability limits designate the percentage of gas
vapour in air-gas mixture that is combustible so that higher percentages
represent lower flammability. Fortunately, the technology and the expertise
in working with flammable substances is readily available in most parts of
the world. The safety precautions required during the cyclopentan foaming
production process are common knowledge and easily achievable through
adequate safety measures.
2. Safety of c-pentane foam: Although various flammability tests bring

varying results, the overall conclusion is that cyclopentan foam is safe for
use in domestic refrigeration.
(a) Lematic Engineering writes: "[A] very important aspect in the

household is if c-pentane in the foam insulation can explode or burn faster
than the CFC or HCFC substitutes. After finishing the foaming process, c-
pentane is capsuled in the polyurethane [PUR] cell matrix and no explosion
is possible anymore. Even the velocity of burning of PUR foam blowed with
c-pentane is not different from the ones blowed with CFC and HCFC and
practically depends only on the PUR matrix and not on the blowing agent."
21
(b) Results of flammability test from Liebherr: Dr. Ballhaus of

Liebherr writes: "A standardised flammability test carried out on cubic foam
samples shows that burning time after ignition of cyclopentan blown foam is
only 10% longer than that of CFC11 blown". 22
(c) Results of flammability test: Heinrich performed combustibility

tests on PUR foam blown with c-pentane, and found that: "Combustibility
tests have shown the PUR which was foamed with c-pentane [burns]
21 Lematic Engineering (Thermotechnik Handels GmbH), Dusseldorf, “Survey About CFC

Free Refrigerator Production: Part 2: Foam Insulation”, 1994: p.20
22 Ballhause, Op.cit., p. 462

normally. There are no deflagrations or explosions. In this regard [c-

pentane] is a problemless agent." 23
(d) Mitigating possibilities: “Matsushita evaluated flammability of c-

pentane with oxygen index testing, flash point testing, gross calorific value
testing, melting point measurement and other tests. Oxygen index testing
confirmed the pentane insulation is 0.5 to 1 lower than CFC-11 insulation,
meaning the former burns more easily. For this reason Matsushita added
flame retardant resin to the polyurethane, and when blowing the foam,
increased the proportion of carbon dioxide mixed with the pentane, which
raised the oxygen index to about the same as that of CFC 11.” 24
3. Safety measures to be considered: The UNEP Report writes:

“Cyclopentan is a flammable blowing agent. The explosion limits are 1.1-8.7
percent by volume in air. Therefore, it is necessary to follow strictly the
safety rules. Safety at the following steps is required to be considered: (a)
storage of cyclopentan; (b) mixing of cyclopentan and polyol; (c) storage
and metering of the mixture; and (d) foaming process.” 25
4. Developing Countries: “The technology can be mastered even in a

developing country with lower working responsibilities and education, if
some safety measures are made and regularly controlled. Many companies
in developing countries [have for years been] using pentane as blowing
agent in the expanded polystyrol sector (styropor) without any problems;
and [much greater risks] are mastered in these countries in refineries, gas
depots and gas filling stations.” 26
C. Energy Efficiency: Cyclopentan and HCFC-141b
23 Greenpeace Japan, Op. cit., p.20
24 Nikkei Material, Refrigeration Industry Magazine, Japan: June 1994, No. 142: “Consumer
Appliances and CFCs: Matsushita Refrigeration Co. and Sharp Corporation Adopt
Hydrocarbons for Insulation”
25 UNEP, “Cyclopentan”, Op.cit., p.10
26 Lematic Engineering, Op. cit., p.6

1. Introduction: “The most important question -besides the ecological one- is

the thermal conductivity of PUR blown with the different substitutes in
comparison to CFC-11 and CFC-50% reduced. Any increase of this value
will either increase the energy consumption, or will oblige the [refrigerator
manufacturer] to increase the insulation thickness and reduce the ratio of
net volume to gross volume. Such increase strongly increases [the] costs of
a refrigerator per useable net volume. Furthermore, it is important to know
how this value will change after days and years because of any reaction
inside the materials, condensation, solution, evaporation of the blowing
agent and diffusion with air.” 27
2. Efficiency concerns: While many of the major German manufacturers

began to switch to cyclopentan blown foam in 1993, the October 1993
OORG Report wrote: "The conversion to cyclopentan is assumed to not
take place in the US and Japan, mainly for efficiency reasons, because the
difference in energy consumption of an appliance blown with "100% CFC-11
and with cyclopentan lies between 6 and 12%; for this reason the
manufacturers in the US and Japan prefer HCFC-141b as a temporary
solution."28 However, in 1994 the Japanese manufacturers Matsushita and
Sharp began to convert their insulation production to c-pentane. This has
left the US manufacturers as the last major holdout against conversion.
The efficiency concerns of the US manufacturers can be addressed by the

fact that overall cyclopentan foam has better insulation value than HCFC-
141b blown foam, and comparable values to CFC-11 blown foam. The
manufacturers of HCFC-141b foam put forth that the efficiency penalty of
HCFC-141b foam is mitigated by the special inner liner HCFC-141b
requires. However, that is a fatuous point, since it accepts that HCFC-141b
blown foam, in and of itself, is not as efficient as c-pentane or CFC-11 foam.
3. C-pentane foam’s superior efficiency: Test results by various

manufacturers, and independent engineering firms, show that overall, the
efficiency of c-pentane blown PUR-foams compare favourably with CFC-
27 Ibid. p. 12
28 Ozone Operations Resource Group (OORG), The World Bank Global Environment
Coordination Division, Environment Department, Report Number 5, October 1993: “The
Status of Hydrocarbon and Other Flammable Alternatives Use in Domestic
Refrigeration”: p. 7
11, 50% reduced CFC-11 and HCFC 141b blown foams. Of course, test
results do vary.
a. Comparison of CFC-11 foam and cyclopentan foam: Lematic

Engineering, in “Survey of CFC Free Refrigerator Production “ states:
"The technical data show that with pentane same thermal conductivity
values, with the variation between -2% and +5%, can be reached in
comparison to CFC-11, but in any case, better values than [with]
HCFC and HFC blowed PUR. ....” 29 Furthermore, Lematic maintains
that there is still room for optimising the polyurethane formula used with
cyclopentan, so that even lower values can be reached in the future. 30
The October, 1993 OORG Report agrees: "The cyclopentan solution still
has some way to go (status mid 1993) with regard to optimisation; a further
development has the promise of a decrease of the conductivity values...the
promise for the future will stimulate a conversion to cyclopentan. 31
b. Even at the present state of optimisation cyclopentan blown

foams show better values at lower temperatures than CFC-11 foam. “If the
thermal conductivity is measured on refrigerators and freezers [with]
operating temperatures between -300 C and 80 C, the cyclopentan foam
reaches...better values...directly after foaming than the ones foamed with
CFC-11: Thermal Conductivity (TC) of C-Pentane Foam Compared to
CFC-11 Foam Between Operating Temperatures of -400 to +200 C 32
(Table 2)
Temperature -40 -20 0 20

TC : CFC-11 21.6 20.6 19.3 19.9
TC : C-pentane 17.0 19.0 18.6 19.8
c. Cyclopentan foam performs better upon ageing than CFC-11

foam: “Interesting is that the increase of thermal conductivity of c-pentane
29 Lematic Engineering, Op. cit., p.6
30 Ibid. p. 12
31 OORG 1993, Op. cit. p.7
32 Lematic Engineering, Op. Cit., p. 13

driven foams are slower than the ones with CFC-11, so that after time ... the
c-pentane foam reaches lower thermal conductivity values than the one
made with CFC-11. These experiential results can be explained by the fact
that CFC-11 can be easier solved inside the PUR matrix than c-pentane.” 33
d. Simulating the ageing process: The following results were

reached in a test that simulates the long term diffusion and solution
processes in various foams: 34 (Table 3)
PUR Foam With % Agent Thermal After 3 Months Used Gross

Conductivity at 700 C Density
Initial Kg/m3
(mW/mK)
CFC-11 12 18 27-28 32
CFC-11 50% 6 19 27 33
Red.
HCFC-141b 7 19.8 27-28 36
Cyclopentan 6 19.5-19.8 25-26 36
e. Citing test results from Dow Chemicals (2/1994) Lematic

Engineering offers the following data : 35 (Table 4)
Blowing Agent Applied Foam Thermal Conductivity

(mW/mK)
Density (kg/m3) Initial 120 days
CFC 11 30-32 17.0 23.0
HCFC 141b 34-36 19.0 25.0
Cyclopentan 38-40 19.5 24.4
f. Lematic states that "BASF and BAYER values for c-pentane

blowed PUR are much better [than Dow]..and the refrigerator producers
33 Ibid. p. 14
34 Ibid. p. 15
35 Ibid. p.23
who use BASF or BAYER PUR materials are working with 10% lower
densities." 36
g. In a study entitled "Light Hydrocarbons as Refrigerants and

Blowing Agents for Insulation’s in Household Appliances", H. Lotz presents
the following conclusions: " Polyurethane blown foam has initial value of
thermal conductivity of the order of 20mW/mK but on ageing thermal
conductivity of cyclopentan foams becomes lower than that of CFC-11 foam
because of slower rate of diffusion. Thus the conductivity over the life time
of PUR cyclopentan foam is even lower than that with PUR-CFC-11 foams."
37
h. U. Schilling, in a paper entitled "Cyclopentan, the New

Generation of Blowing Agents for Appliances" concludes: "The thermal
conductivity values of PUR with cyclopentan in combination with special
tailor-made polyol formulations are almost as good as those of CFC-11
reduced foams. On ageing the thermal conductivity of cyclopentan
containing foam is lower than that of CFC-11. The mechanical properties of
the foam, such as its compressive strength are retained.” 38
i. In Australia Fisher & Paykel found that c-pentane foam performed

better than 50% reduced CFC11-PU foam. According to Lindsey Roke,
Chief Engineer, Refrigeration Division "HC foams gave a better overall
insulation by being less inferior at the edges....” and at -20 C ambient, "the
cyclopentan system is a clear winner". 39
j. Insulation thickness with c-pentane foam remains the same:

“Many European and Far East producers...[using their actual refrigerator
36 Ibid. p.12
37 Lotz, H., “Light Hydrocarbons as Refrigerant and Blowing Agents for Insulations”, Paper
presented at the International Conference - New Applications of Natural Working Fluids
in Refrigeration and Airconditioning, 10-13 May, 1994, Hannover, Germany. pp1-13
38 Schilling, U., “Cyclopentan, the New Generation of Blowing Agents for Appliances”:Paper
presented at the short course, “Hydrocarbons the Environmentally Friendly
Alternatives”, Hannover, Germany, 9-13 May, 1994
39 Roke, Lindsey (Chief Engineer, Refrigeration Division, Fisher & Paykel):

March 29, 1994, letter to Greenpeace Australia.
models]...compared c-pentane, HCFC-141b and HCFC-142b/22 (60/40)

with CFC-11 and CFC-11 reduced, and found...that after foaming and
weeks later...the c-pentane solution [does] not oblige them to change the
thickness of insulation.” 40 According to Lematic: “Refrigerator (foam)
blowed with HCFC-141b or HCFC-142b/22 needs an increase of the PUR
insulation thickness of 7-10%...” 41
k. The 1994 UNEP Study on the “Elimination of CFC from
Domestic Refrigeration Manufacture” states: "Insulating properties are
enhanced by using blowing agents with low gas-phase thermal
conductivity's. Heavy molecule blowing agents are better than light ones. In
a refrigerator the cyclopentan foam can out-perform the reduced CFC-11
version... Insulating properties of cyclopentan do not deteriorate with time as
fast as do those of CFC-11 blown foam. In a standard test cyclopentan
foam and CFC-11 foam may both have initial values of 19 mW/mK. With a
few days or weeks of ageing cut samples at 60oC or 70oC, the CFC-11
foam will have deteriorated to be worse than the cyclopentan foam. Its final
value may be 2 or 3 mW/mK worse than the cyclopentan version.”42
4. Mitigating for energy penalty: As noted, efficiency tests have brought

varying results. In April, 1994, Matsushita (biggest refrigerator
manufacturer in Japan) began selling their 410 litre (14.48 cu. ft.) & 350
litre (12.36 cu. ft.) models using c-pentane (C5H10) for insulation. At the
time, on a thermo-conductivity index, where CFC-11 is 100, Matsushita
estimated c-pentane at 115 and HCFC-141b at 103. To mitigate for the
insulation efficiency loss in c-pentane foam (15-20% loss compared to CFC-
11 foam), Matsushita reduced the diameter of the closed cells in the foam
by 25%, and made the insulation 5 mm thicker (formerly 33 mm-thick
refrigerator compartment and 40 mm-thick freezer compartment walls).
Increase in thickness of the walls reduced usable volume by about 10 litres.
43 Sharp Corporation began marketing their 395 litre (13.94 cu. ft.) and 365
litre (12.89 cu. ft.) models with pentane-blown insulation in February, 1994.
Sharp did not need to thicken the insulation. “Because our conventional
40 Lematic Engineering, Op.cit., p. 4
41 Adler, Dirk, Lematic Engineering, “Letter to Greenpeace”, March 15. 94.
42 UNEP, Op. cit., Part 2, p.3
43 Nikei Material, Op. Cit.

models were designed with comparatively thick walls, the new wall
thickness is about the same.” 44
44 Ibid.
D. Technological Compatibility with existing Equipment of

Cyclopentan and HCFC-141b
1. Impact on refrigerator inner lining: Whereas “most manufacturers have
found that cyclopentan works well with standard liners”,45 HCFC 141b
“has the disadvantage that it is likely to attack conventional HIPS (High
Impact Polystyrene) or ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) used for
interior liners. These will have to be replaced either by multilayer sheet with
a resistant surface layer or by a single layer sheet with higher resistance all
through.” 46
2. Impact on polyols and MDI components: “The cyclopentan does not have
uncontrolled reaction during the hot PUR foaming reaction which can
increase the temperature in the core area
to 140-1850 C. While HCFCs at this temperature already starts reacting
uncontrolled so that the received chloric and flouric products of polyols and
MDI components can be toxic”. 47
3. The adhesion of cyclopentan blown PUR is the same as with CFC-11 on

HIPS, ABS and steel so there are no stability changes. 48
E. Cost factors: Cyclopentan and HCFC-141b

1. OORG 1994 writes: “Cyclopentan technology is commercially proven and
is the most cost effective of the zero ODS technologies.” 49
2.. The current cost of cyclopentan is between .77 cents and $3.30 (US) per
kg., depending on levels of purity and location and volume of purchase, with
UNEP estimates being based on cyclopentan costing $1.76/kg.50 It is
45 OORG, Refrigeration Working Group, “Major Recommendations and Outcome of Recent

(May 9, 1994) OORG Working Group Meetings”, p. 4
46 UNEP, “Elimination of CFC’s” , Op.cit. , Part 2, p.3
47 UNEP, “Cyclopentan” , Op cit. p.15 (quoting Lematic Engineering)
48 Ibid., p.15
49 OORG 1994, Op cit. p. 8
50 UNEP, “Cyclopentan”, Op.cit. p.13

expected that the prices of cyclopentan ”... will continue to drop as the
material is extracted in greater quantities (the economies of scale).
Increased demand may also encourage regional refineries to put in the
equipment to extract the chemical. Specified purity levels also affect the
price. It is likely that requirements will become less stringent as foam
suppliers build up their experience."51
3. The current cost of HCFC-141b is approximately $2.93 (US) per kg.,

depending on location and volume of purchase. 52 [$920.00 Can.,
approximately US $666.00, per 500 lbs drum]
4. Prices of Insulation Foaming Agents CFC-11, HCFC-141b &

Cyclopentan: Japan 199353
(Table 5)
SUBSTANCE PRICE ¥/kg $US CHARGE (g/refrigerator)

(Approx.)
CFC-11 600 $6.00 600
HCFC-141b 800 $8.00 600
Cyclopentan 100 $1.00 700
5. Costs due to liner changes:

(a) OORG (1994) reports, that “manufacturers confirmed the finding
that HCFC-141b technology tended to be relatively more expensive and
hence less cost-effective in terms of unit abatement cost (UAC) due to the
fact that relatively sophisticated liner systems are necessary in order to
combat HCFC 141b’s tendency to cause blistering of the liner and cracking
under stress with standard liners. Some manufacturers also report slower
production speed when using HCFC-141b.” 54
(b) UNEP writes: “Addition of multilayer extrusion capacity will cost
in the order of US $70,000 per layer. A new die and associated equipment
51 UNEP, “Elimination of CFC’s”, Op. Cit., Part 2, p.8
52 Source: Allied-Signal Canada: August/94
53 Greenpeace Japan, Op.cit. p.13
54 OORG 1994, Op.cit., p.4

may also be required at US $50,000 to US $100,000 depending on what is

required.” 55
(c) UNIDO: UNIDO requested US $16,950 to develop a new
strategy for ODS phase-out in 4 small refrigerator companies in Egypt.
UNIDO recalls that ".. it was [at first] thought that the most cost effective
way of eliminating the use of CFCs would be to use HCFC-141b. This
was therefore proposed in spite of the fact that both the companies and
the Egyptian authorities, the EEAA, preferred the use of cyclopentan as a
blowing agent. It has since been determined that because of the high cost
of making inner liners which are resistant to HCFC 141b, the use of this
product is no longer considered to be the most cost effective. Therefore,
the projects should be reformulated to consider foam manufacturer using
cyclopentan" 56
6. Availability costs: Under the terms of the Montreal Protocol, HCFC 141b
is scheduled to be phased out along with other HCFCs. European countries
and developing nations are already opting for cyclopentan, resulting in a
shrinking market for HCFC-141b. Consequently, “from the manufacturer’s
point of view, [HCFC-141b] has another disadvantage that it may be in short
supply”,57 which will inevitably result in increased prices. US Clean Air Act
mandates that the production of HCFC-141b be phased out by the year
2002. Again, reduced supply tends to result in increased prices.
7. Production costs: Lematic Engineering estimates that, "On the first view
the comparison of investments in the polyurethane section seem to favour
HCFC-141b [over c-pentane], because PUR lines do not have to be
changed [when CFC-11 is replaced with HCFC-141b]. PUR lines for c-
pentane PUR processing require a [one-off funding] investment in the
range of 360,000 to 1.5 million DM (for very large plants)... (approximately
$850,000 US).58
55 UNEP, “Elimination of CFC’s, OP. Cit. Part 2, p.10
56 UNEP, Document #: /OzL.Pro/ExCom/13/15 - UNIDO Work Programme Amendments,

13th ExCom. , July 1994
57 Ibid., Part 2, p.3
58 Lohbeck, Wolo, Memo of April 14, 94, “Summary of Lematic Engineering’sEstimates”.

On second view, the economic comparison does not favour the HCFC
solution because of higher material costs:
(a) C-pentane is already cheaper than CFCs or HCFCs (saving of
10.000 - 12.000 DM per 100.000 units per year) (US $6,000-$7,000) and
the price of c-pentane will be reduced with increased demand.
(b) HCFC-141b needs special inner liner materials - the price of this
material is 10% higher than the standard material (extra cost of 45.000 to
50.000 DM per 100.000 units per year)(US $26,000-$29,500). This cost
may prove to be considerably more with a cost difference of 44 to 53% (for
a 100.000 annual production that means 150.000 - 175.000 DM)(US
$88,000-$103,000).
(c) To achieve the same thermal conductivity level with HCFC-141b
as with c-pentane, the insulation with HCFC must be 5-10% thicker,
needing more PUR material (extra cost of 94.000 to 121.000 DM per
100.000 per year, at a price of 3 DM per Kilo PUR) (US $55,000-$71,000).
“Refrigerator (foam) blowed with HCFC-141b or HCFC-142b/22
needs an increase of the PUR insulation thickness of 7-10%...[This way
there is] an increase not only of PUR material of 7-9%, but also a lower net
volume by 5-10%, so that ‘per cooled volume’ the total price increase of the
refrigerator is 5% of all used raw materials and components.” 59
(d) To thicken the insulation requires a change in the production line
(investment cost of $250.000 to $500.000 US per refrigerator model). 60
8. UNEP provides the following figures for the “one-off funding costs” of
conversion from CFC-11 to cyclopentan, with a model based on “(a) annual
production of refrigerator freezers of 200,000 units; (b) average
polyurethane chemical used 4 kg/unit; (c) current CFC-11 contents, 13%
W/W on total foam systems; and (d) two production lines, one for cabinets
and for doors both equipped with hp dispensing machines”:
-Laboratory testing equipment $ 100,000
-Production equipment modification $ 170,000
-Production equipment’s safety modification $ 350,000
-Cyclopentan storage $ 200,000
-Training $ 50,000
-Materials for trials $ 20,000
Sub Total $890,000
59 Adler, Dirk, Lematic Engineering, “Letter to Greenpeace”, March 15. 94.
60 Lohbeck, Wolo, Memo of April 14, 94, “Summary of Lematic Engineering’s Estimates”.
(Estimated at cyclopentan costs at 3 DM/kg with a conversion 1.7 DM

=US$) 61
9. The Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation

of the Montreal Protocol submitted the following costs of a three phase
approach, using HCFCs as transitional substitutes that is being adopted in
some developing countries to eliminate CFC-11 in foam production:
a. “Phase 1 achieves 50% CFC reduction by using new
polyol/water formulations [and] replacement of low pressure foam injection
equipment by the high pressure variety...” [with] “the estimated average cost
for a typical Phase 1 conversion project in a developing country [being]
about US $300,000.
b. “Phase 2 will replace 100% of the CFCs with a HCFC-based
blowing agent or blend...(either HCFC-141b or a binary blend of HCFC-
142b and HCFC-22)...as is being implemented in developed countries...[at
an additional cost of] US $200,000.”
c. “Phase 3 is based on the introduction of non-ODS as blowing
agents; however, this technology has still not been adequately tested.” 62
Since this third and most crucial phase of the process is yet to be finalised,
no costs are projected. This should give an added “buyer beware” warning
to developing countries that are considering the three phase approach to
eliminating CFC-11. Basically, at this point, they don’t know what they are
buying as the final product, or what costs may be incurred.
10. HCFC-141b flammability costs: Since HCFC-141b is a flammable

substance “Local costing will be needed for meeting any local requirements
imposed as a consequence of the flammability of HCFC-141b. In any event
foam plant costs will be very much less than those for pentane.”63
11. Recovery costs: The cost of recovery and destruction of HCFC-141b is

presently externalised from the overall cost estimates of the product and the
technology. These costs should be internalised into the unit price of HCFC-
61 UNEP, “Cyclopentan”, Op. Cit. p. 12
Op.cit., p.12
63 UNEP, “Elimination of CFCs”, Part 2, p.10

141b to reflect the true cost of the substance. Cyclopentan does not need
to be recovered, so no similar costs are incurred.
F. Recovery Considerations for HCFC-141b and Cyclopentan

Due to its ODP and GWP, HCFC-141b in insulation foam will have to be
recovered and eventually safely destroyed, just as CFCs need to be
presently recaptured.
1. In Sweden alone, it is estimated that 440,000 refrigeration appliances are

discarded annually, which contain approximately 275 tonnes of CFC-11 in
their insulation and about 62 tonnes of CFC-12 as refrigerant. Between
1995 and 2010, Sweden estimates that it would be possible to recover 70%
of the 6,000 tonnes of CFCs that will be contained in discarded refrigeration
appliances. 64
2. In 1991, it was estimated that there were 120,000 tonnes of banked

CFC’s in existing domestic refrigerators/freezers world-wide.65
3. CFC recovery in the US: At this time there is only one company in the
US, Appliance Recycling Centers of America, in Los Angeles, that deals
with CFC recovery from refrigerator foams. The company uses German
technology, (manufactured by Adelmann Co. in Carlsted Germany) that
grinds up the insulation and extracts the CFC with ‘negative pressure’.
There are 18 similar plants in operation in Europe. Such recovery is not
mandated in the US. The annual domestic refrigerator/freezer production is
approximately 7 million units. Presently 30 to 50% of the refrigerators that
the company receives for recycling contain CFCs. The company expects a
great increase in these numbers as the 1970’s generation of refrigerators
come due for recycling.66
64 Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Information Department:

Publisher, Ingvar Bingman:1990: “How Should We Dispose Of Old
Refrigerators”, p2
65 TEAP Report 1991, Op. cit. p.2-5
66 Source: Glynnis Joyce, Appliance Recycling Centres of America, Los Angeles,

Tel. 612-930-1750
G. The Cyclopentane Revolution Market Prospects of Cyclopentane

and HCFC-141b
1. UNEP: “In most parts of the world (other than USA whose present
interest is in HCFC-141b) cyclopentan now has the major share of all new
conversions to alternatives. All polyurethane being used for appliance
insulation in Germany will be pentane-blown by the end of 1994. By far the
most used pentane isomer will be cyclopentan.”67
2. OORG: “Europe is expected to be virtually entirely converted to

cylopentane in order to achieve a zero-ODS solution in the earliest possible
time frame. Meanwhile, the US market, driven predominantly by energy
efficiency concerns and associated regulatory taxes, has opted primarily for
HCFC-141b technology, a clearly transitional solution. Japan is pursuing
both of these options...and at least one Japanese manufacturer is planning
on introducing cyclopentan technology in developing countries within the
Asia region....[Current] prospects are for continuing expansion as
experience grows and opportunities are identified in developing as well as
developed countries.” 68
3. UNEP: HCFC-141b: Bad Investment: "HCFC-141b is an ozone depleting

compound with ODP of 0.11. It is one of the highest among HCFCs. Its
phase out in developed countries would need to begin quite soon- as early
as 1996 in some countries. In many European countries HCFCs will not be
allowed in appliance insulation. HCFC-141b also has a global warming
potential two powers of ten higher than do the hydrocarbons. Using HCFC-
141b would be a marketing disadvantage in coming years.” 69
4. UNEP: “The HCFCs are only an interim solution because of the reasons
that they also have to be phased out in near future. As per the Copenhagen
Amendments, HCFCs will be controlled as follows:70
-Freeze in 1996 at 3.1% of calculated level of CFCs consumption
plus calculated level of HCFCs in 1989
67 UNEP, “Elimination of CFCs”, Op. cit., Part 2, p.2
68 OORG 1994, Op. cit. , p.3
69 UNEP, “Elimination of CFCs”, Part 2. p.3
70 UNEP, “Cyclopentan”, Op. cit., p. 6

-35% reduction by 2004

-99,5% reduction by 2020; and
-100% reduction by 2030 “
These controls are for industrialised countries only. Presently, developing
countries are exempt from HCFC controls.
5. Earlier HCFC phase out in Europe: August 20, 1994 article in Chemical
Business News Base reports: “A decision has been made by environmental
ministers of the 12 EU nations to impose more stringent control on CFC
imports into the EU....The use of partially halogenated CFCs will be
restricted to 2.6% of the 1989 level between 1 Jan 1995 and 31 Dec 2002.
...[The ] use of HCFCs will be gradually phased out from 1994 until their
complete elimination by 2014 at the latest.” 71
6. Lematic Engineering writes: By the end of 1994, "nearly all European and
Far East producers, but also from other areas (e.g. Egypt) who have
started, or will start now, to produce CFC free refrigerators will use c-
pentane instead of the so called soft CFC (HCFC-141b, 142b/22)....
[Because UNEP has] already decided to revise the limitation of HCFC use
in 1994-- in case technical alternatives are available-- no one wants
to...enter into a temporary [HCFC] solution...and face the problem of
[investing] again....Inspite of the safety measures which have to be taken
into consideration, technical values, like low thermal conductivity, lower
increase of this value after time than of HCFC and CFC blowed PUR, and
last but not least, lower pricing have [led to the] pentane decisions." 72
7. In April, 1994, Matsushita (biggest refrigerator manufacturer in Japan)

began selling their 410 & 350 liter models using c-pentane for insulation. In
May, 1994, Sharp began selling its 395 liter (13.94 cu.ft.) and 365 liter
(12.89 cu.ft) models using only c-pentane in its insulation foam. In February,
1994 Sharp put out a deluxe model with vacuum panel insulation, reinforced
by pentane blown u-foam. 73
71 Chemicals Business News Base, “Rubber and Plastics News”, July 4, 1994
72 Lematic, Op.cit., p.5
73 Nikei Material, Op. cit.

8. India: The Swiss/German ECOFRIG project with Indian companies has

moved forward to pilot plant stage following a seminar in India during the
last week of August, 1994. Godrej-GE and Voltas Ltd. will receive
cyclopentan foaming units by the end of the year enabling them to produce
over 10,000 units a year each initially. 74
9. USA: Cyclopentan based foam production has yet to penetrate the US

market, although, according to Mr. Don Grob, Managing Engineer at
Underwriters Laboratory (UL), “there is considerable interest in
hydrocarbon refrigeration, at the research level, in the U.S., and the
cyclopentan technology has been approved by Underwriter’s Laboratory.
” 75.
10. US Clean Air Act calls for early phase out of HCFC-141b : Under the
jurisdiction of the EPA, the provisions of the US Clean Air Act stipulates that
HCFC-141b, because of its high ODP value, will have to be phased out by
the year 2002. This leaves manufacturers with a window of opportunity of
maximum eight years, in practical terms five to six years, to switch over to
an environmentally safer foaming agent. Of course, this represents a major
obstacle to the market prospects of HCFC-141b.
11. The introduction of cyclopentan blown foam into the market influences
and precedes the use of hydrocarbons for refrigerants. The October, 1993
Ozone Operations Resource Group (OORG) Report writes: "This
conversion to cyclopentan has big impacts on the introduction of
hydrocarbons in the refrigeration circuit....The introduction of hydrocarbons
as refrigerants on the market does only make sense when a totally "green"
no HFC containing appliance can be offered. This implies that only those
firms that have accelerated the conversion to cyclopentan in the foam (or
use XPS) are applying or will apply hydrocarbons in the refrigeration circuit
in the short to mid-term. "76
74 Heslop, Tracy “Greenpeace Ozone Campaign Newsletter”: September, 1994: Internal

Greenpeace document.
75 Source: Mr. Don Grob, Managing Engineer, Underwriters Laboratory, Northbrook, Illinois:
June 28 and August 28, 1994 telephone conversations with John Mate, Greenpeace
researcher.
76 OORG 1993, Op.cit., p.7

Part II: Comparison of Isobutan and HFC-134a as Refrigerants in

Domestic Refrigeration
A. Environmental Compatibility of Isobutan and HFC-134a

1. Introduction: The competition for zero-ODP substitute refrigerants is
today narrowed down to two candidates: hydrocarbons and HFC-134a.
Hydrocarbons are relatively benign environmentally, with zero ODP and
very low GWP. HFC-134a is a partly halogenated fluorocarbon (HFC) that
contains no chlorine. It is therefore not directly involved in the destruction of
stratospheric ozone. However, it does have known and suspected
negative environmental impacts, especially its contribution to global
warming. The prudent course of action, and the precautionary principle,
would dictate its immediate ban.
2. HFC=“HEADED FOR CATASTROPHE”

Professor Gustav Lorentzen (Norway), in a paper entitled "The Use of
Natural Refrigerants, A Complete Solution to the CFC/HCFC Predicament"
writes: “It has already been suggested that HFC-134a may be decomposed
by sunlight in the troposphere and form acid and poisonous substances. If
this should turn out to be true, we may have to face yet another
catastrophe, even worse than the CFC experience...The present situation,
when CFCs and in a little longer perspective the HCFCs are being banned
by international agreement, it does not seem very logical to try to replace
them by another family of related halocarbons, the HFCs, equally foreign to
nature. In any case it must obviously be much preferable to use natural
compounds, which are already circulating in quantity in the biosphere and
are known to be harmless." 77
3. HFC-134a and Global Warming: “The relative greenhouse relevance of

HFC-134a is estimated to be 45 % of CFC-12. Its Global Warming Potential
(GWP) is estimated to be 3,200 times that of carbon dioxide (over a time
span of 20 years).... In discussions about CFC substitutes, their
contribution to the greenhouse effect is often calculated on the basis of
periods of 100 to 500 years. Since HFC-134a has an average life span of
16 years, and since the next 20 years is deemed to be decisive for the
further development of the earth's atmosphere in terms of global warming, it
77 Lorentzen, Op. Cit., [paper references : Banks, R.E. "Skepticism about R-134a justified"
Refrig. Air. Condit., Sept. 1993, p.16] )
makes sense to calculate the GWP of HFC 134-a on a 20 year time

span.” 78
4. 1990 World Production of Refrigerators /Freezers Corresponding R-12

Consumption79
(Table 6)
AREA No. of Units Produced R12 Usage /Metric Tonnes

Western Europe 15,812,000 2368
Eastern Europe 10,857,000 2171
North America 10,911,000 1940
South America 3,000,000 535
Asia 13,750,000 2184
Africa 1,400,000 238
Australasia 650,000 90
WORLD 56,330,000 9526
“An annual production growth rate of refrigerating capacity (arising from

both more and from
bigger cabinets) of 15% for developing countries and 7% for developed
countries [is projected].” (See footnote #9)
5. “The domestic refrigeration industry is a rapid growth industry,

particularly in developing countries. In 1994, it is estimated that about 4,000
tonnes of CFC-12 will be consumed in the production of refrigeration
appliances .” 80
6. As CFCs are phased out, the total HFCs refrigerant usage globally is
projected to rise correspondingly:
Projected Refrigerant Usage (Metric Tonnes) by Years 1990, 1995, 1997,

2000, 2005 including industrialized and developing (Article 5) countries
78 Belazzi, Thomas (Dr.), “A Position Paper of Austrian Scientists and Environmentalists’

Groups on the Problems Posed by Alternatives to Ozone-Depleting Substances,”,
Vienna, March 1993.
79 TOC Report 1991, Op.cit., p.79

Op. cit., p. 15
(excluding the use of alternatives, e.g. hydrocarbons): 1991 calculations: 81

(Table 7)
Refrigerant 1990 1995 1997 2000 2005

CFC’s 9084 4770 2930 890 0
HCFC’s 0 300 500 300 100
HFC’s 0 5920 12480 19400 32000
7. Projected HFC-134a production levels threaten the climate: “HFC-

134a...is projected to be used at a level that poses significant risk to the
climate system. The 1992 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPPC) emission scenarios indicate, based on industry market projections,
that this gas will be emitted in large volumes in the future unless controlled.
By 2025 emission of HFC-134a is projected to approach 500,000 tonnes
per year, whose global impact is equivalent to 10% of 1990 emissions of
CO2 from fossil fuels (when compared using a 100 year GWP). IPC
projections for 2050 have HFC-134a emissions close to 1 million tonnes per
year (more than the 1989 emission of the major CFCs) or nearly 20% of
1990 CO2 emissions.” 82
“The global warming impact of the worldwide annual production of at least

200,000 tonnes of R134a equals roughly the CO2 emissions of an
industrialized nation the size of France or the UK.
In the longer term, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
has estimated that HFC emissions, if unregulated, could reach over thirteen
times this level or 2,764,000 tonnes per year in the next century.” 83
8. The utilisation of HFC-134a for refrigeration/air conditioning takes on

monumental environmental repercussions when the total amount of HFCs
requirement is projected. “The consumption (and emission) of HFCs’
(mainly HFC-134a) is estimated to grow to 230,000 tonnes in the year 2005,
of which amount 20% will be used in present Article 5 countries. Half of the
82 Greenpeace International, “HCFC’s and HFC’s: The Bad Gamble” , Op.cit., p.30
83 Lohbeck, Wolo “Greenfreeze: The World’s First CFC and HCFC Free Household
Refrigerators: And A Worldwide Success for Natural Gas”: Paper reprinted in the
“Proceedings of the Ozone Safe Cooling 1993 Conference”: published by Greenpeace
USA (1994)
amount (120,000 tonnes) will be used for automotive air conditioning. About
15% (33,000 tonnes) is estimated to be used in domestic refrigeration, 50%
of this in developed, and the other 50% in Article 5 countries.” 84
9. Environmental impact of HFC-134a production: “The production of HFC-

134a, requires the very same fully halogenated CFCs which are to be
banned shortly. Fully and partly halogenated CFCs are by-products of the
process and are to some extent sold as marketable commodities. It has to
be assumed that considerable amounts of these ozone-depleting
substances are released into the atmosphere, "closed production cycles"
notwithstanding. (e.g., through leaks, diffuse emissions, and accidents)”. 85
“In addition, HFC-134a production gives rise to considerable amounts of

highly toxic wastes (approximately 10% of the total HFC-134a production
weight) and substantially increases the need for dangerous chlorine gas and
hydrogen fluoride (HF) transports.” 86
10. Global warming and ozone depletion characteristics of isobutan:

Isobutan has zero ODP, and very low GWP. “The GWP of hydrocarbons is
due almost entirely to GWP of the CO2 resulting from decomposition.” 87
Clearly, from this perspective, isobutan is far more desirable than HFC-
134a.
85 Ibid.
86 Ibid.
87 TOC Report 1991, Op. cit., p.66

B. Safety Considerations: Isobutan and Flammability
“Compared to the dangers of global warming, the risk of flammability from

the use of hydrocarbons as refrigerants is very minor. It is a local, limited
problem, and is easy to control.” 88 --Manfred Dohlinger
1. Introduction: Isobutan is a highly flammable substance with a lower

flammability limit of 1.7. It is in the A3 (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34)89
safety group category. For test purposes it is comparable to propane. The
flammability of isobutan is mitigated by adequate safety measures, and by
the low refrigerant charge required. Safe technology is not a problem. As
the researchers at the Institute of Thermal Engineering at Graz University of
Engineering in Austria stated: “changing from CFCs and HCFCs to
flammable refrigerants like propane is in fact not a problem of technology, it
is mainly a problem of regulations”. 90
2. Kitchen fires: There exist relatively low safety risks associated with
flammable refrigerants. For instance, “studies predict an increase of the risk
of kitchen fires by only 0.04%, when using the flammable refrigerant R-
152a.” 91
3. The large German refrigerator manufacturer Bosch has been mass
producing hydrocarbon refrigerators since 1993. According to Bosch the
possibility of a hydrocarbon-charged refrigerator exploding is one in 5
88 Dohlinger, Manfred “Comparative Energy Efficiency of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants”, Paper

reprinted in the “Proceedings of the Ozone Safe Cooling 1993 Conference”: published
by Greenpeace USA (1994)
89 European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), “Safety of

household and similar electrical appliances: Part 2, Particular requirements for
refrigerators, food freezers and ice-makers.”: Section, 2.2.114
90 H. Halozan, T. Ebner, H. Lawatsch: Institute of Thermal Engineering, Graz University of

Technology, Austria: "Propane-A Realistic Alternative", Paper presented at the
International Conference - New Applications of Natural Working Fluids in Refrigeration
and Airconditioning, 10-13 May, 1994, Hannover, Germany.
91 Liu, B.Y., Tomasek, M.L., Radermacher R., Center for Environmental Energy Engineering
(CEEE), University of Maryland, "Tests with R290/R600 Mixtures in a Domestic
Refrigerator/Freezer" , Paper presented at the International Conference - New
Applications of Natural Working Fluids in Refrigeration and Airconditioning, 10-13 May,
1994, Hannover, Germany.
million. This probability is not especially high when compared to

conventional refrigerators. 92
4. The content of propane or butane in a European domestic refrigerator

equals roughly the content of two cigarette lighters. The risk of explosion is
minimal: it takes between 17 g/cubic meter and 39 g/cubic meter to create
an explosive mixture. Therefore, if the refrigerant were to leak outside the
refrigerator, an explosion would be “nearly impossible”.93
5. Marek Zglicznski and Piero Sansalvadore (Aspera Engineering Dpt.,

Italy) summarise the testing of isobutan in their paper, "Contribution to
Safety Aspect Discussion On Isobutan Compressors for Domestic
Refrigeration": 94
"Basic study on isobutan/air flammability behaviour have been conducted .
The effect of use of flammable refrigerants in present hermetic compressors
for domestic refrigeration has been experimented. Complete failure mode
and effect analysis on product and compressor manufacturing have been
done. Some safety aspects also on complete refrigeration system has been
conducted in particular on compressor electrical safety behaviour....
Summarising the elements for risk assessment in use of hydrocarbon
compressors are the following:
* Creation of explosive mixtures inside the shell
* Creation of explosive mixture around the shell
* Ignition potential of internal electrical parts
* Ignition potential of external electrical parts
* Severity of internal explosion
* Severity of flame or explosion outside the compressor shell
In summary we can conclude that compressor shell have enough strength
to withstand the internal explosion and extremely low leakage probability.
Small modification in electrical components can eliminate the possibility of
spark generation around the compressor shell. Further investigations are in
progress on starting device and electrical connection board. Final purpose
92 Greenpeace Japan, Op.cit., p. 20
93 Lohbeck, Wolo, “Greenfreeze”, Op. cit.
94 Zglicznski,Marek & Sansalvadore, Piero: Aspera Engineering Dpt., TO Italy: "Contribution

to Safety Aspect Discussion On Isobutan Compressors for Domestic Refrigeration",
Paper presented at the International Conference - New Applications of Natural Working
Fluids in Refrigeration and Airconditioning, 10-13 May, 1994, Hannover, Germany.
of this research is to assess the risk and compare it with the other risks
already present in the normal life. Considering the present knowledge we
can conclude that the risk coming from isobutan compressor seems to be
reasonably low.”
6. J F Missenden, M Eftekhari, and R W James (UK: South Bank

Polytechnic) write in their 1991 paper: “The Use of Propane in Refrigeration
Systems": “The refrigerant quantity when using propane is about half that
which is required with R12 by mass [i.e. about one third of the hydrocarbons
contained in the average cigarette lighter refill cartridge].
With propane, which is a petroleum product, the solubility of the refrigerant

into the oil is higher than with R 12 and the refrigerant charge is smaller.
The combined effect is that a much larger proportion of the propane
migrates to the compressor oil than with R12. Consequently, less of the
refrigerant would be immediately leaked to the atmosphere in case of a
major discharge.
From a total loss of charge mass at atmospheric pressure, the propane

vapour available from a 5 ft3 domestic refrigerator would occupy about
0.014 m3, less than the amount of natural gas trapped between the gas
meter and appliances in many houses. One way of assessing the risk
associated with using propane as a refrigerant is to consider what quantity
of propane would need to be released in order to create a combustible
mixture with air in a small kitchen. A very small kitchen would have a
volume of 20 m3. At the lower inflammable limit (2.3% propane) this would
require the release of 650 g of propane. Typically a 5 ft3 domestic
refrigerator would contain only 40 g of propane and would lose only 14 g of
this to the atmosphere; an order of magnitude below the ignition point. In
addition a large proportion of this propane will not be released by the
compressor oil in the short term.” 95
7. E. Bodio, M. Chorowski, M. Wilczek (Technical University, Wroclaw,

Poland) write in their paper, "Propane-Butane - An Environmentally
Friendly Refrigerant": "New refrigerants should be characterised by zero or
close to zero values of ODP and GWP coefficiencies....The alternative
95 Missenden, J.F.; Eftekhari, M; & James, R.W., South Bank Polytechnic, U.K., “The Use
of Propane in Refrigeration Systems”
refrigerants should also be compatible with existing refrigerators and

lubricants...[and] they should be non-toxic and non-flammable.
[In] domestic refrigerators...the condition of non-flammability is not a crucial
one [because] (a) modern hermetic compressors are highly reliable, (b)
amount of refrigerant filling the domestic refrigerator is small and does not
cause the danger of explosion.
Theoretical considerations and experimental results enable us to state that

a propane-butane mixture can be a substitute refrigerant for R12. The
mixture is especially suitable for small domestic units where flammability
can be neglected.” 96
8. Minimal change in product engineering required: The 1993 OORG Report

writes: "Virtually all compressor manufacturers state that ... marginal
product engineering would be needed to convert production lines to
hydrocarbon based compressors. In order to cope with flammability, minimal
product changes would be required, mainly in the field of electrical
connections and feed through.” 97
9. Toxicity and flammability: "The products of combustion from propane are

much less dangerous than those of R12 leaking in the vicinity of a flame
where intensely toxic products such as carbonyl chloride (phosgene) or
COCl2 could be produced. If a kitchen fire was sufficiently fierce to raise the
refrigerant to the pressure at which rupture occurred then an additional 40 g
of propane would be insignificant. Indeed the toxic fumes from the cabinet
and its insulation would be a much greater hazard and would include
cyanides and choking smoke. By contrast propane burns cleanly and
completely with a minimum of toxic products. It should also be noted that
most fire injuries are due to smoke inhalation, not to burns or explosions. "
98
96 Bodio, E.; Chorowski, M; Wilczek, M: Technical University, Wroclaw, Poland: "Propane-

Butane - An Environmentally Friendly Refrigerant", Paper presented at the International
Conference - New Applications of Natural Working Fluids in Refrigeration and
Airconditioning, 10-13 May, 1994, Hannover, Germany.
97 OORG 1993, Op.cit. p12
98 Missenden, J.F., Op. cit.. p.6

10. Study of Norwegian Refrigerant Accidents: "A study of the case

histories of refrigeration accidents in Norway over the last decades leads to
the following conclusions: The fatal accidents recorded are equally divided
on ammonia and halocarbon plants. Taking into consideration that by far
greater number of large refrigeration systems in the country, and all the
older ones, are of ammonia type, this implies that this refrigerant is probably
the safer choice with present technical standards. The fact that the majority
of the near fatal cases were caused by halocarbons points in the same
direction. The strong warning smell of ammonia is an invaluable asset, but
at the same time may cause undue alarm and often leads to evacuation of a
large area. This is very different from a halocarbon release, which is sneaky
in nature and often gives no warning before somebody is rendered
unconscious or killed. Most near fatal accidents are hardly published at all.
As a result the public gets a completely distorted impression of the relative
danger of the two types of refrigerant." 99
11. Liability concerns in the U.S.: Greenpeace held a series of meetings

with refrigerator manufacturers in the United States in 1993. One of the
concerns repeatedly raised was liability. However, the solution to the liability
issue seems to be at hand. Bill Walsh, one of the Greenpeace
representatives at these meetings writes: “At first it appeared that it will be
very hard to overcome the liability issue. However, Whirlpool and Wood
make a good case that liability is not the real issue (at a mere $10 cost per
fridge the industry could establish an annual $60 million liability fund, for
example). Rather a loss of reputation or forced recall of the product is of
greater concern." 100
12. “No-frost” technological challenge solved for hydrocarbon refrigerators:

(a) The “no-frost” technology, which is a standard feature with 80-
90% of domestic refrigerators sold in the North American and Japanese
markets, has been seen as a major obstacle to hydrocarbon refrigeration.
The 1993, OORG Report writes that no-frost appliances will face the
greatest engineering challenge to "achieve solutions with acceptable
99 Lorentzen, Gustav & Lunde, Helge: "Accidents and Critical Situations Due to Unintentional
Escape of Refrigerants: A Survey of Cases in Norway over the Last Decades", Paper
presented at the International Conference - New Applications of Natural Working Fluids
in Refrigeration and Airconditioning, 10-13 May, 1994, Hannover, Germany.
100 Walsh, Bill , “Report on US Fridge Manufacturers Meetings” , May 24, 1993, internal
Greenpeace memo.
flammability/explosion risks...Risk studies for this kind of appliances (based

on actual construction features) end up with hazards some hundred times
higher than [for smaller units], which can certainly not be tolerated (1 per
100-300 thousand)."101 Similarly, the March/May 1994 World Bank
Report’s summary of the Second OORG Refrigeration Working Group
Meeting in Hannover, writes that the use of “...isobutan for...certain
applications such as no-frost refrigerators may never be possible due to
possibly unavoidable safety risks”.102
(b) “No-frost” refrigerator to be on the market in 1995: Dr. Ballhaus,

Technical Director for Liebherr, announced on September 12, 1994 that the
company plans to convert its latest “no-frost” model refrigerator to
‘Greenfreeze’ hydrocarbon technology within the first half of 1995. It is
expected that other German manufacturers will follow suit.103
13. Hydrocarbon refrigerants in mobile air conditioning: The safety of

hydrocarbon refrigeration results from the relative low charge required to
accomplish similar or better values then is needed by CFC-12. This factor is
taken into account not only in domestic refrigeration, but also in mobile air
conditioning, which by its nature represents a greater risk. A study to
“Measure the Insurance Risk of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants in Motor Cars”
found that “only 40% of the mass [of hydrocarbons] is required compared to
R12 or R134a....[For] a medium sized Australian car the charge of
hydrocarbon is about 300g (10.6 oz.) the same as a large aerosol can.”
Furthermore, the study concludes that “changing from R12 to saturated
[hydrocarbon] refrigerant increases the fire insurance risk [slightly] but
reduces the refrigerant loss and recovery risk...[so that] ...hydrocarbons
reduce the insurance risk by $2.30 /year.”104
101 OORG 1993, Op. Cit., p.26
102 World Bank Report, “Facing the Global”, March-May, 1994, Section: Portfolio Review,
Ozone Layer Protection.
103 Wolfgang, Wolo, “Greenfreeze: No Frost Technology”, internal Greenpeace memo,

reporting on conversation with Dr. Ballhaus, September 12, 1994
104 Maclaine-cross, I.L.: School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering: University of

New South Wales, Australia: " Fireball, A Brief report on Pilot Experiments to Measure
the Insurance Risk of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants in Motor Cars" ,January, 1993
C. Regulatory Recommendations for use of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants

in Domestic Refrigerator/Freezers
1. U.S. Recommended Standards: Underwriters Laboratory: Proposed
Safety Requirements for Refrigerators that Employ a Flammable Refrigerant
(Annex DD: UL): 105
(a) (DD2.2) Refrigerants are Classified for flammability (in

accordance with the Standard for Number Designation of Refrigerants,
ANSI/ASHRAE 34-1992 into "Group 1-no flame propagation", "Group 2-
lower flammability", and "Group 3-higher flammability".
(b) (DD2.3) The charge size for refrigerators or freezers that employ
a "lower flammability" refrigerant shall not exceed 1 lb. The charge size for
refrigerators or freezers that employ a "higher flammability" refrigerant shall
not exceed 1/4 lb (4oz= 113.4 g). *
(c) Proposed safety requirements (UL Bulletin 250, March 17,

1993): based on flammability studies, risk analysis and practical application;
objective is to reduce the possibility of a leak, keep a leak from causing the
lower flammable limit (2.15% propane vapour in air-gas mixture) to be
reached, and avoid the risk of ignition. The recommendation of 1/4 lb
“higher flammability” refrigerant charge has been tested and approved by
Underwriters Laboratory.106
2. European Community Recommended Standards: The final

recommendations for European standards are yet to be approved by
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) and European Committee
for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC). This approval is due in
the Fall of 1994.
(a) “The Technischer Ueberwachungsverein (TUEV), the German

Safety and Standards Institution has approved the [hydrocarbon based]
'Greenfreeze' Models as "safe and tested" and states that as a result of their
investigations "there are no dangers in the use, transport and storage of this
refrigerator due to the use of the liquid gas as a cooling agent" and that
105 Underwriters Laboratory, “Annex DD: Proposed Safety Requirements for Refrigerators
that Employ a Flammable Refrigerant”, August, 1993, Section DD2
106 Source: Don Grob, Op.cit.

"appearance and explosion of propane butane inside the refrigerator can be

practically excluded". Its safety-sign is valid for the entire European
Community market.
Upcoming European legislation will allow up to one kilogram (1.0 Kg.) of

inflammable refrigerant without restriction. The standards body co-
ordinating the work has told Greenpeace that the EN 378 European
Refrigeration Standard "does provide for propane as an-alternative
refrigerant in small hermetically sealed systems".
Technical standards for testing of hydrocarbon-refrigerators are underway

under the authority of the International Electrotechnical Committee (IEC)
and its European body (CENELEC). After their publication as a European
standard (autumn 94) and world-wide (mid 95), the last barriers against
trade in several countries will have fallen.” 107
(b) UK Department of the Environment: "It should be noted that a

domestic system would contain only about 100g of propane in a
hermetically sealed refrigeration circuit. This may represent no more risk
than other domestically used quantities of propane and far less risk than the
large quantities of natural gas that could escape from a cooker or boiler. A
draft European Standard on Refrigeration Safety is proposing that systems
with less than 1 kg of propane charge can be used without restriction." 108
(c) Missenden et.al. write: "It is proposed that group 3 refrigerant

[i.e. with flammable and explosive characteristics] should be allowed to be
used in domestic appliances providing the maximum refrigerant charge
does not exceed 300 grams and the system has been designed for intrinsic
safety.” 109
3. The July, 1994 CENELEC draft amendment to the draft European

Standard EN 60335-2-24:1994 includes the following safety measures
107 Lohbeck, Wolo , “Greenfreeze”, Op. cit. p.39
108 UK Department of the Environment, Global Atmosphere Division: March Consulting

Group (October 1992)
109 Missenden, Op. cit.

among its recommendations for compression-type appliances using

flammable refrigerants:
(a) “ [The appliance shall...be marked with [a clearly visible]
symbol “Caution, risk of fire”;
(b) Instruction sheet shall include: i. information for handling,
installation, cleaning, servicing and disposal; ii. for appliances using more
than 105 g of flammable refrigerants the minimum volume of the room in
which the appliance can be installed...(a uniform gas concentration of 144 g
of isobutan in a 3mm3 volume is approximately equal to the lower explosive
limit); iii. a warning to keep ventilation openings clear of obstruction.
(c) Compression-type appliances using flammable refrigerants shall
be constructed so that leaked refrigerant will not stagnate so as to cause a
fire or explosion hazard in areas outside the food storage compartments
where the appliance electrical components are fitted -- Separate
components such as thermostats which contain less than 0.5 g of
flammable refrigerants are not considered to cause a fire or explosion
hazard in the event of a leakage.
(d) The cooling system...shall be protected against corrosion due to
electrochemical action or oxidation.” 110
D: Quantity of Hydrocarbon Charge Needed in a Domestic Refrigerator

1. The amount of refrigerant charge needed in a domestic refrigerator will
vary according to refrigerator size and type of technology.
1991 Estimates of Average Size of Refrigerators and Average Charge of

Refrigerant Used by Regions/Countries 111 (Table 8)
Area / Country Average Size ( in liters) Average Charge (CFC-12)

Western Europe 200 140 g.
Eastern Europe 180 200 g.
North America 440 180 g.
Japan 300 160 g
India 165 140 g
Brazil 175 180 g
110 CENELEC, Op. cit.
111 TOC Report 1991, Op. cit., p.79

(Metric Conversions : Refrigerator Sizes & Refrigerants:(a) To convert from

liters to cu. ft.
multiply by: .03531566 (b) To convert from cu. ft. to liters multiply by:
28.31605
(c) To convert from grams to ounces divide by 28.3.)
2. Centre for Environmental Energy Engineering (CEEE), University of

Maryland: "The refrigerant mixture R290/R600 was tested as a drop-in
substitute in a domestic 20 cu. ft. [automatic defrost, top mounted]
refrigerator/freezer unit. To find the best performance, tests were conducted
for several lengths of capillary tube and varying mixture concentration and
charge. The highest [energy] savings of 6.5% were achieved with a blend of
70% R290 and 30% R600....The charge was 70g, which is 71% less than
the R-12 charge [240g].” 112
3. Missenden writes: “A small system with an R12 charge or 100 grams

would by ratio of liquid density have an R22 charge of 92 grams, or an R290
charge of 38 grams. For systems with hermetic compressors there would be
an additional small quantity of refrigerant in the shell, some of which would
be dissolved in the compressor's oil." 113
4. According to Dr. H. Preisendanz (Refrigeration Engineer) the amount of

charge required to replace R-12 is 90% with HFC-134a, and 30-40% with
R290 and R600.
E. Efficiency of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants compared with HFC-134a &

CFC-12
“There is a consensus of informed opinion that if energy efficiency is an
important goal, then hydrocarbons such as propane are the right way to go
for small scale refrigeration.” 114
--John Missenden, South Bank University, UK
112 Liu et. al., Op.cit.
113 Missenden, Op. cit.
114 Waide, Paul & Herring Horace, “Refrigerators, Energy, & Climate: Mandatory Energy
Efficiency Standards for Domestic Refrigeration Units in the European Union: Analysis
of the Draft EU Directive and Alternative Proposals for a Standard”,
Report commissioned by Greenpeace International, December 1993, p.56
1. The UNEP Information Paper (July, 1994) "Elimination of CFC from

Domestic Refrigeration Manufacture" writes: "Testing to date shows that
refrigerators with HC-600a [isobutan] systems are nearly always more
efficient than equivalent ones using HFC-134a and often more efficient than
those using CFC-12. Because there are other factors that make rigorous
comparisons difficult (such as variations in compressor and system
optimisation) it is not surprising that minor variations are found between
cabinet types. Advantage with HC-600a increases by several percent when
the ambient test temperature moves up from 100 C to 320 C." 115
2. Thermodynamic Capacities of HFC-134a and Isobutan:

(a) “The thermodynamic capacity of HFC-134a is 12% below CFC-
12 at the standard refrigerant rating conditions (-100F evaporator, 1300F
condenser) used by compressor manufacturers for performance
measurements on calorimeters.” 116
(b) "In preliminary calorimeter testing of R-600a compressors with
mineral oil, results showed a 6% improvement in efficiency over CFC-12 at
standard rating conditions. In systems operating at cooler condensing
temperatures (1150F), the efficiency gain is projected to be approximately
13%.” 117
3. HFC-134a A Dubious Substitute: Albrecht Meyer (Engineer at DKK

Scharfenstein writes: "Today's trend is to substitute R-12 by R-134a. But if
R-134a performance data is compared to R-12 its poor energy efficiency
becomes evident- especially with the low evaporation temperatures (-150 to
-400C) and operation in small domestic hermetic compressors. These facts,
and the high portion of fluorine in R-134a, make the use of R-134a as a
substitute dubious....Despite the poor thermodynamic properties of R-134a
compared to R-12 a lot of brain power and effort has gone into achieving
similar efficiencies. With hydrocarbons however, used in those newly
optimised compressors, it will be easily possible to come up with still better
115 UNEP, “Elimination of CFCs”, Part 1, Section 2.2.1, p.4
116 TOC Report 1994: Montreal Protocol: “1994 Assessment: Refrigeration, Air Conditioning
and Heat Pumps: Technical Options Committee”:Draft: May 1994,
Section 3.2
117 Ibid., Section 3.2.2.1

energy consumption....[With] properly adjusted blends of hydrocarbons it is

possible to achieve very low power consumption.” 118
4. GREENFREEZE ENERGY SAVING UP TO 50%: The following

statement is from the Bosch-Siemens 1993 Annual Report: "A new line of
refrigerators/(freezers) are distinguishing themselves with the thick 'super-
insulation' as well as with a specially designed refrigeration cycle and
compressor. With this (technology) an energy saving of up to 50% has
been realised. The most energy efficient unit, with a capacity of 360 liters
(12.7 cu. ft) unit is complete CFC and HFC free and has an energy
consumption of .10kWh/100 liters. This is the equivalent of the energy
consumption of a 15 Watt light bulb." 119
F. Cost Factors: Hydrocarbon and HFC-134a Refrigerants
1. The price of HFC-134a varies according to volume and place of

purchase. Global Survey Summary (March, 1994) : Costs of HFC-134a in
$US per Kg. 120 (Table 9)
Price/Kg Australi Canada Japan Malaysi Taiwan U.S. EC

a a
Whole- $19.04 $30.75 N/A $15.54 $11.10 $12.76 $15.00
sale *
Retail $45.87 $47.25 $28.80 $26.90 $74.10 $39.80 $60.00
* Allied-Signal Canada quoted a lesser wholesale price of $13.86 -

$15.40/kg Canadian
(plus tax) depending on volume.
118 Meyer, Albrecht (Engineer M.D. Scharfenstein), “The Success Of Hydrocarbons In

Domestic Refrigeration: Energy Efficient And Environmentally Friendly”
119 Source: Memo from Wolo Lohbeck: August 26, 1994
120 TOC Report 1994, Op.cit., Chapter 10, p.10

2. The price of Hydrocarbon Refrigerants in Germany (1994)121 (Table 10)
Purity Level Cost DM/Kg

99.95% 30-35 ($16.85-19.66 US)
99.9% 22-25 ($12.35-14.04 US)
97% 10 ($ 5.61 US)
3. Comparative prices of CFC-12, HFC-134a and HC-290 (propane) in

Japan: 1993122 (Table 11)
SUBSTANCE PRICE (¥/kg) $US CHARGE (g/refrigerator)

(approx.)
CFC-12 300 $3.00 180
HFC-134a 800 $8.00 150
HC-290 (propane) 300 $3.00 40
4. Purity levels influence costs: "The purity requirements of "natural"

refrigerants are still being established. Synthesised refrigerants (CFCs,
HCFCs and HFCs) can be produced with a very high purity. It has been
easy for their manufacturing processes to meet the tight specification of
existing refrigerant standards such as EN 378. Such purity levels are difficult
to meet in case of hydrocarbons produced with fractional distillation
processes involving stripping HC-600a from a gas field or refinery
hydrocarbon stream....It is likely that in the future purity level specified will
be modified so that suitable refrigerant can be obtained by distillation. Thus
a specification may emerge for HC-600a to have (for example) a minimum
purity of 97% with no more than 2.5% N butane, no more than 1% propane,
no more than 0.2% of any other hydrocarbon and with very tight limits on
water, non condensables and such carcinogens as benzene.” 123 [Such
specification should have a decreasing impact on the volume cost of
isobutan.]
121 Source: Dr. H. Preisendanz
122Greenpeace Japan, Op. cit. p.9
123 UNEP, “Elimination of CFCs”, Op. cit., Part 1, Section 2.2.2., p.4
5. The refrigerant charge with hydrocarbons requires smaller amounts (30-

40% of CFC-12 charge) than with HFC-134a (90% of CFC-12 charge),
resulting in further savings.
6. Costs of Conversion of Production Lines:
(a) 1993 OORG Report writes: "Different opinions exist
concerning the costs for conversion. Some [manufacturers] state that the
conversion costs [with hydrocarbons] would be much lower than the costs
for converting from CFC-12 to HFC-134a (two specific manufacturers
mention that the costs for conversion are 20-25% of the costs of converting
to HCFC-134a ...However, others (manufacturers with a total production
volume of 17 million compressors) state that the conversion costs will be
comparable to the ones for HFC-134a." 124
(b) In Article 5 developing countries “the cost of conversion from
CFC-12 to HFC-134a technology for refrigerator manufacturers is estimated
to be around US $1 million per plant.
This cost includes capital cost of equipment for assembly line related to the
new lubricant and refrigerant and technical assistance.” 125
(c) OORG states: "Very substantial modifications will be necessary
for converting the whole production range of manufacturer to
hydrocarbons...[i.e.] huge investments in production to handle
flammable/explosive material and to meet stringent safety requirements
[these costs are estimated at] $7 million US for a typical production of one
million appliances per year... part of this money is [for converting] to the
flammable blowing agent cyclopentan. “ 126
(d) “CFC-12 test facilities do not have to be completely rebuilt [with
hydrocarbons] as with HFC-134a “ 127 “[The] manufacturing of
compressors and appliances based on HFC-134a technology implies much
higher stringency in the requirements for the quality of the production
environment ...[than with CFC-12]...It is recommended that conversion from
CFC-12 to HFC-134a technology should be accomplished in two phases.
The first phase should involve testing of the HFC-134a technology in the
124 OORG 1993, Op.cit. p.12
Op,cit. p. 15
126 Ibid. p.7
127 Ibid. p11

manufacturing process through a pilot project, and the second phase is a

full-scale conversion.” 128
7. Costs due to technical problems with HFC-134a: “Compared to other
refrigerants (both CFC 12 and hydrocarbons such as propane/butane),
HFC-134a is a highly unstable substance that causes serious problems in
the refrigerating cycle if only small amounts of water, chlorinated
hydrocarbons or CFC-12 - the refrigerant used up to now -- are present. As
a consequence, virtually water-free conditions are required during the initial
filling of an HFC-134a refrigerating cycle, but also for its entire operation
(which may last up to several decades). "On-site" refilling, repairs, etc. are
therefore expensive and difficult to carry out when HFC-134a is used (due
to atmospheric humidity).”
“The possibility can therefore not be ruled out that HFC-134a refrigerating
systems (e.g., in fridges) may have a shorter life span than traditional or
environmentally sound systems using, for example, various hydrocarbon
mixes. At lower temperatures, miscibility gaps between HFC-134a, ester
oil and water may occur, causing increased compressor wear and reducing
the life span of the refrigerating equipment. For the same reasons already
cited, HFC-134a is entirely unsuitable as a drop-in (substitute for fully and
partly halogenated CFCs) in existing systems.” 129
8. Cost of Lubricants: "Because conventional refrigerator lubricants will not

dissolve in HFCs...HFC-134a needs ester oil. Ester oil is subject to
hydrolysis and other problems, needing special care, which would tend to
raise production and refrigerator costs (Sunami 1993). Ester oil is patented,
and its price is several times higher than conventional lubricants " 130
UNEP concurs that “synthetic ester oils used with HFC-134a will always be
several dollars per litre more expensive than the mineral oils commonly
used in CFC-12 compressors.” 131
Op. Cit. p 15
129 Belazzi, Op. Cit.
130 Greenpeace Japan, Op.cit., p.22
131 UNEP, “Elimination of CFCs”, Op. Cit., Part 1, p.12

9. Compressor costs:
a. “HFC-134a compressors were introduced to the market in 1991
at some 15% to 20% price premium [over CFC-12 compressors]... [Since
‘91 the prices have reduced to] 3% to 8% higher....[Isobutan compressors in
Europe] are being purchased for price equivalent to that using HFC-
134a...[with] prices yet to stabilise in other parts of the world.” 132
b. “The cost of conversion from CFC-12 to HFC-134a technology

for compressor manufacturers [in Article 5 countries] is estimated to be US
$1.5 million per plant.” 133
c. “Refrigerator manufacturers in Article 5 countries which do not

produce HFC-134a compressors will incur an incremental cost of about US
$10 per imported new compressor.” 134
10. HFC-134a patented technology costs more: HFC-134a and its required
lubricant oils are patented substances. Isobutan, is a non-patentable,
widely available natural substance, that is compatible with natural mineral
oils.
11. Recovery Costs: The cost of recovery and destruction of HFC-134a is

presently externalised from the overall cost estimates of the product and the
technology. These costs should be internalised into the unit price of HFC-
134a to reflect the true cost of the substance. Hydrocarbons do not need to
be recovered, so no similar costs are incurred.
G. Drop-In Possibilities: HFC-134a and Hydrocarbons

1. HFC-134a not practical for drop-in: “The option of using HFC-134a as a
service retrofit of existing CFC-12 charged refrigerator-freezers is not
practical. There is concern that the time required, the flushing routine, and
the compatibility with previous system mixtures prevents satisfactory
performance.” 135 HFC-134a is therefore only applicable in new systems.
132 Ibid., p.12
Op. Cit. p 15
134 Ibid. p.16

135 TOC 1994, Op.cit., Section 3.3.2.3
2. Leakage Problems: “HFCs are more prone to leak than CFCs, and the
annual rate of CFC leakage, [for example], in the UK refrigeration and air
conditioning industry is about 20% of the total charge - thousands of tonnes.
According to the Government Building Research Establishment (BRE : a UK
Government Body)” 136: “Leakage can also be a consequence of
conversion to a new refrigerant. For example, when CFC-12 or CFC-502
machine is converted to HFC-134a, leakage is more likely to occur because
the HFC-134a molecule is smaller and can permeate through openings
more easily. HFC-134a also has powerful solvent properties and could, for
example, cause a sealing film of oil between a flange face and its mating
gasket to be flushed away, creating a route for refrigerant leakage. Another
problem is that the new refrigerant may react with, and cause dimensional
changes in, certain elastomeric materials in seals and gaskets.”137
3. In 1994 there have been two announcements regarding hydrocarbon

drop-in refrigerants: (a) U.K.: Calor Gas “Care.30” and (b) USA: Intervest
Environmental Inc. “ES-12”. The appearance of these products on the
market is further indication of the direction the technology is headed. In its
promotion of “Care 30” Calor Gas states:
“In replacing R-12, which was one of the most widely used CFC refrigerants
most of the alternatives have had two things in common: they are costly and
not easy to install. One of the main contenders is R-134a, which involves
expensive changes to existing equipment and the use of new types of oil,
which can usually only be purchased from the refrigerant manufacturers.
The cost to users in making the change has been high, and the efficacy of
the product far from established....’CARE 30’ provides the solution. Not only
can it be fitted without making changes to equipment, but it is cheaper and
more efficient. The main constituents of ‘CARE 30’ have been on the planet
since time began: the hydrocarbons propane and butane....’CARE 30’ has
an atmospheric lifetime of <1 years, GWP of 24 (20 years ), and zero
ODP.” 138
136 Greenpeace International, “Tehnology Update”, July, 1992 : Distributed at the Tenth
Open-Ended Working Group of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol, Nairobi, 5-8 July
1994
137 Butler, David, “Refrigerant Leakage and Detection”, Building Research Establishment,
September 1993: as quoted in Greenpeace International, “Tehnology Update”, July,
1992
138 Calor Gas Refrigeration, Millbrook Trading Estate, Millbrook, Southhampton, SO9 1WE,
(Freephone- 0800-373-796: Fax-0703-789-228): Promotional materials. 1994
As the commentary regarding Calor’s announcement stated in the

Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Journal (June, 1994):
"The news that Calor Gas is moving into the refrigerants business,
with a new family of hydrocarbon-based gasses, is likely to send some
shivers of foreboding through some quarters of the industry. Not least,
perhaps, among suppliers of 'traditional' alternative refrigerants, who have
pinned their hopes, and a few million pounds in development costs, on
the new generation of non-flammable fluorinated refrigerants now coming
on-stream....[Calor] has practical field trials to back its claims, and some
heavyweight research names supporting the case for hydrocarbon based
refrigerants."
4. The Dutch organisation ECOZONE has been working with the Pakistan
Holland Metal Project (PHMP) in Peshawar on a training course for fridge
technicians in the use of hydrocarbon technology. A local refrigerator repair
workshop charged 10 refrigerators with Fongas (a local name for LPG) and
monitored the results over 10 months. No complaints were received from
customers and the fridges are still working well. The company “Quite Cool
Engineering” lists costs as (one twentieth compared to CFCs) and the fact
that no technical changes are necessary, as major advantages of Fongas.
The owner, Mr Qureshi, added that with 134a ~....we [would] have to
replace the compressor and the lubricant. That would mean I can close my
business, because no customer will be willing to pay me the cost of repairs
of that kind. They would be better of buying a new fridge.” 139
5. Africa: Climate Action Network (CAN) Africa is working together with the
National Environment Secretariat and the National Refrigeration
139 ‘gate’ No. 2/94, June 1994, p. 29 “Ecozone: Ozone Safe Cooling in Developing
Countries”, Publisher: GATE Deutsche Gesellschaft für Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), GmbH
(German Agency for Technical Cooperation), Post Box 5180, D-65726 Eschborn,
Germany, Tel: 49 61 9679-0
ECOZONE is a group of companies and consultants covering a range of expertise in

refrigeration technology, R&D, legal knowledge on the climate issue, international
treaties and small enterprise development in developing countries. Address: ECOZONE
c/o Ecotec Resource BV, Kleverparkweg, 17A, NL-2023 AC Haarlem, The Netherlands.
Fax: 31 23 278045.
Demonstration Centre of the Kenyan Polytechnic on a proposal to

demonstrate hydrocarbon technology in Kenya. Despite receiving training
from the World Bank in HFC-134a conversion, the National Refrigeration
Workers Association of Ghana are reluctant to switch to this expensive
chemical. Together with Friends of the Earth Ghana, a training course is
now planned in the conversion of existing refrigerators to run with
hydrocarbons. 80% of the country’s domestic market are second-hand
refrigerators from Europe. Two years ago, the Netherlands who ship
200,000 of these fridges a year to West Africa decided to convert them to
propane in order not to be accused of chemical dumping later on. The
project aims to develop capacity for retrofitting in Ghana itself. 140
H. Recovery Considerations: HFC-134a and Hydrocarbon Refrigerants

1. Due to its potent global warming potential (GWP) HFC-134a will have to
be recovered and eventually destroyed. “HFC 134a would have to be
recycled with the aid of vacuum pumps at great outlay and costs. This
makes recovery of these greenhouse gases most unlikely. Even in Germany
no more than 5 per cent of annual CFC-production is recovered today. As a
result, anyone who chooses R134a will cause themselves non-ending
environmental discussions as well as technical and economic problems.”
141
2. Due to their low GWP hydrocarbon refrigerants do not need to be

recovered.
I. Market Prospects for Hydrocarbon and HFC-134a Refrigerants

1. Hydrocarbon refrigerants have taken over the domestic refrigerator
market in Europe . All the major European manufacturers have converted,
or are in the process of converting to hydrocarbon based Greenfreeze
technology . The Greenfreeze technology is spreading to other parts of the
world, including developing countries.
2. Hydrocarbon technology and developing countries: Developing countries

can ill afford the two step phase out from CFCs currently pursued in the US.
As Dr. Sukumar Devotta (Engineering Services, National Chemical
140 Ibid.
141 Lohbeck, Wolo, “Greenfreeze”, Op. cit., p.37

Laboratory, India), who is recognised as “the most knowledgeable specialist

on CFCs and CFCs substitutes in India” 142 states: “There are some
developing countries, e.g. India and China, which are self reliant in the
manufacture of both refrigerants and related hardware with a substantial
domestic market. The developing countries cannot afford double changes.
They would prefer to assess the merits and demerits of the possible
alternatives before making a final choice so as to continue to maintain their
current technological independence....” 143
3. Hydrocarbon technology has greater promise for India and other

developing countries:
(a) Mr. Burzin J. Wadia (Vice President-Manufacturing, Godrej-GE
Appliances, Vikhroli, Bombay) states: “Hydrocarbon [refrigerant] is
interesting for us, because it requires only minor changes in the production
line. Whereas HFC-134a requires a much more stringent manufacturing
process, especially difficult for us to achieve in a very humid place like
Bombay. But with hydrocarbons, there is the problem of flammability. We
want to see the results of the European experience. The fact that European
manufacturers are now largely using hydrocarbons is of great help to us if
we were to choose hydrocarbons.” 144
(b) Dr. Devotta states: “We think that hydrocarbons are attractive for
India, because this technology imply minimum changes of the compressor
and the manufacturing process. India already has all the technology to
produce and manage hydrocarbons, which are cheap, and we have the
appropriate lubricants. So, with hydrocarbons we would not be constrained
by technological dependence. The situation would be totally the opposite
with 134a...” 145 [With HFC-134a]"there is a significant change in the
compressor and system component design e.g. heat exchangers, lubricant,
filter dryer etc. The use of HFC-134a demands a very stringent quality
142 Erkman, Suren, “Excerpts from an interview with Dr. Sukumar Devotta (Head,
Engineering Services, National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, India), March 30, 1994:
as faxed to Ravi Sharma, Down To Earth, April 12, 1994.
143 Devotta, Op. Cit.
144 Erkman, Suren, “Excerpts from an interview with Mr. Burzin J. Wadia (Vice President-
Manufacturing, Godrej-GE Appliances, Vikhroli, Bombay), April 9, 1994:
as faxed to Ravi Sharma, Down To Earth, April 12, 1994.
145 Erkman, Suren, “Devotta interview”, Op. cit.

control during manufacture and service. There is still some uncertainty on

the long term acceptance of HFCs, particularly in Europe, with respect to
the greenhouse effect as HFC-134a has a relatively high GWP....
“Hydrocarbons are naturally occurring, readily available, much

cheaper and thermodynamically attractive. Most adverse impressions on the
safety are based on the past data when safer design features were not
incorporated....Currently, the general impression is that with the current
technological advances, the safety requirements should be
surmountable...In general, there is a sufficient prospect for the introduction
of hydrocarbon based green refrigerators in India.” 146
4. Western and Japanese products serve as role models for markets in

developing countries. This places another level of responsibility upon
decision makers who determine the future of technological development. As
Dr. Devotta states: “There is a marketing problem in India: people want the
US, Japanese or European label. Companies are worried that competitors
might begin to sell HFC-134a cooled fridges, advertising the fact that they
use the same technology as General Electric. etc.. The investors also feel
happy when there are such alliances with well known Western
companies...” 147
5. Future of HFC-134a in question: Because of the negative environmental

impact of HCFCs and HFCs “...pressures are being applied by some
parties to the Montreal Protocol for acceleration of the HCFC phase out and
similar pressures to set an HFC phase out schedule are being applied in the
working groups leading up to the first meeting of the Committee of the
parties to the Rio Convention....In the Intergovernmental Negotiating
Committee (INC) meetings leading up to the first meeting of the committee
of the parties (COP) to the Rio Convention, March 1995, there is pressure
to establish a climate change protocol restricting the use of selected
greenhouse gases, particularly the per fluorocarbons (PFCs) and the
hydrofluorocarbon (HFCs)....” 148
146 Devotta, Op. Cit.
147 Erkman, Suren, “Devotta interview”, Op.cit.
148 TOC Report 1994, Op.cit., Section 8. p.17-18

“The Climate Convention signed at the Earth Summit in Rio (June 1992)
states that emissions of greenhouse gases should be returned to their 1990
levels, by the year 2000 and since HFCs were not produced or used in
significant quantities in 1990, their future is now in serious doubt....Article
4.2b of the Framework Climate Convention states: ‘Each of the Parties shall
communicate [...] detailed information on its policies and measures [...] with
the aim of returning individually or jointly to their 1990 levels these
anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases not
controlled by the Montreal Protocol.”149
6. US Government’s ‘Climate Change Action Plan’ targets HFCs: The US

Administration announced in October, 1993 its concerns regarding the
global warming potentials of HFCs.
“Due to high global warming potentials, high atmospheric lifetimes, and
increasing emissions, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a growing
contributors to the climate change problem...[President Clinton] “is directing
the EPA to use its authority under the Clean Air Act to narrow the scope of
uses allowed for HFCs with high global warming potentials where better
alternatives exist.” 150
7. UK government’s ‘UK Climate Change Program’ targets HFCs: The UK

government announced intentions to control HFC emissions, by stating:
“They [HFCs] are greenhouse gases, and the UK is committed under the
[Climate Convention signed at the Earth Summit in Rio, June 1992] to take
measures aimed at returning emissions of HFCs to 1990 levels by 2000...[In
particular, the Government will be] exploring the scope of voluntary
agreements to ensure that, where HFCs are used, emissions are minimised
and that HFCs are not used where emissions are unavoidable if safe,
practical and more environmentally acceptable alternatives are
available.” 151
8. The Dutch government circulates draft proposals for international ban on

HFCs: At the 10th session of the International Negotiating Committee
(INC10) to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), which
149 Greenpeace International, “Tehnology Update”, July, 1992 : Op.Cit.
150 US Climate Change Action Plan, 19 October, 1993
151 UK Climate Change Program, 25 January, 1994

ended in Geneva on September 2nd, 1994, the Dutch government issued a

report entitled "Potential Effect Of HFC Policy On Global Greenhouse Gas
Emissions In 2035":152 (The FCCC was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio
de Janeiro in 1992 by over 160 countries. It entered into force on March 21
1994 following ratification by 50 countries.)
(a) The report calls for: (i) No use if HFCs are not "essential"; (ii)
Avoidance of HFCs having relatively high Global Warming Potentials ; (iii)
Avoidance of relatively leaky applications. This is in effect a ban on the use
of HFCs on all three criteria. The Dutch Government believes that the first
option is the most effective way of dealing with HFC emissions.
(b) Alternatives: The report states that "Alternatives are known for
most applications... It is concluded that for most applications many non-
halocarbon alternatives are available." "Industries already invested
considerably in alternatives for CFCs. Although not investigated, the costs
of above mentioned options do however not seem problematic. Moreover,
early implementation of the options could avoid extra costs in switching from
HFCs to non-HFCs"
(c) Low GWP HFCs : The only HFC that meets the report’s criteria
of relatively low GWP (less than 600) is HFC-152a, a flammable gas. This
gas has extremely limited applications.
(d) Leaky applications: Virtually all cooling applications leak; there
are no "completely closed systems". The report states that "about 65% of
the cooling agent in mobile air conditioning leaks away unavoidably." and
"considerable amounts of HFCs leak from these [all other cooling] systems
over the relatively long lifetime of the equipment".
(e) Environmental impact of HFCs: Concerns around HFCs are due
to their huge global warming impact and that widespread use of HFCs
will lead to a "significant greenhouse problem". The Netherlands
Government’s stance on the necessary policies and measures to deal with
this problem is that "early action prevents big problems in the future" ..."If
HFCs are to be used to replace CFCs without restriction, global HFC
emissions may increase to 1931 Mtonnes CO2 equivalent per year by
2035. If HFCs are also used as substitutes for HCFCs, emissions could
double to 4665 Mton CO2 equivalent per year in 2035. These HFC
emissions equal 7% and 17% respectively of present CO2 emissions. "
152 Millais, Corin, September 1, 1994 memo summarizing a draft report by the National
Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection of the Netherlands, entitled
"Potential Effect Of HFC Policy On Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions In 2035",
authored by C. Kroeze, September 1994, (report # 773001002) as released at the 10th
session of the International Negotiating Committee (INC10) to the Framework
Convention on Climate Change (FCCC).
Conclusion
The world has limited resources, and as the United Nations Environment
Program (UNEP) 1992 Technology and Economic Assessment Panel
stated, "the development of technologies which do not use either controlled
or transitional substances can be inhibited because the prospect of
technology using transitional substances discourages investment in
technology that would only be profitable if transitional substances were not
acceptable."153 Simply stated, this means that the production and
promotion of HCFCs and HFCs hinders the transition to safer alternatives.
In every category, the hydrocarbon technology is proving itself to be

superior to the synthetic substances. As Missenden and James aptly put
it: “Although there are risks in using flammable refrigerants in domestic
refrigerators, the advantages of these refrigerants are manifest.” 154 Given
the environmental imperative to protect the ozone layer and to reduce
greenhouse warming, the economic and moral imperative to provide the
most affordable technologies available to developing countries, and the
business logic of not investing in obsolete technologies, it is obvious that the
hydrocarbon technologies provide the optimum answers in domestic
refrigeration.
153 TEAP Report 1992: Montreal Protocol On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer:
“1991 Assessment: Report of the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel
(TEAP)”,
154 Missenden, J.F. and James, R.W., “The use of Propane in Domestic Refrigerators”,
Institute of Environmental Engineering, South Bank Polytechnic, London, revised
Oct. 1991.
Appendix A : “Greenfreeze - A Revolution in Technology”
In the spring of 1992 Greenpeace brought together scientists who had

extensively researched the use of propane and butane as refrigerants, with
an East German company DKK Scharfenstein. The company had been
producing refrigerators for 50 years and was the leading household
appliance manufacturer in the former East Germany. After reunification,
however, it faced severe economic problems and was due to be closed
down.
The meeting between the scientists and DKK Scharfenstein resulted in the
birth of ‘Greenfreeze’ technology for domestic refrigeration. Greenfreeze
refrigerators use hydrocarbons for both the blowing of the insulation foam
and the refrigerant and they are entirely free of ozone destroying and global
warming chemicals.
When DKK Scharfenstein announced their intention to mass produce

"Greenfreeze", Greenpeace successfully campaigned to gather tens of
thousands of pre-orders for the yet-to-be-produced new refrigerator from
environmentally conscious consumers in Germany. This overwhelming
support from the public secured the capital investment needed for the new
‘Greenfreeze’ product, and at the same time, salvaged the company and
saved the jobs of its workers.
The major household appliance manufacturers, who had already invested in

HFC-134a refrigeration technology as the substitute for CFCs, at first
claimed that the 'Greenfreeze' concept would not work. However, upon
realising that the first completely -CFC, HCFC and HFC-free refrigerator
was about to come on the market, and recognising the market appeal of a
truly environmentally friendly refrigerator, the four biggest producers, Bosch,
Siemens, Liebherr and Miele gave up their resistance to the hydrocarbon
technology, and introduced their own line of ‘Greenfreeze’ models in the
spring of 1993.
Within a year and a half the Greenfreeze technology has spread like wild-
fire throughout Europe, and to other parts of the world. Many models of
'Greenfreeze' refrigerators are now on sale in Germany, Austria, Denmark,
France, Italy, Netherlands, Switzerland, and Britain. All of the major
European companies, Bosch, Siemens, Electrolux, Liebherr, Miele, Quelle,
Vestfrost , Whirlpool, Bauknecht, Foron, AEG are marketing Greenfreeze-
technology based refrigerators. Even the Environmental Ministers of Britain,
Denmark and the Netherlands have lent their support by buying a

Greenfreeze refrigerator.
Hydrocarbon technology has also spread to other continents. Greenfreeze

is about to be produced in Argentina. Companies in India are expressing
great interest in converting to the hydrocarbons. Godrej-GE and Voltas Ltd.
are currently moving ahead to a pilot plant stage to convert to cyclopentan
foam blowing, in cooperation with the Swiss/German ECOFRIG project. The
Dutch organisation ECOZONE has been working with the Pakistan Holland
Metal Project (PHMP) in Peshawar on a training course for refrigerator
technicians in the use of hydrocarbon technology.
As a result of Greenpeace’s initiatives in China, Qingdao company plans to

have its Greenfreeze models on the market by February, 1995. Other
Chinese companies are expected to follow suit, with the assistance of
bilateral arrangements with the German government, under the provisions
of the Montreal Protocol. A Greenpeace exhibition in Tokyo in April 1993
attracted over 600 representatives from Japanese and South Korean
companies.
In Kenya, the Climate Action Network (CAN) Africa is working together with
the National Environment Secretariat and the National Refrigeration
Demonstration Centre of the Kenyan Polytechnic on a proposal to
demonstrate hydrocarbon technology in Kenya.
In Ghana, despite receiving training from the World Bank in HFC-134a

conversion, the National Refrigeration Workers Association of Ghana are
reluctant to switch to this expensive chemical. Together with Friends of the
Earth Ghana, a training course is now planned in the conversion of existing
refrigerators to run with hydrocarbons. 80% of the country’s domestic
market are second-hand refrigerators from Europe. Two years ago, the
Netherlands who ship 200,000 of these fridges a year to West Africa
decided to convert them to propane in order not to be accused of chemical
dumping later on. The project aims to develop capacity for retrofitting in
Ghana itself.
Meanwhile, companies like Matsushita and Sharp in Japan, have gone half-
way by converting to pentane blown insulation foam. Similarly, in Australia,
Fisher & Paykel and E-Mail are blowing foam with cyclopentan, and E-Mail
plans to have a Greenfreeze, bar refrigerator on the market by 1995.
Some of the manufacturers that market Greenfreeze in Europe have so far

declined to do so in the American market. Their rationale has been that the
hydrocarbon technology is not compatible with the large size and the
automatic defrost features of American refrigerators. However, these
concerns are easily addressed. Tests have shown that not more than 70g of
hydrocarbon refrigerants are needed to efficiently cool a large American
style refrigerator/freezer unit. That is well within the 113g hydrocarbon
refrigerant limit recommended by Underwriters Laboratory.
The technological challenges posed by automatic defrost have also been

resolved, as evidenced by the Liebherr Company’s recently (09/94)
announced plans to have a ‘no-frost’ refrigerator/freezer model on the
market in 1995. Furthermore, American manufacturers could easily take the
first step towards an environmentally safer refrigerator by immediately
switching to blowing the insulation foam with cyclopentan, instead of
continuing to use HCFC-141b.
Despite the U.S. industry’s current resistance to switching to ‘Greenfreeze’

technology, Greenpeace is confident that ‘Greenfreeze’ has a bright future
in the American market. This optimism is based on the inherent
environmental and technological advantages of hydrocarbon refrigeration
over HCFC and HFC based technologies. These substances have a time-
limited market potential because of their negative impact on the
environment, and they are more expensive and less efficient than
hydrocarbons.
Furthermore, indications are that despite vested interests promoting the

HCFC and HFC technologies, there is considerable interest on the research
level in Greenfreeze technology among American manufacturers.
Greenpeace believes that it is only matter of time before the technology
penetrates the North American continent, and that the company that makes
the first move will gain the greatest commercial benefits. The future of
‘Greenfreeze’ in North America will ultimately be decided by the consumers.
North American consumers are just as sophisticated and environmentally
conscious as their European counterparts. Soon the major manufacturers
will realise that a domestic ‘Greenfreeze’ refrigerator offers huge market
potentials.
Appendix B: Natural Refrigerants
1. Prof. Dr. Techn. Gustav Lorentzen (Trondheim, Norway) : "The Use of

Natural Refrigerants, A Complete Solution to the CFC/HCFC
Predicament"155
"We have heard a great deal lately of the harmful effects to the environment
when halocarbon refrigerants are lost to the atmosphere. This should not
really have come as a surprise since similar problems have happened over
and over again. Numerous cases are on record where new chemicals,
believed to be a benefit to man, have turned out to be environmentally
unacceptable, some times even in quite small quantities (DDT, PCB,
Pb...etc.). The present situation, when CFCs and in a little longer
perspective the HCFCs are being banned by international agreement, it
does not seem very logical to try to replace them by another family of
related halocarbons, the HFCs, equally foreign to nature. It has been
already been suggested that HFC 134a may be decomposed by sunlight in
the troposphere and form acid and poisonous substances. [Banks, R.E.
"Skepticism about R-134a justified" Refrig. Air. Condit., Sept. 1993, p.16] If
this should turn out to be true, we may have to face yet another
catastrophe, even worse than the CFC experience. In any case it must
obviously be much preferable to use natural compounds, which are already
circulating in quantity in the biosphere and are known to be harmless."
2. Joachim Paul, Integral Technologie GmbH, Flensburg/Germany, "Water

as Alternative Refrigerant" 156
"Any decision for the one or the other refrigeration system and refrigerant
bears...a dimension pointing into the future. It may well happen that one
"falls out of the frying pan into the fire" making the wrong decision now or
later. ...The German "Umweltbundesamt" (German Federal Authority of the
Environment) UBA presented already some years ago a list of desirable and
less or undesirable refrigerants. This list is still valid and if the industry
would have read --and understood-- this list, many developments to come
would have been possible already much earlier....The following refrigerants
can be claimed to be both "natural" and "safe" on the long run: Water, Air,
155 Lorentzen, Gustav , Op.Cit. (footnote #1a)
156 Paul, Joachim, Op. Cit. (footnote #1b)

Carbon Dioxide, Hydrocarbons, Ammonia...’Natural’ in this context can be

defined as:
* Substances which are part of the natural environment and balance this
planet’s household and which can be accommodated in the global
ecological system,
* Non-chemical substances, i.e. no retort substances in a composition

and/or with effects which are "unknown" to the global ecosystem,
* Substances which are "borrowed" (temporarily) from the environment and
which can be applied in refrigeration plants,
* Substances, which cause no changes and alterations in the environment if

these will be emitted.”
Appendix C: Hydrocarbon Refrigerant tested in a U.S. Domestic

Refrigerator
B.Y. Liu, M.L. Tomasek, R. Radermacher, Center for Environmental Energy

Engineering (CEEE), University of Maryland, "Tests with R290/R600
Mixtures in a Domestic Refrigerator/Freezer" 157
"The refrigerant mixture R290/R600 was tested as a drop-in substitute in a

domestic 20 cu.ft. [automatic defrost, top mounted] refrigerator/freezer unit.
All hardware components are the original ones used for R12, except the
capillary tube, which was lengthened to control flow rate. To find the best
performance, tests were conducted for several lengths of capillary tube and
varying mixture concentration and charge. The highest savings of 6.5%
were achieved with a blend of 70% R290 and 30% R600, and 70g of
charge...
"Until now hydrocarbons are not accepted as substitutes for refrigerants in

the USA because of their flammability. However, thermodynamic properties
of hydrocarbons, for example propane, are similar to those of R12 and R22.
Another advantage of hydrocarbons is their solubility in mineral oil, which is
traditionally used as a lubricant in the compressors. Studies predict an
increase of the risk of kitchen fires by only 0.04%, when using the
157 Liu, B.Y., Tomasek, M.L., Radermacher R., Center for Environmental Energy
Engineering (CEEE), University of Maryland, Op.Cit. (footnote #84)
flammable refrigerant R152a. In Germany refrigerators using a R290/R600a

blend are already on the market. After changes in the hardware, 10%
savings have been achieved compared to the R12 system. The charge of
the blend is only 1/3 of the R12 charge, which reduces the hazard of fires...
The test unit was a 20ft3 automatic defrost, top mounted domestic
refrigerator freezer. It was equipped with a reciprocating compressor using
mineral oil as lubricant. The evaporator is a forced convection, the
condenser is a natural convection cross flow heat exchanger. Since the
propane/butane mixture is tested as a drop-in substitute for R12, none of
the components were changed. Only the capillary tube length was
optimised. To control the freezer compartment temperature an independent
RTD controller is installed. This controller is replacing the thermostat
commonly used in refrigerator/freezer units. With this controller the
temperature and the hysteresis, which is the temperature difference
between maximum and minimum compartment temperature, can be
regulated independently of the charge.
"The baseline test with R12 gave an energy consumption of 2.45 kWh/day
at -15.90C (3.30F) freezer compartment and 1.9 0 C (35.40F) food
compartment air temperature. The hysteresis was 3.9K (70F). The cycle
time was 26 minutes with a run time ratio of 46% and the charge was 240g
of R12.
"The 70/30 blend gave an energy consumption of 2.29 kWh/d at 3.90C food
and -150C freezer compartment temperature. Those represent 6.5%
savings compared to the R12 test. The hysteresis was 4K (7.20F) and the
run time was 28 minutes, with an on-time ratio of 33%. The charge was 70g,
which is 71% less than the R12 charge. The absolute pressures are higher
for the hydrocarbon blend, however, the pressure ratio is 7.8 compared to
7.9 for R12.
Conclusion: The hydrocarbon blend R290/R600 (propane-butane) is an

attractive substitute for R12. In drop-in tests savings of up to 6.5% could be
achieved with a mixture concentration of 70/30 and 70g of charge. More
saving are expected, when hardware is changed.”
Appendix D: Public Safety and Risk Perception
Eric Granryd, Niklas Tengblad: Applied Thermodynamics and Refrigeration,

The Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, and Jan-Erik
Nowacki, NOWAB, Lindigo, Sweden: "Propane as Refrigerant in a Small
Heat Pump: Safety Considerations and Performance Comparisons" 158
"Propane is an interesting alternative to refrigerant R22 provided that

precautions due to its combustibility are taken for safe use in all conceivable
situations. Tests at our laboratory the last few years have indicated that
propane (in pure as well as a commercial quality) is quite beneficial from a
thermodynamic point of view. Furthermore its heat transfer characteristics
are good.
"Public Acceptance: The public can accept flammable refrigerants. In

[Refrigerating Data Book and Catalogue 1934-1936. The American Society
of Refrigerating Engineers, New York 1934] one can read the following:
"Inflammability, as measured by upper and lower limits, by volume of
mixtures in atmospheric air is a factor. Generally speaking, fire department
regulations are such that refrigerants of high inflammability are ruled out.
Ethyl chloride is in this class, as are the hydrocarbons, though any of these
gases is safe enough when used in small amounts, as in the domestic
refrigerator...". In the same reference (p.127) there is a list of manufacturers
of "Domestic Mechanical Refrigerators". 60 different refrigerators are
mentioned. Out of these, 11 use isobutan as refrigerant. In those days a
filling of about 4kg (8.8 lbs) was common when using SO2 as a refrigerant
(p.128). That corresponds to a filling of about 1.5 kg (3.3 lbs) isobutan.
Copeland was the only manufacturer of isobutan filled refrigerators. Fairly
large risks must have been accepted then for the luxury of a domestic
refrigerator taking into account the hermetic compressor was not in the
market and that shaft leaks must have been common.
"Public fear does however not correspond to the actual threat against life or
health....The fear that can be expected from the introduction of inflammable
refrigerants can be expected to be of the same character as the fear of fire
induced by electricity when common electricity was introduced in the
beginning of the century...[when] many people could not sleep at night due
to the fear for electrically induced fires....
158 Granryd, Eric & Tengblad, Niklas, Op.Cit. (footnote# 2)

"If the risk of fire or explosion can be considered an "old well-known risk" it
is easier to accept it. If the risk can be kept "under control" the probability of
acceptance is even higher. We are all driving around with velocities
exceeding 30 m/s with 40-70 kg of highly inflammable liquid (gasoline) and
accept the risk mainly because we "feel in control of the situation" and are
used to take this risk...
"Phasing out CFCs and HCFCs is, for many applications, in fact not a
problem of technology, it is mainly a problem of regulations in force as well
as time available for changing technologies. Propane is an example that can
be used successfully for new equipment utilising existing components as
well as a drop-in for R 22 systems....”
GTZ Yearbook 1995 Technological/Cost Issues 132
8. The Development of ODP/GWP Free Appliances

in Europe Using Hydrocarbon Technology
Dr. Udo G. Wenning
Bosch-Siemens Hausgeräte GmbH
P.O. Box 1220, D-89537 Giengen/Germany
Part I
Hydrocarbons as PU Blowing Agents in Domestic Appliances
Part II
Domestic Refrigeration: A Retrospect After Conversion to Hydrocarbons
Introduction
In the mid eighties the depletion of the ozone layer found public interest,
especially when the Antarctic ozone hole was discovered and seemed to
become larger (and deeper) every year.
CFCs were soon recognised as being the main cause for that damaging
effect. Hundreds of more or less well-founded articles were written
illustrating the adverse results of CFC use. These publications had one
aspect in common: the example of a CFC use quoted was in most cases a
refrigerator with its insulating foam blown by CFC 11 and its refrigerant CFC
12. It could not be avoided that refrigerators were even called "ozone killers"
although the amount of CFCs going into this application was only about 2%
of the total consumption.
As the biggest producer of appliances in Germany, Bosch-Siemens,

therefore, took all efforts to reduce the use of CFCs in their products.
Annual consumption for the production of 1.5 million refrigerators/freezers in
1988 was 650 to of CFC 11 and 200 to of CFC 12, as compared to an
overall consumption of 54 000 to in Germany. A program was started to find
alternatives in order to meet the requirements of the Montreal Protocol. Part
I of this presentation describes the straightforward approach to replace CFC
11 in the polyurethane foam with pentane. The conversion of CFC 12 in the
refrigeration circuit, as presented in Part II, was a two-step process, starting
GTZ Yearbook 1995 Development in Europe 133
with R 134a. When it became clear that also in this case hydrocarbons
could be used successfully, the switch to isobutane was made within a few
months.
Part I
Hydrocarbons as PU Blowing Agents in Domestic Appliances
Summary
The necessity to replace CFCs in domestic appliances has led to the

development of polyurethane foams with H-CFCs (e.g. 141b), HFCs (e.g.
134a) and hydrocarbons (HCs) as blowing agents.
In Europe H-CFCs are under attack because of their ozone depletion
potential (ODP), whereas HFCs still have a certain global warming potential
(GWP). In order to avoid public discussions and intermediate solutions
there is a strong tendency to use HCs in the insulation of
refrigerators/freezers.
The slightly higher k-factor can be compensated (part II). The risks of
flammability associated with the use of HCs can be met by adequate safety
measures.
Introduction
The standard formulations of PU foams used in Europe contained about 13
% of CFC 11. In 1988 the German Appliance Industry (ZVEI) decided to
reduce the amount of CFC 11 by 50%. This was a voluntary effort to reduce
the environmental impact of refrigerators/freezers. The CFC 11
consumption per refrigerator is shown in fig. 1 (production of a leading
appliance manufacturer), demonstrating the effect of this step. The
corresponding PU systems with 6.5% CFC 11 have slightly increased k-
values (+5%). The overall energy consumption was kept nearly constant by
various modifications. Because of the Montreal Protocol and domestic
regulations the suppliers of PU chemicals were asked to develop foams
without CFC 11. At first the substitute HCFC 123 was evaluated. After the
toxicological studies showed some adverse effects formulations with HCFC
141 b were developed. Due to the high ODP of 141b (11-15% of CFC 11)
systems with gaseous blowing agents (HCFC 22 /142b or HFC 134a) were
offered. In the meantime a completely ODP-free system with
perfluoroalcanes (PFAs) was marketed. These systems, due to their
microcell structure, have excellent aging properties, but were discarded
because of the long atmospheric lifetime of the PFAs. It was well known [1],
[2], [3], that pentane could be used to produce rigid foams with low k-factor
and good aging properties, but the flammability, especially when using a
discontinuous foaming process, was thought to present an insurmountable

difficulty.
CFC Phase-out 1986 - 1994

g/unit
600
500
400
CFC 11
300
CFC 12
200
100
0
1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 cfconf 93/FIG1VERD.xlc
Fig. 1 Use of CFCs in refrigerators/freezers
The first experiences with continuous slabstock production, where explosive

mixtures can only occur in a limited space, were encouraging. Pentane
mixing units were developed, and the first integral foam systems were
applied in the automotive industry. At the end of 1992 there was a concept
for the safe application of pentane foam with discontinuous use. After
having solved all boundary conditions such as attack of liner material etc.
two major appliance manufacturers changed their production lines. At
present there are more than 4 million refrigerators/freezers safely foamed
with pentane. Most European appliance manufacturers have followed this
route before the end of 1994 (deadline of the German CFC phase-out
regulation).
Hydrocarbons as PU Blowing Agents
Compared to the excellent performance of CFC 11 as PU blowing agent all
substitutes have certain drawbacks. However, among the hydrocarbons the
pentane isomers meet most of the requirements for a blowing agent for rigid
polyurethane:
Requirements CFC 11 Pentane

- low ODP - +
- low GWP - +
- low thermal conductivity + (+)
- boiling point <50°C/122°F + +
- low diffusion in PU-matrix + +
- low toxicity + +
- availability, price + +
- solubility in polyols + +
- no chem. attack to plastics (+) (+)
- not flammable + -
requirements met + not met -
Table 1 Requirements and properties of PU blowing agents
Table 1 shows that the most severe drawbacks are flammability and higher
thermal conductivity.
The low vapour thermal conductivity favors cyclo-pentane, which is now

available at a reasonable price. Vapor pressure curves, however, show that
at application temperatures (-20....10°C/-4....50°F) the c-pentane pressure
is rather low (fig 2). The stability of a foam depends on cell pressure and
strength of the matrix. Using c-pentane either the cell gas pressure has to
be increased by another gaseous component (which raises thermal
conductivity) or the foam density has to be higher.
Property
Pentane has several isomers whose properties are listed in table 2.

Unit n-Pentane iso- c-Pentane CFC 11
Pentane
Molecular weight - 72 72 70 137
Density at kg/l 0.633 0.625 0.75 1.49
20°C/68°F
Boiling Point °C/°F 36/97 28/82 49/120 24/75
Vapour pressure at hPa 570 800 340 890
20°C/68°F
Vapour thermal W/(K 0.015 0.014 0.012 0.009
conductivity m)
Flash point °C/°F -50/-58 -57/-70 -31/-24 -
Explosive limits % v/v 1.3 ... 7.6 1.4 ... 7.8 1.5 ... 8.7 -
Autoignition °C/°F 285/545 420/788 380/716 -
temperature
Ignition Energy mWs 0.28 0.21 n.a. -
TLV ml/m³ 600 600 600 1000
ODP (CFC 11 = 1) - 0 0 0 1
GWP (CFC 11 = 1) - < 0.01 < 0.01 < 0.01 1
CAS Registry 109 - 66 - 78 - 78 - 4 287 - 92 - 75 - 69 -

Number 0 3 4
Table 2 Properties of pentane isomers/CFC 11

Vapour pressure of pentane isomers
800
700
600
500 Isopentane
hPa 400 n-Pentane
300 c-Pentane
200
100
( 1000 hPa = 14.5 lb/in² )
0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20
vapress2.xlc
Temperature (° C)
Fig. 2 Vapour pressure or pentane isomers
Machinery, safety considerations

Basically the same kind of equipment can be used as with CFC 11 foams. A
decision must be made on how to mix polyol with pentane.
Fig. 3 shows two different methods. The pentane may be stored outside the
factory building and the mixing is done in the foaming station. The pure
pentane is pumped through the workshop to the foaming stations. A more
favorable way is central mixing of the pentane and polyol near the pentane
tank and pumping the mixture to the foaming station. In this case the pure
pentane is handled in one place only. In the plant you have to deal with
pentane/polyol mixtures, which have higher flash points than pure pentane.
The evaporation rate of pentane out of the mixture is low, so in case of a
leak the danger of an ignition is reduced. Of course high temperatures and
electrical sparks have to be avoided.
Central mixing of course means that the pentane/polyol mixtures have to be

stable at all temperatures occuring over the year (no phase separation).
In table 3 the safety requirements when handling pentane and

pentane/polyol mixtures are listed. Basic philosophy is:
• - avoid ignition sources

• - avoid explosive atmospheres
Especially the low ignition energy of 0.2 mJoules should be mentioned. Any
highly charged plastic part may cause an ignition if the concentration of
pentane is between the lower and the upper explosion limit.
Performance of hydrocarbon blown foams

Roughly the thermal conductivities of CFC 11, c-pentane and n-pentane
foams are 19, 20, and 21 mW/(Km), respectively*). Aging the foam at
elevated temperatures (fig. 4) gives an indication that the diffusion effects
are still slower than with the CFC 11 foams. These results at present have
to be considered with care, as the relationship between forced aging and
the behavior of the foam at application temperatures is not yet well
established.
*)0.132, 0.139 and 0.146 BTU.inch/hr.ft².F
Other main properties, as demold time, flow properties, cell structure,

dimensional stability are comparable. Compression strength, because of the
lower vapour pressure, is lower. Intensified control of density therefore is
recommended.
Pentane tank Foaming workshop

MDI
Dispensing unit
Polyol Pentane
P/P-mixture
MDI
Central mixing station
Dispensing unit
Foaming workshop
Pentane tank Polyol MDI
Pentane Dispensing unit
Polyol MDI
Dispensing unit
Fig. 3 Central and localized mixing
-Prevent leaks: all installations should be as tight as possible, pipe

connections should be welded
- Avoid explosive mixtures by forced ventilation
- Control ventilation by flow failure detectors
- Control concentrations by pentane detectors: alarm and increase
of extract speed at 20% of LEL, shut down of electrical power
at 40% of LEL
- Enclose foam dispensing unit and jigs in a ventilated booth.
Monitors above and below each jig/high pressure pump
- Avoid ignition sources: static electricity, parts not grounded
- Prefer central mixing of polyol with pentane
- The mixed polyol tank requires: magnetic joint transmission,
nitrogen pressure, ultrasonic level control
- Flush the mould with nitrogen (big models) to bring oxygen
content below 10%
- During the expansion of the foam in the mould: clear the electrical
power
Table 3 Safety requirements when working with pentane

The foam formulations contain between 4% and 5% of c-pentane at the
mixing head. It may be shown that it is not reasonable to apply more than
about 4% because any additional c-pentane will condense in the cells, the
surplus only acting as blowing agent at the foaming temperatures but not
as insulating gas.
Material considerations
c-pentane at present is available in sufficient quantities and in different
purities (75% to 98% pure). Impurities are mainly n- and iso-pentane but
also 2,2-dimethylbutane. There is no considerable difference in thermal
conductivities between the different grades. The impurities, with their own
vapor pressure, tend to increase cell pressure replacing partly carbon
dioxide with worse insulating properties.
Other impurities should be specified: benzene (below 10 ppm), n-hexane

(below 50 ppm) and olefines ( below 150 ppm). As ventilated cabins are
recommended for the foam dispensing machine TLVs can be easily met.
Diffusion of pentane into the food compartment of a refrigerator is slow, as

indicated by the results of fig. 4. Even at 60°C/140°F after 2 weeks the
concentration inside is far below the lower explosive limit. At room

temperature the c-pentane concentration after 1 week is less than 10 % of
CFC 11 under the same conditions.
The liner material (HIPS) is not affected by stress cracking but blistering
occurs to a tolerable amount. Suppliers are trying to improve the resistance
of the material, at the same time hoping to find an antistatic to avoid
charging of the liner material.
By adding small amounts of PFAs to the PU formulation (about 1%) the

insulation efficiency is improved by about 5% [4], [5]. In the future it may be
possible to combine the low initial k-factor of CFC 11 foams with the
advantage of the better aging properties of microcell foams.
Literature:
[1] Hützen, R.: Private communication (August 1989)
[2] Heilig, G.: Pentan - eine FCKW-Alternative für Polyurethan-
Hartschaumstoffe; Kunststoffe 81 (1991), 7
[3] Matzke, G.: Rigid Polyurethane foam with hydrocarbons as the blowing
agent; Proceedings of the CFC and Halon Conference, Berlin 1992 (39)
[4] Volkert, O.: PUR Foams Prepared with Emulsified Perfluoralkanes as
Blowing Agents; SPI Polyurethanes World Congress, Nice 1991 (740)
[5] Focquet, K.: 3M materials give microcellular foams; Urethanes
Technology Oct/Nov 1992
Forced aging of polyurethane foam

Lambda [mW/m*K]
27
R 11 (6,5%)
26
n-Pentan (4,5%)
25
c-Pentan (4,6%)
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Days
Conditions: 60°C/140°F, no diffusion barrier, samples 1 inch thick
Fig. 4 Forced aging of PU foam

Part II
Domestic Refrigeration: A Retrospect After Conversion

to Hydrocarbons
Summary
Conversion of European refrigerators to hydrocarbon technology (using

pentane as blowing agent for the insulating foam, isobutane as refrigerant)
is well advanced, whereas other continents are in favour of other
approaches. CFCs in these areas, including the US and Japan, are
replaced by HCFCs (e.g. 141b) and HFCs (e.g. 134a), respectively. HCFCs
still have a certain ODP and GWP, HFCs are ODP free but have a high
GWP. From this environmental point of view HCs compare favourably as
they are ODP and nearly GWP free. Their critical property is flammability.
By applying a stringent risk management foaming with cyclopentane was
mastered first and introduced in almost all European companies. The
replacement of CFC 12 by isobutane (R 600a) was started reluctantly. Not
only the problems associated with safe handling of HCs in the production
but also the potential problems at the customer had to be considered and
anticipated. Industry began converting small refrigerators with minor
refrigerant charge ( 20 g of 600a). These appliances generally are equipped
with "hidden" evaporators, where no leak releasing HC into the food
compartment is expected. After additional risk assessments solutions where
found for the whole range of cooling appliances, including no-frost
fridge/freezer combinations and no-frost freezers. More than 90 % of the
German production now is converted to hydrocarbon technology.
Introduction: The Hydrocarbon Story
The revival of hydrocarbons as refrigerants in domestic refrigerators is an

interesting story. In the twenties of this century isobutane (among other
materials) was used for refrigerators. Propane was and is found in many
industrial applications. With the introduction of the CFCs in the 1930s,
hydrocarbons, SO2 and other refrigerants disappeared because the CFCs
apparently had all advantages on their side. Chronic environmental aspects
did not play a role in the argumentation: CFCs are chemically stable, have
good thermodynamic properties, their acute toxicity is low. In the appliance
industry world-wide CFC 12 was the most widely used refrigerant until
CFCs were found to be responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer. The
search for alternatives excluded flammable substances; HFC 134a was

chosen for its similar thermodynamic data, its lack of ozone depletion
potential and its non-toxicity. Work was concentrated to evaluate material
compatibility, especially to develop lubricants and production technology for
134a compressors.
In the early nineties much effort was taken to find zero ODP/GWP
alternatives for CFC 11, the blowing agent of the polyurethane insulating
foam. Besides HCFCs 123 and 141b, pentanes were successfully tested.
Consequently, after solving the safety problems associated with the
introduction of flammable blowing agents in the production, European
appliance manufacturers began offering refrigerators "CFC/HFC free in the
insulation". By the end of 1993 most of the German manufacturers had
converted to c-pentane insulation. These appliances contained R 134a in
the cooling circuit, thus were not GWP free.
In order to avoid this drawback a mixture of hydrocarbons was proposed in
1990 by the Hygiene Institute in Dortmund, Germany. The first prototypes
had poor efficiency [1], furthermore severe doubts about safety problems
had surfaced. The east German company Foron, assisted by Greenpeace,
launched the first refrigerator with a mixture if isobutane and propane [2].
Thorough work on safety issues, chemistry and thermodynamics of the
circuit and compressor finally were successful. Within a very short time
German manufacturers were able to replace 134a with isobutane. At
present, hydrocarbon technology is a sound alternative to 134a/141b
technology, which is still widespread in the US, Japan and other countries.
Properties of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are simple chemical compounds consisting of hydrogen and

carbon. In terms of chemical stability the paraffines (saturated
hydrocarbons) are outstanding. Provided the boiling point is in the suitable
range, paraffines meet all requirements (Table 1).
CFC 12 HFC 134a HC
- Chem. stability + + +
- Good thermodynamic properties + + +
- Solubility in oils + o +
- Low ODP - + +
- Low GWP - - +
- Availability, price - o +
- Low toxicity + + +
- Desirable: not flammable + +
Table 1 Requirements and Properties of Refrigerants
In Table 2 some thermodynamic properties are listed. Olefines (unsaturated

hydrocarbons) and other HCs are omitted because their stability is lower.
The cyclic paraffine cyclopropane is listed because its boiling point is similar
to CFC 12. It may be expected that cyclic paraffines have lower stability
than linear paraffines.
The table shows, in particular, that the pressure of isobutane is lower than
the CFC 12 pressure, and that the swept volume of the compressor must be
about 90% higher (last row).
Difluordichlor- Tetrafluor- Isobutane Butane Propane Cyclopropane

methane ethane
R 12 R 134a R 600a R 600 R 290 R C270
Boiling point - 29,8 - 26,2 - 11,7 - 0,5 - 42,1 - 32,8

(1.013 hPa)
[°C]
Vapour pressure 13,7 14,8 7,8 5,6 19,1
at 55 °C
[bar]
Vapour pressure 1,24 1,06 0,59 0,36 2,0

at -25 °C
[bar]
Pressure ratio 11,1 13,9 13,2 15,6 9,55
Enthalpy ( ∆ h) 120,9 153 269,6 306 290

[kJ / kg]
Refrigerant flow 495 540 988 1412 346

(Q = 100 Watt)
[l / h]
Table 2 Thermodynamic Properties of Selected Refrigerants
Availability, specifications
Hydrocarbons like propane and isobutane are contained in natural crude oil
.They can be produced by separation and purification. The world-wide
demand of isobutane would be less than 3000 tonnes/year for this
application, which is only a small fraction of the available amount. Isobutane
may be produced in all different grades of purity. Tests have shown that
impurities of up to 3% of other stable hydrocarbons will not influence the
performance. Care has to be taken, that unstable and toxic impurities are
strictly limited (Table 3).
Refrigerant Isobutane Blowing agent c - Pentane

"Pure" "Technical" "Pure" "Technical"
quality quality quality quality
i - Butane 99,5 % > 97 % c - Pentane > 98 % > 75 %
n - Butane - 1-2% n - Pentane - 10 %
Dimethylether - <2% 2,2 Dimethyl- 1% 15 %

butane
Impurities: Benzene <1 ppm

n - Hexane < 10 ppm
Olefines < 100 ppm
Sulphur <2 ppm
Table 3 Specifications of Hydrocarbons
Compressors, lubricants, desiccants
Since it was difficult to estimate the demand for hydrocarbon compressors,

it was not easy to convince the manufacturers to develop suitable
compressors. In principle the same motors can be used but the swept
volume has to be adapted (in the case of isobutane by nearly 90%). As
lubricant the same types of mineral oils as with CFC 12 can be utilised;
because of the excellent solubility it may be necessary to adapt the
viscosity.
The circuit must be kept dry although water sensitivity is less than with 134a
systems. Suitable desiccants are molecular sieves like XH 7 and XH 9.
Safety, risk management

Hydrocarbons in mixture with air may explode in a certain concentration
range (between lower explosion limit (LEL) and upper explosion limit (UEL),
which in the case of isobutane is 1,8 and 8,4 % by vol., respectively).
Necessary condition for an explosion is an ignition source which may be an
electric spark or a hot surface. Before introducing HCs in millions of cooling
appliances it is required that the products will not cause any damage
- in the production
- at the customer
- during service (and recycling)

On the basis of older work on R 152a new risk assessments were made
with the result that under certain conditions (Table 4) HCs can be handled
and used safely.
Safety provisions in the production

New tanks, pipes, filling stations, exhaust systems, monitors,
alarm systems required
Training program for maintenance and production staff
Equipment must be in accordance with local safety regulations
Safety of products
Risk assessment to define potential hazards
Classification of refrigerators (class A - D)
Redesign of products if necessary
Durability of products
Because of small charge size (20 - 50 g R 600a) extensive
leak control necessary:
Helium chamber testing, mass spectrometers
Special filling equipment because of low filling tolerance (1 - 2 g)
Table 4 Risk Management
The risk assessments showed in detail that

- the probability of an explosion is very low (coincidence of leak and
ignition)
- the explosion pressure is low and of short duration
- no immediate harm to people will occur
- no ignition of furniture or curtains
One reason for these favourable results is of course that the refrigerant
charge is low (about 40 % of R 134a) and some of the HC is dissolved in
the compressor oil.
Requirements for household appliances with flammable refrigerants were

proposed by an IEC working group. The most important conditions are listed
in Table 5.
Safety of household appliances, particular requirements

(European Standard EN 60335 - 2 - 24 (Draft))
Maximum mass of the refrigerant: 150 g
Marking: Symbol "Caution, risk of fire"
Warning: Information for handling, cleaning etc.
High pressure test: 3,5 times sat. vap. press. at 70 °C, high side comp. (38,1 bar)
(R 600a) 5 times sat. vap. press. at 20 °C, low side comp. (15,1 bar)
Hidden cooling system: Simulation of leakage (capillary joint),

measuring inside concentrations
Visible cooling system: Electrical components comply with EC 79 - 15
Temperatures on surfaces exposed to leakages: Ignition temp. minus 100 K
Protection against corrosion
Table 5 Requirements of EN 60335 - 2 - 24 (Draft)
Appliances are approved by the national authorities if they meet these

requirements.
No-frost refrigerators/freezers
The first appliances with HC refrigerant offered in the European market

were small 1-temperature-refrigerators. The principles to avoid adverse
effects caused by flammability since that time are the same:
- avoid coincidence of leak and ignition in a limited space.
1. If there is a "hidden" evaporator: switching elements in the food

compartment allowed
2. In case of a "visible" cooling system: place switching elements outside or
use explosion proof electrical components.
The next products were larger appliances with several temperatures. The
no-frost appliances were the last to be converted. Since in this case it is
unavoidable to have the evaporator inside the food compartment, all
electrical components (fans, heating elements) have to be explosion proof
or outside the compartment.
Most European no-frost refrigerators are hybrids in the sense that in the
refrigerator compartment there is no evaporator with forced convection but a
foamed - in or open evaporator. An example is shown in Fig. 1.
feature refrigerator
function
compartment
foamed - in
evaporator automatic defrost cycle
after each cooling period
light inside
evaporator with freezer

forced convection compartment
automatic defrost as
no switching elements, required (1 ... 7 days)
no light, special fans and
heating elements
Principle: 2 factors (HC concentration and ignition source) are needed for
an ignition. The concept avoids the coincidence of 2 factors.
Fig. 1 HCs in No-frost Appliances
Why switch to HC technology?
The only real alternative to HCs is R134a.

Table 6 shows a comparison of these technologies. In markets with sensible
environmental consciousness the zero GWP aspect is important (see also
[3] where an increase of decomposition products in the environment is
predicted). Certain technical aspects (energy saving potential, low noise,
chemical robustness) also are in favour of HCs. These properties, after the
problems of flammability have been solved, have convinced European
manufacturers to introduce HC technology. In the meantime more than 4
million cooling appliances have been produced CFC/HFC free.
R 134a R 600a * (isobutane)

high GWP GWP ~ 0
long atmospheric lifetime, short atmospheric lifetime
decomposition products unknown
special compressor oil needed mineral oil
oil is hygroscopic no water problems with mineral oils
134a: expensive chemical 600a: cheap HC
impurities may result in capillary no blocking observed
blocking purity of components !
not flammable investments for safety means
(flammability)
COP: equal CFC 12 COP: slightly higher (+ 5 %)
lower pressure lower noise
* blend R 290 / 600a avoids compressor modifications, but results in poor efficiency
Table 6 Comparison 134a / HC - Technology
Literature:
[1] J. Jürgensen: DIE KÄLTE und Klimatechnik 2/1993 (84)
[2] A. Mayer: DIE KÄLTE und Klimatechnik 2/1993 (66)
[3] S. Schwarzbach: Nature vol. 376/1995 (297)

GTZ Yearbook 1995 Natural Fluids 151
9. Natural Fluid Based Refrigeration

Trends in Natural Fluid Based Technologies for Domestic and Other
Refrigeration Applications
Stephan Sicars
FKW
Forschungszentrum für Kältetechnik und Wärmepumpen GmbH
Research Centre for Refrigeration Technology and Heat Pumps Ltd.
Dorotheenstr. 1
D-30419 Hannover-Herrenhausen
Tel.: ++49-511 / 27135-79 Fax: -81
E-Mail: 100761,2166@COMPUSERVE.COM
CONTENT
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1
1.1 Significance of Refrigeration Technology 1
1.2 Background: Montreal Protocol 1
1.3 Technology Options Foam Blowing 2
1.4 Technology Options Refrigerants 3
1.5 Conclusions 5
2 REFRIGERATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE MONTREAL
PROTOCOL 6
2.1 The Importance of Refrigeration Technology 6
2.2 Environmental Issues 7
2.3 Policy Issues Related to the Multilateral Fund 9
2.4 CFC Consumption - The Market for Natural Refrigerants 11
3 A SHORT TECHNICAL BRIEF ON REFRIGERATION PROCESSES 12
3.1 Technical Principles 12
3.2 Vapour Compression Cycle 13
3.3 Insulation and Blowing Agents 14
4 WHY HAVE HYDROCARBONS SUCCEEDED IN DOMESTIC
REFRIGERATION FIRST? 15
4.1 Product Design and Market Demands 15
4.2 How Does a Refrigerator Work 16
4.3 Natural and Synthetic Refrigerant Fluid Options 17
4.3.1 Energy Efficiency 18
4.3.2 Environmental Issues 19

4.3.3 Lubricants 21
4.3.4 Material Compatibility 22
4.3.5 Quantity of Charge 23
4.3.6 Availability 23
4.3.7 Servicing 25
4.3.8 Drop In and Retrofitting 26
4.3.9 Recovery 26
4.3.10 Comparative Cost Assessment 27
4.3.11 Safety 28
4.3.12 Noise 32
4.4 Conclusions 32
5 INSULATION, FOAMING 34
5.1 Technical Background 34
5.2 Safety Measures Regarding Use of Cyclopentane
as Blowing Agent 35
6 NATURAL FLUIDS IN OTHER REFRIGERATION APPLICATIONS 38
6.1 Hydrocarbons 38
6.1.1 Scope of Isobutane (HC-600a) 38
6.1.2 .Scope of Propane (HC-290) 38
6.2 Ammonia 44
7 MARKET SHARE 48
7.1 Market Development 48
7.2 Refrigerators 50
7.3 Foam 52
7.4 Other 53
7.4.1 Hydrocarbons 53
7.4.2 Ammonia 54
8 CONCLUSIONS 55
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.1 Significance of Refrigeration Technology
Refrigeration technology plays an important role for safety and health of the
world’s population. Especially the preservation of food is vital for the stability
and economic growth over the world. Refrigeration technology provides the
technical aids to chill food following the cold chain without any interruption,
starting at production, coming to transportation, finally storage, sale and
storage at the consumer’s home in a refrigerator.
Other applications include air-conditioning systems improving the comfort of
human beings in private as well as for commercial purposes and also
industrial processes where refrigeration is used e.g. for recovery of
expensive or environmentally unacceptable substances.
One of the most important applications is the refrigerator. All over the world
approximately 60 million refrigerators are produced every year. In the
developed countries nearly every household possesses one or more
refrigerator and in developing countries refrigerators can be found in more
and more households, the refrigerator market developing with significant
speed, the growth estimated to be 50% per year in some countries. In
domestic refrigeration, CFCs have been used for two different purposes: As
blowing agent for the insulation foam of the cooling chamber and as fluid in
the refrigeration circuit.
In the early thirties, all over the world the use of CFC-12 as the refrigerant
for household applications started. Later, CFC-11 was introduced as a
blowing agent for the PUR foam, which is not only meant to insulate
refrigerators against heat coming from the environment but is also used to
increase refrigerator housing stability. This kind of foam was premise for
today’s housing design without extra frame. While CFC-12 shows very
favourable characteristics in a refrigeration cycle, CFC-11 is a highly
efficient, long lasting blowing agent providing durable insulation for the
refrigerator.
1.2 Background: Montreal Protocol

When it turned out that these chlorine containing refrigerants deplete the
ozone layer in the upper atmosphere, their use and production was
regulated by the 1987 Montreal Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer and the following amendments. CFCs have to be phased out in
industrialised countries (Article 2 countries) by 1996.
In 1990 the Conference of the Parties has established the Multilateral Fund
as a financial mechanism for the implementation of the Montreal Protocol in
developing countries (Article 5 countries). In article 5 countries (developing
countries with a consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances [ODS] less
than 0.3 kg per capita in the agreed baseline years) incremental costs of
conversion from ODS use to ozone friendly technologies are eligible for
funding. Article 5 countries are allowed to continue the use of ODS for a 10
year grace period up to 2006/2010.
The Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund has established
guidelines stating how the phase out of ODS shall take place in a cost
effective manner. Cost effectiveness is one of the guiding principles of the
Multilateral Fund. The unit abatement costs of phasing out ODS are
different from sector to sector due to the inherent nature of the technology
used (sectors with ODS use are aerosols, solvents, fire extinguishing, foams
and refrigeration/air conditioning). The Executive Committee in its 16th
meeting has adopted different cost effectiveness thresholds up to which
phase out costs on a project basis would be eligible.
This paper highlights the refrigeration technology options based on natural
fluids newly redeveloped in Europe as compared to technology options
based on continued use of still halogenated substitutes for the CFCs. One
of the questions to be addressed on the political level is whether the
framework for assessment of effectiveness is adequate. Conversion from
CFCs to other halogenated fluids accepts the risk of loading the atmosphere
with potentially hazardous chemicals. Natural fluids, however, do internalise
this risk as technically manageable safety costs. On this background we
ask: Are the one time incremental investment costs at manufacturer level an
appropriate framework to assess cost effectiveness? Should not the total
costs (including operation costs of production equipment over its lifetime)
and the yet unknown repair costs of the potential environmental damage of
the continued use of halogenated chemicals be taken as a basis of
comparative cost assessment? Under a total system approach natural fluids
show a better cost effectiveness for domestic refrigeration appliances. Cost
effective natural fluid based technical options in other refrigeration
applications and in air conditioning have been launched on the market or
will become available in the near future.
1.3 Technology Options Foam Blowing

When evaluating alternative technologies, three main criteria have to be
taken into account: The quality of services rendered, the total costs and the
environmental impact of the recommended substitutes. The partly
halogenated HCFCs (such as HCFC-141b) still contain chlorine and thus
retain a reduced Ozone Depleting Potential (ODP). The chorine-free HFC
substitutes have zero ODP and thus are ozone friendly. Since HFCs are
halogenated with fluorine, they do considerably contribute to the global
warming when released to the environment. HFCs increase the fluorine load
of the global atmosphere, which at consumption levels of several 100’000 t
per annum may in the long run lead to adverse environmental impacts not
yet known today. Fluorine is the element in the periodic system of elements
which forms the strongest acid.
As a replacement for CFC-11 used as a blowing agent for the foam, four
less ozone depleting substances are widely considered: HFC-134a, HCFC-
141b, a mixture of HCFC-22/HCFC-142b, and cyclopentane.
HFC-134a has zero ozone depletion potential. Using HFC-134a, the
existing machinery and equipment for foaming has to be replaced by
systems for high working pressures. Only three manufacturers of household
refrigerators are known to have used HFC-134a. Later on those switched to
cyclopentane.
The HCFC-141b is a low pressure blowing agent, similar to CFC-11. Some
incompatibilities are reported with materials used for the refrigerator inner
liner. In those cases, a conversion to another liner material and, therefore,
significant expenditures are likely. Due to its ozone depletion potential
HCFC-141b is also controlled by means of the Montreal Protocol and
therefore is an interim solution for industrialised countries, which is likely to
affect the supply of this substance also for developing countries. Depending
on the future use of HCFC-141b and due to the significantly shorter
conversion period in industrialised countries, the production of HCFC-141b
may cease significantly before the phase-out date for industrialised
countries in the year 2030. A second conversion from this replacement to a
third product is likely. Such a product has not been identified so far.
A third alternative is the mixture of HCFC-22/HCFC-142b. It has a lower
ODP than HCFC-141b but a significantly higher GWP. In test rigs it was
found that the use in production is as good as the use of HFC-134a. Up to
now no production plant is known which uses the mixture as blowing agent
in insulation.
The fourth alternative for CFC-11 is natural cyclopentane as blowing agent.
Cyclopentane is a hydrocarbon derivative, produced in petrochemical
plants; it offers favourable characteristics and low costs, and experience
concerning its use as a blowing agent for refrigerators is available. The
insulation values using cyclopentane are still slightly below those using
HCFC-141b, while new formulations approach CFC-11 values on a lifetime
basis. Cyclopentane requires additional safety measures due to its
flammability during storage before production and in the production process
of the foam. These safety measures are derived from other productions
using hydrocarbons, having well solved safety problems for generations.
Different numbers are given for the cost increase of a conversion to
cyclopentane versus a conversion to HCFC-141b: The former is between
10% and 90% more expensive than the latter. During transport, use and
disposal of the refrigerator over its lifetime, foams blown with cyclopentane
are as safe as the present technology using CFC-11. There are no

restrictions concerning the use of cyclopentane expected in the future.
1.4 Technology Options Refrigerants

For phasing out the refrigerant CFC-12 through a non ozone-depleting
substitute, two mainstreams of technical options are competing on the world
market today: As from the viewpoint of technologies available in the early
1990ies, the use of HFC-134a seemed to be the only commercially
available substitute to CFC-12. HFC-134a is a synthetic non-flammable fluid
adopted today by all US and Japan based manufacturers. Also all European
manufacturers (except FORON), who had to convert their complete product
line to a non-CFC solution and had to be in the market by mid 1994, had
converted to HFC-134a first. It was the 1992 collaboration between
Greenpeace and the East German hydrocarbon-pioneering company
FORON (who struggled for survival after the German reunification) who
gave re-birth to the use of natural hydrocarbon fluids as refrigerants. A
combination of incidents made, from a viewpoint of technology history, a
miracle happening in Europe: Greenpeace maintained a straight forward
course to make clear that towards the turn of the century, time had passed
where compromising on environment had been acceptable when launching
new technologies. This course succeeded to convince all German
manufacturers by the end of 1993 to go for a second conversion to
hydrocarbon fluid. This process was mainly market driven. The hydrocarbon
pioneers among the giants, Liebherr and Bosch-Siemens, who were first in
launching cyclopentane as blowing agent and isobutane as refrigerant, had
performed their R&D homework by end of 1992 as well. The
environmentally driven market forces in favour of hydrocarbons were
supported by the manufacturers experience that they found HFC-134a
difficult to handle. The commercial impacts of these difficulties would in the
mid to long run - especially under conditions prevailing in article 5 countries
- by far outpace the additional safety investments needed for hydrocarbons.
The HFC-134a has a vapour pressure curve very similar to CFC-12,
therefore only minor adjustments have to be made to the refrigeration cycle
and to the compressor design. Seemingly a very suitable replacement for
CFC-12, this new substance required the development of a totally new,
synthetic refrigeration oil for compressor lubrication. Such a refrigeration oil,
partly circulating with the refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle, is extremely
important for the lifetime of the system. All the oils which have been
developed for HFC-134a are expensive, not compatible with oils used in the
past and highly hygroscopic. At the same time, the presence of water in the
oil causes chemical breakdowns and formation of new substances in the
cycle, leading to a significantly shorter lifetime of the compressor. Thus, the

presence of liquid or vapour phase water has to be avoided in the cycle.
Therefore, this problem requires a reorganisation of the production to
ensure that the compressors containing the oil as well as all other parts are
highly dried after manufacturing and sealed airtight, to be opened only
directly before assembly. In addition, exceptional attention must be paid to
the cleanliness of parts, because HFC-134a is very sensitive to
contamination by chemicals from production or service. The fulfilment of
most of these requirements can not be monitored by some kind of test
equipment, but depends highly on the responsible acting of each worker in
the assembly line over the whole production time. If a minor mistake has
been made and, in the worst case, has been repeated, it may not be noticed
before the customers lay claim to the warranty a few month later.
These difficulties increase further in case of service. If the refrigeration cycle
is opened for service purposes, the oil has to be removed completely, which
is virtually not possible without removing the compressor from the cycle and
opening it - a time consuming operation. In addition, the service has to use
a high-quality low vacuum pump with a special vacuum pump oil, and the oil
for the refrigerator has to be taken from containers sealed by the oil
manufacturer until service. Oil containers opened hours before use, e.g. at
the prior service location, can not be used because of their humidity content.
Considering the fact that this will require significant investments into a new
vacuum pump, longer working time for the service and higher costs for and
different handling of the refrigeration oil, as well as the fact that the
customer has no means to control the quality of work, it has to be expected
that the service will often not be carried out in the quality required. This may
very well lead to compressor replacements as often as every year to keep
the refrigerator running. The cost for each household as well as for the
economy are very significant, at the same time decreasing the trust of the
consumer into the manufacturer whose product he originally purchased.
The other alternative for the replacement of CFC-12 is the use of
hydrocarbons or their mixtures. Discussed are the use of isobutane (HC-
600a) and a mixture of propane (HC-290) and isobutane. These substances
are, similar to cyclopentane, hydrocarbon derivatives produced in
petrochemical plants. Also similar to cyclopentane, they are flammable. The
technology with hydrocarbons as refrigerants is compatible to the CFC-12
technology. This means that hydrocarbons are miscible with the same oils
and can be sealed with the same elastomers. The hydrocarbons and their
oils are not hygroscopic and not especially sensitive to contamination due to
chemicals from production or service.
The mixture of HC-290 and HC-600a can very well be used with already
developed and produced CFC-12 compressors achieving a similar cooling
capacity. Using this mixture a cost consuming conversion of compressor

factories is not mandatory. Nevertheless, producing high efficiency
compressors for pure HC-600a will bring energy saving and noise reduction.
With HC-600a as a single refrigerant and cyclopentane as blowing agent
the energy consumption of domestic refrigerators was found to be 5% to
15% lower than former appliances with CFC-12 and also lower than with
HFC-134a. Especially at higher ambient temperatures HC-600a is much
more efficient than HFC-134a.
The flammability of hydrocarbons has to be considered for production and
lifetime of the appliance. For production, some measures similar to those
used with cyclopentane are taken. To ensure safe operation of the
refrigerator, some minor design changes have to be incorporated in the
design: Mainly, electrical components should be placed outside the
compartment or sealed by simple measures. Performing these changes, the
major European manufacturers have converted their product lines
completely. Also No-Frost appliances are available at competitive prices,
have been built according to the latest DIN safety standards and are
authorised by the safety authorities, such as the German TÜV.
Refrigerators with hydrocarbons have been produced in Europe, sold and
used since 1993. Up to now approximately 6 million units are in use without
any reported accident. In Germany about 80-90% of the current refrigerator
production is converted to hydrocarbon technology.
Today hydrocarbons are already used in the domestic refrigerators and
increasingly in the field of commercial refrigeration, air conditioners and for
heat pumps. It is expected that the field of applications will expand in the
near future, especially for small compact units.
1.5 Conclusions
Today, hydrocarbons are a commercially competitive replacement for
CFCs. By mid of 1996 Europe will have largely converted to hydrocarbons
and towards the turn of the century other continents may have followed. The
World Bank has reassessed its position on hydrocarbons within 12 months
time. Conversions to hydrocarbons are supported by the Multilateral Fund
by granting a 35% safety cost discount while calculating the cost
effectiveness on a conversion project basis. This 35% investment cost
bonus for safety does, however, as compared to a conversion to synthetic
fluids, in most cases not compensate for the additional incremental
investment costs a manufacturer incurs when converting his production
lines and product designs to hydrocarbons. This conversion benefits
increasingly from the expertise already gained. The manufacturers
converting to hydrocarbons choose a long lasting alternative to CFCs, being
independent of high-tech manufactured or patented substances such as
HFCs and the synthetic oils. These substances would have to be purchased
in industrialised countries while hydrocarbon fluids can be gained from
refineries located on all continents.
Concerning customer safety, one has to consider that with the present use
of significant amounts of different fuels in the average kitchen, an additional
30g to 60g of hydrocarbons, less than the hydrocarbons contained in the
average cigarette lighter refill cartridge, does not increase the safety
hazards significantly. In addition, a refrigerator has a very high inherent
safety, being leak tight and pressure proof, at the same time containing no
ignition sources if adapted to hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbon technology also helps to develop markets: For example, the
European Union, forming a free trade union with more than 300 million
customers with a high demand for refrigeration technology, is completely
accessible, while at the same time in several parts of Europe a boycott of
HFC-technology is held by the customers. In addition, the technology is
commercially competitive, reliable and easily accessible (non-patented).
Finally, the use of isobutane reduces the noise level of the product and
improves the energy efficiency as compared to CFC-12 or HFC-134a as
working fluid.
2 REFRIGERATION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE MONTREAL

PROTOCOL
2.1 The Importance of Refrigeration Technology

Refrigeration technology plays an important role for the safety and health of
mankind. The main fields of application of this technology are
• conservation and preservation of food,
• improvement of comfort,
• industrial processes.
Especially the preservation of food is vital to the stability and economic

growth over the world. Conservation of food is achieved by slowing down
biochemical processes to reduce the propagation of bacteria. This easily
can be done by cooling or freezing and without extra preservatives.
Refrigeration technology gives the technical aids to cool food following the
cold chain starting at production, coming to transportation, finally storage,
sale and storage at the consumer’s home in a refrigerator without any
interruption.
Other uses include air-conditioning systems and industrial processes. Air-

conditioning systems help to improve the comfort of human beings for
private as well as for commercial purposes, to keep the health and increase
the efficiency. In the economically important field of industrial processes,
refrigeration is used e.g. for crystallisation of salt, ice production or recovery
of expensive or environmentally depleting substances.
Refrigeration applications differ not only by means of use, but also by size
and typical user. Usually, the refrigeration applications are divided into the
following groups:
• Domestic Refrigeration:
Refrigerators (in this context ‘refrigerator’ will be used for both, refrigerators
and freezers) are the most widespread applications of refrigeration
technology in the world. Approximately 64 Mill. refrigerators are
manufactured world-wide each year. Hundreds of millions are being
used currently. The majority of these units employed the vapour
compression cycle with CFC-12. It is expected that the number of
refrigerators will increase dramatically in the next years in developing
countries. The cooling capacities vary up to some hundred Watt at
temperatures of around 4°C in the cooling chamber and -15°C to -18°C
in the freezer compartment.
• Commercial Refrigeration
encompasses equipment and systems with a wide variety of applications
in hotels, pubs, corner shops, supermarkets, hospitals and food industry.
The cooling capacity is ranging from fractions of 1 kW to many hundreds
of kWs at temperatures between +5°C and -40°C.
• Industrial Refrigeration
is used in chemical, petrochemical and pharmaceutical industry, oil and gas
industry, metallurgical industry, civil engineering and industry icemaking.
Mostly public access is prohibited, enabling often the use of potentially
hazardous but very efficient refrigerants (e.g. ammonia and
hydrocarbons) in huge quantities without significant additional safety
features. The cooling capacities vary from around 10 kW to more than 30
MW in big chemical plants. The majority of systems delivers 6°C cold
water, but temperatures down to -45°C and lower are also common.
• Cold storage and food processing

is one of the most important applications of modern refrigeration techniques.
Dairy products, fish, meat, fruit and vegetables are stored under chilled
conditions, frozen food in the temperature range -18 to -30°C. In
addition, there is a wide variety of applications in freezing, dairy and
brewing industry. The refrigeration capacities installed per plant are

similar to those in industrial refrigeration.
• Mobile air-conditioning systems

are installed in many cars, busses, trucks, railways and ships for comfort
purposes. Capacities vary between 5 kW for cars, around 20 to 35 kW
for buses and railway cars and some hundred kW for ships. System
temperatures are usually slightly above 0°C.
• Mobile refrigeration systems

are necessary to cool and chill products during transportation on ships,
railcars, containers and trucks to transfer the load without interruption of
the cold chain. Working temperatures are, similar to refrigerators, at 4°C
and -18°C.
• Unitary air conditioning systems and heat pumps:

These relatively small applications vary in capacity from around one kW to
around 100 kW. Their main purpose is to provide a comfortable climate
in private homes, shops and supermarkets as well as in several working
environments. Examples are compact and split room air conditioners,
providing air at approximately 5°C to 10°C.
• Water cooled air-conditioning systems

are usually installed in large buildings. The cooling unit is the so called
"water chiller", usually cooling cycling water from 12°C to 6°C. This water
is distributed in the building by means of a piping system and, using
small heat exchangers distributed in the building, provides cool air.
Water is also used as a heat sink. Large systems are usually built as
centrifugal chillers with capacities between around 500 kW and 4 MW,
smaller chillers use positive displacement compressors.
• Heat pumps for heating only purposes

are used in residential, commercial, institutional and industrial buildings.
In industry, heat pumps are used to heat process streams for heat
recovery and hot water production. In addition, heat pumps are
integrated in systems used e.g. for drying or evaporative concentration.
They usually transfer heat from between 5°C and 30°C to temperatures
between 40°C and 80°C.
2.2 Environmental Issues

In 1974, Rowland and Molina showed the effect of destruction of the ozone
layer in the upper atmosphere caused by chlorine and bromine atoms. The
contribution of chlorine or bromine containing fluids used as refrigerants or

foam blowing agents on this is significant due to their high stability, which is
very desirable for technical purposes but negative for environmental
reasons. Therefore, the use and production of CFCs is regulated by the
Montreal Protocol and the following assessments and also more stringent
by several national regulations. To compare the ozone depletion of fluids
the Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) has been introduced, where the ODP
of CFC-11 has been defined to 1.
While the production of CFCs has nearly stopped in industrialised countries,
a second environmental effect of refrigerants and refrigeration technology
increasingly gets into public awareness: the global warming. The global
warming effect caused by refrigeration systems is due to the emission of
refrigerant itself (direct effect) as well as by the emission of carbon dioxide
generated by the combustion of fossil fuels in order to supply the necessary
energy (indirect effect). Carbon dioxide as well as hydrocarbons and their
halogenated derivatives (CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs) are greenhouse gases.
While CO2 has by definition a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1 and
hydrocarbons a GWP of about 3, the values for halogenated hydrocarbons
are often some thousand times higher. Table 1 provides an overview about
the GWPs of selected refrigerants, given for time horizons of 20, 100 and
500 years.
Table 1: ODP and GWP of selected refrigerants
ODP GWP20a GWP100a GWP500a

CO2 0 1 1 1
CFC-11 1 4400 3400 1400
CFC-12 1 7000 7100 4100
HCFC-22 0,055 4300 1700 520
HFC-134a 0 3300 1300 420
HCFC-141b 0,11 1800 630 200
HCFC-142b 0,065 4200 2000 630
R717 0 0 0 0
HC-600a 0 3 3 3
HC-290 0 3 3 3
Cyclopentane 0 3 3 3
Therefore, when looking for an alternative refrigeration technology it must

be taken into account that even the artificial, chorine-free halogenated
substitutes for CFC-refrigerants contribute considerably to the global
warming if emitted to the environment as shown in figure 1.
Figure 1: Contribution of CFCs to world-wide global warming
Carbon Dioxide 55%
CFCs 24%
Nitrouse Oxide 6%
Methane 15%
The direct and indirect effects of global warming are combined in the Total
Equivalent Warming Impact (TEWI). In figure 2, the direct and indirect parts
of TEWI are shown for some applications.
30% 56% 44%

96% 4% 70%
Automotive Commercial
Refrigerator A/C
96% 4% 99% 1%
Indirect Part
Direct Part
Unitary A/C & HeatPumps Water Chiller
Figure 2: Direct and indirect part of TEWI, related to 100 years
As a result of the extended search for an environmentally benign

refrigeration technology, the natural refrigerants came into focus. When
considering new alternative working fluids, it should be recognised that
numerous cases are on record where new chemicals, believed to be a
benefit to man, have turned out to be environmentally unacceptable, some
times even in quite small quantities (DDT, PCB, etc.).
2.3 Policy Issues Related to the Multilateral Fund

When it turned out that chlorine containing refrigerants deplete the ozone
layer in the upper atmosphere, their use and production was regulated by
the 1987 Montreal Protocol for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the
following amendments. CFCs have to be phased out in industrialised
countries (Article 2 countries) by 1996.
In 1990 the Conference of the Parties established the Multilateral Fund as a

financial mechanism for the implementation of the Montreal Protocol in
developing countries (Article 5 countries). In Article 5 countries incremental
costs of conversion from ODS use to ozone friendly technologies are
eligible for funding. Article 5 countries are allowed to continue the use of
ODS for a 10 year grace period up to 2006/2010.
The Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund has established

guidelines stating how the phase out of ODS shall take place in a cost
effective manner. Cost effectiveness is one of the guiding principles of the
Multilateral Fund. The unit abatement costs of phasing out ODS due to the
inherent nature of the technology are different from sector to sector (sectors
with ODS use are aerosols, solvents, fire extinguishing, foams and
refrigeration/air conditioning). The Executive Committee in its 16th meeting
has adopted different cost effectiveness thresholds up to which phase out
costs on a project basis would be eligible.
This paper highlights the refrigeration technology options based on natural
fluids newly redeveloped in Europe as compared to technology options
based on continued use of still halogenated substitutes to the CFCs. One of
the questions to be addressed at the political level is whether the framework
for assessment of effectiveness is adequate. Conversion from CFCs to
other halogenated fluids accepts the risk of loading the atmosphere with
potentially hazardous chemicals. Natural fluids, however, do internalise this
risk as technically manageable safety costs. On this background we ask:
Are the one time incremental investment costs at manufacturer level an
appropriate framework to assess cost effectiveness? Should not the total
costs (including operation costs of production equipment over its lifetime)
and the yet unknown repair costs of the potential environmental damage
caused by the continued use of halogenated chemicals be taken as a basis
of comparative cost assessment? Under a total system approach natural
fluids show a better cost effectiveness for domestic refrigeration appliances.
Cost effective natural fluid based technical options in other refrigeration
appliances and in air conditioning have been launched on the market or will
become available in the near future.
When evaluating alternative technologies, three main criteria are to be taken

into account: The quality of services rendered, the total costs and the
environmental impact of the recommended substitutes. The partly
halogenated HCFCs (such as HCFC-141b) still contain chlorine and thus
retain a reduced Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP). The chorine-free HFC
substitutes have zero ODP and thus are ozone friendly. Since HFCs are
halogenated with fluorine, they do considerably contribute to the global
warming when released to the environment. HFC increase the fluorine load
on the global atmosphere, which at consumption levels of several 100’000 t
per annum may in the long run lead to adverse environmental impacts not
yet known today. Fluorine is the element in the periodic system of elements
which forms the strongest acid.
In the 16th meeting of the Executive Committee the cost effectiveness

threshold had been set slightly above 13 US$/kg of abated ODS. This limit
is the border up to which funding of incremental costs of conversion projects
by domestic refrigerator manufacturers from article 5 countries are
considered eligible Abated ODS in a refrigerator manufacturer’s conversion
project are the CFC-12 consumed for charging the refrigerant circuit and the
CFC-11 used in the foam blowing. Safety costs were initially exempted from
having to be considered in the cost effectiveness calculation. In its 17th
meeting, the Executive Committee has decided to limit eligible safety cost
discounts for hydrocarbon projects to 35% of the capital conversion costs.
The pace at which the Executive Committee adjusts its policies does
unfortunately - from the viewpoint of the authors - often neither allow to do
justice to the spirit of the Protocol nor to sound technical justification of the
implications of policy decisions taken.
To illustrate the influence of present Multilateral Fund's policies on the

choice of technology options we give an example: If a manufacturer in an
article 5 country has invested in the CFC-11 equipment a few years back
(and thus e.g. has already a high pressure foaming machine, but jigs for
door and cabinet foaming of its own make) the large portion of his capital
conversion costs are safety costs. The limitation in eligible safety costs to
35% does then deprive a manufacturer of getting basically eligible
incremental costs financed if he wants to convert to cyclopentane as
blowing agent. The limitation in available funding may therefore suggest to
the manufacturer to rather convert to HCFC-141b and not to cyclopentane.
However, if an HCFC-141b based conversion project displays a superior
cost effectiveness as compared to a conversion to the natural fluid
cyclopentane, this cost advantage does reflect only a very short sighted
reality. It neglects two aspects: First: Newly introduced use of HCFCs
implies adding to ozone depletion at reduced rates but in often growing
markets (Southeast Asia, Latin America). Second, it neglects that there will
be costs of a second conversion in the future - in a growing market at higher
total investment costs. This brief example shall illustrate our viewpoint that
cost effectiveness should - if used as a tool to prioritise projects for funding -
be calculated on the basis of a broader and more comprehensive policy
framework. Such a broader framework would do justice to the issues
addressed, if based on an analysis of the total production cost during a
given lifetime of a new investment (including the optional second conversion
if a second conversion is likely to have to take place for environmental
reasons). Externalised possible environmental costs resulting from ozone
depletion or global warming potential would have to be taken into
consideration as well.
2.4 CFC Consumption - The Market for Natural Refrigerants
In the past, mainly CFC-12, CFC-502 and HCFC-22 were used for small
and medium sized refrigeration applications. The world-wide refrigerant
consumption is given in figure 3. In most of these applications natural
refrigerants are applicable.
Figure 3: World wide refrigerant consumption
Mobile A/C 31%
Domestic Ref. 2%
Unitary HP 28% Chiller 3%
Industry 4%
Transport 5%
Cold Storage 11%

Commercial 17%
3 A SHORT TECHNICAL BRIEF ON REFRIGERATION PROCESSES
3.1 Technical Principles

Refrigeration processes can be divided into open type systems, cycle
processes and other processes (such as thermomagnetic and
thermoelectric refrigeration).
During substance consuming processes e.g. solid CO2 or liquid water is

evaporated absorbing heat from the system to be cooled. It is characteristic
for those processes that the working fluid is afterwards in a final state which
does not allow its reuse.
From the economical point of view cycle processes are of more interest.
Here the working fluid is used cycling continuously in a hermetic circuit.
There are three important types of cycle processes:
• Vapour compression cycles,

• Vapour absorption cycles and
• Gas cycles (such as Stirling and air cycles).
The majority of all existing appliances are systems with a vapour

compression cycle where the thermodynamic state of the working fluid is
varied during the cycle process. The refrigerants used so far in vapour
compression cycles were mainly CFC-12, CFC-502 and HCFC-22, the
former two to be replaced in developing countries until 2006, while the latter
will be phased out completely in developed countries until 2030.
Besides the use of absorption cycles, which is meaningful mainly if high
temperature waste heat is available, natural replacements for CFC and
HCFC fluids will come out of a group of five fluids: Hydrocarbons, such as
isobutane and propane, ammonia, water and carbon dioxide, all of those
used in vapour compression cycles, as well as non-condensable gases,
such as air and helium in gas cycles. Of those, only hydrocarbons and
ammonia will be discussed in some detail. The reason is that the technology
necessary to use carbon dioxide, water and non-condensables as working
fluids is presently only in an early stage of development. Due to the different
working pressures and different thermodynamic properties of these three
fluids compared to the refrigerants used so far, significant development
work still has to be performed.
Presently, the optimum principles for components for these three

refrigerants are still discussed, and no production know how and cost
indices are available other than the knowledge that totally redesigned
production plants would be necessary. Such, being technologies where a

significant market availability cannot be foreseen, these fluids can also not
be proposed to be used in developed nor in developing countries in the near
future.
From the evaluations already performed, the likely areas of use for those
three refrigerants have been identified: Carbon dioxide might be used for
automotive air conditioning and heat pumps, water seems to be a suitable
refrigerant for large water chillers, air is interesting for small transport
cooling while air and helium seem suitable for low temperature applications.
Only the use of water promises a high energy efficiency; while carbon
dioxide, air and helium as working fluids require a high technical effort and,
therefore, high costs to achieve performance even close to nearly all of
present equipment using CFCs.
Nevertheless, one natural technology presently available offers similar,

often higher performance than achieved with today’s systems. This
technology is the safe use of hydrocarbons or ammonia, respectively, for
refrigerators, small commercial and air conditioning equipment, industrial
uses and large air-conditioning systems.
Finally, some industrialised countries propagate the use of HFCs, such as

HFC-134a as substitutes for the CFCs and HFCs. Advantages and
disadvantages of those expensive fluids manufactured mainly in
industrialised countries in comparison to natural fluids are discussed here.
3.2 Vapour Compression Cycle

In a vapour compression cycle a working fluid circulates in a hermetic circuit
to generate cold. Figure 4 presents a schematic of a circuit, which
principally consists of a compressor, a condenser, an expansion device and
an evaporator connected by piping.
Heat
Condenser
Power
Expansion
Device Compressor
Evaporator
Heat
Figure 4: Scheme of vapour compression cycle
Coming from the evaporator at low pressure and low temperature the
refrigerant vapour enters the compressor where it is elevated to the high
discharge pressure. It enters the condenser as a superheated gas. From
the condenser heat is emitted to the ambient so that the refrigerant gas is
first cooled down and then condensed at constant pressure and high
temperature. From the condenser the refrigerant passes the expansion
device while it reduces its pressure. Now the refrigerant enters the
evaporator at low pressure and low temperature. During heat absorption
from a system the refrigerant evaporates and finally enters the compressor
to restart the cycle.
Considering working fluids for vapour compression cycles, thermophysical,

chemical, physiological, ecological and economical requirements have to be
satisfied: e.g.
• suitable thermodynamic data, in particular temperature-pressure
relation, influencing system size, cost and performance strongly,
• suitable transport properties, such as viscosity and high heat
conductivity, influencing system performance,
• definite miscibility with oil,
• high chemical stability,
• compatibility with existing material, lubricants and food,
• no toxicity, high perceptibility, no flammability,
• high energy efficiency, optimum volumetric capacity,

• high availability, low costs,
• environmental benign behaviour in short and long terms (GWP, ODP,
TEWI).
Especially the natural refrigerants ammonia, isobutane and propane do

match these requirements very well, except for the flammability of ammonia
and hydrocarbons and the toxicity of ammonia. But these disadvantages
can be controlled by relatively simple technical measures. On the other
hand also HFCs match several of the requirements mentioned above.
However, shortcomings of the HFCs are especially their refrigeration oils
with a low chemical stability and their missing compatibility with the oils
presently used.
3.3 Insulation and Blowing Agents

To reduce the energy consumption of the entire refrigeration system, an
efficient insulation of the cooled system is desired to minimise the heat
transfer through the system’s border.
Different kinds of insulating material were developed. Mainly rigid

polyurethane foams (PUR) are used because of their advantageous
material properties and price. Best insulation can be achieved by using
vacuum panels. Those are presently under development but do not promise
to be cost effective in the near future, as a simple production technology still
will have to be established.
It is necessary to module the foam blowing agents which simultaneously

serve as an insulating gas. The blowing agents have to remain in the
bubbles forming the foam to provide constant insulation quality over the
lifetime of the foam.
Considering blowing agents for insulation, also thermophysical, chemical,

physiological, ecological and economical requirements have to be satisfied,
e.g.
• low heat conductivity, compatibility with existing production equipment

• high chemical stability, should remain in the cells of the foam, no or
negligible negative chemical reaction with material, lubricants and goods
to be insulated, no toxicity, high perceptibility, no flammability
• high availability, low costs
• environmentally benign behaviour in short and long terms (GWP, ODP,

TEWI).
Among the natural fluids cyclopentane has proved to be the optimal blowing
agent. The main drawbacks of cyclopentane are its flammability and in
some cases the incompatibility with existing foaming equipment. However,
shortcomings of possible alternatives, such as HCFC-141b, CFC-134a or
the mixture HCFC-22/HCFC-142b are mainly their high values of ODP and
GWP.
4 WHY HAVE HYDROCARBONS SUCCEEDED IN DOMESTIC

REFRIGERATION FIRST?
4.1 Product Design and Market Demands

Household refrigerators and freezers are some of the most important
applications in our lifes. Historically they have been the last link of the entire
cold chain for food in the industrialised countries. In those countries, almost
every household possesses a refrigerator. Over the last decades, the
production increased dramatically in developing countries from a low level
with the goal of providing also one refrigerator for each household.
At present, world-wide approximately 60 million refrigerators are produced

each year and some hundred millions are in use. It is expected that in
developing countries the number of refrigerators will substantially increase
in the next year, according to estimates around 15% per year, because of
the growing demand of the population.
Since the early thirties, the CFC-12 has world-wide been used as the
refrigerant for household applications. Later, the CFC-11 was introduced as
a blowing agent for the PUR foam, which is not only meant to insulate
refrigerators against heat intrusion from the environment but also to stabilise
the refrigerators body. While CFC-12 shows very favourable characteristics
in a refrigeration cycle, CFC-11 is a highly efficient, long lasting blowing
agent providing durable insulation for the refrigerator. In developing
countries, for production of a typical refrigerator with 165 litres internal
volume approximately 140g CFC-12 and 600g CFC-11 are used. The use of
both substances is internationally controlled and restricted by the Montreal
Protocol, forcing a complete phase-out world-wide until 2006.
From the view of the customer, a refrigerator model utilising a new

refrigerant and a new blowing agent has to be capable to work with a
performance at least similar to existing CFC-containing models. From the

view of the producer, the production costs for a new model should remain
similar or lower compared to former models, while the conversion costs
should be minimised.
Different problems posed by finding suitable substitutes for the refrigerant

CFC-12 have demonstrated that the technology of a refrigerator is complex
enough to cause severe difficulties when trying to switch from one
refrigerant to another.
Customers willing to purchase a refrigerator focus their interest on the

following characteristics:
• maximum of inner volume for storage,
• minimum cost, meaning minimum investment costs and, to a lower
extent, minimum of energy consumption,
• optimum of comfort (handling, low noise),
• reliability and
• lifetime without extra service.
Due to these desired characteristics as well as the requirements concerning

the internal temperature and humidity conditions at given environmental
conditions, different types of household refrigerator and freezer designs
were developed:
• single door refrigerators, with and without freezing compartment,
• side-by-side combinations of refrigerator and freezer ,
• top-mount combination,
• upright freezer,
• chest freezer,
• undercounter refrigerator.
All types are available in different sizes; in addition, the different models
vary in insulation, internal space distribution, additional features and
colours. In terms of the refrigerant circuit, different types are distinguished:
• Single temperature refrigerators (a typical appliance in developing
countries has often 165 litres volume), internal temperature about 4°C.
• Refrigerators with two or more temperatures, also called refrigerator-
freezers. Those are available with one (standard) or two independent
refrigeration cycles. Usually, the food is stored at least at two
temperature levels: In the classical compartment at 5°C, containing
typically dairy, cheese and meat, and in the frozen food compartments
with a typical temperature of -6°C (*),-12°C (**) or -18°C (***).
• No-frost refrigerators/freezers
These refrigerators are the most costly types, with automatic defrost
cycle after some cooling periods in the cooling compartment and
automatic defrost as required (1 to 7 days) in the freezing compartment.
The defrosting is achieved by electrically driven heaters. These very
convenient types of refrigerators are very common in the United States,
but have an increased energy consumption of 10 to 30% compared to
standard models. Those types are equipped with an electrically driven
fan inside the cooling compartment.
4.2 How Does a Refrigerator Work

Nearly all refrigerators currently available world-wide are using a vapour
compression cycle to extract heat from the refrigerator’s compartment. As
an example, the refrigeration cycle in a one temperature refrigerator with
freezing compartment is explained. In figure 5 a typical refrigerator with a
compartment of 165 litres, a size widely used in developing countries, is
shown.
The working fluid, e.g. CFC-12, HFC-134a or isobutane, circulates in an

hermetic circuit to achieve the desired cooling effect. It consists of a
classical compartment and a second, significantly smaller compartment for
freezing. The main components of the circuit are compressor, condenser,
capillary tube as an expansion device and evaporator.
The evaporator is shaped and placed to form the freezing compartment.

Coming from the evaporator the refrigerant vapour enters the compressor at
point 1. The compressor increases the pressure of the refrigerant by
applying mechanical energy, which in turn is supplied by an electric motor.
Usually, a compressor of the hermetic type consists of a compressor part to
increase the vapour pressure, the electrical motor and a gas-tight housing
enclosing both. Such a compressor is usually mounted on the ground level
in the back of the refrigerator. When the refrigerant leaves the compressor,
it enters the condenser mounted on the rear wall of the refrigerator. From
the condenser heat is emitted to the ambient, allowing the refrigerant to
condense, i.e. changing from vapour to liquid phase while emitting heat.
Condenser
evaporator
Compressor
Condeser with motor
Capillary
tube
Cappillary tube
Compressor
Compres-
with
sor with
Evaporator
motor
Figure 5: Schematic of single door refrigerator
After the condenser the liquid refrigerant passes the capillary tube and
reaches the evaporator, which is installed inside the refrigerator cabinet as
mentioned above. The pressure decreases in the capillary tube causes the
refrigerant to evaporate at a low temperature. Absorbing heat, the
refrigerant evaporates and the cabinet is cooled. Due to the arrangement of
the evaporator the temperature in the top mounted cabinet formed by this
evaporator is much lower than in the rest of the inner volume.
4.3 Natural and Synthetic Refrigerant Fluid Options

A variety of fluids were investigated as potential working fluids for the
vapour compression cycle in refrigerators. Only a few turned out to be
generally suitable, because they satisfy the thermophysical, chemical,
ecological and economical requirements. Hydrocarbons and their
halogenated derivatives, such as CFCs and HFCs were found to have
excellent thermodynamic properties which are advantageous in vapour
compression cycles. The refrigerants CFC-12, HFC-134a and HC-600a
have turned out to be especially suited for domestic refrigeration
applications due to their thermodynamic characteristics, especially their high
COPs and their refrigeration capacity per compressor swept volume. Using
these refrigerants leads to economically sized high performance
compressors and refrigerators.
The pure fluid HC-600a has a vapour pressure curve significantly different
from those of CFC-12, therefore requiring a compressor with a new
combination of the actual compression part and the electrical motor. If the
costs for such a conversion do not seem to be suitable, it is also possible to
use a mixture of HC-600a and HC-290 as replacement. The specific
advantage of an HC-290/HC-600a-mixture is that its vapour pressure curve
can be adapted to the needs of the application, i.e. matching the vapour
pressure curve of CFC-12. Thus, it is possible to use such a mixture in a
CFC-12 cycle without modification of the swept volume of the compressor.
This will simplify the task of converting the world-wide production of
approximately 80 million compressors for household appliances to a new
refrigerant. The pioneer of modern household refrigeration systems with
hydrocarbons as refrigerant, the German manufacturer FORON, first
converted the production towards a mixture before later switching to pure
HC-600a.
In this chapter, a comparison of several aspects of these working fluids is

shown.
4.3.1 Energy Efficiency

The energy efficiency of refrigerators is a very important issue for
developing countries. In Germany, the lifetime costs of energy supply for
energy saving models are nearly equal to their initial investment costs, while
standard models without any special energy saving features consume
nearly double the energy in their lifetime compared to the energy efficient
models.
In developing countries, additional concerns limit the energy consumption of

refrigerators. The availability of electric energy is limited due to the high
costs for the appropriate infrastructure. Power consumption is often limited
by the transferable current.
A theoretic comparison of the refrigerants CFC-12, HFC-134a, HC-600a,

HC-290 and of a mixture of HC-600a and HC-290 was carried out. As
mixture composition, a ratio of 43% HC-600a and 57% HC-290 was
selected due to the commercial availability of such a mixture. The
comparison was carried out for an evaporation temperature of -30°C, a
compressor suction temperature of +25°C and a condensation temperature
of +40°C. A internal heat exchanger as well as a constant isentropic
efficiency was assumed. These are common refrigerator design values.
Figure 6 shows the comparison of the necessary swept volume of the
refrigerator’s compressor, while figure 7 shows the COP calculated.
99, 3
100
80
60
40
20,8
11,1
20
% 0
R 134a KR 290/R 600a R 600a
-20
-40 R 290
Figure 6: Change in necessary compressor swept volume for

different refrigerants compared to CFC-12 (calculated)
R 290 -4.5%
R 134 a -1.7%
R 290/ R 600a -1.7%
R 600 a +2.9%
Figure 7: Change in COP for different refrigerants compared to CFC-

12 (calculated)
Experiments were performed to verify the theoretically predicted efficiency

advantages of HC-600a. It turned out that the very first measurements
carried out with HC-600a showed poor performance results, while later
measurements delivered better results. This is due to the optimisation
process mainly of the compressor, while the other parts basically remained
unchanged compared to CFC-12. A very similar effect was also observed
some years earlier introducing HFC-134a, before the optimisation for this
refrigerant was performed.
The latest test results show a better performance for HC-600a compared to
CFC-12 and CFC-134a, as shown in figure 8. These results were achieved
with refrigerators adapted in 12 month to the refrigerant HC-600a, while the
comparison results with CFC-12 were achieved after decades of
optimisation.
Also due to positive performance test results, different refrigerator

manufacturers independently decided to produce refrigerators,
refrigerator/freezers and no-frost appliances using HC-600a as refrigerant.
Among those are all leading manufacturers in Europe.
4.3.2 Environmental Issues

Each kind of anthropogenic activity has more or less influence on the
environment. Comparing different refrigeration technologies, their effect on
the environment during the production of the appliance and of all its parts,
transportation, distribution, use and disposal has to be considered. At
present no complete environmental balance exists. In general it is assumed
that, apart from energy efficiency, production and disposal of blowing agent,
refrigerant and refrigeration oil, the environmental effect of refrigerators with
vapour compression systems does not vary between different refrigerants.
Therefore, only the aspects of the influence of the refrigerant on the
environment will be discussed.
Table 1 shows that hydrocarbons and HFC-134a have no ozone depletion

potential (ODP), contrary to the alternative blowing agent HCFC-141b with a
relative high ODP of 0.10. Comparing the Global Warming Potential, a
significant difference can be stated: The hydrocarbons have a negligible
GWP of 3 while HFC-134a has a GWP of 1200 and HCFC-141b of 610 for
a time horizon of 100 years. But the GWP affects the environment only if the
fluid is emitted to the atmosphere. If the refrigeration cycle is kept closed,
the charge is only once emitted to the atmosphere during the average
lifetime of about 15 years. In case of leakages and, especially, servicing, the
complete charge is lost each time and the total amount of refrigerant
emissions of a refrigerator during lifetime increases significantly.
Figure 8: Measured COP relative to CFC-12 for different refrigerants
10 8.5
7.3
8
% 0
-2
-4 -3.8
R 290 R290/R600a R 600a
As shown in figure 9, the indirect contribution to global warming due to

energy consumption and CO2 emission of energy plants is of much higher
importance than the direct global warming by the refrigerant. The direct
contribution to global warming is about 36% of the total contribution of
refrigerators if CFC-12 is used as refrigerant. The main part of global
warming is caused by the energy consumption. An increase in energy
efficiency of domestic refrigerators is the focus point to reduce the
environmental effect of domestic appliances if ozone depleting substances
have been phased out.
A further risk potential in the increasing use of artificial substances like

HFCs is the still unknown impact of their dissociation products. As an
example, trifluoroacid (TFA) is formed by the decomposition products of
HFC-134a, the possible environmental risks of this acid are at present not
totally known.
Indirect part Direct part

Refrigerant: CFC 12
Foam Blowing Agent: CFC 11
36%
64%
4%
Refrigerant: HFC-134a
Foam Blowing Agent: HCFC 141b
64%
Refrigerant: HC-600a
Foam Blowing Agent: C-Pentane 64%
Figure 9: Direct and indirect contribution to TEWI
4.3.3 Lubricants
The basic role of the lubricant in a refrigeration system is to lubricate the
sliding parts of the compressor. Inside the refrigeration cycle the effect of
the oil is most unfavourable regarding the heat transfer. Due to design
necessities of the compressor some lubricant is leaving the compressor,
entering the rest of the refrigeration circuit. In order to minimise the negative
effects on heat transfer and to ensure the oil return to the compressor the oil
should be sufficiently miscible with the refrigerant.
State of the art is the use of fully miscible mineral oils with CFC-12. In
contrast HFC-134a is not miscible with these mineral oils. Therefore
synthetic ester-based oils and polyalkyleneglycol-based oils were
developed. In domestic refrigeration systems mainly ester-based oils are
used with HFC-134a, which are significantly more expensive than mineral
oils while being very sensitive to humidity. From the vapour phase water
content of the ambient air the oil extracts water if not stored properly. Oil,
water and HFC-134a may form acids in the refrigeration cycle, which can
cause insufficient lubrication and thus damage the compressor. In those
cases, the exchange of the compressor, the most expensive part of the
refrigerator system, is necessary. This problem gains importance in hot and
humid climates.
If the oil is exposed to the atmosphere for more than very few minutes, the
humidity content might already be higher than the limit of 200 ppm.
Therefore, this problem requires a reorganisation of the production to
ensure that the compressors containing the oil as well as all other parts are
highly dried after manufacturing and sealed air tight, to be opened only
directly before assembly. In addition, a very high vacuum has to be applied
to the cycle before the refrigerant is charged to remove humidity still
resident in the cycle. The fulfilment of most of these requirements can not
be monitored by some kind of test equipment, but depends highly on the
responsible acting of each worker in the assembly line over the whole
production time. If a minor mistake has been made and, in the worst case,
has been repeated, it is not noticed before the customers lay claim to the
warranty a few month later.
What sounds like a very simple engineering problem is a disadvantage

which causes tremendous difficulties. The refrigeration oil is delivered with a
humidity content of approximately 50 ppm, significant negative effects to the
cycle can be observed from 200 ppm onwards. Some fast calculations show
how small this amount actually is: The remaining 150 ppm are, for an
average refrigerator with an oil content of 300g, 45 mg of water. This
amount can be extracted from less than 3 litres of air at 25°C; at higher
temperatures, this value decreases to less than 1 litre of air.
On the other hand, the hydrocarbons isobutane, propane and their mixtures
are miscible with the same mineral oil used with CFC-12. Further suitable
lubricants with hydrocarbons are polyolester oils and polyalphaolefin oils.

Also ester oils can be used for hydrocarbons.
4.3.4 Material Compatibility

In refrigeration circuits a variety of different materials is used like metals
(e.g. steel, brass, copper), sealing material and desiccants. Table 2 gives an
overview about the compatibility of CFC-12, HFC-134a and hydrocarbons.
In general it can be stated that all the material in use with CFC-12 can be
used also with hydrocarbons.
Table 2: Material compatibility
Nomenclature Use HC-290 HC-600a CFC-12 HFC-134a
acc.to ISO1629
Steel construction, ++ ++ ++ ++
piping
Brass construction, ++ ++ ++ ++
piping
Copper construction, ++ ++ ++ ++
piping
Aluminium construction, ++ ++ ++ ++
piping
Molecular Sieve Desiccant ++ ++ ++ ++
Silicagel Desiccant ++ ++ ++ ++
CR Elastomer + + 0 0
FPM Elastomer + + 0 --
PTFE Elastomer + + + +
Polyamide Elastomer + + +
NBR Elastomer ++ ++ + +
HFC-134a is very sensitive to contaminations by several chemicals. During

the introduction of HFC-134a in European refrigeration industry several
related problems occurred. Mainly the problems were caused by remaining
chemicals from the production process of the various system components,
e.g. remaining paraffin oils were dissolved by HFC-134a and deposited in
the capillary tube. The results are inefficient working conditions of the
system or a total breakdown.
To avoid problems caused by contaminations a careful examination of the

entire production process is necessary. The conversion to HFC-134a
requires many changes in the manufacturing process of the refrigerator and
its components and special knowledge in servicing.
Some metals, especially alloys with zinc or solders with zinc show increased
corrosion with ester based oils and HFC-134a. No problems of this kind are
known for the use of hydrocarbons as refrigerant. Here, the same standard
of production precision and cleanliness as achieved with CFC-12 seems to
be sufficient.
As a result of the fact that HC-600a and HC-290 are fully compatible with all
materials traditionally used in refrigerator/freezers, unmodified CFC-12
refrigerators can be used with a mixture of propane and isobutane,
achieving the same cooling capacity.
4.3.5 Quantity of Charge

The quantify of charge is of interest for safety, costs and influence on the
environment.
The amount of refrigerant in a refrigeration system depends on size,

technology and type of refrigerant. Due to the low density of hydrocarbons,
being only around 40% of CFCs’ density, the charge with HC-600a or
mixtures of HC-290 and HC-600a will be about 60% less compared to CFC-
12, while HC-134a would be about 10% less than CFC-12. An overview
about typical charges is given in table 3.
Table 3: 1991 Estimates of average size of refrigerator and

average charge
area/country average size/ litres average chargeCFC-12 /g

Western Europe 200 140
Eastern Europe 180 200
North America 440 180
Japan 300 160
India 165 140
Brazil 175 180
4.3.6 Availability
4.3.6.1 Refrigerant
General
While CFC-12 has to be phased out in accordance to the Montreal Protocol,
the availability of HFC-134a and the hydrocarbons HC-290 and HC-600a
will be given in general.
The process of production of the artificial HFC-134a is patented by the

chemical industry of industrialised countries. Therefore, developing
countries depend on foreign chemical industry to obtain licences. It is likely
that the users of HFCs in developing countries will depend on import
completely, while the market will be ruled by a very few major suppliers.
Isobutane, propane and also cyclopentane can be separated from natural

crude oil and are not patent pending. It is expected that the world-wide
demand of isobutane will be less than 3000 tons/year for
refrigerator/freezers. For the petrochemical industry no major effort is
necessary to be able to deliver these amounts.
Purity
While the standards producing the artificial CFC and HCFC are set to high
purities, this is less usual for hydrocarbons because of the necessary
fractional distillation processes. Therefore, a brief reflection on the reasons
for high purities is necessary:
A high purity of a refrigerant serves to achieve two aims: On the one hand,
reliable thermodynamic behaviour has to be achieved by minimising the
amount of components which cause deviations of the fluids properties. On
the other hand impurities which lead to chemical reactions, refrigerant or
refrigeration oil breakdowns or to the forming of acids have to be avoided.
The CFCs, HCFCs and HFCs are often produced in a way that more and
more hydrogen atoms of the original hydrocarbon molecule are replaced,
first by chlorine, then this, if necessary, is replaced by fluorine. The
difference in thermodynamic properties between the fluids produced in each
step of replacement are significant. Would these components remain in the
refrigerant produced, a derivation of thermophysical properties would take
place. At the same time, chlorine and fluorine tend to form acids with severe
effects to system lifetime, causing the need to avoid the presence of those
pure substances in the refrigerant. Finally, the material compatibility of the
different derivatives differs significantly, requiring a very pure refrigerant to
avoid incompatibility reactions in the cycle. This leads to high requirements

concerning the purity of refrigerants.
So far, no standards have been published concerning the required purity of

hydrocarbons, but from a technical standpoint, the purity can be defined
significantly different from today’s requirements. Crude oil contains several
components, e.g. phosphor and sulphur compounds, which have to be
removed from the refrigerant. But other hydrocarbons with similar
thermodynamic behaviour do not influence the thermodynamic behaviour or
the compatibility in any technically significant way. A major supplier of
hydrocarbons in Germany, delivering isobutane for refrigerator production,
guarantees the specifications given in table 4. The refrigerator
manufacturers are satisfied with these specifications.
Table 4: Purity of isobutane as specified by a supplier.
Refrigerant Substance Value Unit

HC-290 Propane >97 %
Propane Isobutane, Butane <3 %
HC-600a Isobutane >97 %
Isobutane Butane <3 %
Both Olefins <0.01 %
Oxygen cont. comp. max. 50 mg/kg
Propane/ Aromatics <1 mg/kg
Isobutane N-hexane <50 mg/kg
Evaporation residue <10 mg/kg
Water max. 10 mg/kg
Sulphur compounds <0.05 mg/kg
4.3.6.2 Lubricants
Hydrocarbons can be used with the same oils as CFC-12. These oils have
been available on the market for years. Additionally, ester based oils can be
used.
Mineral or alkylbenzene oils cannot be used with HFC-134a due to their
insufficient miscibility with the refrigerant. Polyalkylene gylcols and ester
based oils are necessary for the use of HFC-134a in refrigeration circuits.
Of these, the ester oils have better overall characteristics. Similar to
refrigerant manufacturers, also the amount of ester oil manufacturers is
likely to decrease due to the fact that the base products of the oils are
limited. The availability of oil is presently not given in developing countries,
while the costs are three to five times higher than the costs of mineral oils.
4.3.6.3 Compressor
From the point of efficiency, costs and material compatibility the compressor
is the most sensitive component in the refrigerant circuit. World-wide the
production capacity of refrigeration compressors is about 81 million units per
year. For refrigerator manufacturers not producing their own compressors, a
close co-operation with a compressor manufacturer will be essential to
ensure availability of sufficient numbers. This is the case for HFC-134a
refrigerators as well as for hydrocarbon refrigerators. So far, the market
demand of HC-600a compressors to be used in refrigerators, requiring large
swept volumes and small electric motors, could nearly completely be
covered by independent manufacturers. In case of the use of a refrigerant
mixture of HC-290 and HC-600a, the same compressors as used with CFC-
12 could be applied.
4.3.6.4 Components
The material of heat exchangers, capillary tube and piping does not require
any modifications. Nevertheless, the length of the capillary tube as well as
the amount of refrigerant charged has to be adapted to the refrigerant.
The refrigeration cycle should in general be kept as dry as possible for all
refrigerants. With hydrocarbons as well as HFC-134a the same desiccant
materials as with CFC-12 can be used, but the size of the molecular
structure should be smaller than with CFC-12.
4.3.7 Servicing
The production standards of refrigerators are high, causing an average
lifetime of a refrigerator or freezer of 15 years in industrialised countries,
normally without any servicing.
In Europe, North America and Japan a refrigerator is simply scrapped if it is
not working properly. Only in some cases a new appliance is repaired by
well-trained technicians, educated by the refrigerator manufacturer and
equipped with the appropriate tools.
In developing countries refrigerators are repaired several times over their
lifetime for cost reasons. High voltage fluctuations, high load conditions due
to high ambient temperatures and frequent door openings, a less
sophisticated quality control in production and an often not quality oriented
service are reasons for the frequent failures.
Repairs are carried out mainly by the so called unorganised or informal

sector. This sector is usually formed by small enterprises, being
independent from the refrigerator industry. This sector has to work very cost
effective, while at the same time the customer has no real means of quality
control. The cost effectiveness also causes a limited time spent for training
and knowledge gathering, and little inclination to purchase appropriate tools

for specialised repairs if the tools already possessed still seem to work
properly.
The refrigerator industry will have to convert to a new working fluid. If the
manufacturers decide to convert to HFC-134a, it has to be seen that it will
be virtually impossible to train the whole unorganised sector in the handling
of sensitive refrigerants, lubricants and equipment with respect to
cleanliness, humidity, etc., as well as convince them to purchase new
vacuum pumps, handle the oil properly and so on. This difficulty is
increased because of the fact that the negative effects of improper handling
are only evident after months.
On the other hand, the service technicians are already trained in the use of
flammable gases due to the use of their soldering torches. And mistakes
they make will affect them directly, causing appropriate handling of
hydrocarbon refrigerants.
Since HFC-134a is much more sensitive to improper handling than the

hydrocarbons, and according to the hazard humidity constitutes for the
lubricants required for HFC-134a, isobutane or mixtures of propane and
isobutane are better choices for refrigerators in developing countries.
4.3.8 Drop In and Retrofitting

The availability of CFC-12 for repairs of appliances using this refrigerant will
decrease in the near future, causing the need for another refrigerant to be
charged.
In general, a refrigeration system is designed for a specific refrigerant. This

relates to the dimensions of compressor and heat exchangers as well as the
used material. If the original refrigerant is exchanged and replaced by
another one, it can be distinguished between drop in and retrofit. Drop in
means the exchange of the refrigerant without any and retrofitting with some
system modifications.
HFC-134a cannot be used for drop in nor for retrofitting of CFC-12

refrigerators because of the immiscibility with the lubricant, insensibility to
contaminants, missing material compatibility, etc. A charging with HFC-134a
will very likely result in severe damage of the refrigerator, unless an
extensive flushing procedure including removal and opening of the
compressor has been carried out. The use of pure isobutane, which is in
general possible, causes a decrease of refrigeration capacity of around
50%. In most cases, this cannot be accepted.
In contrast, the hydrocarbon mixture of HC-290 and HC-600a can be used

as a replacement of CFC-12. Such a mixture can have nearly the same
refrigerating capacity as CFC-12. Thus, a similar refrigerating capacity with
a slightly lower efficiency due to less favourable heat transfer values can be
achieved.
Nevertheless, in the case of hydrocarbons used as drop in refrigerant for

CFC-12, the safety requirements of the refrigerator have to be considered.
Most likely, some components have to be replaced or cut off to ensure that
no ignition sources are present in the refrigerator compartment. In several
cases, the use of hydrocarbons as drop in replacements in old refrigerators
will not be appropriate due to safety considerations.
4.3.9 Recovery
At the end of a refrigerator lifetime or in case of servicing the working fluids
refrigerant and oil should be recovered from the appliance, if the emission to
the environment would have negative influences.
Recovery and reclamation of CFC-12 and HFC-134a are expensive since

special equipment is necessary. Due to high contamination of the fluid the
process of reclamation is too complicated and expensive so that the working
fluids often will be destroyed or, even worse, emitted to the atmosphere.
Hydrocarbons easily can be emitted to the environment or burned together

with the mineral oil without any environmental effect.
4.3.10 Comparative Cost Assessment

Beside the ecological issues the costs factors of the appliances are of major
interest, especially for developing countries. The costs for a refrigerator
result mainly from costs for the investments in a new production equipment
and also the production itself including material costs, costs for assembling
and also for distribution.
In the following brief description it is differentiated between costs for

production equipment and costs for the components of the refrigerator.
4.3.10.1 Production equipment

Presently, no precise index on the costs for conversion to HFC-134a on the
one hand or to hydrocarbons on the other hand can be given. The main
costs for the conversion to hydrocarbons are the safety costs, which in turn
depend highly on the local situation. Additional costs between 5% and 50%
of the conversion costs seem likely if only the refrigerator production is
concerned. On the other hand, there might be significant savings in
component production due to the low amount of changes necessary when
using HC-600a compared to CFC-12, while for the use of HFC-134a
significant changes are necessary in the production process to avoid
humidity and the presence of certain contaminating substances.
4.3.10.2 Costs of the units

For the refrigerator the costs of compressor, evaporator and electrical parts
are considered as well as the costs for refrigerant and oil. This section gives
a brief overview.
The prices for refrigerant vary according to type and country. Furthermore it
should be considered that the charge of hydrocarbons will be about 60-70%
less than CFC-12. With HFC-134a it would be about 10% less than CFC-12.
A further factor influencing the costs of a refrigerator is the refrigeration oil

used. Table 5 provides an overview about the costs for one refrigerant
charge of refrigerant and oil for a refrigerator.
Table 5: Costs of lubricant and refrigerant per refrigerator

lubricantUS$ refrigerantUS$
CFC-12 0.5 0.2
HFC-134a 1.5 0.6
HC-600a 0.5 0.2
In the following, the cost estimates for HC-600a appliances are cited in table
6 from a compressor manufacturer and in table 7 from a refrigerator
manufacturer.
A German manufacturer estimated that the increase of price for each

refrigerator will be about 5% to 8% when converting to HFC-134a as
refrigerant and foam blowing agent. This increase results from higher prices
for the refrigerant, the ester oil and the foam material.
Table 6: New refrigerants. Cost indexes (CFC-12 = 100)

CFC-12 HFC-134a HC-600a HC-290 / HC-
600a
Gas 100 600 70 70
Standard 100 110 108-115 102-104
compressor
Refrigeration 100 102 100 100
system
High efficiency 100 110 100 100
compressor
Table 7: HC-600a dependent possible extra cost per appliance
object change necessary est. cost in US$

handling added work 1-2
compressor total 0-8
stand. To high eff. 3-5
bigger range 3-5
electrical parts total 0 - 20
evaporator total 0-8
added layer extd. 1-2
suction line safety <1-2
evaporator 3-8
4.3.11 Safety
Hydrocarbons like propane, isobutane and cyclopentane are flammable.
Therefore, the safety aspects of applications with hydrocarbons have to be
considered carefully. The main objection to the use of hydrocarbons as
refrigerants is the flammability of these fluids, whereas the alternative HFC-
134a is non-flammable. Nevertheless, HFC-134a can also form explosive
mixtures with air if the system pressure is higher than approximately 2 bar
(abs).
Safety concerning flammability aspects must be considered for the

hydrocarbons HC-600a, HC-290 and their mixture - as well as for
cyclopentane for insulation - during production, distribution, use, recovering
and recycling.
The safety principle for the use of hydrocarbons is very simple if one reflects
the basic idea: The coincidence of the necessary conditions for an accident
• a flammable mixture of air and working fluid and

• an ignition source
have to be avoided.
4.3.11.1 Safety in Production

Flammable fluids are handled in many production processes all over the
world. Since the refrigerator industry has not been using flammable fluids up
to now, there are objections. But for production it is, undertaking a
reasonable effort, possible to fit the appropriate safety installations, to adopt
the manufacturing process and to train the staff.
Safety measures in production are of high relevance. Due to the high

amounts of fluid and the big number of appliances the absolute risk of an
accident in production is much higher than that for a single consumer.
Of special importance for the safety are measures which prevent leakages
of hydrocarbons and as a result the formation of explosive mixtures. If
leakages can not be excluded, the forming of an explosive atmosphere has
to be prevented, e.g. by adequate ventilation. Additional measures have to
be performed to reduce ignition sources, e.g. measures to avoid static
electricity. Also pits and drains without lid or open connections to cellar
rooms must not be located in the storage areas.
Also every refrigerator has to be tested for leak tightness before and after
charging hydrocarbons. The first test, e.g. carried out by maintaining a
constant pressure over a certain time in the cycle, with a helium leak test or
with other methods, shows that the cycle is generally leak tight. The second
test is applied only to those locations at the cycle where any changes
(bending, soldering, filling) have taken place since the first test. The second
test can be carried out with standard leak detecting devices. The
combination of both tests is the best way to be sure that the refrigeration
cycle is hermetically closed. The filling apparatus is designed and controlled
in a way that emissions are prevented. The control ensures that the filling
process is only initiated if the vacuum in the cycle is constant over a certain
time. The filling head of the filling station can only be taken away from the
refrigerator after shutting the refrigerator’s service line.
Furthermore, it is recommended to fulfil the following requirements when

handling flammable gases:
1. Definition of appropriate safety areas. These have to be checked in

accordance with the actual safety regulations by local authorities.
2. In the safety area with the highest safety level, the following conditions
should be maintained:
• venting of the air, monitoring of hydrocarbon content
• elimination of possible ignition sources
• only use of components approved for explosion proof safety areas
• training of the staff in handling of flammable gases
3. The gas indication system should indicate a possible leakage in two
steps:
• indication at 15% of lower explosion level (warning)
• fault indication at 35% of lower explosion level (danger)
4. Installation of a ventilation in the charging area underneath the conveyor

belt, since hydrocarbons are heavier than air. This ventilation system
should also contain hydrocarbon content monitoring devices.
4.3.11.2 Safety in Product Design

There is no official standard for safety testing of appliances containing
flammable refrigerants. A draft of the European standard "EN 60335-2-24 :
Safety of household appliances, particular requirements" is likely to be
accepted in general with some modifications. The most important conditions
of this standard are:
• Maximum mass of the refrigerant: 150g

• Marking: Symbol "Caution risk of fire"
• Warning: Information for handling, cleaning, etc.
• High pressure test (HC-600a):
♦ 3.5 times saturation vapour pressure at 70°C, high side compressor
(31.8 bar)
♦ 5 times saturation vapour pressure at 20°C, low side compressor
(15.1 bar)
• Maximum temperatures on surfaces which might be exposed to
leakages: Ignition temperature minus 100K
• Protection against corrosion
To avoid the coincidence of an explosive mixture and an ignition source the

following measures are effective:
• A hidden evaporator should be implemented so that the forming of an
explosive atmosphere inside the refrigerator cabinet is prevented and the
switching elements are allowed in the food compartment.
• If the evaporator is visible the electrical switching elements have to be
placed outside the food compartment or IP54 sealed electrical devices
have to be implemented (cased lamp). Additionally a label has to give
warning information that the evaporator must not be damaged in any
way. A smooth surface can give some protection against damage.
• For no-frost appliances explosion proof electrical devices are
recommended.
To avoid leakages the components of the product have to be designed,

arranged and fastened in a way that there is maximum protection against
leakages due to mechanical (or chemical) damages:
• The condenser should be protected against damage e.g. by a casing

which does not hinder the convection of air.
• Use of brazed joints instead of flares

• Use of suitable flexible hose instead of copper tubes for pressure switch
connection
• Ensuring vibration transmission from the compressor is as low as
possible by flexible mounting of the compressor and by using flexible
pipework connections where appropriate
• Use of good quality valves and always fitting valve caps
• Packing of the refrigerator should be good enough to prevent damage.
• The charge of refrigerant has to be minimised. In case of a leakage a
very low charge cannot form an explosive mixture, and if it does
nevertheless, the consequences of such an event are also minimised.
Those requirements can be met without an economical cost increase.

Presently, several refrigeration manufacturers already marketing even no-
frost appliances which are most difficult concerning inherent product safety.
A drawing of such an appliance is shown in figure 10.
To generate a flammable mixture in a room with 8 cubic meters (2 x 2 x 2
m) 340g isobutane or propane are necessary assuming even dispersion.
Typically a 165 litre domestic refrigerator would contain about 30g, with
some 10g remaining in the oil in case of a major rupture. The typical leak
rate of a household refrigerator is between 0.5g/year and 1g/year.
Refrigerator
Foamed - in compartment
evaporator
Automatic defrost cycle
after each cooling period
Light inside
Evaporator with forced

convection Freezer
comp. Automatic defrost as required
(1...7 days)
No switching elements, no light,
special fans and heating
elements
Principle: 2 factors (HC concentration and ignition source) are needed for
an ignition. The concept avoids the coincidence of said 2 factors
Figure 10: No-frost refrigerator/freezer using refrigerant HC-600a with

incorporated safety measures
During a fire e.g. in the kitchen, the refrigerant circuit is closed with no
oxygen inside. Therefore, even at higher temperatures there will not be an
explosion inside the refrigerant circuit. If the temperatures outside increase
to a very high level, the soldered connection will leak so that the refrigerant
is going to blow out due to its vapour pressure. The hydrocarbons and the
mineral oil will burn to natural CO2 without causing an additional hazard
while HFC-134a will form toxic substances.
Additionally, it must be taken into account that refrigerators are often

repaired in developing countries, either in contract workshops or in free
workshops. To avoid the risk of explosions during faulty repair or resulting
from faulty repair, two measures are proposed:
• Reducing the delicacy for faults,
• Leak testing as part of routine maintenance,
• Training programs for technicians of factory workshops and the those of
the unorganised sector.
Refrigerators with hydrocarbons have been produced, sold and used in

Europe since 1993. Up to now, more than 6 million units are produced
without any reported accident. Furthermore, a risk assessment showed that
the explosion pressure would be low and of short duration, therefore no
immediate harm to people and no ignition of furniture or curtains is
expected.
4.3.12 Noise
An additional criterion for comfort is a low noise level of the refrigerator. In
comparison to CFC-12, HFC-134a and the mixture of HC-290/HC-600a a
significant noise reduction is observed when using HC-600a as refrigerant
due to the lower load of the compressor.
4.4 Conclusions
In table 8 the essential results of the preceding chapters regarding the
comparison of natural and synthetic refrigerant options are summarised.
Hydrocarbon technology helps to develop markets: For example, the

European Union, forming a free trade union with more than 300 million
customers with a high demand for refrigeration technology, is completely
accessible, while at the same time in several parts of Europe a boycott of
HFC-technology is held by the customers. In addition, the technology is
commercially competitive, reliable and easily accessible (non-patented).
Finally the use of isobutane reduces the noise level of the product and
improves the energy efficiency as compared to CFC-12 or HFC-134a as
working fluid. Hydrocarbons today are a commercially competitive

replacement for CFCs.
By the mid of 1996 Europe will have largely converted to hydrocarbons and
towards the turn of the century other continents may have followed. The
World Bank has reassessed its stand on hydrocarbons within 12 months
time. Conversions to hydrocarbons are supported by the Multilateral Fund
by granting a 35% safety cost discount while calculating the cost
effectiveness on a conversion project basis. This 35% investment cost
bonus for safety does, however, as compared to a conversion to synthetic
fluids, in most cases not compensate for the additional incremental
investment costs a manufacturer incurs when converting its production lines
and product designs to hydrocarbons. Increasingly this conversion benefits
from the expertise already gained. The manufacturers converting to
hydrocarbons choose a long lasting alternative to CFCs, being independent
of high-tech manufactured or patented substances, such as HFCs and the
synthetic oils. These fluids will have to be purchased in industrialised
countries while hydrocarbons can be gained from refineries located on all
continents.
Table 8: Summary of working fluids in refrigerators

Refrigerant HFC-134a HC-290 HC-600a HC-290/ HC-
600a
Environmental Aspects
• ODP + + + +
• GWP - + + +
• COP - o + o
• Recovery - + + +
Compatibility with
existing
• Lubricant -- + + +
• Material o + + +
Availability for
developing countries
• Refrigerant - + + +
• Lubricant - + + +
• Compressor - - - +
• Components - + + +
Servicing CFC 12 - + + +
retrofitting compressor
change
CFC-12 retrofitting
compressor change·
• without - - - +
• with - + + +
Costs
• Production o - - -
• Product o - - +
Safety installation
• Production + - - -
• Product + - - -
Noise o - + -
Concerning customer safety, one has to consider that with the present use
of significant amounts of different fuels in the average kitchen, additional
30g to 60g of hydrocarbons, being less than the hydrocarbons contained in
the average cigarette lighter refill cartridge, do not increase the safety
hazards significantly. In addition, a refrigerator has a very high inherent
safety, being leak tight and pressure proof, at the same time containing no
ignition sources if adapted to hydrocarbons.
5 INSULATION, FOAMING
5.1 Technical Background

The main functions of the insulation envelope of a refrigerated space are to
reduce economically the refrigeration requirements and to prevent moisture
condensation on the exterior. Therefore, the insulation material must have a
low heat conductivity and a high diffusion resistance against vapour. With a
low heat conductivity the cooling demand is low and thus also the necessary
refrigeration equipment and the energy consumption of the refrigeration
system. The second property is important to avoid transmission of water
vapour into and through the insulation material, because the vapour would
increase the heat conductivity and frozen water can destroy the insulation
structure.
As a replacement for CFC-11, presently used as a blowing agent for the

foam, four less ozone depleting substances are widely considered: HFC-
134a, HCFC-141b, the mixture of HCFC-22/HCFC-142b and cyclopentane.
Mixtures of water and CO2 as a blowing agent are not considered because
of their high heat conductivity. An overview of the main properties of the
considered blowing agents is given in table 9. In all cases, low values of the
properties are desired.
Table 9: Properties of blowing agents

CFC- HCFC- HCFC- HFC- cyclo-
1150% 141b 22/142b 134a pentane
ODP 1 0,11 0,06 0 0
GWP (100a) 4000 630 1880 1300 3
Mass of polyole 100 100 100 100 100
Mass of blowing 18 18 15 13 11
agent
Mass of isocyanate 155 148 126 127 138
Manufacturing Standard Standard Gas Gas Safety
dosage dosage requir.
Heat conductivity 17 17 17 18.5 17.5
mW / mK initial
decay 25 25 25 26-27 24-25
HFC-134a has zero ozone depleting potential and a relatively high vapour
pressure. Using HFC-134a, the existing machinery and equipment for
foaming has to be replaced by systems for high working pressures.
Production results show that mechanical properties and the flowability as
well as the adhesion of HFC-134a foam is not as good as it is with

cyclopentane. Only three manufacturers are known to have used HFC-
134a. Later on they switched to cyclopentane.
The HCFC-141b is a low pressure blowing agent, similar to CFC-11. Some

incompatibilities are reported with conventional high impact polystyrene and
acrylonnitrile butadiene styrene. Due to its ozone depletion potential HCFC-
141b is also controlled by means of the Montreal Protocol and therefore is
an interim solution for industrialised countries, which is likely to affect the
supply of this substance also for developing countries. Depending on the
future use of HCFC-141b and due to the significantly shorter conversion
period in industrialised countries, the production of HCFC-141b may cease
significantly before the 99.5%-phase-out date for industrialised countries in
the year 2020. A second conversion from this replacement to a third product
is likely. Such a product has not been identified so far.
The third alternative is the mixture of HCFC-22/HCFC-142b. It has a lower

ODP than HCFC-141b, but a significantly higher GWP. In test rigs it was
found that the use in production is as good as the use of HFC-134a. But it is
no production plant known which uses this mixture as blowing agent in
insulation.
The fourth alternative is the use of cyclopentane as blowing agent.

Cyclopentane, having a similar vapour pressure as CFC-11 or HCFC-141b,
can be used similar to CFC-11. There are no restrictions concerning its use
to be expected in the future. Cyclopentane is a hydrocarbon derivative,
produced in petrochemical plants; it has favourable characteristics.
Cyclopentane is compatible with materials currently used, durable and
suitable. Over the lifetime of a refrigerator the heat conductivity of
cyclopentane foam is lower than the heat conductivity of alternatives, and so
is the energy consumption of the refrigerator. Furthermore, it can be made
available in most countries on the basis of locally available material, making
it a cost effective solution. Some numbers concerning the costs of
cyclopentane compared with other blowing agents are given in table 10. Its
drawback is the flammability (1.4-7.8 vol% in air).
Table 10: Cost comparison between cyclopentane and other blowing

agents
Substance Costs Mass required
[US$/kg] [g/refrigerator]
CFC-11 6 600
HCFC-141b 8 600
c-pentane 1 700
Cyclopentane causes the need for safety measures to be incorporated in

the production plant, such as increased air flow rates to keep the amount of
hydrocarbon in the air well below flammability limits. These safety measures
are derived from other productions using hydrocarbons, having safety
problems solved well for generations. The use of cyclopentane requires
additional safety measures only during the production process of the foam.
Different numbers are given for the cost increase of a conversion to
cyclopentane versus a conversion to HCFC-141b: The former is at least
10% more expensive than the latter. During transport, use and disposal of
the refrigerator over its lifetime, foams blown with cyclopentane are as safe
as the present technology using CFC-11. There are no restrictions
concerning the use of cyclopentane expected in the future.
Cyclopentane is successfully implemented in Europe, therefore experiences

concerning its use as a blowing agent for refrigerators are available.
5.2 Safety Measures Regarding Use of Cyclopentane as Blowing Agent

For storage of cyclopentane necessary for the foaming the general safety
requirements are similar as for the storage of liquefied hydrocarbons:
• the storage areas should not be accessible for the public,
• a protection area around the storage container has to be defined with
respect to existing regulations,
• ignition sources inside the protection areas are prohibited,
• the protection area is pointed out by warning signs,
• pits and drains without lid or open connections to cellar rooms can not be
located in the storage area.
• Additional measures to protect the ground water are necessary, e.g. a
jacket wall for ground containers or collecting reservoirs for tanks and
leak detectors.
• Regulations propose a lot of different possible measures which could be
performed for the prevention of explosions, which is the most important
aspect for the safety in the foaming process. The safety measures which
are performed with respect to those regulations can consequently be
different for each individual foaming plant.
As an example, the plant of AEG-Eletrolux in Kassel, Germany, with a

production of around 600,000 refrigerators per year was chosen. The
foaming of the refrigerators with the cyclopentane as foaming agent consists
of the following five main steps:
1. Storage in different containers for the fluids: Polyole, cyclopentane,
isocyanate,
2. Mixing of polyole and cyclopentane in a closed system,
3. Transport and storing of the daily required amount of the mixture
polyole/pentane and of isocyanate in vessels,
4. Transport from these vessels to the foaming place with dosing pumps,
5. Mixing in a mixer head and, finally, foaming with polyurethane in a fixture
that can be opened and contains a refrigerator cabinet.
All equipment for transport, storage and mixers is designed with respect to
the general technical rules.
The storage vessels and the belonging pumps for each of the 3 fluids are
installed outside the production building. Since volatilizing pentane can form
explosive mixtures with air, all equipment used in step 1 is explosion-proof.
The mixing station (step 2) and the vessels for the daily requirement (step
3) are installed in the building near the foaming place. In these parts the
mixture of polyole/cyclopentane is pressurised with the inert gas nitrogen.
As a consequence of the use of the inert gas (prevention of explosive

atmosphere) there is no need for explosion-proof equipment in these areas
(also step 4).
The most critical area within the foaming plant is the foaming station with
the mixer head, because emissions of cyclopentane occur even during
normal operation. Therefore, this area demands several safety measures.
These measures include the prevention of the forming of an explosive
atmosphere by increased venting and the monitoring of the atmosphere’s
composition.
Around the foaming station a safety area is established. This area is marked
by signs and limited by low partitions. Around the foaming places exhaust
channels are installed in the ground through which air of the safety areas is
sucked off. Additionally, a top ventilation system is installed which ensures
an air flow around the refrigerator after the foaming process started. The
ventilators of the ventilation systems have to be explosion-proof.
Other equipment in the safety area does not have to be explosion-proof

because of the high air exchange. The formation of an explosive mixture in
the refrigerator form is prevented by rinsing the form with nitrogen before
the foaming process starts. The atmosphere inside the safety area is
monitored by gas detectors which detect especially the foaming agent
cyclopentane. The detectors are placed at various positions in the safety
areas.
Another refrigerator manufacturer agreed with the local safety authorities to
install a ventilation system, equipped with a hydrocarbon content monitoring
system, with the following characteristics:
• 10% of lower explosion level: Increase in ventilation;
• 25% of lower explosion level: Emergency stop of the production
line and transmission of prealarm directly to fire service
The complete arrangement in the safety area ensures that no explosive
atmosphere can be formed, even in the case of sudden unexpected
emissions of the blowing agent or at high concentrations of cyclopentane in
the safety areas.
After the manufacturing process a small pentane volume flow escapes out
of the foam. This escape phase takes nearly two days for foams with
cyclopentane. The refrigerators should be stored over this period. As the
formation of an explosive atmosphere is possible in the storage hall,
measures have to be performed to ensure a sufficient air
exchange/ventilation. The cyclopentane concentration inside an appliance
which was closed not later than 10 minutes after foaming was less than 2%
of the lower explosion limit during the test duration of two months.
Additional safety instructions are necessary regarding handling of defective

units. In co-operation with the local fire authorities, an evacuation plan has
to be prepared. Furthermore, detailed instruction requirements must be
given to operators, repair personnel and other persons engaged in the
areas.
6 NATURAL FLUIDS IN OTHER REFRIGERATION APPLICATIONS

The successful application of hydrocarbons in the field of domestic
refrigeration caused an increasing interest in natural fluids in refrigeration
applications other than refrigerators. Presently, developments are focused
to phase out CFC-11, CFC-12 and CFC-502, but also already HCFC-22.
Those refrigerants were used in close to all refrigeration applications.
While CFC-11 is nearly exclusively used in large water chillers, CFC-12 was
used almost universally. The range of applications varies from large water
chillers to refrigerators with small hermetic commercial equipment,
automotive equipment and, especially in hot climates, all kinds of transport
and storage equipment in-between. CFC-502 was used mainly in
commercial units for frozen food. HCFC-22, scheduled to be nearly phased
out in industrialised countries until 2020, was mainly used in air-conditioning
equipment, where its high capacity has the advantage of small size and
cheap components, while certain disadvantages are not critical.
6.1 Hydrocarbons
Small compressors, meaning compressors with a low swept volume, are
often cheaper, but also less efficient than large compressors. With
increasingly smaller compressors, cost advantage and efficiency decrease
overproportional. Very small compressors are not significantly cheaper than
those having twice the size, but significantly more inefficient. HC-600a,
isobutane, is a refrigerant well used in refrigerators because it requires a
relatively high displacement compressor, which is already cheap but still
efficient. Nevertheless, if the desired capacity is much higher than in
refrigerators, the use of another hydrocarbon refrigerant is economically
more suitable: The use of HC-290, propane.
6.1.1 Scope of Isobutane (HC-600a)

Based on the positive experiences with isobutane as a refrigerant in
domestic refrigeration also other small compact units have been developed.
At present some units with isobutane as refrigerant with approximately 300
W cooling capacity are available. Examples are shown in figure 11
6.1.2 Scope of Propane (HC-290)

Not only for larger capacities but also for low temperature applications and
heat pumps the natural refrigerant propane, HC-290, shows excellent
thermodynamic and thermophysical properties. Like isobutane propane is
flammable. Propane is an advantageous substitute for HCFC-22 due to its
very similar temperature-pressure behaviour. The advantages concerning
the use of standard refrigeration oils and, such, the absence of problems
related to a high humidity content of ester oils are similar to those of
isobutane. The work quality achieved with CFCs is sufficient for the use of
propane.
To ensure product safety, leakages and ignition sources have to be

minimised. To reduce the hazards, potential leak sources, such as joints,
should not be placed in the space to be cooled. To avoid the presence of a
flammable mixture next to an ignition source, electrical switches with IP54
protection should be used. This will minimise gas exchange between switch
housing or cabinet and its environment. Additionally, the refrigerant charge
of the appliances should be minimised. This can be realised by compact
design. Referring to component changes, the compressor displacement has
to be adapted to the refrigerant to achieve similar capacity. Figure 12
provides an overview of the dimensions. Furthermore, it is recommended to
use piston rings to increase the efficiency.
Beer Bar with

Integrated Evaporator
Figure 11: Small commercial unit with isobutane as refrigerant
For the widely used, cost effective one stage refrigeration systems, propane
allows higher temperature differences between evaporation and
condensation than possible with ammonia or HCFC-22 because of its low
compressor discharge temperatures.
Propane is fully compatible with most materials used with CFC-12 or HCFC-
22. As stated above, the same type of refrigeration oil can be used as with
CFCs. However, due to the high solubility of hydrocarbons, in some cases it
might be necessary to chose a refrigeration oil with the next higher viscosity
class.
Especially when changing from CFC-502 or CFC-22 to hydrocarbons, no

specific adjustments are necessary to most components. Usually, the same
heat exchangers can be used without a recalculation. If converted from
HCFC-22 to propane, the filling of the thermostatic expansion valve can be
left, but an optimised filling is recommended. Using capillary tubes, length
and diameter have to be optimised.
Presently, all manufacturers producing hydrocarbon systems other than

refrigerators use standard compressors, e.g. CFC-22 compressors for HC-
290. In the following, examples for systems existing on the market are
given:
Figure 12: Adaptation of compressor displacement if converted to

hydrocarbons
From R 12 R 22 R 502
to Isobutane R 134a Propane Propane Propane Propane

Isobutane
140
120
100
80
60
T0=-40°C/ tc=+40°C
40
20
% 0
-20 T0=-10°C/tc=+50°C
-40
-60
6.1.2.1 Heat pumps:

All German heat pump manufacturers are in the process of switching their
complete production to HC-290 as a working fluid. In general, the producers
achieved higher efficiencies than with HCFC-22 or other CFCs, HCFCs or
HFCs, while at the same time the condensing temperature could be
increased because of the low discharge temperatures of propane. The
variety of types in production consists of hot tap water heat pumps with 1.5
to 4 kW capacity and heating systems with 5 to 16 kW capacity. Also, heat
pumps for dehumidification of indoor swimming pools are equipped with
propane. Examples for those units are given in figures 13 to 15.
Figure 13: Hot tap water heat pump (1.5 kW)

Fig u re 1 4 : A ir- t o - w a t e r h e a t
p u m p f o r sp a c e h e a t in g (8 kW
Figure 15: Heat pump for dehumidification of public indoor swimming

pools (4 kW)
6.1.2.2 Room air conditioners:

One Italian and one German manufacturer produce air conditioners with
propane as working fluid, having a capacity between 1.9 kW and 2.4 kW.
The Italian producer, DeLonghi, is the European market leader for small air
conditioning systems. While presently only compact units are available,
DeLonghi announced split systems using hydrocarbons for 1996. Examples

for the units presently available on the market are given in figures 16 and
17. These units are stored and sold in warehouses, to be self transported
and installed by the consumer.
The solution from

DeLonghi PAC A2 ECO PAC G1/M ECO
PAC 19 ECO PAC 25 ECO PAC 26 ECO
Figure 16: Air conditioner product line of manufacturer DeLonghi using

propane as refrigerant
Figure 17: Air conditioner of manufacturer AEG using propane as

working fluid
6.1.2.3 Commercial systems:

For purposes of commercial refrigeration only some systems are known to
be developed so far. This is on the one hand due to the only recently
available information concerning safety technologies which handicapped
developments, on the other hand the numerous small enterprises do not
announce the use of hydrocarbons on a large scale, thus never coming to
the attention of the authors.
6.2 Ammonia
Ammonia has been a well known refrigerant in large scale industrial
applications for more than 120 years. The know how concerning the
technology is widely dispersed, in industrialised as well as in developing
countries. Nevertheless, up to recently it has nearly never been used in air-
conditioning applications or small refrigeration plants, despite the fact that
ammonia has
• excellent thermodynamic and thermophysical properties,
• high efficiency in most temperature ranges,
• no ODP, no GWP,
• low refrigerant cost,
• great tolerance to water contamination and
• strong smell, so ammonia is easy detectable at very low

concentrations (5ppm).
The disadvantages which lead to the ignorance of ammonia for the systems
mentioned above are especially
• toxicity at low concentration in air,

• flammability at high concentration in air,
• no compatibility with zinc or copper or copper containing alloys,
• high discharge temperatures.
For large systems, the disadvantages of ammonia mainly concern safety;

for small systems, there are presently additional cost disadvantages.
The actual toxicity of ammonia is usually not a major concern; the smell is
noticed by man at concentrations as small as 5 parts per million (ppm). At
the same time, the threshold limit value, which should not be exceeded for
everyday exposure, is 50 ppm. Ammonia is unbearable for man at 500 ppm,
while its acute toxicity starts at 2500 ppm and the flammability at 15 vol%.
Obviously, nearly any hazard announces itself in far advance, making
ammonia actually a very safe refrigerant concerning direct hazards.
Unfortunately, there is an indirect hazard caused by use of ammonia in

public areas: Panic. Heavy ammonia concentrations might cause
(unnecessary) panic among those which are not familiar with the smell. The
main focus of the safety measures is therefore to avoid a fast increase in
ammonia concentration in public areas to or above the panic level.
Such, the safety rules for ammonia plants are very simple: No parts of a
plant in direct contact with the public, and installation of systems to hold
back significant ammonia amounts in case of a major rupture. While the
former causes the need for indirect systems - which are per definition
always present in case of water chillers -, the latter leads to housings
around the systems, often combined with a water tank.
The water in such a tank allows to solve a significant amount of ammonia

completely. 50 litres of water can solve 50 kg of ammonia. With such an
amount, systems with up to 1.4 MW can be built. This value is constantly
increasing. A water chiller with containment and water tank is shown in
figure 18. As an example, a public bank building in the city centre of
Hannover, Germany, with an ammonia plant for air conditioning, meant to
replace old CFC-11 units, is shown in figure 19.
Figure 18: Ammonia water chiller with housing and water tank to
control ammonia emissions
Tower for ammonia pipes
Condenser
Figure 19: Bank building in the centre of Hannover, Germany, using

three 700 kW ammonia plants for air conditioning
If ammonia is used in relatively small systems of approximately 20 kW and

more, the presently widely used ammonia technology, featuring steel as
piping material, is expensive to manufacture compared to small CFC units.
Recent developments introduced copper-free aluminium alloys as material
for tubing. Those allow with soldering of parts and bending of the pipework
a manufacturing process similar to those of CFC plants, reducing costs. At
the same time, the new technology of soluble oils allows dry expansion
evaporation, which reduces system refrigerant charge.
Now ammonia is used to cool display cabinets in supermarkets, using

secondary fluids to distribute the cold to the cabinets. The principle of such
a secondary system is shown in figure 20.
Several supermarkets are already operating with such a system. A photo of

one of these is given in figure 21 .
Brine-Cycle Propane
NH3
others
evapora Conden
tor ser
Brine cooler
Public area Engine room Pump
C
Figure 20: Principle of secondary refrigerant system for supermarket

refrigeration
Figure 21: Supermarket with ammonia refrigeration plants and

secondary fluid to cool display cabinets.
7 MARKET SHARE
7.1 Market Development

In 1929, Thomas Midgley patents the chlorofluorocarbons. Only some years
earlier the advertisement displayed in figure 22 was published. In 1974,
Sherwood Rowland and M.J. Molina publish their theory that CFC could be
destroying the ozone layer. In 1987, the Montreal Protocol is adopted as a
completion of the Vienna Convention from 1985. It consists of a step-by-
step reduction of the production and use of fully halogenated CFCs to 50%
of the 1986 level by the year 2000. In 1990, the London Amendment forces
a reduction of CFCs by 50% as early as in the end of 1995, while a 100%
phase out has to be completed by 2000. Article 5 countries are entitled to a
period of grace of a further ten years. An Interim Multilateral Fund is
established for financial aid for the phase out of CFCs in developing
countries. In 1992, the Multilateral Fund is fully established as part of the
Copenhagen Amendment. In Copenhagen, the phase out of CFCs was
rescheduled to take place already until 1.1.1996 in developed countries.
This amendment also includes an HCFC control schedule for the developed
countries which gradually phases out HCFCs over the period 1996 to 2020
(virtual phase out by the year 2020, complete phase out 2030), while there
is no HCFC phase out schedule for the developing countries as of yet. The
status on July 31st, 1995, was ratification of the Vienna Convention in 151
countries, of the Montreal Protocol in 150 countries, ratification of the
London Amendment in 103 countries and those of the Copenhagen
Amendment in 48 countries.
Figure 22: Advertisement in „Ice and Refrigeration", Chicago, USA,

December 1922
Simultaneously to the negotiations concerning the Montreal Protocol, the

producers of CFCs realised that new refrigerants with zero ODP had to be
developed. The chemical industry put considerable effort into this process,
causing the availability of research quantities of HFCs as early as 1989. The
effort to create these substances turned out to be small compared to the
effort needed to make them ready for the market: Intensive property
research was financed and the toxicity of a wide variety of substances was
tested in the extremely expensive PAFT-programme. Independent research
laboratories carried out measurements on different applications, the results
were distributed by technical advisors, being paid by the refrigerant
manufacturers, which transferred the knowledge to component and

equipment manufacturers world-wide.
To be able to refinance those efforts, the sales in these new refrigerants

had to increase as fast as possible. Because of the relatively fixed market
volume for refrigerants, this had to be achieved by increasing the market
share of HFCs. Thus, those refrigerant manufacturers who could produce
HFCs promoted all kinds of CFC control, while at the same time using their
immense public relation possibilities to advertise HFCs as the only
alternative to CFCs and HCFCs. At the same time, the process of
regulations tightening up constantly lead to concerns among OEMs and
customers: What would happen if they chose an alternative to CFCs which
might be obsolete in the near future? Who would repay their investments
into new refrigeration and production equipment?
Naturally, these questions were first asked in case of major investments.

Thus, the water chillers with large refrigeration capacities, using HCFC-123
and HFC-134a as alternative refrigerants, came under market pressure. An
alternative for HCFC and HFC technology was already present: The
ammonia technology, for 120 years established for large refrigeration
capacities in industrial and food processing applications, had only to be
supplemented by safety features, such as a minimisation of filling mass, gas
tight housings and water tanks to solve escaping ammonia in.
For the same reasons, first researchers, then industrial manufacturers of

refrigeration equipment started to look into the so called natural refrigerants
as alternatives for CFCs. Due to the state of the art present in small
refrigeration systems - a non flammable working fluid - hydrocarbons were
first not considered. But other natural alternatives failed as short term
solutions because of necessary investment costs for conversion of
production or different equipment shortcomings. Thus, hydrocarbons,
requiring only well known technology inside the refrigeration cycle, were
reconsidered.
While different tests in equipment and preliminary developments of new

equipment with hydrocarbons as refrigerants were already made as early as
1991, nobody did want to launch a hydrocarbon based refrigeration
technology until 1992. In that year, the German refrigerator manufacturer
Foron, supported heavily by Greenpeace, developed the first modern
hydrocarbon refrigerator. The announcement of this technology forced
other, larger refrigerator companies to proof their ability to develop similar
models; the sale success of the Foron refrigerator forced the marketing of
those models. Surprisingly enough, the marketing was a major success for
those refrigerator companies which were ahead of the competition. In 1993,
all Western European refrigerator companies selling to the German market
started to convert their production step by step from HFC-134a to
hydrocarbons.
This movement to hydrocarbons caused OEMs in other fields to reconsider

their attitude towards HFCs. The first were some minor OEMs for
commercial refrigeration which advertised equipment charged with
hydrocarbons already in 1993. In early 1994, the German manufacturers of
heat pumps announced that they would start with the production of
equipment charged with HC-290 soon, which they did in spring. The so far
latest product group are air conditioners which use HC-290 as working fluid;
those are available on the market since spring 1995.
7.2 Refrigerators
Until now, hydrocarbon refrigerators were produced only in Western
Europe; therefore, this chapter concentrates on this area with the main
focus on Germany. Most of the refrigerator manufacturers which produce
hydrocarbon refrigerators switched first to HFC-134a as refrigerant. The
companies Liebherr, Bosch-Siemens, AEG (now an Electrolux subsidiary)
and Bauknecht (a Whirlpool subsidiary) introduced HFC-134a in 1993. The
manufacturer Foron was not only the first one to produce a hydrocarbon
refrigerator, but also the only German manufacturer who did not first convert
to HFC-134a.
Foron was forced to introduce a unique product into the market by the fact
that their market share decreased with a considerable speed. At the same
time, developing time, developing costs and conversion costs had to be
minimised. Foron was the only manufacturer who possessed its own
compressor production, which avoided problems they would have had with
compressor manufacturers. Thus, a simple conversion solution with
minimum costs was executed: The conversion to a mixture of HC-290 and
HC-600a which matched the capacity of CFC-12 exactly. Thus, any major
conversion of the compressor production was avoided.
Because of the heavy promotion by Greenpeace and, later, the market

success, the competitors decided also to develop hydrocarbon refrigerators.
Their request for delivery of highly sophisticated, low energy consumption
compressors with minimum noise emission in nearly no time caused the use
of HC-600a. Compressors for mixtures to fulfil the requirements of high
energetic optimisation with low noise emission could not be developed in
the available time. Thus, the only compressors freely accessible on the
market were HC-600a compressors, produced by the Danish company
Danfoss. The extremely fast growing market of hydrocarbon refrigerators
and the limited supply of compressors made the preliminary selection of
HC-600a an acknowledged standard.
The demand for hydrocarbon refrigerators was further supported by large

warehouse groups, who sell a considerable part of all refrigerators
purchased in Germany; Germany in turn is the most important market in
Western Europe. Their demand for hydrocarbon appliances forced their
other European suppliers to launch hydrocarbon production as well.
Therefore, the present market share of hydrocarbon refrigerators in
Western Europe is already 25%.
The import of hydrocarbon refrigerators into several countries such as The

Netherlands and Great Britain was restricted by national safety laws, who
treated a refrigerator very different from a cigarette lighter. Since recently,
the safety requirements have been egalised and formalised in international
standards. These standards are now used as guidelines for those
manufacturers which did not convert to hydrocarbons so far. Some numbers
concerning the development of the refrigerator market in Western Europe
and the share hydrocarbon refrigerators hold are given in figure 23.
In several countries, the hydrocarbon refrigerator is today the state of the

art. In independent product quality test magazines for consumers,
appliances using refrigerants other than hydrocarbons are downrated to
„poor quality" because of the refrigerant used, causing their annihilation
form the market.
Figure 23: Refrigerator Market and Market Share of Hydrocarbon

Refrigerators in Germany and Western Europe between
1992 and 1995 (estimated)
For the refrigerator, the availability of the expensive main component, the
compressor, is crucial. Several compressor manufacturers do already
produce compressors for hydrocarbons. Americold, being a subsidiary of
Electrolux group, is the only North American producer known to have
launched at least a prototype production. In the same group, European
factories of Zanussi, Electrolux, Unidad Hermetica and Verdichter Oe are
producing hydrocarbon compressors on a large scale. The European
subsidiary of Embraco, which in turn belongs to the Whirlpool group, is also
producing hydrocarbon compressors on a large scale. Independent
compressor manufacturers are Danfoss in Denmark, Foron in Germany and
Necchi in Italy, all of them manufacturing large amounts of compressors.
The total production is estimated to be similar to the production of
hydrocarbon refrigerators, with Danfoss as the leading manufacturer with
approximately 2,5 million hydrocarbon compressors in 1995. This leading
position seems to be attacked by the Whirlpool and Electrolux subsidiaries.
7.3 Foam
The European manufacturers reduced the amount of ODP tonnes used for
the foam blowing in several steps. First, the content of CFC-11 in the foam
was reduced from 120 g/kg foam, being at that time usual in Western
Europe, to around 60 g/kg. This change was carried out all over Western
Europe from 1991 until 1993. The next step was to avoid the use of CFC-
11, instead using HCFC-141b or HFC-134a as blowing agents. While some
manufacturers chose to convert their foaming equipment to HFC-134a at

the end of 1992, most others converted their foaming equipment to
cyclopentane as blowing agent in the first half of 1993. Nowadays, close to
100% of all appliances produced in Western Europe are using cyclopentane
in the foam. The development of the use of cyclopentane as blowing agent
for refrigerators is shown in figure 24.
Figure 24: Refrigerator Market and Market Share of Refrigerators with

CFC, HCFC/HFC and Cyclopentane Foam in Germany and
Western Europe Between 1992 and 1995 (estimated)
Companies in areas of refrigeration other than household start to use

cyclopentane as blowing agent as well. E.g., the European market leader in
the field of display cabinets, the Linde AG, uses cyclopentane since recently
as a blowing agent for their cabinet insulation.
7.4 Other
The development for refrigeration applications other than household
refrigeration is divided into two directions: On the one hand, the
development of hydrocarbon applications to larger refrigeration capacities
can be noted; on the other hand, the ammonia applications tend to large air
conditioning systems, but also to small systems for commercial use with
secondary systems.
7.4.1 Hydrocarbons
The use of hydrocarbons in household refrigeration caused also

manufacturers of other refrigeration applications to consider those
refrigerants. While several small enterprises started soon after the
refrigerator industry to promote hydrocarbon systems, e.g. for beer cooling,
the first major use of hydrocarbons in refrigeration applications was the use
of heat pumps, produced on an industrial scale. Since mid of 1994, heat
pumps with hydrocarbons are available on the market in a large scale. The
main technical difference to refrigerators is the amount of filling, which is up
to 2 kg of HC-290. In this year, the market share of the hydrocarbon heat
pumps for space heating is close to 100% in Germany, a market with
approximately 1500 space heating heat pumps per year.
Other refrigeration industries do also work on hydrocarbon technology: In

the meantime, a system for cooling of switch cabinets and also systems for
drying of pressurised air have been developed, while at the same time the
amount of producers of small, customised refrigeration systems for the
commercial market with hydrocarbons as working fluids is increasing.
Presently, the main problem in distributing this technology is the missing of

safety standards for the use of hydrocarbons as refrigerants. At the
moment, manufacturers do not have a commonly agreed guideline for the
design of the applications. Presently, Germany is the only country world-
wide possessing already an approved safety standard for hydrocarbons in
applications other than domestic refrigerators, the DIN 7003. European
standards are presently under preparation, such as the EN 378 (Available
as preliminary yellow print) and the EN 60335, part 40 (yet not available).
Also national standards are under preparation, which often use the DIN
7003 as example. Once the safety standards are defined, it is expected that
the market share of hydrocarbon refrigeration systems will increase
significantly.
7.4.2 Ammonia
New applications of ammonia as working fluid are supermarket applications
and centralised air conditioning systems. In case of the supermarket
systems, the necessary development of suitable brine systems to distribute
secondary refrigerants slowed down the development. Presently, there are
7 supermarkets in Luxembourg, 4 in Switzerland, 2 in Italy and 2 in
Germany which medium and low temperature display cabinets are cooled
by ammonia plants.
The use of ammonia in air conditioning systems is now a widespread

technology. Presently, the market share of large air conditioning systems
with ammonia is reported to be close to 100% in Sweden and Luxembourg
and around 30% in Germany. In general, the ammonia market for air
conditioning is well developed in Middle and North Europe. In the Southern
countries of Western Europe as well as in Great Britain and France so far
only small market shares of ammonia plants in large air conditioning
systems have been achieved.
8 CONCLUSIONS
Natural refrigerants in general and hydrocarbons in particular are suitable
for refrigeration purposes in industrialised as well as in developing
countries. The safety issues, which have to be considered, can be solved
with technology and know how available for decades.
The refrigerants are cheap and accessible, the know how for their handling
is available. Natural fluids have proven to perform similar or better than any
other alternative in a refrigeration cycle.
The technology to be used is proven. Several manufacturers selected this

technology for their large scale production. Among those are subsidiaries of
the world’s leading refrigeration companies.
On the other hand: The alternative for the use of CFC-12 is HFC-134a. For
the use of CFC-502 and HCFC-22, there is no really convincing long term
HFC solution available yet. This technology requires a high level of
organisation in production and service.
Even if the required quality in the production processes can be achieved in

the factories in developing countries, a sufficient level of quality in the
manufacturing of the various component suppliers is doubtful, whereas it is
certain that the unorganised service sector will not be able to fulfil all the
requirements of proper operation.
Thus, it seems to be very worthwhile to consider natural fluids in general

and hydrocarbons for refrigerators and small hermetic applications in
particular as an alternative option to the HFC technology so loudly
supported.
Cui bono?
(Who benefits?)
GTZ Yearbook 1995 GTZ China Project 223
10. GTZ-Layout China Project

Phasing out CFCs at Haier S.A., Qingdao, China
(Draft-Example of a GTZ Project within the frame of

bilateral assistance to an Article 5 Country in Phasing Out ODS.
Project was later restructured as a joint co-bilateral project US/ USEPA and
Germany/ GTZ and submitted to MF for March 1995 ExCom-Meeting)
____________________________________________________________
_____
Project Description
0.0 PROJECT COVER
Country: China
Project Title: Investment Project for Phasing out CFC´s at Haier
S.A., Qingdao
Sector Covered: Domestic refrigeration;
Rigid foams and Refrigerant
Project Impact: Phase out of annual consumption of 127 MT of
CFC 11; 36 MT of CFC 12 for production and 0,22
MT for service (Total ODP = 163,22 MT)
Project Duration: 8 months
Project Economic Lifetime: 10 years
Total Proposed Project 3.976.612 DM ( 2.661.074 US$; rate( rate 1 US$=
Costs: 1,50 DM Actual Rate 10 / 1994)
Capital Costs: 2.634.520 DM (1.756.347 US$;)
Operational Costs 262.252 DM ( 174.835 US$) (10 % of capital
costs)
Proposed MF Financing: 3.273.352 DM (2.182.234 US$)
Cost Effectiveness: Unit Abatement Costs 2.66.US$/kg
Counterpart Enterprise: Haier S.A., Qingdao, China
Implementing Enterprise: Liebherr GmbH, Ochsenhausen, Germany
Supporting Agency: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Eschborn, Germany
Coordinating Ministry: National Environmental Protection Agency
(NEPA)
Executive National Body: National Council of Light Industries (NCLI)
Project Summary
GTZ Yearbook 1995 GTZ Project in China 224
This project will phase out 100% of the use of CFC 11 as blowing agent and
CFC 12 as cooling agent for the production of domestic refrigerators in one
manufacturing line at the Haier Refrigerator Factory. The chosen
replacement alternatives are cyclopentan as foam blowing agent and
isobutan as refrigerant.
The project will include the conversion of the plant, training of the personnel,
redesign for one refrigerator / freezer model with direct cooling as a
reference, and the equipment and training for one reference technical
service station. The conversion of the production facilities covers the
refrigeration system, insulation foam blowing system and the service sector.
The redesign of the model covers performance testing, trial manufacturing
and adaptation, as well as reliability tests. The project will be supported
through German bilateral assistance from GTZ.
1.0 Project Scope

The bilateral project for the phase out of ODS at Haier S.A., Qingdao will be
a co-operation of four organisations.
Supporting agency is Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische

Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GTZ), the federal agency for all the German
technical development and aid programs, specialising in technology and
know-how transfer, which is given also the task of the implementation,
controlling and follow up of the German bilateral CFC-phase-out projects.
GTZ has created a working group named “CFC Projects” which also
implements the proposal presented in this paper. The GTZ-CFC project
embraces, besides this phase out project at Haier, a similar project in India
in close co-operation with the Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC). GTZ
is also building up a know-how pool for disseminating hydrocarbon
technology in domestic refrigeration and is providing technical and
engineering expertise and support for company conversions with the help
of German enterprises.
USEPA`s Global Change Division (GCD) established in 1990 an agreement

with China for the development of an energy efficient refrigerator, working in
particular with the Haier Group. USEPA and GTZ agreed in principle in
October 94 (details are in the process of being worked out) ) to join forces
and to cooperate closely in China, regarding the development and
widespread use of CFC and FC free, energy efficient technology. In this
context USEPA will support the GTZ project and has filed a companion
project to the MF. USEPA also plans to fund the transfer of energy efficient
technology to the Haier Factory but separately and by other funds (Global
Environment Facility, GEF). GTZ plans at present to convert one factory line
to hydrocarbon. Global Change Division of USEPA and GTZ have therefore
agreed to support each others applications, GTZ`s and USEPA´s to the
Montreal Fund and USEPA´s to GEF.
Implementing enterprise is the Liebherr GmbH, the German market leader

in domestic refrigerators and one of the four leading companies in Europe,
who was the first West-German manufacturer to make the decision to
convert the entire program to hydrocarbon. Liebherr will act as the general
contractor for GTZ to deliver a turn-key conversion of the Haier Factory
No.2. Liebherr will put the same team at work in China which has just
finished successfully the conversion of their total factory (600 000 units/
year, full refrigerator and freezer lines).
The partner in China is the Haier S.A. in Qingdao, one of the four largest
household refrigerator manufacturers in China. Haier is the known quality
leader, has won several quality awards and is the only refrigerator company
in China which fulfils the ISO norm 9001. It was agreed with Haier and the
agencies in China in charge for CFC-projects, National Council for Light
Industries (NCLI), National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA),
Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation (MOFTEC), that Haier
will serve as a pilot company with the obligation to Haier to make the
experience and knowledge available in appropriate form to the rest of the
industry.
2.0 Project Background

2.1 Sector Background
The subsector for domestic refrigerators and freezers in China consists of
70 manufacturers, accounting for about 10% of all ODS consumed in China
(6.050 MT). Details can be taken from the country program.
China's ODS consumption in 1991 was 48,239 metric tonnes (60,352
weighted tonnes or 0.05 kg per capita), of which 63 per cent was produced
domestically and 37 per cent was imported. The weighted consumption in
China is distributed as follows: the largest sector was foams at 29 per cent,
followed by halons at 28 per cent, refrigeration/air conditioning at 21 per
cent, solvents at 10 per cent, and finally aerosols at 7 per cent.
China imported 17,100 metric tonnes of CFCs, 300 metric tonnes of

methylchloroform and 540 metric tonnes of halons in 1991 to satisfy
consumption in the country. China exports a small amount of CFCs,
perhaps 100-200 metric tonnes a year.
The total installed production capacity for refrigerators is close to 8 million

refrigerators per year. Haier has produced 550.000 refrigerators and
freezers during 1994.
2.2 Haier’s Background
Qingdao Haier Refrigerator Co., Ltd. is a household refrigerator
manufacturing company located in Qingdao, P.R.C. Together with seven
other manufacturing facilities it forms the Industry Section of the Haier
Group. The Haier Group could be considered a "conglomerate" by western
standards, as it consists of 29 different business enterprises. The
refrigerator factory, established in 1985, was the original enterprise, then
known as the Qingdao General Refrigerator Factory.
2.3 Haier’s Factory

Haier obtained its technology from Liebherr, a well established
manufacturer of household refrigerators and the market leader in Germany.
Since 1984 Haier’s factory production equipment has been designed and/or
specified by Liebherr. The product line design also is Liebherr’s, and is
typical of leading European product ranges. The factory equipment is good
quality machinery, primarily sourced in Europe; e.g. an automated door
fabrication line from Olma, Italy; the foam insulation equipment was supplied
by Hennecke, a German subsidiary of Bayer, well known for quality
equipment. The manufacturing line is well automated, including a cabinet
turn-over station and automatic sequencing of the foam injection. Vacuum
forming equipment also uses modern technology. The factory is performing
well; Haier is known for top quality production.
Haier does all its own sheet metal fabrication, vacuum forming operations
for cabinet and door liners, and injection moulding of plastic structural and
decorative parts. Condensers are manufactured at another Haier plant.
Haier purchases compressors, some evaporators, various controls and
other electrical components. Terrain restrictions (the plant is located in a
hilly area) require that various fabrication operations be conducted in
different buildings and on different floors of various buildings.
The final assembly line of the production unit to be converted consists of the
typical moving slat conveyors, in the general form of a large "U". Material for
assembly is stored off-line and fed into the various assembly stations as
needed. System processing takes place "on line" with a dual evacuation
procedure before charging. Final operational checks, electrical safety
checks and refrigerant leak checks are conducted in a separate booth near
the end of the assembly line .
Haier has two final assembly lines, identified as Factory #1 and Factory #2
with a total production capability of 500,000 to 600,000 units annually. This
project covers the conversion of Factory #2 , with a present production of
220,000 units annually (Oct. 93 - Oct. 94).
2.4 Haier’s Refrigeration Service

Haier has a good quality control system and its employees are well trained
to be very quality conscious. Haier has received a certificate of registration
for IS0 9001. Quality Control is a major effort at Haier; quality control
personnel is identified by white uniform coats with shoulder pads decorated
with a "Total Quality Control" emblem. Haier’s service centre maintains an
extensive computerised data base, which allows Haier to track each
individual product and the customer to which the product was sold. The
reported service call rate for all refrigerators in service is extremely low by
any standard.
3.0 Project Objective

The objective of this project is to eliminate the use of ODS such as CFC 11
and CFC 12 in the production of domestic refrigerators at Haier Qingdao,
Factory #2 through conversion to the use of isobutan as refrigerant and
cyclopentan as blowing agent for the polyurethane insulation foam.
4.0 Project Description

Haier is prepared to phase out ODS in the refrigeration section as soon as
the new technology has been acquired, the necessary machinery and
equipment installed and the technical staff trained.
From among the technological options currently available on a commercial

basis, Haier has chosen to replace CFC 12 by isobutan, because this
technology has been successfully used in Germany, especially by Haier´s
long-term partner, Liebherr.
New types of compressors are available as imports from Aspera, Danfoss,

Zanussi and other sources for a bridging period. The refrigeration systems
need to be optimised in connection with the change to the new components
for the isobutan refrigeration system in order to reduce the energy
consumption of refrigerators and freezers.
For the blowing agent (CFC 11) for polyurethane foam, Haier has decided
to avoid using any transitional substance and to introduce cyclopentan,
which is the new world standard, as the ultimate solution.
Assistance through the project is sought for:

a. procurement of new machinery and equipment;
b. rebuilding and partial replacement of equipment presently used,
c. redesign, reconstruction, prototype manufacturing and testing of
refrigerators and freezers of one refrigerator / freezer model with direct
cooling;
d. installation, commissioning, training of Chinese nationals in Europe and
on-the-job training, trial operation and start-up etc.
e. safety precautions.
Liebherr's proven technology will be applied for Haier's refrigeration service

centres. The following machinery and equipment needs to be rebuilt,
replaced or added:
4.1 Refrigeration System

Two major changes to the production facility are necessary in order to
produce a CFC-, FC-free refrigerator model. The first change involves the
refrigeration system evacuation and charging equipment. With the switch to
isobutan, a potentially explosive substance when mixed with air, the
evacuation and charging system has to be replaced to achieve the
necessary safety characteristics for workers and plant. As for the foam
equipment, explosion-proof electrical components will be needed. These
evacuation and charging stations perform the triple function of evacuation,
purging and charging. It was determined to be less expensive to convert this
equipment directly to use isobutan rather than first to install the more
common, simple charging stations and then complete the conversion .
4.2 Foam System

The second major change is the replacement of the foam injection facility for
thermal insulation by a new system which is compatible with the flammable
cyclopentan blowing agent for the polyurethane foam insulation. The actual
system has to be built with explosion-proof and partly by other technical
safety improvements. Other components such as pumps, valves, piping,
hoses and connectors have to be installed in such a fashion as to prevent
any leakage of the cyclopentan into the surroundings. In addition to the
equipment itself, detectors and alarm systems have to be installed in the
manufacturing areas where cyclopentan will be handled. These include the
storage areas, the area where the foam ingredients are mixed, and the
piping involved for these operations. Additional fire fighting equipment will
be required.
4.3 Refrigeration Service

Only minor changes are necessary in the technical service sector. The
usual vacuum pumps and equipment of the R12 servicing will be
supplemented by a new portable filling stand, a Lockring unit to close the
refrigerant circuit, an adapter to the filling and vacuum pump and an
exhaust pipe.
4.4 Justification for Selection of Hydrocarbon Technology

Hydrocarbons are the only known substitutes for CFC´s in household
refrigeration that have no ODP and virtually no GWP.
4.4.1 Isobutan for cooling

All major European manufacturers of refrigerators and compressors have
switched to isobutan as replacement for CFC 12 as the new refrigerant for
domestic refrigerators and freezers. By the end of 1994 all German
manufacturers (e.g. AEG, Bosch-Siemens, Foron, Liebherr etc.) will have

converted all their factories and household models (with exception of no-
frost models due to the installed ventilator). By the end of 1995 virtually the
entire European industry will have converted to hydrocarbon. In August
1994 Electrolux, European and world market leader, announced their plans
to have all their plants switched by the end of 1995. There are already more
than one million completely hydrocarbon based refrigerators (foam and
refrigerant) in the market. Not a single household or servicing accident has
been reported Isobutan as a refrigerant offers a lot of fringe benefits as well,
e.g. better energy efficiency if properly optimised, lower noise level etc..
4.4.2 Cyclopentan for Foaming

The situation is as follows for the new blowing agent for the polyurethane
(PUR) foam:
Not only all refrigerator producers in Europe but also many manufacturers in
the Far East have already switched, or will switch in the near future, to
cyclopentan as blowing agent because of its good insulation values and the
lower cost of materials. In the meantime the manufacturing technology using
the flammable cyclopentan is mature and the control systems have been set
up so that this technology can be applied in developing countries too if strict
processing regulations are followed, regularly controlled and the staff in
production are well selected and trained. However, the technical application
for cyclopentan foaming in developing countries have to be rendered as
safe as or even safer than the use in Europe, since the degree of
professional education of the workers in developing countries must be taken
into account. This aspect will be considered carefully in this project
proposal.
5.0 Project Inputs

5.1 Replacement of Capital Goods
Refrigeration System:
The following equipment needs to be replaced and new equipment is to be
provided as specified below:
a. Vacuum stand 2x
b. Filling stand 1x
c. Pressure booster
d. Ultrasonic welding equipment
e. Leak detection equipment
Foam System:
The following existing equipment needs to be replaced as specified below:
a. tank for cyclopentan with all necessary safety devices
b. equipment for pentane supply from tank to premixing station (pump,
pipe, safety devices)
c. premixing station for cyclopentan and polyol
d. gas detector system with control board, gas sensors, ventilation sensors
for safety purposes
e. exhausting and ventilation system
f. pentane replacement equipment for casing foaming unit (high pressure)
HK 650
g. replacement unit for the oval rotating unit
h. inerting system
i. pentane replacement equipment for door foaming system ( high
pressure) HK 270
j. replacement set for door foaming unit
Refrigeration Service for one service station

a. Portable filling station for R600 a
b. Lockring equipment
c. Adapter for filling station
5.2 Conversion/Training
The phasing out of R11 from the foam and its replacement by cyclopentan
is now an advanced, proven technology that has been developed
theoretically in recent years and can now be considered as the state of the
art in household refrigeration. The first real, world-wide implementation in
the production process was initiated in April 1993 by Liebherr at its two
factories in Germany and Austria which were converted 100% to this new
technology.
This technical conversion had been approved and certified by the German
TÜV-Südwest (the German Safety Control Agency), the organisation which
up to now that has certified the conversion of all other German refrigerator
manufacturers since April 1993 (altogether more than 5 large
manufacturers). As of April 1993 Liebherr has worked without any incident
and has produced nearly 2.0 million refrigerators/freezers with cyclopentan.
This means that during the past 18 months Liebherr has acquired unique
experience in this implemented technology, which is being steadily
improved in day-to-day business. The present contract therefore comprises
the latest experience in this field.
The technical layout / design of the Haier Qingdao #2 plant is already

checked by the TÜV and is approved in general. The final
approval/certification by TÜV experts in China will take place after
installation / commissioning at the Qingdao Factory #2.
It will then be certified that the cyclopentan and isobutan installations

correspond to present German safety standards. In the preparation, layout,
execution and implementation of this conversion project , Liebherr has and
will employ all its experience, skills and know-how. This is applies to all
phases of this project and will be transmitted by
· training at Liebherr in Germany
· technical assistance (training on the job)
· overall technical information and documentation
· specific safety instructions
· permanent approbation and final certification by German TÜV
experts
· certification according to German standards
· information and advice on suitable foam systems with optimised
insulation effects.
5.3 Model Redesign

Liebherr and all other German companies have converted their factories to
the use of these substances. The redesign of Haier models within the scope
of this project will provide the conversion of one typical model as a
reference. The Haier company will redesign the remaining models on their
own. The costs of redesigning one refrigerator / freezer model as a
reference will be covered by the funding of 10% of the capital costs as
operational incremental costs.
6.0 Project Initiation and Implementation

6.1 USEPA/GTZ Cooperation
USEPA has worked in China for several years, in particular with the Haier
Qingdao company, on a program to develop CFC- and FC-free, energy-
saving refrigerators. USEPA and GTZ have agreed to cooperate in this goal
of wide-spread adaptation of a method of zero ODP, minimal GWP and
reduction of energy use by fifty percent. For this goal and in this co-
operation the conversion of one factory line at the Haier Qingdao factory to
cyclopentan as foaming agent and isobutan as refrigerant is considered to
be an important step and a prerequisite for the GEF energy efficiency
program sponsored by USEPA. This GTZ project delivers industrially
proven modules which stand on their own for the desired CFC-phase-out,
but which will also serve as a basis for further model redesigns and
improvements. In this way this GTZ project is embedded in the long-term
USEPA program. USEPA therefore supports the GTZ application to the MF
for acknowledgement of these costs as bilateral contributions from Germany
to the fund within the 20% limit agreed by the parties.
GTZ supports the USEPA companion application to the MF.
6.2 Project Implementation

Liebherr visited Haier together with GTZ in July 1994 to agree the way to
handle the conversion, to specify the equipment which would be needed
and to work out a time schedule. In the meantime the two companies have
jointly worked out the detailed conversion plan. In September 1994 Liebherr
submitted to GTZ the application for funding which is the technical and
engineering basis for this application. The time schedule foresees the
implementation of the foaming component not later than the second quarter
of 1994 and of the filling equipment not later than the third quarter of 1994.
Liebherr, as the general contractor for GTZ, will deliver a turn-key operation
including training of the personal.
6.3 Local Costs of Conversion

The local costs of conversion of 3.907.000 RMB will be born by the Haier
Company (703.260 DM; rate June 94 is 1 RMB = 0.18 DM; 468.840 U$),
which Haier will raise herself to cover the in-factory costs of conversion.
This will include for cyclopentan foaming: installation of C-P conveying
device; construction for C-P premix room; technology adjustment around
foaming line; construction for safety storage space of C-P, and for isobutan
R600 a refrigerating: pipe line and container for conveying R600 a;
construction for safety storage space of R600 a; improvement for assembly
line as per new technology; segregating for vacuum filling and welding
station of R600 a (See I. 3).
6.4 Status of Government Agreements Germany / China and

US/ China
In German-Chinese government consultations Germany had honoured the
request of the Chinese government for this particular aid and had already
confirmed support in May 1994. This project had been discussed and
agreed in principle in China also with the National Council of Light Industry
(NCLI), the National Environmental Protection Agency of China (NEPA) and
the Ministry of Foreign Trade & Economic Cooperation (MOFTEC) in May
and June 1994. A detailed bilateral project agreement as required for
development projects is in the process of negotiation between the two
countries, China and Germany.
The US have an active agreement for cooperation on this project updated
May 1994.
6.5 Application by Haier to GTZ

In June 1994 the Haier Group Co. applied officially to GTZ via the German
Embassy for the conversion of one manufacturing line to the use of
hydrocarbon technology.
In November 1992 the Haier Group Co. applied to EPA for the conversion of
one manufacturing line to CFC-free technology.
6.6 Liebherr GmbH / General Contractor

GTZ will contract Liebherr Hausgeräte GmbH, Ochsenhausen, Germany as
General Contractor to implement the hydrocarbon technology in one
package as a turn-key operation conforming with the standards of the
conversion of their own factory in Germany, especially as regards the
present German safety standards. Liebherr already has an 11-year history
of very close technical co-operation with Haier and built this factory in 1986
as a turn-key operation, which has been technically directly supported by
Liebherr since. From an engineering and technology point of view,
therefore, the conversion of this factory can be considered as if Liebherr

were introducing the hydrocarbon technology into one of its own factories.
6.7 Repair Service

As part of the project Haier will train its own service team appropriately with
initial familiarisation and supervision by Liebherr.
7.0 Workplan
Time Schedule for the Introduction of Cyclopentan:

Activity/Months: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Delivery of foundation drawing for ===
Cyclopentan tank by LIEBHERR =
Installation of foundation for === === ===
cyclopentan tank by HAIER = = =
Training in Germany ===
=
Delivery of the equipment === ===
= =
Installation of the equipment === === ===
= = =
Delivery of technical documents === === ===
= = =
Time Schedule for the Introduction of Isobutan:

Activity/Months: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Delivery of equipment by LIEBHERR ====
Delivery of technical documents ====
Installation of the equipment ====

8.0 Project Costs

8.1 Investment Costs
The investment costs will cover capital investment costs for modification of
manufacturing facilities, new machinery, materials, testing equipment,
training, installation and consultancy services for modifications. Capital
investment costs are shown in Annexes I and A and B: "Equipment
Specification and Cost Breakdown".
8.2 Total Costs

- Investment costs,
see Annexes I and A and B: "Equipment Specification and Cost
Breakdown".
- For the calculation of the unit abatement cost see Annex C: "Unit
Abatement Cost".
- Requested funding by the MF: DM 3.273.352 ( 2.182.234 US$)
8.3 Redesign of a Reference Model

The costs for the redesign of one reference refrigerator / freezer model will
be part of this project and will be offset against operational costs taken as
10 % of the capital costs (262.252 DM) (see 5.3 Model Redesign)
8.4 Financial Model of the Bilateral Project

Capital Costs of Conversion
Foaming System (I 1) 1.774.670,00 DM 1.183.113,33 $
Refrigerant System (I2) 859.850,00 DM 573.233,33 $
Redesign of Reference Model 262.252,00 DM 174.834,67 $
Subtotal 1 2.896.772,00 DM 1.931.181,33 $
Overheads (13 % of Project Costs) 376.580,36 DM 251.053,57 $
Subtotal 2 3.273.352,36 DM 2.182.234,91 $
Local Costs of Conversion / Contribution of 703.260,00 DM 468.840,00 $
Haier (I 3)
Total Project 3.976.612,36 DM 2.651.074,91 $
Total Funding by Bilateral MP Mechanism 3.273.352,36 DM 2.182.234,91 $

The BMZ/ GTZ, Germany claims the capital costs for equipment and
installation for cyclopentan foaming, equipment and installation for the
change-over to isobutan technology, adapting one refrigerator/ freezer
model to hydrocarbon technology, the technical training of the personal etc.
and the resulting GTZ overheads for planning and surveying the conversion
process as presented in this project description to be acknowledged by the
ECM of the MF as a bilateral contribution of Germany
Cost estimated of a German bilateral project in China:

Cost Breakdown
I. 1. Replacement in the Refrigeration System :
Specifications Total Amount

Vacuum stand 2x 204.100,00 DM 136.066,67 $
Filling stand 1x 130.340,00 DM 86.893,33 $
Pressure booster 31.440,00 DM 20.960,00 $
Ultrasonic welding 80.730,00 DM 53.820,00 $
Leak detection 54.440,00 DM 36.293,33 $
Safety control for final assembly 198.500,00 DM 132.333,33 $
After-sales service 3.300,00 DM 2.200,00 $
Packing 6.000,00 DM 4.000,00 $
C+F 6.000,00 DM 4.000,00 $
Engineering incl. TÜV 40.000,00 DM 26.666,67 $
Erection personnel foreign experts (65 man- 50.000,00 DM 33.333,33 $
days à 730.00)
Air tickets 35.000,00 DM 23.333,33 $
Accommodation / daily allowance 15.000,00 DM 10.000,00 $
Erection personnel local experts (100 man- 5.000,00 DM 3.333,33 $
days à 50.00)
Total 859.850,00 DM 573.233,33 $
I. 2. Replacement in the Foam System :

Specifications Total Amount
Machinery, equipment, materials, fittings, 1.217.570,00 DM 811.713,33 $
safety control and devices to phase out CFC
and FC foaming plants
Engineering, know-how, TÜV inspection 300.000,00 DM 200.000,00 $
Installation, commissioning, training 257.100,00 DM 171.400,00 $
Total value 1.774.670,00 DM 1.183.113,33 $
I. 3. Local Cost of Conversion :
cyclopentan foaming
1. installation of C-P conveying device (4 sets) 46.800,00 DM 31.200,00 $
2. construction for C-P premix room 54.000,00 DM 36.000,00 $
3. technology adjustment around foaming line 93.600,00 DM 62.400,00 $
4. construction for safety storage space of C-P 180.000,00 DM 120.000,00 $
subtotal 374.400,00 DM 249.600,00 $
installation and adjustment fee (domestic) 36.000,00 DM 24.000,00 $

others (5% of subtotal) 18.720,00 DM 12.480,00 $
isobutan R600 as refrigerant

1 . pipe line and container for conveying R600 a 46.800,00 DM 31.200,00 $
(2 sets)
2. construction for safety storage space of R600 72.000,00 DM 48.000,00 $
a
6. improvement for assembly line as per new 90.000,00 DM 60.000,00 $
technology
7. segregating for vacuum filling and welding 18.000,00 DM 12.000,00 $
station of R600 a
subtotal 226.800,00 DM 151.200,00 $
installation and adjustment fee (domestic) 36.000,00 DM 24.000,00 $

others (5% of subtotal) 11.340,00 DM 7.560,00 $
total 703.260,00 DM 468.840,00 $
GTZ Yearbook 1995 Application Form 239
11. Application Form Hydrocarbon Technology

Suggested application form by Worldbank (origin C. Catanach, Worldbank
Consultant, August 1995)
____________________________________________________________
_____
MONTREAL PROTOCOL ON SUBSTANCES

THAT DEPLETE THE OZONE LAYER
PROJECT COVER SHEET
COUNTRY ___________________
SECTORS COVERED Domestic Refrigeration
ODS CONSUMPTION IN SECTOR ____ MT CFC-12 (1995)
PROJECT TITLE Conversion of Refrigerator Manufacture from CFC-12 to

Isobutane Refrigerant.
PROJECT DURATION _____ years
PROJECT ECONOMIC LIFE 15 years
PROJECT IMPACT ____ MT per year CFC-12 & ___

MT per year CFC?
PROJECT BUDGET
Total Investment Cost159: US$
Contingency 10%: US$
Incremental Operating Costs US$
Total Project Cost US$
Company Contribution US$
Financial Agent Fee (3%): US$
Proposed OTF Grant: US$
159 Total Investment Cost is net of salvage value for replaced equipment
PROPOSED GRANT160 US$
GRANT COST EFFECTIVENESS _____ $/kg. ODS
IMPLEMENTING ENTERPRISE _________
IMPLEMENTING AGENCY The World Bank
NATIONAL COORDINATING
AGENCY _______________
PROJECT SUMMARY
This project will lead to replacement of ___ MT per year CFC-12 with
Isobutane refrigerant in household refrigerators manufactured by
_________ , the __th largest manufacturer of commercial and domestic
refrigerators in ____ with a market share of approx. ___%. In Phase 1 of
the project, detailed engineering, product development and lab and field
testing of ___ units produced under factory conditions, will be conducted to
prove the effectiveness of design changes and define full firm project scope
for full conversion of the full factory output to Isobutane during Phase 2.
This project covers the full estimate project cost for Phases 1 and 2, and
includes incremental operating costs. The project is supported by a
technology agreement with an international producer, ______, which has
completed its conversion to Isobutane refrigerant and has assisted other
producers with their conversions. There will be no request for additional
funds to complete the ODS phaseout at ___.
TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT: The project has been reviewed and
supported by ________, OORG Expert in Refrigeration. (Rev. 8/27/95)
160 The grant is based on 100% _____ ownership and includes a 3% financial agent fee. A 15%
contingency is included in the estimates of incremental capital costs
PROJECT OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this project are to establish a phased introduction of

proven and useful technology for Isobutane refrigerant at ___________
and to completely phaseout the use of CFC-12 in the manufacture of new
refrigerators/freezers.
SECTOR BACKGROUND
Table-1
_____ - ODS Consumption in Domestic Refrigeration (1994)
(metric tons)
CFC-11 CFC-12
Insulating Foam - New Refrigerators

Refrigerant - New Refrigerators
Refrigerant - Service Old Refrigerators
Total - Domestic Refrigeration
In 1995, ____’s domestic refrigeration sector consumed ____ MT CFCs,

___% of the CFC consumption in the country. The major CFC application
was CFC-11 blowing agent used to generate the insulation foam in
refrigerator cabinets (_____ MT). New refrigerators accounted for a total
of _____ MT CFC usage. Appproximately ____MT is used in the sector to
replace refrigerant in the fleet of existing CFC12 refrigerators during
servicing operations..
_____ is a ____ manufacturer of Refrigerators in ____. At present, there are

____ other manufacturers with about ___ refrigerator and ___ freezer
production lines and an annual capacity of __ million units. In addition,
there are __ production lines for compressors with an annual capacity of __
million units. Refrigerator production capacity utilization in 1994 was __% .
Actual production of new refrigerators and freezers is forecast to reach __
million units in 1995. Production has increased __% per year since 1990 as
economic conditions continue to improve and consumers acquire additional
discretionary income. Currently, __% of housholds in ____ are estimated
to have a conventional refrigerator. A total of __ million units are estimated
to have been in service at the beginning of 1995. Refrigerator life
averages about 20-25 years during which refrigerant is replaced every ___
years.
Phaseout of CFC use in the domestic refrigerator sector will require
integration of new technologies for non-ODS foams and refrigerants, and
compressor designs to accomodate the different properties of refrigerants

and foam blowing agent while sustaining energy efficiency and overall
mechanical performance.
The National Strategy as defined in the ____ Country Program and

Domestic Refrigerator Sector Strategy will concentrate on (tie in Action
Plan to show a coordinated approach to phaseout of all CFC use in sector).
A summary of all ODS phaseout projects within ____’s domestic

refrigeration sector is presented Table 2 which follows::
Table 2
_____ - Domestic Refrigeraton Sector Refrigerator Projects
Company ODS Project Products Capa- Imple- Stat-

Phaseout Type city ment- us
(MT) (units/ ing
yr) Agency
________ _ MT Replace Refrig- ___,000
CFC11 CFC11 erators
Blowing Freezers
Agent with
________
__
________ _ MT Replace Refrigerat
CFC12 CFC12 ors
with Freezers
_______
Refrig-
erant
ENTERPRISE BACKGROUND
(Full Company Name) is a 100% (State/Private) owned

company,[ or ___% owned by _________, a major _____manufacturer, and
___% owned _______________]. ___________ first produced refrigerators
designed by ________in ________ and subsequently developed its own
designs. ___________ currently produces refrigerators, ___________, and
other domestic appliances ?. ___________ has strong trade name
recognition within _________ and is noted for _____________. It has a
research and development facility equipped with ____climate control
chambers and ____calorimeters (?) well suited for testing of new
refrigerators and compressors with minor upgrading of measuring
equipment.
The ___________ factory is located in _______________ ( ___ km from

_____) The location (describe special characteristics of the site e.g.
entitles the company to import foreign made components duty free or
located near ????). A total of _____ employees are engaged in
refrigerator production.
The factory is capable of producing __________ refrigerators annually

based on ____ shift operation. ___________ produce ___ refrigerator
models and export about ____% of their total production to
______________________, and other __________customers. [ Present
statistics on production of various models in 1995 and calculate the average
CFC-12 charge size based on the model mix]
The ________ factory consists of ___ manufacturing lines with full

instantaneous capacities of ___ refrigerators per hour. The factory operates
____ days per year on a two shift basis. Total annual capacity is
_________ refrigerators and _____ freezers. There are ___ CFC charging
stations per manufacturing line. (Fully describe the age, type, model no. of
equipment tobe replaced and/or modified). Repairs of defective units is
accomplished (in a separate repair line/by recycle following off-line repair).
___________ also operate a network of ______ shops for servicing

refrigeration equipment throughout _________ .
In 199(?), ___________ produced ___% of the refrigerators sold in ____.

Actual and forecast production are illustrated in Table 3 for the period 1990-
1997
Table 3
Actual and Forecast Refrigerator Production at ___________________
Actual Forecast
Year 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
Refrigerators Produced (000
Units)
[Describe technology agreement content, for example]
On _____, _____ signed an agreement with __________ for technical

support in the transition to Isobutane refrigerant. This agreement includes
provision of (e.g.drawings and manufacturing procedures, a parts
schedule, assistance with achieving quality control, and testing of ’s
test manufactured refrigerator units) (Annex E). The agreement also
includes provisions for training _______technicians and supervision in
safety and quality control and will assure safe operation of the facility.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION.
The project will accomplish phaseout of CFC12 used as

refrigerant in domestic refrigerators produced by ___________ in two
phases.
Phase I Engineering, product development and testing under

local conditions to establish basic data for full conversion to Cyclopentane
foam blowing.
Phase II Full conversion of the ___________ facilities to

Isobutane
During Phase 1, over 500 refrigerators will be produced under

factory conditions to prove the viability of refrigerant circuit designs provided
by ______. Existing testing facilities to be used by ___________ include
_____________________________________________________, and
_____________________. [Describe the equipment to be
installed/modified/replaced during Phase 1 and the equipment to be
installed later in Phase 2].
Consultations will be arranged with local and foreign experts to

instruct ___________ engineers and technicians in the design, testing and
manufacturing procedures for safe handling of Isobutane. At the conclusion

of Phase 1, a feasibility study will be prepared for full conversion of
refrigerator manufacturing to Isobutane refrigerant. Based on the feasibility
study results, a detailed cost estimate will be prepared and project planning
will be reviwed and revised to accomodate Phase 1 findings before
committing to completion Phase 2. Some of the elements of Phase 2 will be
completed during Phase 1 in order to assure safe operation during the test
production period.
The objective of Phase 1 will be to produce ___ test

refrigerators ( ___ each of __ models) without incurring the full conversion
cost for the plant facility. It will only be possible to effectively complete
Phase 1 of the project by purchase of some special explosion proof
equipment and installing it in a protected area of the plant where the test
quantitiy of refrigerators are to be produced. Special provisions will be
made for safe supply of Isobutane to the test manufacturing area. Phase 1
will demonstrate the effectiveness of the refrigerator design and provide
operating experience and will establish proper procedures for safe handling
of Isobutane.
A feasibility study, made at the conclusion of Phase 1, will

confirm the effectiveness of the refrigerator design and may introduce
specific modifications to accomodate local conditions prior to full operation.
Concurrent with Phase 1, perparations will be made for a full

conversion of the plant facility to Isobutane refrigerant. These will include
the design of facilities and the purchase and installation of plant facilities.
The installation will be conducted without interruption of production. Phase
2 will complete the full conversion of ___________ refrigerator facilities to
Isobutane within 6 months of the completion of Phase 1.
The ______ Company has been selected as the technology

supplier and will assure the safe operation of the facility. A full safety audit
will be conducted before introducing Isobutane into plant facilities. Training
activities will include the following:
Managenment and Production Control

Production Quality Control
Equipment Operation Safety Rules
Equipment Maintenance
Refrigerant Technology
Safe Handling Practices and Procedures for Isobutane
A total of ___ persons will undertake the training. Insofar as it is

possible to do so, the training will be conducted in conjunction with the
conversion of foaming facilities to Cyclopentane.
JUSTIFICATION FOR SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY
Isobutane is gaining full acceptance as a refrigerant for domestic

refrigerators. It has a zero ODP and negligible GWP. It can also be used
without changing the compressor lubricant, mineral oil and is not sensitive to
minor contamination. German manufacturers have completed conversion
70% of their refrigerator manufacturing to Isobutane refrigerant and expect
to be fully converted by mid 1996. These include, Liebherr, Bosch-Siemens,
Whirlpool, Electrolux, and others.
The primary shortcoming of Isobutane is its flammability. As flammable

materials are not currently handled in refrigerator/freezer manufacturing,
special provisions must be made to equip the plant facility with explosion-
proof devices and related equipment and to train workers in safe operating
procedures. Special detector equipment and forced ventilation of plant
equipment will be needed to avoid accumulation of dangerous quantities of
cyclopentane in the operating area. It will also be necessary to train the
service sector to identify the refrigerant contained in the unit being serviced
and to take proper safety precautions and to use the proper refrigerant
charging facility.
A more costly (exclusive of safety facilities) option would be to use non-

flammable HFC134a which requires special handling facilities to prevent
contamination with soils or moisture during refrigerator manufacture.
Service sector training will require identification of refrigerant as both
refrigerants are likely to be used by industry.
PROJECT COST
The total project cost is estimated to be US$_____,000 including a 10%

contingency to cover supplemental scope development as the project
matures.
A breakdown of incremental capital costs included in the OTF grant request

is given in Annex A.
INCREMENTAL OPERATING COST

Incremental operating costs for 6 months $_______ are included in the

project. (Annex C).
UNIT ABATEMENT COST (UAC) & COST EFFECTIVENESS (CE)

As shown in Annex D, the UAC for the ODS phaseout project
is US$ x.xx per kg ODP and the CE is $x.xx per ODP-weighted kg of ODS
phased out per year based on non-safety related project costs.
PROPOSED GRANT
The proposed grant request is US$_____,000 is based on 100%

_________ ian ownershhip of ___________ and covers the incremental
capital costs for Phases 1 and 2 of the project , including a 10% contingency
cost and a 3% fee for the financial agent administering the project.
FINANCIAL AND ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS:

Economic Rate of Return (ERR)
The ERR for the project will be determined during project appraisal.
Financial Rate of Return (FRR)
The FFR for the project will be determined during project appraisal.
Financial status of the enterprise

To be completed at appraisal
Financing plan
To be completed at the appraisal
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
The project will be implemented by ________ with assistance from _____.
The proposed implementation schedule (Annex E) assumes approval during
___Q94; with completion of Phase 1 by ___ and Phase 2 by ____..
PROJECT RESULTS
Direct Benefits
Table 4
ODS Savings as the Result of this project
Year 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
(Tons CFC/yr)
Continue CFCs
Implement Project
Net ODS Saved
Based on the pase 12 months of operation, ODS savings amount to

_____MT.
Indirect Benefits
(Describe other significant benefits indirectly related to ODS savings)
ENTERPRISE COMMITMENT
___________ is committed to the full phaseout of CFCs used in
the manufacture of their commercial and domestic refrigerators and
freezers. [ cite recent policy announcements, board actions, etc. illustrating
commitment ]
TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT:
This subproject has been reviewed and supported by the OORG technical
reviewer, ___________. His comments are attached together with
supplementary information pertaining to the review
RESPONSE TO OORG TECHNICAL REVIEW COMMENTS
[ Detail specific comments and suggestions made during the OORG review
of the project and indicate what adjustments have been or have not been
made in the project as a result of the OORG review]
Annex A
INVESTMENT COST SUMMARY

(Costs are 000 US$)
Phase I Safety Total Project

Cost Cost
Storage Facilities
Temporary Isobutane Storage Site 46
One (1) Air Operated Isobutane Delivery Pump 46 52
Installation 52 69
Production Line Facility 59
Filling Station for Isobutane (Mass Flow) 112
Ventilation Facility for Charging Area 20 15
2 Leak Detectors and related Safety Equipment 15 18
(for monitoring area fumes) 18 21
1 Halogen Leak Detector 11
Temporary Piping for Gases --- 11
Electrical Facilities 5 10
Engineering Design & Consulations 5 15
Test manufacture 50 Refrigerators (@US$200 per --- 10
unit) --- 10
Feasibility Study Preparation --- ---.
Technology Transfer Agreement (see Annex E for ---
details) 400
220
SUB-TOTAL
Phase I I
62
Permanent Facilities for Plant 62 52
Permanent Isbutane Storage Site (inc site 52 16
preparation) 11
1 Additional Air Operated Isobutane Delivery Pump 130
Additional Engineering Design 125
SUB-TOTAL 59
--- 10
Permanent Facilities for each line (80,00 units/year) 5 20
Helium Leak Detector (for pretest of refrigerators). 20 11
Complete Installation of Electrical System 2 16
Complete Installation of Ventilation System 16 4
Complete Installation of Piping System 2

Complete Installation of Leak Detectors and related 120
safety equipment 50
Additional Engineering Design
SUB-TOTAL
TOTAL INCREMENTAL CAPITAL COST

(assume 4 Lines @ 320,000 units/year + 10% $600 $1,110
Contingency)
Annex B
Justification for Equipment Required
Item Description Justification Approx.

No. Cost**
(000$)
1.1 Temporary Isobutane A safe storage area for Isobutane 30-50
Storage is required. For large
installations, this can be a
semidetached structure adjacent
to the production facility. Smaller
installations can function with 11-
33 kg cylinders mounted in an
area protected from contact with
moving equipment. All
installations should be
safeguarded with fume detectors.
1.2 Air Operated Isobutane A delivery pump designed for 50-60
Delivery Pump handling flammable material is
required. Pneuematic pumps
without electrical contacts or
relays are preferred.
1.3 Installation of pump and The installation must be made 65-80
storage facility. within standard guidelines for
handling flammable materials.
2.1 Isobutane Metering A mass flow system for metering 100-120
System precise quantities of isobutane to
each refrigerator is required.
While mass flow devices are
preferred because of simplicity,
accuracy, and absence of

electrical relays, volumetric
devices can also be used.
2.2 Ventilation Facility for The area in which isobutane is 10-20
Charging Area metered into refrigerators must
be equipped with a ventilation
system designed to prevent
accumulation of fumes.
2.3 Safety Equipment and An integrated system for 15-25
Leak Detectors. monitoring and alarming fume
conditions in the charging and
storage areas is required to avoid
fires within the production line.
2.4 Halogen Leak Detector Require for testing refrigerators 10-15
2.5 Temporary Piping Required if project is Phased.10-20
Otherwise not required.
2.6 Electrical Facilities Required 10-15
2.7 Engineering Design and Required to assure safe 15-25
Consultations performance
2.8 Test Manufacture of 50 Required to prove the adequacy 10-15
refrigerators of designs and facilities in Phase
approach
2.9 Feasibility Study Required to integrate experience10-15
of test manufacture into final
design
3.0 Technology Transfer Depends on situation and --
Agreement existing technology agreements.
4.1 Permanent Isobutane A semidetached storage facility is60-80
Storage preferred, however, several
manufacturers operate with
bottled gas adjacent to the
production line
4.2 Air Operated Pump A spare air operated pump is 50-60
required to a permanent facility to
sustain operations during
preventative maintenance or
pump failure. (Can be common
spare)
4.3 Additional Engineering To complete permanent 15-20
Design installation
5.1* Helium Leak Detector For pretest of refrigerator circuit 55-60
prior to charging with isobutane.
This improves overall reliability by

10fold reduction in units which
need to be reworked.
5.2* Complete Installation of Required 40-60
Permanent Electrical,
Ventilation, and Piping
systems
5.3* Additional Leak Required 10-15
Detectors and related
safety equipment
5.4* Additional Engineering Required 10-15
Design
5.5* Ultrasonic Welding Unit ??? 40-50
Total Project Cost 600-800
(000$)
* Basis is one line with capacity of 80,000 units per year.

** Costs are actual and based on 1.5DM/$US. They must be factored
to secure true cost.
Annex C
ESTIMATION OF INCREMENTAL OPERATING COSTS
The incremental operation costs for the transition from CFC-12

to Isobutane relate to the added costs for individual key components,
primarily the compressor, and to the ongoing cost for maintenance and
sustaining safe work practices. A summary to the increased costs for these
components for a single average refrigerator is as follows:
Component Justification CFC-12 Isobutane

Refrigerant Refrigerant
($/Unit) ($/Unit)
Compressor Use Same Compressor and Oil
Refrigerant CFC12 Price = $ ____/kg

(___ grams/avg. unit)
Isobutane Price= $ ____/kg

(____ grams/avg. unit)
Maintenance @ 5% of Inc. Equipment Investment ----- 0.15

/Production
Total
Incremental Operating Cost (6 months) = ________ units/yr x ( delta

$/unit) x 1/2
Annex D
CALCULATION OF UNIT ABATEMENT COST & COST EFFECTIVENESS

Estimated Costs in US Dollars
A. ODS SAVINGS:
Average use of CFC-12 per year xx MT

Average use of CFCs -Other Projects xx MT
ODP of CFC-12 & Other 1.0
Total ODP weighted savings xx MT
B. ANNUALIZED CAPITAL COST:
Total from annex 1: $ xx,xxx

Total Other ODS Phaseout Projects $ xx,xxx
Project life: 15 years
Discount rate: 10%
Annualized capital cost: $ xx,xxx
C. ANNUAL INCREMENTAL OPERATING COST:

All Projects $ xx,xxx
D. UNIT ABATEMENT COST:

Unit Cost per kg
Cost per year ODP Saved
Annualized Capital Cost - Both Projects $xx,xxx $x.xx

Annual Incremental Operating Cost -
This Project $xx,xxx $x.xx
Total Unit Abatement Cost ($/kg) $x.xx
E. COST EFFECTIVENESS:
Bases:
Project for Domestic Refrigeration Foam $ xxx,000
Total Investment Cost - This Project $ xxx,000
Incremental Operating Costs - This Project $ xxx,000
Safety Related Costs - This Project $ xxx,000
Cost Effectiveness
($/kg ODP)
Total All Projects

($x,xxx,000+$xxx,000)/xxx,000 $xx.xx
Total Exclusive of Safety Related Costs

($x,xxx,000+$xxx,000)/xxx,000 $ xx.xx
Annex E
IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
From To
Phase 1
Train Technicians and Engineers
Install Facilities
Test Manufacture 500 Refrigerators
Conduct Lab and Field Tests
Prepare Feasibility Study
Phase 2
Convert Full Manufacturing to Isobutane

Annex F
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AGREEMENT
On ________ , and ___________concluded a technical collaboration

agreement for manufacture of refrigerators by ___________ in _________
. Under the terms of this agreement, ______ will provide ___________ .
The agreement will be valid for __years and requires a payment of

________ on the following payment schedule.
1995 -
1996 -
1997 -
[Include other pertinent details of the agreement which illustrate the full
extent of services to be provided by the technology supplier]
Annex G
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
[ Description of all key environmental issues pertaining to implemention of

the project, permits needed, disposition of wastes, control of emissions,
existing regulations, energy efficiency, etc. ]
Annex H
CONFIDENTIAL
ENGINEERING SUPPLEMENT
DO NOT COPY
[ This Annex is included to assist the OORG reviewer with his assessment
of the project and is to be considered confidential as it may contain sensitive
information not suitable for circulation to competitive enterprises]
This section should include justification and general specifications for each
major equipment piece included in the Investment Summary. Vendor
quotations should be included for each item in excess of US$50,000.
The training program for engineers, operators and mechanics should be

described in detail. Costs to be born by the enterprise should be clearly
identified.
Supplemental information should also be included to illustrate the optimum

use of existing facilities and the disposition and salvage value of any
obsolete facilities and equipment,
12. Application Form Cyclopentan Technology

Suggested application form by Worldbank (origin C. Catanach, Worldbank
Consultant, August 1995)
____________________________________________________________
_____
MONTREAL PROTOCOL ON SUBSTANCES

THAT DEPLETE THE OZONE LAYER
PROJECT COVER SHEET
COUNTRY ___________________
SECTORS COVERED Domestic Refrigeration
ODS CONSUMPTION IN ____ MT CFC-11 (1995)
SECTOR
PROJECT TITLE Conversion of Refrigerator Manufacture from
CFC-11 to Cyclopentane Foaming Agent.
PROJECT DURATION _____ years
PROJECT ECONOMIC LIFE 15 years
PROJECT IMPACT ____ MT per year CFC-11 & ___ MT per
year CFC?
PROJECT BUDGET
Total Investment Cost161: US$
Contingency 10%: US$
Incremental Operating Costs US$
Total Project Cost US$
Company Contribution US$
Financial Agent Fee (3%): US$
Proposed OTF Grant: US$
PROPOSED GRANT162 US$
GRANT COST _____ $/kg. ODS
EFFECTIVENESS
161 Total Investment Cost is net of salvage value for replaced equipment
162 The grant is based on 100% _____ ownership and includes a 3% financial agent fee. A 15%
contingency is included in the estimates of incremental capital costs
IMPLEMENTING _________
ENTERPRISE
IMPLEMENTING AGENCY The World Bank
NATIONAL COORDINATING _______________
AGENCY
PROJECT SUMMARY
This project will lead to replacement of ___ MT per year CFC-11 with
Cyclopentane foaming agent in household refrigerators manufactured by
_________ , the __th largest manufacturer of commercial and domestic
refrigerators in ____ with a market share of approx. ___%. In Phase 1 of
the project, detailed engineering, product development and lab and field
testing of 40 units produced under factory conditions, will be conducted to
prove the effectiveness of design changes and define full firm project scope
for full conversion of the full factory output to Cyclopentane during Phase 2.
This project covers the full estimate project cost for Phases 1 and 2, and
includes incremental operating costs. The project is supported by a
technology agreement with an international producer, ______, which has
completed its conversion to Cyclopentane and has assisted other producers
with their conversions. There will be no request for additional funds to
complete the ODS phaseout at ___.
TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT: The project has been reviewed and
supported by ________, OORG Foam Expert.
(Rev. 8/24/95)
PROJECT OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this project are to establish a phased introduction of

proven and useful technology for Cyclopentane Foaming Agent at
___________ and to completely phaseout the use of CFC-11 in the
manufacture of new refrigerators/freezers.
SECTOR BACKGROUND
Table-1
_____ - ODS Consumption in Domestic Refrigeration (1994)
(metric tons)
CFC-11 CFC-12
Insulating Foam - New Refrigerators

Refrigerant - New Refrigerators
Refrigerant - Service Old Refrigerators
Total - Domestic Refrigeration
In 1995, ____’s domestic refrigeration sector consumed ____ MT CFCs,

___% of the CFC consumption in the country. The major CFC application
was CFC-11 blowing agent used to generate the insulation foam in
refrigerator cabinets (_____ MT). New refrigerators accounted for a total
of _____ MT CFC usage. Appproximately ____Mtis used in the sector to
replace refrigerant in the fleet of existing CFC12 refrigerators during
servicing operations..
_____ is a ____ manufacturer of Refrigerators in ____. At present, there are

____ other manufacturers with about ___ refrigerator and ___ freezer
production lines and an annual capacity of __ million units. In addition,
there are __ production lines for compressors with an annual capacity of __
million units. Refrigerator production capacity utilization in 1994 was __% .
Actual production of new refrigerators and freezers is forecast to reach __
million units in 1995. Production has increased __% per year since 1990 as
economic conditions continue to improve and consumers acquire additional
discretionary income. Currently, __% of housholds in ____ are estimated
to have a conventional refrigerator. A total of __ million units are estimated
to have been in service at the beginning of 1995. Refrigerator life
averages about 20-25 years during which refrigerant is replaced every ___
years.
Phaseout of CFC use in the domestic refrigerator sector will require

integration of new technologies for non-ODS foams and refrigerants, and
compressor designs to accomodate the different properties of refrigerants
and foam blowing agent while sustaining energy efficiency and overall
mechanical performance.
The National Strategy as defined in the ____ Country Program and

Domestic Refrigerator Sector Strategy will concentrate on (tie in Action
Plan to show a coordinated approach to phaseout of all CFC use in sector).
A summary of all ODS phaseout projects within ____’s domestic

refrigeration sector is presented Table 2 which follows::
Table 2
_____ - Domestic Refrigeraton Sector Refrigerator Projects
Company ODS Project Type Products Capacity Imple- Status

Phaseout (units/yr) menting
(MT) Agency
________ _ MT CFC11 Replace Refrigerators ____,000
CFC11 Freezers
Blowing
Agent with
__________
________ _ MT CFC12 Replace Refrigerators
CFC12 withFreezers
_______
Refrigerant
ENTERPRISE BACKGROUND
(Full Company Name) is a 100% (State/Private) owned

company,[ or ___% owned by _________, a major _____manufacturer, and
___% owned _______________]. ___________ first produced refrigerators
designed by ________in ________ and subsequently developed its own
designs. ___________ currently produces refrigerators, ___________, and
other domestic appliances ?. ___________ has strong trade name
recognition within _________ and is noted for _____________. It has a
research and development facility equipped with ____climate control
chambers and ____calorimeters(?) well suited for testing of new
refrigerators and compressors with minor upgrading of measuring
equipment.
The ___________ factory is located in _______________ ( ___ km from

_____) The location (describe special characteristics of the site e.g.
entitles the company to import foreign made components duty free or
located near ????). A total of _____ employees are engaged in
refrigerator production.
The factory is capable of producing __________ refrigerators annually

based on ____ shift operation. ___________ produce ___ refrigerator
models and export about ____% of their total production to
______________________, and other __________customers. [ Give
statistics on production of various models in 1995 and calculate the average
CFC-11 charge size based on the model mix]
The ________ factory consists of ___ manufacturing lines with full

instantaneous capacities of ___ refrigerators per hour. The factory operates
____ days per year on a two shift basis. Total annual capacity is
_________ refrigerators and _____ freezers. (Fully describe the age, type,
model no. of equipment tobe replaced and/or modified).
Repairs of defective units is accomplished (in a separate repair line/by

recycle following off-line repair).
___________ also operate a network of ______ shops for servicing
refrigeration equipment throughout _________ .
In 199(?), ___________ produced ___% of the refrigerators sold in ____.

Actual and forecast production are illustrated in Table 3 for the period 1990-
1997
.
Table 3
Actual and Forecast Refrigerator Production at ___________________
Actual Forecast
Year 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98
Refriger-
ators
Produced
(000 Units)
[Describe technology agreement content, for example]

On _____, _____ signed an agreement with __________ for technical
support in the transition to Cyclopentane Foaming Agent. This agreement
includes provision of (e.g.drawings and manufacturing procedures, a parts
schedule, assistance with achieving quality control, and testing of ’s
test manufactured refrigerator units) (Annex F. The agreement also
includes provisions for training _______technicians and supervision in
safety and quality control and will assure safe operation of the facility.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION.
The project will accomplish phaseout of CFC11 used as the

foaming agent in domestic refrigerator insulation produced by
___________ in two phases.
Phase I Engineering, product development and testing under

local conditions to establish basic data for full conversion to Cyclopentane
foam blowing.
Phase II Full conversion of the ___________ facilities to

Cyclopentane foam blowing.
During Phase 1, 40 refrigerators will be produced under factory

conditions to prove the viability of manufacturing plant designs provided by
______. Existing testing facilities to be used by ___________ include
_____________________________________________________, and
_____________________. [Describe the equipment to be
installed/modified/replaced during Phase 1 and the equipment to be
installed later in Phase 2].
Consultations will be arranged with local and foreign experts to

instruct ___ engineers and technicians in the design, testing and
manufacturing procedures for safe handling of Cyclopentane. At the
conclusion of Phase 1, a feasibility study will be prepared for full conversion
of refrigerator manufacturing to Cyclopentane Foaming Agent. Based on
the feasibility study results, a detailed cost estimate will be prepared and
project planning will be reviwed and revised to accomodate Phase 1
findings before committing to completion Phase 2. Some of the elements of
Phase 2 will be completed during Phase 1 in order to assure safe operation
during the test production period.
The objective of Phase 1 will be to produce 40 test refrigerators

without incurring the full conversion cost for the plant facility. It will only be
possible to effectively complete Phase 1 of the project by purchase of some
special explosion proof equipment and installing it in a protected area of the
plant where the test quantitiy of refrigerators are to be produced. Special
provisions will be made for safe supply of Cyclopentane to the test
manufacturing area. Phase 1 will demonstrate the effectiveness of the
refrigerator insulation and provide operating experience and will establish
proper procedures for safe handling of Cyclopentane.
A feasibility study, made at the conclusion of Phase 1, will

confirm the effectiveness of the refrigerator design and may introduce
specific modifications to accomodate local conditions prior to full operation.
Concurrent with Phase 1, perparations will be made for a full

conversion of the plant facility to Cyclopentane Foaming Agent. These will
include the design of facilities and the purchase and installation of plant
facilities. The installation will be conducted without interruption of
production. Phase 2 will complete the full conversion of ___________
refrigerator facilities to Cyclopentane within ___ months of the completion of
Phase 1.
The ______ Company has been selected as the technology

supplier and will assure the safe operation of the facility. A full safety audit
will be conducted before introducing cyclopentane into plant facilities.
Training activities will include the following:
Managenment and Production Control

Production Quality Control
Equipment Operation Safety Rules
Equipment Maintenance
Refrigerant Technology
Safe Handling Practices and Procedures for Flammable Cyclopentane
A total of ___ persons will undertake the training.

JUSTIFICATION FOR SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY
Cyclopentane is gaining full acceptance as a foam blowing agent for

domestic refrigerator insulation. It has a zero ODP and GWP. German
manufacturers have completed conversion of their refrigerator
manufacturing to Cyclopentane Foaming Agent. These enterprises include
Liebherr, Bosch-Siemens, Whirlpool, and Electrolux.
The primary shortcoming of Cyclopentane is its flammability. As flammable

materials are not currently handled in refrigerator/freezer manufacturing,
special provisions must be made to equip the plant facility with explosion-
proof devices and related equipment and to train workers in safe operating
procedures. Special detector equipment and forced ventilation of plant
equipment will be needed to avoid accumulation of dangerous quantities of
cyclopentane in the operating area. It will also be necessary to train the
service sector to identify the refrigerant contained in the unit being serviced
and to take proper safety precautions and to use the proper refrigerant
charging facility.
A less costly option would be to use HCFC141b which does not require
significant new plant investment, however, HCFC141b has an ODP of 0.1,
is a transitional material and must eventually be replaced with a nonODS
material.
The company has decided to make the full conversion to a nonODS
foaming agent at this time rather than in two steps.
PROJECT COST
The total project cost is estimated to be US$_____,000 including a 10%

contingency to cover supplemental scope development as the project
matures.
A breakdown of incremental capital costs included in the OTF grant request

is given in Annex A.
INCREMENTAL OPERATING COST
Incremental operating costs for 6 months operation estimated at

$_____(Annex C) are included in the project.
UNIT ABATEMENT COST (UAC) & COST EFFECTIVENESS (CE)
As shown in Annex D, the UAC for the ODS phaseout project

is US$ x.xx per kg ODP and the CE is $x.xx per ODP-weighted kg of ODS
phased out per year based on non-safety related project costs.
PROPOSED GRANT
The proposed grant request is US$_____,000 is based on 100%

_________ ian ownershhip of ___________ and covers the incremental
capital costs for Phases 1 and 2 of the project , including a 10% contingency
cost and a 3% fee for the financial agent administering the project.
FINANCIAL AND ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS:
Economic Rate of Return (ERR)

The ERR for the project will be determined during project appraisal.
Financial Rate of Return (FRR)

The FFR for the project will be determined during project appraisal.
Financial status of the enterprise

To be completed at appraisal
Financing plan
To be completed at the appraisal
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
The project will be implemented by ________ with assistance
from _____. The proposed implementation schedule (Annex E) assumes
approval during ___Q94; with completion of Phase 1 by ___ and Phase 2
by ____..
PROJECT RESULTS
Direct Benefits
Table 4
ODS Savings as the Result of this project
(Tons CFC/yr) 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99
Continue CFCs
Implement
Project
Net ODS Saved
Based on performance over the past 12 months, ODS savings amount to

_____MT.
Indirect Benefits
(Describe other significant benefits indirectly related to ODS savings)
ENTERPRISE COMMITMENT
___________ is committed to the full phaseout of CFCs used in

the manufacture of their commercial and domestic refrigerators and
freezers. [ cite recent policy announcements, board actions, etc. illustrating
commitment ]
TECHNICAL ASSESSMENT:
This subproject has been reviewed and supported by the OORG technical
reviewer, ___________. His comments are attached together with
supplementary information pertaining to the review
RESPONSE TO OORG TECHNICAL REVIEW COMMENTS
[ Detail specific comments and suggestions made during the OORG review
of the project and indicate what adjustments have been or have not been
made in the project as a result of the OORG review]
Annex A
_________ CYCLOPENTANE FOAMING FACILITY INVESTMENT COST

(Costs are 000 US$)
EQUIPMENT COST
Storage Facilities
Cyclopentane Storage Tank (___ liter)
Pumps and detectors
Fire Protection
Monitoring Unit
Cabinet Foaming Unit

__ Preheating Oven Modification
__ New High Pressure Foaming Machines and/or
__ Retrofit kits for existing HiPressure Foaming Machines
__ Mixing Stations
__ Cooling System for metering unit
__ Gas Detection Systems
__ Alarms and control board
__ Suction Box
Door Foaming Unit

__ Foaming Fixture replacement/modification
__ Fixture Rotating System
__ Unloading/loading/pouring station
__ Electrical controls and testing
__ Metering Unit
__ Injection Head
__ Chiller
Safety Controls
Premixing Facilities
Cyclopentane Intermediate Storage Tank and Facility
Premix Unit
Chiller
Other
__ Rebuilt Foaming Jigs and Plugs
__ Explosion-Proofing of Electrical Furnace
__ sq. ft. Antistatic Floor
Exhaust and Ventilation System
Fire Protection System Modifications
Back-up Power Supply for Gas detectors and ventilators
Packaging and Shipping
Commissioning SAFETY RELATED COST
TOTAL COST
TOTAL INCREMENTAL EQUIPMENT COST
(assume _ Lines @ xxx,000 units/year + 10% Contingency)
Annex A (cont)
_________ CYCLOPENTANE FOAMING FACILITY INVESTMENT COST

(Costs are 000 US$)
EQUIPMENT COST (from previous page)
PROTOTYPE TESTING
(40 Units at $200 per unit)
PROJECT SUBTOTAL
CONSULTATION ON DESIGN
SAFETY TRAINING OF OPERATORS & SUPERVISION
SAFETY INSPECTION OF COMPLETED FACILITY
PROJECT CAPITAL COST

CONTINGENCY (10%)
SCRAP VALUE OF USED FACILITIES
TOTAL INVESTMENT COST
NET NON-SAFETY RELATED COST SAFETY RELATED COST

TOTAL COST
Annex B
________ CYCLOPENTANE CONVERSION PROJECT

Justification for Equipment Required
Item No. Description Justification Approx.Cost**

(000$)
1.1 Cyclopentan A (double/single) walled tank with a
e Storage capacity of ___ liters C-Pentane
System will be installed
(aboveground/underground) in
accordance with local safety
requirements. Explosion proof
motor driven transfer pumps will be
used. A monitoring system will be
installed and integrated with the
central plant fire protection system
2.1 Preheating The electrical preheat ovens will be
Oven Modi relocated a sufficient distance from
fication the foaming unit to avoid special
protection.
2.2 Foaming __ (type) Foaming units will be
Unit Modi replaced on this project and __
fication (type) units will be provided with
retrofit kits for use of
cyclopentane. This option is the
most cost effective option for the
project since the units to be
replaced are low-pressure
machines which are not suitable for
retrofit.
2.3 Premixing The existing premix system is
System batch type and not suited for the
use of cyclopentane. Extensive
piping modification will also be

required.
2.4 Cooling (optional)
System
/Chiller
2.5 Gas Gas detectors will be installed as
Detection recommeded by the technology
System supplier to monitor the operating
area for potentially dangerous
fume concentrations. The detectors
will be integrated with alarms and
controls to increase ventilation
and/or to shutdown operations
should excessive fumes be
detected.
2.6 Ventilation/S The premix system will be
uction Boxes enclosed in a ventilated suction
box for fume control. A ventilation
system will be installed over the
foaming area for fume control
during operation.
3.1 Rebuild (optional) The dimensions of the
Foaming refrigerator will be adjusted to
Jigs and sustain energy efficiency lost in the
Plugs conversion to cyclopentane.
3.2 Anti-static An anti-static floor will be installed
floor to minimize the sources of ignition
sources for dangerous
concentration of C-pentane fumes.
3.3 Backup A backup power supply will be
Power installed to assure that the gas
Supply detectors and ventilators function
should power fail during
operations.
Annex C

ESTIMATION OF INCREMENTAL OPERATING COSTS
The incremental operation costs for the transition from CFC-11

to Cyclopentane relate to the added costs for individual key components. A
summary to the increased costs for these components for a single average
refrigerator based on an average foam density increase from 34 kg/m3 to
37 kg/m3 is as follows:
Component Justification CFC- C-

11 pentan
Foam e
($/Un Foam
it) ($/Unit)
Polyol 3.46 kg/unit @ __$/kg for

CFC11 Refrig.
4.24 kg/unit @ __$/kg for
C-Pentane Refrig.
Isocyanate 5.33 kg/unit @ __$/kg for
CFC11Refrig.
5.85 kg/unit @ __$/kg for
C-Pentane Refrig.
Blowing 0.9 kg/unit CFC11 @ __
Agent $/kg
0.47 kg/unit C-Pentane @
__ $/kg
Total
Incremental Operating Cost (6 months) = ________ units/yr x ( delta

$/unit) x 1/2
Annex D

CALCULATION OF UNIT ABATEMENT COST & COST EFFECTIVENESS
Estimated Costs in US Dollars
A. ODS SAVINGS:
Average use of CFC-11 per year xx MT

Average use of CFCs -Other Projects xx MT
ODP of CFC-11 & Other 1.0
Total ODP weighted savings xx MT
B. ANNUALIZED CAPITAL COST:
Total from annex 1: $ xx,xxx

Total Other ODS Phaseout Projects $ xx,xxx
Project life: 15 years
Discount rate: 10%
Annualized capital cost: $ xx,xxx
C. ANNUAL INCREMENTAL OPERATING COST: All Projects $

xx,xxx
D. UNIT ABATEMENT COST:

Unit Cost per kg
Cost per year ODP
Saved
Annualized Capital Cost - Both Projects $xx,xxx

$x.xx
Annual Incremental Operating Cost - This Project $xx,xxx
$x.xx
Total Unit Abatement Cost ($/kg) $x.xx
E. COST EFFECTIVENESS:
Bases:
Project for Domestic Refrigerant $ xxx,000
Total Investment Cost - This Project $ xxx,000
Incremental Operating Costs - This Project $ xxx,000

Safety Related Costs - This Project $ xxx,000
Cost Effectiveness ($/kg
ODP)
Total All Projects

($x,xxx,000+$xxx,000)/xxx,000 $xx.xx
Total Exclusive of Safety Related Costs

($x,xxx,000+$xxx,000)/xxx,000 $ xx.xx
Annex E
IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
From To
Phase 1
Train Technicians and Engineers
Install Facilities
Test Manufacture 40 Refrigerators
Conduct Lab and Field Tests
Prepare Feasibility Study
Phase 2
Convert Full Manufacturing to Cyclopentane
Annex F

On ________ , and ___________concluded a technical collaboration

agreement for manufacture of refrigerators by ___________ in _________
. Under the terms of this agreement, ______ will provide ___________ .
The agreement will be valid for __years and requires a payment of

________ on the following payment schedule.
1995 -
1996 -
1997 -
[Include other pertinent details of the agreement which illustrate the full
extent of services to be provided by the technology supplier]
Annex G
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
[ Description of all key environmental issues pertaining to implemention of

the project, permits needed, disposition of wastes, control of emissions,
existing regulations, energy efficiency, etc. ]
Annex H
CONFIDENTIAL
ENGINEERING SUPPLEMENT
DO NOT COPY
[ This Annex is included to assist the OORG reviewer with his assessment
of the project and is to be considered confidential as it may contain sensitive
information not suitable for circulation to competitive enterprises]
This section should include justification and general specifications for each
major equipment piece included in the Investment Summary. Vendor
quotations should be included for each item in excess of US$50,000.
The training program for engineers, operators and mechanics should be

described in detail. Costs to be born by the enterprise should be clearly
identified.
Supplemental information should also be included to illustrate the optimum

use of existing facilities and the disposition and salvage value of any
obsolete facilities and equipment,
GTZ Yearbook 1995 GTZ Information Service 279
13. GTZ Hydrocarbon Technology Information

Service
Dirk Legatis
HEAT / Household Energy Appropriate Technologies
Consultants for GTZ CFC-Phase-out-Projects
Glashütten / Germany
List of On-line available Files in the Hydrocarbon Technology Mailbox

(Status January 1996)
The Hydrocarbon Technology Mailbox is divided in three parts:
A Short Guided Tour to the GTZ-Mailbox!
You dial our number ++49-6196-79 73 96 through any terminal software of

your PC.
Message
type M!
here you will find a discussion about the use of cyclopentan and isobutan
select message area 1 or 2
Files
type F!
here you will find 15 different file areas with downloadable files
select file are 1 to 15
+---IFEU
+---AKZENTE
+---GREENPEA
+---FAQ
+---INDUSTRY
+---OORG
+---UNEP
+---UNIDO
+---GATE2_94
+---CHINA
+---INDIA
+---WB
+---GTZ
+---HTML
Database
type D!
here you will find the complete bibliographic database of the hydrocarbon
technology information pool
Remember, we may just provide you with downloadable files with the
copyright in our hands. The copyright for country programs holds usually the
country itself. We have no possibility to provide you with this information.
You may reach us 24 hours a day

GTZ BBS Modem
Germany
Telephone Number ++49-6196-79 73 96
up to 14.400 baud
The GTZ WWW Server is running since January 1996. Please visit our
project.
http//:www.gtz.de/proklima
File Areas of the Hydrocarbon Technology BBS

Please notice, *.doc files are WinWord 6.0 files
+---IFEU
ENDBER.TXT Endbericht Substitutionstechnologien zu ODS
ENDBER.ZIP Endbericht Substitutionstechnologien zu ODS,
gezipped
AEROSOLE.TXT Aerosole
ANLAGEN1.TXT Allgemeines zu Kaelte- und Klimaanlagen
ANLAGEN2.TXT Haushaltskaeltegeraete
ANLAGEN3.TXT Gewerbekaelte-/Lebensmittelkaelteanlagen
ANLAGEN4.TXT Industriekaelteanlagen
EINLEITU.TXT Einleitung mit Artikel 5 des Montreal Protolkolles
FEUERLOE.TXT Feuerloeschanlagen
KLIMAANL.TXT Klimaanlagen,Waermepumpen
LITERATU.TXT Literaturangaben
LOESUNGS.TXT Loesungsmitte
METHYLBR.TXT Anwendungen von Methylbromid
PKW_KLIM.TXT PKW Klimaanlagen

PROJEKTE.TXT Bisherige Aktivitaeten im Rahmen des Multilateralen
Fonds
SCHAUM.TXT Schaumstoffe,Geraetedaemmung mit PUR,
Baudaemmstoffen
SUBSTITU.TXT Substitutionstechnologien
TRANSPOR.TXT Transportkaelteanlagen und Klimaanlagen in
Großfahrzeugen
VERBRAUC.TXT Verbrauch ozonzerstoerender Substanzen (ODS)
ZUSAMMEN.TX Zusammenfassung
T
+---AKZENTE
AKZENTE.TXT akzente publication on hydrocarbon technology
AKZENTE.ZIP same file as above zipped
BILATERA.TXT The Hydrocarbon Domino is running!
BOSCH_SI.TXT The Two-Step Phase-Out. Bosch-Siemens
CHINA_1.TXT The China Project: Haier Converts
CHINA_2.TXT Qingdao-Liebherr Co-operation
EDITORAL.TXT Foreword by Dr.Klaus Toepfer
ELECTROL.TXT Interview with Mr. Rolf Segerstroem, Electrolux
FORON.TXT The Foron Story
GLOSSARY.TXT keywords of the Hydrocarbon Technology
GREENFRE.TXT The Greenfreeze Campaign
GTZ.TXT GTZ: A Hand for the Phase-Out of CFCs
HCT-134A.TXT Hydrocarbons Versus HFC-134a
HISTORY.TXT The History of CFCs
INDIA_1.TXT Ecofrig - Promoting Hydrocarbon Refrigerators in India
INDIA_2.TXT Ecofrig: Managing Changes in Technology
MONTREAL.TXT Interview with Dr. Omar El Arini/ Multilatearal Fund
NECKERMA.TXT Neckermann Gets Things Going!
SAFETY.TXT Safe Refrigeration
USEPA.TXT US EPA:Efforts to Phase Out CFCs Are Making
Progress
+---GREENPEA
BACK_FU.doc Back to the future, Hystory of the Hydrocarbon
Technology
BACK_GRE.ASC information on the use of hydrocarbon technology
GP_WOBA.DOC report about the world bank policy WinWord
GP_WOBA.TXT report about the world bank policy ASCII
+---FAQ
Dateiname Bezug
ANF_ESP.DOC Anfrage Victor cyclopentane
ANF_YB95.DOC Anfrage Yearbook 1995 von LIA
ANFR_PRO.DO Anfrage Prospekte Industrie
C
ANT_BASF.DOC Ausstiegsszenarien R22 R142b
ANT_BRA1.DOC GTZ-GATE
ANT_BRAZ.DOC Antwort Simulation von Kappillar Röhrchen
ANT_COLU.DO Antwort Antrag auf bilaterale Hilfe Columbien
C Challanger
ANT_CONG.DO Antwort Export von Kühlschränken
C
ANT_CUBA.DOC Antwort Hector Remedios Carbajales, joint venture
ANT_DANE.DOC Antwort Riso Dänemark "energy efficency"
ANT_DOM.DOC Infos nach Dominikanische Republik
ANT_ECUA.DOC Antwort auf Ecuador Recyclinganfrage
ANT_FORD.DO Antwort hard facts zu hydrocarbon
C
ANT_GENT.DO Antwort Anfrage "life cycle refrigerators ghent"
C
ANT_IND.DOC Service Module für Recovery und Recycling
ANT_IND1.DOC Antwort Informationsmaterial "ODS Free products and
how could we preserve the ozone layer"
ANT_INDO.DOC Anfrage KKS Lehrgang
ANT_KEN1.DOC Antwort auf Kenia Demonstrations-anlage und
Technikerschulung
ANT_KENI.DOC Antwort auf Kenia Blends und Demonstrations-anlage
ANT_LIEB.DOC Project Proposal an Liebherr
ANT_MF.DOC Stellungnahme zum Fragebogen "Recovery and
Recycling Projects under Implementation" des
Multilateralen Fond.
ANT_MF1.DOC Antwort Fragebogen Recovery und Recycling
ANT_NIC.DOC Antwort auf Kühlmittelanfrage und FCKW Kältemittel-
alternativen aus Nicaragua , spanisch
ANT_NICD.DOC Antwort auf Kühlmittelanfrage und FCKW Kältemittel-
alternativen aus Nicaragua , deutsch
ANT_RENO.DO Antwort handbook zu hydrocarbon
C
ANT_SYR.DOC Antwort Syrien nach Absorber
ANT_TOG2.DOC Antwort auf Togo 2
ANT_TOGO.DO Antwort Kältetechnik Fortbildung Togo
C
ANT_UNE1.DOC Antwort auf "survey on information systems 1"
ANT_UNEP.DOC Antwort auf "survey on information systems 2"
ANT_WAST.DO Antwort "labor workshop fckw"
C
EIN_COLU.DOC Einsschätzung bilaterale Hilfe zu Challenger
FRAGEBOG.DO Fragebogen an Industrie
C
GRIMM.DOC Anfrage wg. Akzente über Link-F
HCT_PROJ.DOC Info zum FCKW Projekt im internet
HCTPROJ2.DOC info im internet
KKS.DOC Gespräch zwischen H. Seikel, H. Schittenhelm (beide
Kälte Klima Schule KKS), H. Legatis (FCKW Projekt),
20.3.1995 in Maintal
VOR_ARG.DOC Anfrage: Argentinien/ Kolumbien Vorschlag
ANT_EMAIL.doc Yearbook mit Brief zugesandt
ANFR_ZA.DOC Anfrage Markterhebung Haushaltskälte
FRAGEBOG.DO Mit der Bitte um Zusendung von Material für den
C Wissenspool
fax_aloi.doc Fax an Unep Paris
unep_ein.doc Einschätzung Unep Informationsservice
ant_zip.zip All answers as zip file
+---INDUSTRY
BOSCH.DOC industry information on Bosch, partner for Refrigerator
Plants
DKK.DOC industry information on DKK, engenieering Hydrocarbon
Technollogy
FORON.DOC industry information on FORON, isobutan Compressors
FORON1.DOC industry information on FORON
FORONFVÜ.DO industry information on FORON
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FORONW2.DOC industry information on FORON
GREIZ1.DOC industry information on Greiz, manufacturer
Cyclopentan Foaming machines

GUENT1.CGM industry information on FORON Chart
GUENT11D.CG industry information on FORON Chart
M
GUENT2DE.CG industry information on FORON Chart
M
HENNEKE.DOC industry information on HENNEKE, manufacturer
HOECHST.DOC industry information on Hoechst, recovery and recycling
of cfc
LIEB1.TIF industry information on Liebherr, refrigerator plants
engineering
engineering
engineering
engineering
+---OORG
OORG_FM.ASC information on refrigerant foam insulation ASCII
OORG_FM.DOC information on refrigerant foam insulation WinWord
OORG_HC.ASC information on isobutan as refrigerant ASCII
OORG_HC.DOC information on isobutan as refrigerant WinWord
OORG_HC.TXT information on isobutan as refrigerant Text
+---UNEP
CP-UNEP.DOC cyclopentan information WinWord format
CYCLOPEN.UN cyclopentan information
MPHANDBK.WP Handbook of the Montreal Protocol WP5
MPHBWP.EXE Handbook of the Montreal Protocol selfextracting
OAIC_PUB.DOC Publication list of UNEP/OAIC
UNEP_CP.ASC cyclopentan information ASCII format
UNEP_FM.DOC cyclopentan information Winword
UNEP_REC.ASC recovery and recycling information ASCII format
UNEP_REC.DO recovery and recycling information WinWord
C
+---UNIDO
EGYPT.ASC project proposal Egypt ASCII file
EGYPT.DOC project proposal Egypt WinWord file
KAMERUN.ASC project proposal Kamerun ASCII file
KAMERUN.DOC project proposal Kamerun WinWord file
+---GATE2_94
294FO10.ASC Helping to Phase Out CFCs in China and India
294FO4.ASC India: HFC 134a or Hydrocarbons?
294FO5.ASC Handling Refrigerants Properly
294FO50.ASC An Alternative for Rigid Foam Production
294FO6.ASC Small Enterprise Development and Cooling Technology
294FO8.ASC Depletion of the Ozone Layer - A Glossary of Important
Terms
294FO9.ASC Example of the industrialized countries
GATE_ESP.DOC extractos en espanol
+---CHINA
HAIER2MF.DOC the bilateral contract USEPA/ GTZ/ HAIER/ LIEBHERR
+---INDIA
INDIA.DOC the ecofrig Project WinWord File
INDIA.ZIP this area as a zip file
INDIA.TXT the ecofrig project, text file
ECOFRIG.TXT plan of the ecofrig project
INDUSTRY.TXT industry view
SAFETY.TXT safety aspects

REFRIG.TXT technical aspects of the refrigerator
CONCLUS.TXT conclusions
HCT.TXT hydrocarbon technology
POLICY.TXT policy matter
WANTGO.TXT where we want to go
SCIENTIF.TXT scientifically
INDUSTR2.TXT industry view 2.
+---WB (World Bank)

grisobut.doc how to write a isobutan project proposal, 1 edition
pfisobut.doc how to write a isobutan project proposal, 1 edition
pfcyclop.doc how to write a cyclopentan project proposal
ca5.doc formular cyclopentan proposal
ia5.doc formular isobutan proposal
pfbucom2.doc project proposal Isobutan
pfcyclo1.doc project proposal cyclopentan, filled in by dkk
pfisobu1.doc project proposal isobutan, fiiled in by dkk
+---GTZ
8VORCHIN.DOC 8 advantages of the project
8VORTEIL.DOC 8 Vorteile
BILATER DOC How to write a bilateral project proposal for hydrocarbon
technology
FCKW_BBS.TIF logo of the CFC Phae Out Project
GTZ_ADRE.DO Adress database
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HYDROC.TXT standpoint of the GTZ project English,
HYDROC3.DOC the 10 advantages of Hydrocarbon Technology
HYDROC3.TXT the 10 advantages of Hydrocarbon Technology
LORENTZE.DO artikel from Lorentzen on HydrocarboneTechnology
C
MFSTATH3.TXT standpoint of the project English
ONLINE.DOC List of online available files
SICHTIN2.TXT Standpunkt des Projektes, deutsch
YB96.ZIP Yearbook 96 Hydrocarbon Technology, zipped
YB96.DOC Yearbook 96 Hydrocarbon Technology, WinWord
YB96_bei.doc contents of the Hydrocarbon Technology knowledge
pool
+---HTML
The Yearbook on Hydrocarbon Technology as HTML (*.htm), Winword
(*.doc) and pictures (*.gig, *.jpg) Files
1.DOC Editoral
1.HTM Editoral
10.DOC Application Form Hydrocarbon Technology
10.HTM Application Form Hydrocarbon Technology
11.DOC Application Form Cyclopentan Technology
11.HTM Application Form Cyclopentan Technology
12.DOC GTZ Hydrocarbon Technology Information Service. List
of On-line available Files
12.HTM GTZ Hydrocarbon Technology Information Service. List
of On-line available Files
13.DOC Literature Database
13.HTM Literature Database
14.DOC GTZ Know-How Cooperation Partners
14.HTM GTZ Know-How Cooperation Partners
15.DOC dkk
15.HTM dkk
15_1.GIF dkk pictures
15_1.JPG dkk pictures
16.DOC Foron
16.HTM Foron
16_1.JPG FORON pictures
17.DOC Henneke
17.HTM Henneke pictures
17_1.JPG Henneke pictures


17_7. JPG Henneke pictures
18.DOC Liebherr
18.HTM Liebherr
18-2.JPG Liebherr pictures
18-3.JPG Liebherr pictures
18_1.JPG Liebherr pictures
18_4.JPG Liebherr pictures
19.DOC Plasttechnik Greiz
19.HTM Plasttechnik Greiz
19_1.GIF Plasttechnik Greiz pictures
19_10.GIF Plasttechnik Greiz
19_11_1.GIF Plasttechnik Greiz

2.DOC Aims of the GTZ-CFC-Phase-Out-Support
2.HTM Aims of the GTZ-CFC-Phase-Out-Support
3.DOC The Status of Hydrocarbon Technology
3.HTM The Status of Hydrocarbon Technology
4.DOC The 10 Advantages of Hydrocarbon Technology
4.HTM The 10 Advantages of Hydrocarbon Technology
5.DOC Hydrocarbons as Refrigerant in Domestic Refrigerators
5.HTM Hydrocarbons as Refrigerant in Domestic Refrigerators
6.DOC The Use of Natural Refrigerants
6.HTM The Use of Natural Refrigerants
7.DOC History of HC Refrigerants
7.HTM History of HC Refrigerants
8.DOC The Development of ODP/GWP Free Appliances in
Europe Using Hydrocarbon Technology
8.HTM The Development of ODP/GWP Free Appliances in
Europe Using Hydrocarbon Technology
8_1.DOC The Development of ODP/GWP Free Appliances in
Europe Using Hydrocarbon Technology, pictures
8_1.HTM The Development of ODP/GWP Free Appliances in
8_1.JPG The Development of ODP/GWP Free Appliances in
8_2.DOC The Development of ODP/GWP Free Appliances in
8_2.HTM The Development of ODP/GWP Free Appliances in

9.DOC GTZ-Layout China Project
9.HTM GTZ-Layout China Project
ABOUT.DOC About Proklima, the GTZ CFC Phase Out Project
ABOUT.HTM About Proklima, the GTZ CFC Phase Out Project
CONTENTS.GIF Icon for Contents Page of Yearbook
FAQ.DOC Questions and Answers
FAQ.HTM. Questions and Answers
FORM.DOC Formular Feedback
FORM.HTM Formular Feedback
HOME.DOC Proklima Homepage
HOME.GIF Logo Proklima
HOME.HTM Proklima Homepage
HP.GIF Icon for Proklima Homepage
IMAGE.GIF Image map on Proklima Homepage
PROKLIMA.MA Map File for Image Map
P
YB95HTML.DO Contents of Yearbook
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YB95HTML.HT Contents of Yearbook
M
Literature Database
Downloadable Files
Back to the Future - A Survey of Essential Information Regarding

Hydrocarbons Vs. HCFC-141b and HFC-134a in Domestic
Refrigerators
Korporative Verfasser: Greenpeace
Autor: Maté, John
Endbericht FCKW-Substitution in der Dritten Welt - Stand und

Perspektiven -
Korporative Verfasser: ifeu - Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung.
Heidelberg; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ).
Eschborn
Autor: Mampel, Ulrich; Lambrecht, Udo.; Giegrich, Jürgen; Kunstmann,
Harald
The Status of Hydrocarbon and Other Flammable Alternatives Use in

Korporative Verfasser: World Bank; OORG Ozone Operations Resource
Group
Autor: Kuijpers, Lambert; Gorenflo, Dieter
Transitional and Zero ODS Domestic Refrigerator/Freezer insulating

foam alternatives
Group
Autor: Jeffs, Mike
Case Studies - Refrigerant, Recovery and Recycling. Covering

Domestic Refrigerators, Mobile Air conditoning, Centrifugal Chillers,
Cold Storage, Transport
Korporative Verfasser: UNEP United Nations Environment Programme -
Ozone Action Programme under the Multilateral Fund
Autor: Clodic, D.; Sauer, F.; Baron, R.; Legin, L.; Simonnet, M.
Special Edition Akzente Working with the GTZ. China/India: Switching

to environmentally-friendly technology. Greenpeace: The first CFC
and HFC free refrigerator. Coo-Operation: Implementing the montreal
protocol. Focus: Hydrocarbon Technology
Korporative Verfasser: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische

Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Eschborn
Autor: Chengzhong, Q.; Melzer,J.; Baz, Peter; [a.o.]
gate questions,answers,information. CFC Substitution in developing

countries.
Autor: Baz, Peter; Meyersen, Klaus; Mampel, Ulrich; Lambrecht, Udo.;
Rittner, F.; Wiegmann, W.; Rinne, Frank; Schwank, Ottmar; Dijkstra, E.;
Seikel, M.
Modellstudie zu Ozonzerstörung und Treibhauseffekt von

halogenierten Kohlenwasserstoffen mit Schwerpunkt bei FCKW-
Ersatzstoffen
Korporative Verfasser: Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und
Reaktorsicherheit.Bonn; Max-Planck-Institut für Chemie. Mainz; National
Center for Atmospheric Research Boulder, Colorado (USA); Universitetet i
Oslo (Norwegen)
Autor: Brühl, C.; Peter, T.; Moortgat, G.; Boglu, D.; Meller, R.; Brasseur, G.;
Isaksen, I.; Crutzen, P.
Project Proposal: Cameroon. Investment Project for Phasing-out of

CFC
Korporative Verfasser: UNIDO; UNEP United Nations Environment
Programme (Industry and Environment)
Autor: Oxley
Project Proposals: Egypt. Phasing out ODS at the Refrigerator plants

of DELTA Industrial Co.
Korporative Verfasser: UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
(Industry and Environment); UNIDO
Autor: Oxley
Money To Burn. The World Bank, Chemical Companies and Ozone

Depletion
Autor: Kretzmann, Steve
Indo-German Project on Alternatives to CFCS for Refrigeration

Applications
Korporative Verfasser: Forschungszentrum Jülich
Autor: Oellrich, Lothar R.; Murthy, S. Srinivasa; Balakrishnan, A. R.

Cyclopentane: A Blowing Agent for Polyurethane Foams for Insulation
in Domestic Refrigerator-Freezers. Information Paper
Autor: Jeffs, Mike
Dritter Bericht der Bundesregierung an den Deutschen Bundestag

über Maßnahmen zum Schutz der Ozonschicht. Unterrichtung durch
die Bundesregierung
Reaktorsicherheit. Bonn
Product and Facility Evaluation Trip to China - Expert’s Technical

Report
Korporative Verfasser: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Washington, D.C. (USA); US-Sino Refrigeration Project
Autor: Bohman, Raymond H.; Rowan, Adrian M.
CFC Phaseout - Hydrocarbon Based Refrigeration. Proceedings of the

Planning Workshop ECOFRIG Phase IV, New Delhi, September 1-2,
1994
Korporative Verfasser: Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI). New Delhi
(India); Ministry of Environment and Forests (GOI). New Delhi (India); Swiss
Development Cooperation, New Delhi (India); Federal Ministry of Economic
Cooperation (BMZ), Bonn (Germany)
Autor: Heierli, Urs; [a.o.]
ECOFRIG Project Phase 1: 02/1995 - 06/1996. Updated cost estimate

draft (revised SDC/GTZ contribution. Basis: India mission 01/95.
Proposals for INFRAS/GTZ discussion 16.2.95
Korporative Verfasser: INFRAS AG - Consulting Group for Environmental
Economics and Policies. Zürich (Switzerland)
Indo - Swiss Technology Cooperation Project in Hydrocarbon Based

Domestic Refrigeration. Report on the ECOFRIG Mission to India 23rd
February to 9th March 1994
Autor: Schwank, Ottmar; Meyersen, Klaus; Scheidegger, Adrian
Cost estimate / quotation for one R&D and pilot production facility.
Filling station, foaming station plus external engineering as per
specifications. VOLTAS/GODREJ-GE of June 4/7 respectively
Autor: Iyer, M.S.; Desai, N.T.; Baz, Peter; Dubois, J.B.; Heierli, Urs
Report on INFRAS/FKW-Mission to India, Technical Cooperation

matters "Hydrocarbons" / 23.02.94 Bombay / 24.02.-09.03.94 Delhi
Autor: Scheidegger, Adrian
The Costs to Brazil of Complying with the Montreal Protocol. First

Draft
Korporative Verfasser: Instituto Brasiliero do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos
Naturais Renováveis; The Brazilian Industry; United States Environmental
Protection Agency. Washington, D.C. (USA)
India - Country Programme. Phaseout of Ozone Depleting Substances

under the Montreal Protocol
Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the
Montreal Protocol; Government of India
Mexico’s Country Program for Eliminating Substances Controlled

under the Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol
Philippine Country Programme for the Phaseout of Ozone-Depleting

Substances
Montreal Protocol
Sourcebook of Benchmark Unit Abatement Costs. October 1992 -

Policy Document
Korporative Verfasser: World Bank - Global Environment Coordination
Division, Environment Department; Secretariat, Interim Multilateral Fund
Under the Montreal Protocol. Quebec (Canada)
Mexico - Ozone Protection: Pilot Recycling and Training Project.

March 1992 - Project Document
Malaysia - Proposed Ozone Projects. Trust Fund Grant. October 1992 -

Project Document
Venezuela - Ozone Trust Fund Grant to Plasticos Molanca. April 1993 -

Project Document
Thailand - Controlled Substances Engineering Project. May 1992 -

Project Document
World Bank 1993 Work Program. January 1993 - Program Document

Institutional Strengthening Requirements for Ozone-Depleting

Substances Phase-Out Under the Montreal Protocol. January 1993 -
Policy Document
Operational Interpretations of Incremental Costs and Eligible

Expenditures. June 1992 - Policy Document
Reducing ODS Use by Developing Countries in Refrigeration. October

1992 - Policy Document
Division, Environment Department; OORG Ozone Operations Resource
Group; Secretariat, Interim Multilateral Fund Under the Montreal Protocol.
Quebec (Canada)
Reducing ODS Use in Foam-Blown Pre-Insulated Pipes (with

particular reference to Poland)
Group; Secretariat, Interim Multilateral Fund Under the Montreal Protocol.
Quebec (Canada)
China - Country Programme for the Phase-Out of Ozone Depleting

Substances under the Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol; National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA).
Beijing (China)
Incremental Costs of Phasing Out Ozone Depleting Substances

Korporative Verfasser: World Bank - Sector Policy And Research Staff,
Environment Department
Autor: King, Kenneth; Munasinghe, Mohan
Policies and Measures to Implement the Montreal Protocol

Autor: Tak, Herman G. van der
Issues and Options in Implementing the Montreal Protocol in

Developing Countries
Autor: Munasinghe, Mohan; King, Kenneth
Progress Report on Bank-Implemented Montreal Protocol Operations

(As of May 22, 1992)

under the Montreal Protocol. Quebec (Canada)
World Bank Work Program for Investment Project Preparation and

Related Studies: Calendar Year 1992
Korporative Verfasser: World Bank; Secretariat, Interim Multilateral Fund
Inventory of Approved Projects (As at March 1993)

Montreal Protocol
OzonAction No. 8 - A Newsletter dedicated to Ozone Layer Protection

and Implementation of the Montreal Protocol
Autor: Balouet, Jean Christophe; [a.o.]
Provisional Agenda
Montreal Protocol
Discussion Paper from the Treasurer on the Operation of Promissory

Notes within the Context of the Multilateral Fund
Montreal Protocol
In-Kind Contribution to the Multilateral Fund. Note on Methodology

and Operational Issues (submitted by the World Bank as Attachment
E to its Progress Report)
Montreal Protocol; World Bank
1993 UNEP Work Programme Amendments / 1993 UNIDO Work

Programme Amendments

Montreal Protocol
Streamlining the Executive Committee’s Project Review Process

Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol Operations: Monthly Operations Report -

July/August 1993 (submitted by the World Bank as Attachment F to
its Progress Report)
Note on Production Sector and Project Concepts (submitted by the

World Bank as Attachment D to its Progress Report)
World Bank Work Programme Amendments / Draft Report of the

Executive Committee of the Multilateral Fund of the Montreal Protocol
to the Fifth Meeting of the Parties
1993 UNDP Work Programme Amendments

Montreal Protocol
Status of Ratification/Accession/Acceptance/Approval of: I. The

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985); II.
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer
(1987); III. The Amendment to the Montreal Protocol
United Nations Office of Legal Affairs
A Draft Report on the Operation of the Financial Mechanism since 1

January 1991
Montreal Protocol
Activities of UNEP/PAC related to the Reporting of Data by Article 5,

Countries in accordance with article 7 of the Montreal Protocol. Report
(submitted to the Ozone Secretariat) / Collecting and Reporting of
Data when implementing the Montreal Protocol. Report from the 2nd
Annual Workshop, First Session, Bangkok
(Industry and Environment); ODS Officers Network for South East Asia and
the Pacific (ODSONET/SEAP)
U.S Bilateral Contributions under Interim Multilateral Fund - Calendar

Year 1992
Washington, D.C. (USA)
Autor: Claussen, Eileen
Handbook for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the

Ozone Layer. Second Edition
Ozone Secretariat
The Costs of CFC Substitution to Developing Countries

Korporative Verfasser: Overseas Development Administration (ODA);
Metroeconomica Ltd.
Autor: Markandya, A.
International eco-standards as a new challenge for industries and

exports from developing countries. The case of Indian leather, textile
and refrigeration industry
Korporative Verfasser: German Development Institute (GDI)
Autor: Bünning, Torsten; Danne, Guntram; Hagenmaier, Christoph; Kölling,
Fritz; Siller, Roland; Wender, Annette; Wiemann, Jürgen
Meeting of the Needs of Article 5 Parties for Controlled Substances

during the Grace and Phase-Out Periods (Draft Report)

Executive Committee of the Interim Multilateral Fund for the Implementation
of the Montreal Protocol
Status Report on Country Programmes

Montreal Protocol
Gesetzentwurf der Bundesregierung: Entwurf eines Gesetzes zu der

am 25. November 1992 in Kopenhagen beschlossenen Änderung und
den am 25. November 1992 beschlossenen Anpassungen zum
Montrealer Protokoll vom 16. September 1987 über Stoffe, die zu
einem Abbau der Ozonschicht führen
Korporative Verfasser: Bundesrat; Bundesregierung
Unterrichtung durch die Bundesregierung: Vorschlag für eine

Verordnung (EWG) des Rates über Stoffe, die zum Abbau der
Ozonschicht führen
Korporative Verfasser: Bundesrat; Bundesregierung
9th Informatory Note on CFCs, Refrigeration and HCFCs: Replace

R22? When and How?
Korporative Verfasser: International Institute of Refrigeration. Paris
(France)
GTZ-Fachgespräch am 07.07.93 zum Thema: Umweltauflagen als neue

Handelshemmnisse für Entwicklungsländer - Neue Anforderungen für
Handelsförderung und Entwicklungszusammenarbeit
Korporative Verfasser: Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE);
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Eschborn
Autor: Wiemann, Jürgen
Abschließende Empfehlungen: Vorgeschlagene Maßnahmen zur

Begrenzung des Eintrages an Schadstoffen in den Abfall über
Produkte im Überblick
Korporative Verfasser: ifeu - Institut für Energie- und Umweltforschung.
Heidelberg
Weltweit keine Verwendung von FCKW ab 1996 / Produktnormung und

Umweltschutz
Korporative Verfasser: Umweltpolitik
Umweltschutztechnik, laufende F+E Vorhaben 1993. Stand:

01.08.1993. Bericht zu Fördermaßnahmen des Bundesministeriums für
Forschung und Technologie (BMFT) im Rahmen des Programms
"Umweltforschung und Umwelttechnologie"
Korporative Verfasser: Projektträger "Umweltschutztechnik" (PT-UsT) in der
Deutschen Forschungsanstalt für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR). Bonn
(Germany)
QSK Schulungsordner: Kältemittelentsorgung. Lehrgangsmaterial

zum Umweltpaß - Bereich Kältemittelentsorgung
Korporative Verfasser: Qualitätssiegel Kältemittelentsorgung (QSK).
Hannover
Autor: Krug, Norbert; Celikbas, Lütfü; Gäfken, Helmut; Hainbach, Christian
Umweltbericht der IBM Deutschland 1992

Korporative Verfasser: IBM Deutschland. Berlin
Das Ozonloch: Alles über Gefahren, Ursachen, Ersatzstoffe, Zwänge

der Industrie, Kosten
Korporative Verfasser: Bild der Wissenschaft
Autor: Schaefer, Christine
Proposed Three-Year Plan and Budget of the Multilateral Fund (1994-

1996) (Working Draft)
Montreal Protocol
Chile's Proposed Program for Implementing the Montreal Protocol

Montreal Protocol
Country Programme: Cuba

Montreal Protocol
Ecuador's Proposed Program for Implementing the Montreal Protocol


Montreal Protocol
Country Programme: Algeria

Montreal Protocol
Burkina Faso Country Programme for the Implementation of the

Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol; Ministry of Environment and Tourism (Burkina Faso)
Country Programme: Cameroon

Montreal Protocol; Ministry of the Environment and Forests (Cameroon)
Country Programme: Fiji

Montreal Protocol; Ministry of Housing and Urban Development (Fiji)
Ghana Country Programme for the Phase-Out of Ozone Depleting

Substances
Islamic Republic of Iran - Country Programme for Phase-Out of Ozone

Depleting Substances
Montreal Protocol; Department of the Environment, Government of the
Islamic Republic of Iran
Jordan Country Programm - Phaseout of Ozone Depleting Substances

Montreal Protocol; Ministry of Municipal & Rural Affairs & The Environment.
Amman (Jordan)
Country Programme: Maldives

Montreal Protocol; Ministry of Planning and Environment. Republic of
Maldives
Autor: Manik, Mohamed; Shukoor, Abdul; Shameem, Ahmed; [a.o.]
Country Programm: Panama

Montreal Protocol; UNDP
Autor: Oxman, Sergio; [a.o.]
Republic of Senegal Country Programme for the Implementation of

the Montreal Protocol / Projects
Montreal Protocol; Ministry of Tourism and the Environment, Environment
Department. Republic of Senegal
Mexico Country Programme

Malaysia Country Programme to Reduce and Eliminate the

Consumption and Emissions of Ozone Depleting Substances
of the Montreal Protocol; National Committee on Ozone Layer Protection,
Department of Environment. Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia)
Egypt Country Program for Phaseout Ozone Depleting Substances

of the Montreal Protocol; Ministry of Cabinet Affairs and Ministry of State for
Administrative Development. Cairo (Arab Republic of Egypt)
Turkey Country Program for Phaseout of Ozone Depleting Substances


Syria Country Programme for the Phase-Out of Ozone Depleting

Substances Controlled Under the Montreal Protocol
Montreal Protocol; General Commission for Environmental Affairs.
Damascus (Syrian Arab Republic)
Autor: Jalani, Abdul R.S.; Dimashki, Marwan; El-Jabi, Maan; [a.o.]
Uruguay - Implementation of the Montreal Protocol: National Program

for Phasing Out the Consumption of Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer
Montreal Protocol; Ministry of Housing, Development Planning and the
Environment. Montevideo (Uruguay)
Country Program: Phaseout of Ozone Depleting Substances in

Thailand
Montreal Protocol; Department of Industrial Works, Ministry of Industry,
Government of Thailand. Bangkok (Thailand)
Country Programme: Guatemala

Montreal Protocol; National Environmental Committee, Presidency of the
Republic (Republic of Guatemala)
Project Proposals: India

Montreal Protocol
Project Proposals: Tunisia

Project Proposals: Turkey

Project Proposal: Venezuela

Project Proposal: Iran

Montreal Protocol
Project Proposal: Turkey. Protection of the Ozone Layer through the

Reduction of the Consumption of Ozone Depleting Substances
Project Proposal: Egypt

Montreal Protocol
Project Proposals: Indonesia

Montreal Protocol
Project Proposals: Venezuela

Montreal Protocol
Project Proposal: Malaysia

Montreal Protocol
Revised Project Proposal: China

Montreal Protocol
Project Proposals: China

Montreal Protocol
Report of the Ninth Meeting of the Executive Committee of the

Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Fund
Montreal Protocol
Institutional Strenghening
World Bank Progress Report - Progress Report on Bank-Implemented

Montreal Protocol Operations (As of September 1992)
of the Montreal Protocol; World Bank - Global Environment Coordination
Division, Environment Department
Proposed Amendment to the Indicative List of Categories of

Incremental Costs
World Bank Work Programme Amendments

UNDP Work Programme Amendments


Progress Report of the United Nations Development Programme

UNEP IE/PAC’s Progress Report. Highlights of Activities (June 1992 to

August 1992)
Proposed Revised Budget for the Fund Secretariat for 1993 - 1994
Draft Report of the Second Sub-Committee Meeting of the Executive

Committee of the Interim Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of
the Montreal Protocol
Request for Bilateral Contributions

Procedures for (Presentation) of Country Programmes and Project

Proposals to the Executive Committee
Concessional Loans versus Grants as Modes of Financing Montreal

Protocol Projects

Whether the Fund should finance activities related to enterprises that

are wholly or partly owned by countries that are not parties of the
Montreal Protocol
The Impact of Non-Committed Resources at the End of 1993 on the

1994-1996 Assessments (Draft Report)
Montreal Protocol
Project Proposal Ecuador
Der keramische Kaltleiter

Korporative Verfasser: Siemens AG. Berlin u. München
Autor: Hanke, Leopold
Bauelemente und Grundschaltungen der Elektronik. Band 1:

Bauelemente
Autor: Bauer, Wolfgang; Wagener, Hans Herbert
Kraftmaschinen, Pumpen, Verdichter. Kälteanlagen, Hebezeuge und

Fördermittel
Autor: Baucke, Otto; Herwig, Waldemar; Kreymann, Willy
Frigen-Kältemittel nach Maß. Informations- und Arbeitsunterlagen

Korporative Verfasser: Hoechst AG. Frankfurt/M.
Kaltron Refrigerant
Korporative Verfasser: Kali-Chemie AG. Hannover
Handbuch der Haustechnik. Band 2: Lufttechnische Anlagen,

Gesundheitstechnische Anlagen, Industrieelle Förderanlagen
Autor: Henkel, Willi; [a.o.]
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Autor: Prasad, Manohar
Kaltron Pocket Manual

Korporative Verfasser: Kali-Chemie AG. Hannover
Tropical Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning

Autor: Cottell, L.W.; Olarewaju, S.
Frigen Primer for Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Energy

Technology
Installations frigorifiques. Tome 1: Eléments de physique appliqués à

la théorie des installations frigorifiques
Autor: Rapin, P.J.
Installations frigorifiques. Tome 2: Technologie

Autor: Rapin, P.J.
Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. Laboratory Manual

Autor: Althouse, Andrew D.[u.a.]
Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Autor: Althouse, Andrew D.[u.a.]
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration for the Professional

Autor: Chatenever, Robert
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration. Industrial Education

Autor: Offutt, Richard
Pohlmann Taschenbuch der Kältetechnik

Autor: Maake, Walter; Eckert, Hans-Jürgen; [a.o.]
Grundkurs der Kältetechnik

Autor: Veith, Heinz
Der Kältemonteur. Handbuch für die Praxis

Autor: Noack, Hugo; Seidel, Rolf
Fachwissen Kältetechnik. Einführung mit Aufgaben und Lösungen

Autor: Reisner, Klaus
Der junge Kälteanlagenbauer. Band 2: Kälteanwendung,

Stichwortregister
Autor: Breidenbach, Karl
Der junge Kälteanlagenbauer. Band 1: Grundkenntnisse

Autor: Breidenbach, Karl
Taschenbuch für Heizung und Klimatechnik einschließlich

Brauchwassererwärmung und Kältetechnik
Autor: Recknagel, Hermann[u.a.]
Frigen-Fibel für die Kälte-, Klima- und Energietechnik

Kälteanlagentechnik. Elektro- und Steuerungstechnik

Autor: Schittenhelm, Dietmar
Grundlagen der Kältererzeugung. KWK Aktuell. Kälte - Wärme - Klima

Autor: Hampel, Armin
Kältetechnik. Theorie - Systeme - Komponenten - Anwendungen

Autor: Berliner, Paul
Rahmenlehrplan für den Ausbildungsberuf Isolierer/Isoliererin im

Bereich der Industrie
Korporative Verfasser: Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der
Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland
Lehrpläne für die Berufsschule. Fachklassen: "Kälteanlagenbauer".

Jahrgangsstufe 11 mit 13
Korporative Verfasser: Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Unterricht und
Kultus. München
Autor: Buchberger, Franz; [a.o.]
Lehrpläne für die Berufsschule. Fachklassen: Isolierer (Industrie),

Isoliermonteur, Wärme-, Kälte- und Schallschutzisolierer
(Isoliermonteur)
Korporative Verfasser: Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Unterricht und
Kultus. München
Autor: Kuffner, Heinrich; [a.o.]
Rahmenlehrplan für den Ausbildungsberuf

Kälteanlagenbauer/Kälteanlagenbauerin
Korporative Verfasser: Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der
Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland
Entwurf. Zielorientierter Lehrplan für die Gewerbliche Berufsschule.

Berufsfeld Bau. Fachstufe II. Wärme-, Kälte- und
Schallschutzisolierer/Isoliermonteur
Korporative Verfasser: Landesstelle für Erziehung und Unterricht (LEU).
Stuttgart
Autor: Bayer, Walther; [a.o.]
Terminologie für kältetechnische Erzeugnisse in 5 Sprachen mit

Definitionen. CECOMAF-Terminologie
Korporative Verfasser: Europäisches Komitee d. Hersteller von
Kältetechnischen Erzeugnissen (CECOMAF)
Eletronica Industrial 3. Terceira Parte: O sinal e o seu uso na técnica

de comando. Componentes eletronicos especiais. (Orig.: Fachkunde
für Elektroberufe 3. Grundlagen der Halbeitertechnik und Bausteine
für die Industrie-Elektronik
Autor: Arnold, Robert; Brandt, Hans
Guidelines For Instructors. How to assess in practical training &

Master-Plan Curriculum for Electrician/ Masterplan-Curriculum: Radio-
T.V. Mechanic/ Refrigeration & Air-Condition Trade
Korporative Verfasser: Development Cell for Skilled Labour Training.
Directorate of Manpower & Training. Government of Punjab. Lahore
(Pakistan)
Electrician Special - Advanced Training: Measurements-Electronic 3b/

Circuits - Trouble Shooting/ Illumination Installation/ Electrical
Measurements/ Machines - Trouble Shooting/ Electric Motors and
Transformers/ Motor Control Circuit/ Refrigerators and Air
Conditioning
Korporative Verfasser: Apprenticeship Training Institute (ATI) - A Joint Sri
Lankan-German Project. Moratuwa (Sri Lanka)
Refrigeration. Practical Work/ Concealed Wiring. Guidelines and

Exercises
Korporative Verfasser: Industrial Training Centre. Syriam (Burma)
Trade Information & Trade Training: Electrician General/ Question

Bank Technolgy for Electrician/ Basic Training: Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning
Korporative Verfasser: Development Cell for Skilled Labour Training.
Directorate of Manpower & Training. Government of Punjab. Lahore
(Pakistan)
Electrician Special. Advanced Training. 3rd Year of Training: Motor

Circuit Installation/ Motor Control Circuit/ Rewinding Motorstators,
Transformer/ Refrigeration & Air Conditioning/ Cost-Analysis/
Assessment/ Final Trade Test/
Korporative Verfasser: Apprenticeship Training Institute (ATI) - A Joint Sri
Lankan-German Project. Moratuwa (Sri Lanka)
Apprenticeship Training Programme: Syllabus and Trade Schedule

for: training of Radio and Television Mechanician/ training of
Refrigeration and Airconditioning Mechanician
Korporative Verfasser: Ministry of Public Service & Administrative Reform.
Labour Department, Vocational Training Administration
Instruction Materials for Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Korporative Verfasser: Vocational Training Centre (VTC). Khartoum
(Sudan)
Refrigeration and Airconditioners: Basic Course/ Electric/

Compression Refrigerator/ Basic Course Piping/ Electricians -
Training on Circuit Trainer/ Physics - Laboratory I/ Basic Engineering
Thermodynamics in SI Units
Korporative Verfasser: Southern Institute for Skill Development. Songkhla
(Thailand)King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology (MIT) - Thai-German
Technical Teacher College. Bangkok (Thailand)
Workshop-Organisation Handbook/ Refrigeration and Airconditioning/

Armature Winding/
Korporative Verfasser: Technical College Arusha (TCA). Arusha (Tansania)
Curriculum Electrical Power Division/ National Trade Standard:

Electrician (Building)/ Radio & Television Mechanic/ Refrigeration and
Airconditioning Mechanic/ Curriculum for Refrigeration and
Airconditioners
Korporative Verfasser: Thai-German Technical Institute (TGTI). Khon Kaen

(Thailand); National Manpower Council. BangkokSouthern Institute for Skill
Development. Songkhla (Thailand)
Spezialisierungskurs Technologie des Kaltharzformverfahrens/

Prüfungen Modellbau/ Fachkunde Modellbau 1. Didakt. Material/
Fachkunde Modellbau 3. Jahr/ Spezialisierungskurs Modellbau/
Bedienungsanleitungen/
Korporative Verfasser: Centro de Estudios Tecnologicos Mexicano Aleman
(Cetma). Mexiko
Kälte- u. Klimatechnik, Kapitel 2 - 14 (IFTA - Damaskus)

Übungs- u. Musteranlagen (IFTA-3, Damaskus)

Kälte- u. Klimatechnik. Ausbildungsunterlagen

Grundlagen der Kältetechnik A

Korporative Verfasser: Fachhochschule Karlsruhe. Fachbereich
Maschinenbau
Autor: Fruhen, Th.; [a.o.]
Grundlagen der Kältetechnik B

Korporative Verfasser: Fachhochschule Karlsruhe. Fachbereich
Maschinenbau
Autor: Füner, V.; [a.o.]
Ausrüstung für Forschungs- u. Ausbildungsstätten. Experimentier-

Bausteinsystem. Experimentierplatz für Kälte- u. Klimatechnik
Korporative Verfasser: Siemens AG. Erlangen
Werkstattübungen 3. Jahr. Elektromechanik SVS. 10 Wochen

Kühlgeräte - Reparatur
Instruction Materials for Refrigeration and Air Conditioning.

Vocational Training Centre, Khartoum
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Training Equipment RAC 192

Autor: Meredith, F.H.
Workshop Training Schedule. Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning

(Theory & Practice)
Training Course with Test Questions. Home Air Conditioning Facts

Korporative Verfasser: I.A.C. Singapore Ltd. Training Department
Training Programme Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning

Korporative Verfasser: Technical College Arusha (TCA). Arusha (Tansania)
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. Equipment planning guide for

vocational and technical training and education programmes/ Model
Occupational Skill Standard for Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning
Mechanic (Industrial/Commercial)/
Korporative Verfasser: International Labour Office (ILO). Genf
Refrigeration Mechanic
Korporative Verfasser: Cinterfor. Montevideo (Uruguay)
Gutachten über die Errichtung einer Abteilung Radio- und

Fernsehtechnik sowie Klima- und Kältetechnik am Vocational Training
Centre Khartoum, Sudan
Autor: Faber, Gerhard; [a.o.]
Gutachten über die Errichtung eines Instituts zur Ausbildung von

Technikern und Werkstattlehrern der Fachrichtung Kälte- und
Wärmetechnik in Syrien
Autor: Wendel, Gerhard; [a.o.]
El Modelo Paraguayo de Formación Profesional por Centros

Colaborades: Mantenmiento de Equipos Hospitalarios e Industriales.
Modulo I/ Plan de Estudio de Aprendizaje Dual en Electromedicina. II y
III Ano
Korporative Verfasser: Servicio Nacional de Promocion Profesional

(SNPP). Asuncion (Paraguay); Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Der Arabische Technische Führer. Band 1: Grundlagen und

Arbeitsweise der mechanischen Kälte- und Klimaanlagen
Autor: Attar, Usama
Der Arabische Technische Führer. Band 2: Klimaanlagen für

Kraftfahrzeuge
Autor: Asfahani, Mohammad Nadir
Curso: Refrigeracion y Aire Acondicionado Domiciliar. Programa de

Capacitacion
Korporative Verfasser: INATEC/CECNA. Regional Managua - Centro de
Capacitacion. Managua (Nicaragua)
Sessions de Formation: Electricité/ Froid et Climatisation

Korporative Verfasser: Centre de Formation et de Perfectionnement
Professionnels. Mauretanien
Berufliche Bildung in Jamaika. Projektprüfung

Autor: Papendieck, Henner; Winnefeld, Manfred
The Multilateral Fund under the Montreal Protocol. Workshop on CFC

substitution in Article 5 countries. Frankfurt, Germany, 7-8 January
1994
Autor: Gánem, Eduardo
Lifetime Commitments: Why Climate Policy-makers Can’t Afford to

Overlook Fully Fluorinated Compounds
Korporative Verfasser: World Resources Institute (WRI). Washington, D.C.
(USA)
Autor: Cook, Elisabeth
New Applications of Natural Working Fluids in Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning. A Contribution to Reduced Global Warming and Energy
Consumption. International Conference, May 10-13, 1994, Hannover,
Germany
Korporative Verfasser: International Institute of Refrigeration. Paris

(France); Deutscher Kälte- und Klimatechnischer Verein; Commission of the
European Communities - Directorate General for Energy
Autor: Stroetmann, C.; Grassl, H.; Lorentzen, G.; [a.o.]
FCKW-Rückgewinnungsanlage. Sozial-ökologisches
Unternehmenskonzept
Korporative Verfasser: Controlling, Umweltschutz, Projektmanagement
(CUP) GmbH. Großwallstadt (Germany)
Autor: Duttiné, André
Die neueste Generation vollständig umweltkompatibler

Gewerbekälteanlagen auf Basis des Kältemittels Ammoniak (R717)
Korporative Verfasser: ILKA - Präzimatik/Kyrotechnik GmbH. Dresden
(Germany)
Handbook for the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the

Ozone Layer. Third Edition
Ozone Secretariat
The 1994 Science, Environmental Effects, and Technology and

Economic Assessments Synthesis Report
Open-Ended Working Group of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol
Autor: Albritton, Daniel L.; Andersen, Stephen O.; Aucamp, Piet J.; [a.o.]
Materials Presented at the Technical Joint Meeting at IIT, Delhi, March

1 to 3, 1994
Autor: Agarwal, R.S.; Devotta, S.; Preisendanz, H.; [a.o.]
Voluntary Measures - CFC-Reduction Policies

Korporative Verfasser: International Institute of Refrigeration Commission
B2; Deutscher Kälte- und Klimatechnischer Verein; Commission of the
European Communities Directorate-General for Energy (DGXVII)
Autor: Stroetmann, C.
The combined Action of Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect and

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

Autor: Grassel, H.
Use of natural Refrigerants. A complete Solution to the CFC/HCFC

Predicament
Autor: Lorentzen, G.
Hydrocarbons as Refrigerants in Domestic Refrigerators

Korporative Verfasser: International Institute of Refrigeration
Commission B2; Deutscher Kälte- und Klimatechnischer Verein;
Commission of the European Communities Directorate-General for
Energy (DGXVII)
Autor: Günther, E.
Optimization of the structure of refrigerating systems working on

environmentally friendly refrigerants
Autor: Maczek, K.; Müller, J.
Calculaion of Thermodinamic and Thermophysical Properties of the

Binary Mixture Propane/Isobutane
Autor: Vollmer, D.; Findeisen, E.
Prediction of Pool Boiling Heat Transfer with Hydrocarbons

Autor: Luke, A; Schömann, H.; Gorenflo, D.
Some Aspects of using Hydrocarbonsas Components in Refrigerant

Mixtures

Autor: Hewitt, N.J.; Mcmullan, J.T.; Mongey, B.
Lubricants for Hydrocarbon Refrigerants

Autor: Spauschus, H.O.; Henderson, D.R.; Grasshoff, H.D.
Experimental and Theoretical Investigation of the Alternative

Refrigerants
Autor: Hainbach, C.; Steimle, F.
Light Hydrocarbons as refrigerants and blowing agents for insulation

in household appliances
Autor: Lotz, H.
Propane - A Realistic Alternative

Autor: Halozan, H.; Ebner, T.; Lawatsch, H.
A Simulation Model and Study of Hydrocarbon Mixtures for

Residential Heat Pump systems
Autor: Domanski, P.A.; Didion, D.A.; Parise, J.
Propane as refrigerant in a small heat pump. Safety considerations

and performance comparisions

Autor: Granyd, E.; Tengblad, N.
Component design issues and limitations with 3rd generation HFC,

HC and natural refrigerants
Autor: Biancardi, F.; Sienel, T.
Some Experimental Results for Operating of a Hydraulic Refrigeration

System (HRS) Using n-Butan as the refrigerant
Autor: Rice, W; Wood, B.D.; Whitfield, K.L.; Chau, D.S.C.
Trans-critical vapour compression heat pumps

Autor: Neska, P.
Natural Gas Driven Vuilleumier Heat Pumps for Residential Heating
Autor: Carlsen, H.; Kühl, H.-D.; Schulz, S.
Accidents and Critical Situations Due to Unintentional Escape of

Refrigerants
European Communities Directorate-General For Energy (DG XVII)
Autor: Lunde, H; Lorentzen, G.
Risk Assessment of Flammable Refrigerants

Autor: Van Gerwen, R.J.M; Jansen, C.
Contribution to Safety Aspects Discussion on Isobutane Compressors

for Domestic Refrigeration
Autor: Zgliczynski, M; Sansalvadore, P.
Preliminary Considerations on Retrofitting a Cold Store to Non-CFC

Fluids
Autor: Malek, A.
Techno-Economic Aspects of Hydrocarbon Based Refrigerators

Autor: Devotta, S.
Hydrocarbon Refrigerants as Substitutes for CFC 12 in Domestic

Refrigeration Systems
Autor: Pereira, R.H.; Lunardi, M.A.; Drieessen, J.L.; Thiessen, M.R.
Propane-Butane - An Environmentally Friendly Refrigerant

Autor: Bodio, E.; Chorowski, M.; Wilczek, M.
Tests with R290/R600 Mixtures in a Domestic Refrigeartor/Freezer

Autor: Radermacher, R.; Tomasek, M.L.; Liu, B.Y.
Application of Hydrocarbons as Refrigerant in Household

Refrigerators

Autor: Jürgensen, H.
Energy Efficiency of Domestic refrigerators and deep Freezers with

Hydrocarbons as Working Fluids
Autor: Gorenflo, D.; Hesse, F.J.; Heilmann, G.
Evaluation of Zeotropic Hydrocarbon Mixtures in a Lorenz-Meutzner-

Cycle Refrigerator -Freezer
Autor: Tiedemann, T.; Kruse, H.
Evaluation of HC 600a, HFC 134a and CFC 12 Mass Flow rates

Through Capillary Tubes
Autor: Melo, C.; Perreira, R.H.; Ferreirra, R.T.S.; Boabaid Neto, C.;
Goncalves, J.M.; Thiessen, M.R.
Propane and Butane as Possible Alternatives to R12, R22 and R502.

Some Experimental Results in the Power Range of Commercial
Refrigeration and their Discussion
Autor: Oellerich, L.R.
Form of Notification for Deposit of Notes to International Bank for

Reconstruction and Development as Trustee of the Ozone Projects
trust fund
Korporative Verfasser: Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the
Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development
Country Programme: Bangladesh

Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee
The Administrative Costs of the Financial Mechanism

Letter of Implementation Strategy for small Montreal Protocol

Investment Operations through an Umbrella Agreement
Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; World Bank; Government of India
Status of the Implemantation Performance Review of Bank-

Implemented Montreal Protocol Investment Operations
Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; World Bank
Provisional Agenda
Secretariat Activities
Contributions and Fund Disbursements

Contributions in Arrears and Promissory Notes (Report from the

Treasurer)
Preliminary Draft Report on the Preview under Paragraph 8 of Article 5

Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; Tata Energy Research Institute
(TERI). New Delhi (India); ICF; Centre for Environmental Technologies;
Center for Global Change
Request for Multilateral Contributions for Mauritania


Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; Government of France
1994 UNDP Work Programme Amendments

Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; World Bank; UNDP
1994 UNIDO Work Programme

Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; UNIDO
Country Programme: Mauritania

Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; Government of Mauritania
Letter of Implementation Strategy for small Montreal Protocol

Investment Operations Through an Umbrella Agreement
Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; World Bank; Government of India
Inventory of Approved Projects (As at December 1994)

Status report on on-going bilateral activities and request for new

projects
Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; Government of Australia;
Government of Canada; Government of Denmark; Government of France;
Government of the USA
Consolidated Progress Report

Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; UNDP; United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP); UNIDO
Implementing Agency Progress Reports: Statement by UNDP

Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; UNDP
Implementing Agencies’ Progress Report Statement of UNIDO


Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; UNIDO
Natural Fluid Based Refrigeration - Trends in Natural Fluid based

Technologies for Domestic and Other Refrigeration Applications
Korporative Verfasser: Bundesministerium für Wirtschaftliche
Zusammenarbeit; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
(GTZ). Eschborn; Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC); UNIDO;
Forschungszentrum für Kältetechnik und Wärmepumpen (FKW);
Infrastruktur-, Umwelt- und Wirtschaftsberatung (INFRAS)
Hydrocarbon Technology - The Use of Hydrocarbons as Foaming

Agents and Refrigerants in Household Refrigeration
Korporative Verfasser: Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche
Zusammenarbeit; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
(GTZ). Eschborn
Autor: Baz, Peter; Meyersen, Klaus; Legatis, Dirk
Climate Change - a threat to global development. acting now to

safeguard the future
Korporative Verfasser: Enquete Commission "Protecting the Earth#s
Atmosphere" of the German Bundestag
hydrocarbons and other progressive answers to refrigeration

Autor: Lohbeck, Wolfgang
Umweltpolitik - Klimaschutz in Deutschland - Erster bericht der

Regierung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland nach dem
Rahmenübereinkommen der Vereinten Nationen über
Klimaänderungen
Reaktorsicherheit
Gutachten zur Umstellung einer Gehäuse- und einer

Türenschäumanlage auf c-pentanegetriebene Schäume. Wanbao
Autor: Gießler, K.
Going Towards Natural Refrigerants - Experience from Danish

Industry
Korporative Verfasser: Ministery of Environment and Energy; Danish
Environmental Protection Agency
Autor: Elefsen, Frank; Pedersen, Per Henrik; Morgensen, Lene
Eight Meeting, October 26, 1995, Information Slides

Korporative Verfasser: OORG Ozone Operations Resource Group
Report of the Seventeenth Meeting of the Executive Committee of the

Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol
Policies, Procedures, Guidelines and Criteria (As at July 1995)

Montreal Protocol
Operational Purpose, Compositions and Activities. Provisional Terms

of Reference. OORG Technical Review Request. OORG Publication
List.
Korporative Verfasser: OORG Ozone Operations Resource Group; World
Bank
The Avaiability of Hydrocarbons for ODS Phaseout in developing

Countries
Commercial Refrigeration and HCFs in Developing Countries

British Standard BS4434 "Refrigerant Safety"
Korporative Verfasser: British Standard; OORG Ozone Operations
Resource Group
Kälteproduktion R 134a-prozeßleitsystemgesteuert. Neue Generation

von FCKW-Folgeprodukten fordert neue Generation leistungsfähiger
Prozeßleitsysteme
Autor: Thomes, H.W.
Draft UNEP Paper on Small and medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs)

FOR Submission to 18th Meeting of the Executive Committee
Korporative Verfasser: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
Draft. Summary for Policymakers. Second Scientific assessment of

Climate Change
Korporative Verfasser: IPCC
"Greenfreeze" Kältetechnik für Supermärkte

Autor: Paul, J.
Technische Verfahren der Kühlschrankentsorgung

Autor: Wassenberg, B.; Lyko, H.; Lyko, M.
Hydrocarbon Refrigerant Risk in Car Air-Conditrioners

Korporative Verfasser: School of Mechanical and Manufacturing
Engineering - University of New South Wales
Autor: Maclaine-cross, I.L.; Leonardi, E.
Summary Review of Pentanes

Korporative Verfasser: Phillips
Project Document for FDF Funding (Block B)

Korporative Verfasser: UNDP
Global Environmental Change report 20 October 1995

Korporative Verfasser: Cutter Information Corp.
Revised Draft GEF Operational Strategy

Korporative Verfasser: Global Environment Facility
Refrigeration and Heat Pump Technology

Korporative Verfasser: Danish Technology Institute Energy
Autor: Sternqvist, S.
EPA Refrigerator Analysis (ERA)

Washington, D.C. (USA)
Autor: Fine, A.
Policies, Procedures, Guidelines and Criteria (As at July 1995)

Montreal Protocol
CFC Substitution in Developing Countries

Korporative Verfasser: GATE
Cyclopentane: A Blowing Agent for Polyurethane Foams for Insulation

in Domestic Refrigerator-Freezers
Proposed Ozone Projects Trust Fund Grant to the Kingdom of

Thailand
Korporative Verfasser: World Bank
Project Proposal: Venezuela

UNDP and the Montreal Protocol

Korporative Verfasser: UNDP
The Republic of Turkey - Ozone Projects Trust Fund Grant. Phaseout

of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS Phasout I). Project Document
December 1993
Draft Evaluation of the Swedish CFC-Phaseout

Korporative Verfasser: Swedish Environmental Protection Agency
UNEP IE Ozonaction Programme List of Publications

Provision of Services with Regards to the Technical Aspects of the

Implementation of EC Legislation on Ozone Depleting Substances.
Use of HCFCs in the European Union.
Korporative Verfasser: Prospect; European Commission Directorate
General XI
Country Programme Summary Sheets (As at December 1994)

Montreal Protocol
Ahead in CFC and HCFC-Free Conversion Worldwide. The Change to

Hydrocarbon Refrigerators and Freezers.
Korporative Verfasser: Liebherr
Hydrocarbon Blown Foams for U.S. Construction Applications

Korporative Verfasser: SPI Polyurethane Division; Miles Inc.; Bayer AG
Autor: Nicola, W.J.; Weber, H.U.
Pentane as a Blowing Agent for Polyurethane Rigid Foam

Korporative Verfasser: Bayer AG
Autor: Heilig, G.
Burning Behaviour of Pentane Blown Polyurethane Rigid Foams

Korporative Verfasser: Bayer AG
Autor: Heilig, G.; Prager, F.H.; Walter, R.; Wiedermann, R.; Wittbecker, F.-
W.
Ozone Protection in China. Strategic Study on the Phaseout of CFCs

in Domestic Refrigeration Sector in the People’s Republic of China
Korporative Verfasser: The Office of Household Electrical Appliance
Industry of China National Council of Light Industry; China Household
Electrical Appliances Association
Minutes of the Eight Ozone Operations Resource Group (OORG)

Meeting, October 26, 1995
Group
Autor: Waltz, Thomas W.
Kühlschrank-Totalentsorgung nach dem KAHL-BRESCH-Verfahren /

Total recycling of refrigerators according to the KAHL/BRESCH
process technology
Korporative Verfasser: Amandus Kahl. Hamburg
1995 International CFC and Halon Alternatives Conference -

Conference Participant Survey
Korporative Verfasser: International CFC & Halon Alternatives Conference.
Frederick, Maryland (USA)
Autor: Tardel, Heather W.
Implementation Performance Review of Bank-Implemented Montreal

Protocol Investment Operations
Turkey: Montreal Protocol Second Phaseout of Ozone Depleting

Substance Project
TTC Technologie im Trend

Korporative Verfasser: Technik Team Consult GmbH. Leipzig (Germany)
Montreal Protocol Investment Operations. Implemented by the World

Bank: November 1 - December 17, 1993
Venezuela: Mobile Air Conditioner (MAC) Factory Conversion Project

for Fabrication of HFC-134a Heat Exchangers
Korporative Verfasser: World Bank - Environment and Urban Development
Division, Country Department II, Latin America and the Caribbean Region
Office
Special Issue: Sector Strategies for ODS Phaseout in China

Korporative Verfasser: China National Environmental Protection Agency
(NEPA), Project Management Office
Autor: Yi, Liu; a.o.
Provisional List of Participants

Country Programme: Romania

Korporative Verfasser: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP);
UNIDO; Danish Environmental Protection Agency
Country Programme: Togo / Country Programme Addendum: Letter of

Transmittal
Ministere du Developpement Rural, de L’Environment et du Tourisme, Togo
Autor: Felli, Yao Do
Country Programme: Venezuela /Corrigendum

Project Proposals: Argentina - Corrigendum

Project Proposals: Philippines - Corrigendum

Country Programme: Congo


Ministry of Tourism and the Environment, Environment Division. Brazzaville,
Congo
Country Programme: Dominican Republic - National Programme for

the Phaseout of Ozone Depleting Substances
Department of the Undersecretary of State for National Resources, Santo
Domingo, Dominican Republic; Department of the Secretary of State for
Agriculture, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
Country Programme: Lebanon - Phasing Out the Ozone Depleting

Substances in Lebanon
Ministry of Environment, National Working Committe on Ozone Depleting
Substances, Beirut, Lebanon
Country Programme: Malta

Country Programme: Peru

Country Programme: Saint Lucia

Ministry of Planning, Development and Environment, Saint Lucia, West
Indies
Project Proposals: China

Project Proposals: India

Presentation of China’s Sectoral Phaseout Strategies

Protecting the Ozone Layer - Publications Available from the

OzonAction Programme
(Industry and Environment)
The South Wary of New Proposals to Phase Out Ozone Depleting

Substances
Korporative Verfasser: EcoNews Africa. Nairobi (Kenya)
Autor: Ayugi, Rose; Mwangi, Wagaki
A Cool Move
Korporative Verfasser: Calor Gas Refrigeration
The global environmental problems. Greenhouse effect, depletion of

the ozone layer and destruction of forests
Korporative Verfasser: German Technical Cooperation; Refik Saydam
Hygiene Center
Autor: Banu Bayar, A.; Behrend, Hartmut
Godrej - The Complete Picture 1897 - 1987

Korporative Verfasser: Godrey & Boyce Mfg. Co. Pvt. Ltd., Bombay (India);
Godrej Soaps Pvt. Ltd., Bombay (India)
Global Warming - Economic Dimensions and Policy Responses

Korporative Verfasser: Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and
Development (OECD)
Memorandum and Recommendation of the Director for Country

Department I of the International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development to the Regional Vice President, Europe & Central Asia
Region on a proposed Ozone Projects Trust Fund Grant to the
Republic of Turkey for a Phase-Out of Ozone Depleting Substances
Project
Korporative Verfasser: World Bank - Industry and Energy Operations
Division, Country Department I: Europe and Central Asia Region
Memorandum and Recommendation of the Directore for Country

Department I to the Vice President for Europe and Central Asia on a
Proposed Ozone Projects Trust Funds Grant to the Republic of Turkey
for a Second Phaseout of Ozone Depleting Substances Project
Korporative Verfasser: World Bank - Industry, Trade and Finance
Operations Division. Country Department I: Europe and Central Asia Region
Facing the Global Environment Challenge: A Progress Report on

World Bank Global Environment Operations August - September 1994
GREENPEACE Allegations and Bank’s Response Regarding Ozone

Layer Protection
Autor: Steer, Andrew
The Status of Hydrocarbon and Other Flammable Alternatives Use in

Division, Environment Department; OORG Refrigeration Sector Working
Group
Autor: Newcombe, Ken; Nardini, Geno; Jeffs, Mike; Kuijpers, Lambert;
Fitzgerald, Art; [a.o.]
Transitional and Zero ODS Domestic Refrigerator/Freezer Insulating

Foam Alternatives
Division, Environment Department; OORG Refrigerator/Freezer Foam
Working Group
Autor: Jeffs, Mike; Kuijpers, Lambert; Baumann, Gert; Souto, Sodario;
Wenning, Udo; [a.o.]
Kälteanlagen - Kälteaggregate - Kühltürme - Service

Korporative Verfasser: Sulzer Escher Wyss Landau (Germany)
Technologietransfer für eine nachhaltige Entwicklung

Korporative Verfasser: epi-Verlag. Saarbrücken (Germany)
Autor: Baz, Peter; Mallmann, Markus
PPT - Pentane Process Technology

Korporative Verfasser: Hennecke GmbH
Eco-Refrigeration - Conference on Hydrocarbon Fluids in Domestic

and Commercial Refrigeration Appliances, New Delhi, February 13-14,
1996. Conference Documentation
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Eschborn; Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC);
Ministry of Environment and Forests (GOI). New Delhi (India); Tata Energy
Research Institute (TERI). New Delhi (India)
Autor: Sicars, Stephan; Schwank, Ottmar; Agarwal, R.S.; [a.o.]
ECOFRIG - Phasing out CFC in India. A New Venture in North-South

Collaboration
Korporative Verfasser: Ministry of Environment and Forests (GOI). New
Delhi (India); Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC); Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Eschborn
Abschlußbericht zur Recherche über Kühl- und Gefriergerätehersteller

in den Ländern Estland, Lettland, Litauen, Polen, Rußland,
Slowakische Republik, Tschechische Republik und Ungarn im
Rahmen des Projektes "Substitution von FCKW im Bereich
Kältegeräte und -anlagen zum Schutz der Ozonschicht"
Autor: Meister, Petra Ines
1995 International CFC and Halon Alternatives Conference &

Exhibition. Stratospheric Ozone Protection for the 90’s. Conference
Proceedings
Korporative Verfasser: 1995 International CFC and Halon Alternatives
Conference and Exhibition
Autor: Barreau, Marc; Gilbert, Bruce; Judge, John; [a.o.]
Ozone Operations Resource Group (OORG) - Seventh Meeting, April

11, 1995
Group
Autor: Kuijpers, Lambert; Jeffs, Mike; Baxter, Bryan; Nardini, Geno; a.o.
Facing the Global Environment Challenge: A Progress Report on

World Bank Global Environment Operations, January - February 1995
Mobile Air Conditioning (MACS) - Conversion to Zero-ODS

Technology
Division, Environment Department; OORG Mobile Air Conditioning
Systems (MACS) Working Group
Autor: Oulouhojian, Simon; Management, Simone; Atkinson, Ward; [a.o.]
Ozone Operations Resource Group (OORG) - Eighth Meeting, October

26, 1995
Group
Autor: Kuijpers, Lambert; Baxter, Bryan; a.o.
Commercial Refrigeration and HCFCs in Developing Countries

Division, Environment Department; OORG Commercial Refrigeration
Working Group
Autor: Kuijpers, Lambert; Agarwal, R.S.; Clodic, Denis; Cooper, Peter; a.o.
Stand der FCKW-Substitution - Ein Überblick über die

Substitutionsmöglichkeiten
Korporative Verfasser: KK - Die Kälte- u. Klimatechnik. Offizielles Organ
des Bundesinnungsverbandes des Deutschen
Kälteanlagenbauerhandwerks
Autor: Elsner, C.
Zukunfstechnologie schon heute. IKK ’95, 16. Internationale

Fachmesse Kälte-KLima-Technik Essen, 19.-21.10.1995.
Leitfachmesse der Kälte-Klimatechnik als weltweit führendes
Fachforum
Autor: Weissenborn, Peter
VDKF-Umweltpreis 1995 an FLO ICE TEC Binäreis GmbH verliehen.

Jury würdigt umweltfreundliche und zukunftsweisende Technik
Korporative Verfasser: KK - Die Kälte- u. Klimatechnik. Offizielles Organ des
Bundesinnungsverbandes des Deutschen Kälteanlagenbauerhandwerks
Sicherheitstechnische Anforderungen an Ammoniak-Kälteanlagen (2).

Ein Leitfaden zur praktischen Anwendung bei
genehmigungsbedürftigen Anlagen nach 4.BlmSchV (Fortsetzung aus
KK 11/95)
Autor: Bothe, Achim
Verminderung des Primärenergiebedarfs und der CO-2-Emmissionen

durch Verwendung von Wärmepumpen für Gebäudeheizsysteme
Autor: Enkemann, Thomas; Kruse, Horst; Laue, Hans-Günther
R 22 - "Ersatzkältemittel" für R 12?

TOP - der Workshop. Kühlen im Haushalt: Innovative Konzepte zur

Vorratshaltung der Zukunft. Forum der AEG Hausgeräte GmbH am
31.10.1995 im Wuppertal Institut für Klima - Umwelt - Energie
Umweltbundesamt gibt bekannt: R 134a oder R 22 ersetzen FCKW-12

in Altanlagen
Bundesregierung soll FCKW-Ausstieg konsequenter regeln. VDKF-

Initiative gibt Veranlassung zum Handeln
Perishable-Center Flughafen Frankfurt/Main. Digitales Regelungs- und

Überwachungssystem durch Leitstelle. HEIFO (Osnabrück) installiert
modernste Kältetechnik
Kohlenwasserstoffe und die Regelungen des Montrealer Protokolls

Autor: Kuijpers, Lambert
TEAP-Stellungnahme zum Fachgespräch "Bisherige Erfolge zum

Schutz der Ozonschicht sind gefährdet"
Autor: Kuijpers, Lambert
19th International Congress of Refrigeration. 20.-25. August 1995, Den

Haag
Bisherige Erfolge zum Schutz der Ozonschicht sind gefährdet. Ein

Fachgespräch über die deutsche Meinung zum FCKW- und H-FCKW-
Phaseout überall in der Welt. Im Vorfeld der 7. Konferenz der
Vertragsstaaten zum Montrealer Protokoll vom 5.-7. 12. 1995 in Wien
Autor: Kraus, H. W.
Neue NH-3-Technologie - NH-3 mit CO-2 als Kälteträger.

Ammoniakkälteanlage mit Kohlendioxid als Kälteträger im
Schwedischen Supermarkt
Autor: Kauffeld, Michael
Verband der Kälte- und Klimatechnischen Unternehmen in Ungarn

HKVSz veranstaltete "12. Kält-Klima-Service-Konferenz" vom 2.-4.
Oktober 1995 in Balatonszéplak mit deutscher Beteiligung
Eine Kältemaschine mit Drossel-Sublimation

Autor: Naer, V.A.; Rozhentzesev, A.V.; Rybnikov, M.V.
Verminderung des Primärenergiebedarfs und der CO-2-Emmissionen

durch Verwendung von Wärmepumpen für Gebäudeheizsysteme

Autor: Enkemann, Thomas; Kruse, Horst; Laue, Hans-Jürgen

genehmigungsbedürftigen Anlagen nach 4. BlmSchV
Autor: Bothe, Achim
Indirekte Kühlung - Eine interessante Alternative mit dem Kälteträger

PEKASOL 50
Autor: Kaiser, Michael
Der Temperaturgleit - Ein Maß für die Entmischung und die

Leistungsverbesserung
Autor: Gerstel, Joachim
Stand und Probleme der Lecksuche / Dichtheitsprüfung in der

Kältetechnik. Emmissionsverringerung durch verbesserte Dichtheit
Autor: Birndt, Ralf
IKK' 95 - 16. Internationale Fachmesse Kälte-Klimatechnik Essen, 19.-

21. 10. 1995
Die Möglichkeiten von FKW 134a mit Mineralöl in hermetischen

Kühlgeräten
Autor: Janssen, Martien; Engels, F.L.M.; Kuijpers, Lambert
Glacier - der Kälte-Scroll in der Gewerbekühlung


Autor: Zaremski, Wolfgang
Erfahrungen mit der Überwachung eines Kühlsystems

Autor: Kiss, Josef D.
Kältemittelfreies Kühlverfahren eröffnet neue Chancen der

Klimatisierung. Besseres Raumklima in US-Supermärkten durch
Desicooling
Autor: Schmid, Wolfgang
Eine Wärmepumpen-/Klimaanlage
Autor: Pielke, Rüdiger
Neue Wege zum FCKW-Phaseout sind (!) zu beschreiten. Der Schutz

der Ozonschicht erfordert eine Neuorientierung auf das Wesentliche -
und eine entsprechende Umsetzung
Autor: Verhille, Maurice
KLEA 407A ersetzt R 502 in Tiefkühlanwendungen

Tiefkühlen mit Propan (R 290). Kälteanlagenbauermeister Dieter Auth

erzielt Doppelnull-Effekt in der Gewerbekälte
Staefa-TEKO-Wurm: Elektronische Lösung im Dreier-Verbund.

Strategische Allianz beibt nicht auf den Vetrieb beschränkt
Ammoniak ist das Kältemittel!

Autor: Lindborg, Anders
Kältemittel und Umwelt - eine Empfehlung

Autor: Ochsner, Erwin
Befüllung von Anlagen mit Kältemittelgemischen aus der

Dampfphase???
Autor: Reiß, Monika
Universalindikator gibt es nicht. Neue Anforderungen an Schaugläser

in der Kältetechnik
Autor: Löffler, Günter
Verhinderung von Geräuschproblemen luftgekühlter Kältemaschinen

Autor: Hartmann, Klaus
Energieeinsparung - PLUS-Vorteile bei elektronischer Regelung.

Energieverbrauchsmessungen von thermostatischen gegenüber
elektronischen Expansionsventilen
Autor: Wendelborn, Horst
Isceon 49 - Drop-In-Ersatzstoff für R 12 mit ODP = Null. Mit allen

bekannten Ölen verträglich
Autor: Slinn, David
Einstellen oder austauschen - Das ist hier die Frage! Was tun mit dem
Expansionsventil beim Austausch des Kältemittels
Autor: Stürzenhofecker, Peter
Über den Einsatz eines schrittmotorgesteuerten elektronischen

Expansionsventils. Erfahrungen aus der Sicht von Betreiber,
Anlagenbauer und Systemhersteller
Autor: Blauth, Christian
Klimatisierung von Schienenfahrzeugen. DKV-Vortragsveranstaltung

am 30. Mai 1995 in Hannover
Autor: Adolph, Ulrich
Rieselkühler. Technische Details und Anwendungen

Autor: Vries, Hubert de
Flo-Ice Pionieranlage in Ipsach bewährt sich

Autor: Ochsner, Erwin
R 407A und R 407B energetisch günstig. Bewertung des

Anlagenverhaltens von ICE KLEA 407A und KLEA 407B unter
Verwendung eines Hochleistungs-Scrollverdichters

Autor: Linton, Jeff W.; Schwennesen, Karsten
Klimatisierung und Astronomie

Autor: Fischer, Herbert
Alternative Kältemittel. Dresdner Kolloquium des ILK am 30. 5. 1995

Sommerfest bei Frigotechnik. Vorträge - Produktschau - Fachsimpeln,

am 17. Juni in Wülfrath
Retrofit von Fahrzeug-Klimaanlagen

Autor: Hesse, Ullrich
Gute Ergebnisse mit KLEA 407C. Umrüstung von R 22-Klimaanlagen

bei Reuters (UK)
Kälte/Klima Spitzenreiter bei der Ozonschichtzerstörung? Greenpeace

legt "FCKW-Studie" mit Verbrauchsprognose 1995 für FCKW, H-FCKW
und FKW vor
Energetische Untersuchungen eines Verdichters für Kohlendioxid

Autor: Süß, Jürgen; Kruse, Horst
Kältetechnik für eine globale Umwelt. "Open day" bei RE/GENT BV am

27. April 1995 in Eindhoven
Ein modernes Konzept der Gaswarntechnik. Schutz vor Ammoniak-

Gefahren
Autor: Lüdtke, Friedhelm
Mehrwert bei der Dampf-Luftbefeuchtung. Wartungsfreundlichkeit im

Zusammenhang mit dem neuen "Dampfzylinder zum Öffnen"
Autor: Berchthold, Wolfgang G.
VDKF und Messe Essen GmbH stiften Umweltpreis. Erstmalige

Vergabe eines mit 15 000 DM dotierten Umweltpreises anläßlich der
IKK '95 vom 19.-21. 10. 1995 in Essen
Erfahrungen mit Ersatzstoffen für R 502

Umstellung einer R 502-Kälteanlage auf das Ersatzkältemittel R 507

Autor: Hellmann, Joachim; Fahl, Jörg
Die Ozonschicht kennt keine Grenzen. Ein Fachgespräch zur

Bewertung der FCKW-Situation in Zentral- und Osteuropa
Autor: Kuijpers, Lambert; Dobó, László
ISH 1995 - Internationale Fachmesse Sanitär Heizung Klima 28. 3.-1. 4.

1995 in Frankfurt/Main

DKV Hannover zu Gast in der Norddeutschen Kälte-Fachschule.

"Entmischungserscheinungen von Kältemittelgemischen" - ein
Referat von Dipl.-Ing. Monika Reiß (Hoechst AG) in Springe
Ammoniak, Kohlendioxid und Wasser - die gewerblichen Kältemittel

der Zukunft?
Autor: Kauffeld, Michael
Kühlung durch Heißluft in Druckerei. Pilotanlage nutzt Abwärme aus

thermischer Nachverbrennung für Kälteerzeugung
Entwicklungsprinzipien und Praxiserfahrung mit den neuen HA/HG-

Verdichtern
Autor: Hagenlocher, Thomas
Bundesregierung wird Forderung des Bundesrates aussitzen

Modulbauweise in der Kühlturmtechnik

Autor: Nießen, Roland
Mehr denn je: Servicefreundliche Eiswürfelbereiter. Würfeleis -

Kegeleis - Flockeneis - Scherbeneis
INTERNORGA '95 - Der Aufschwung ist da. 10.-15. März 1995 in

Hamburg
Frigoklima ’95 (5.-6. April) in Prag. Kooperation Tschechien -

Deutschland mit Leben erfüllt
BIV will mit aussagekräftiger Umfrage bei Kälteanlagenbauern den

Qualitätsstand bei Umrüstung von Altanlagen erfassen
"Belüftung" von Transportfahrzeugen bereitet weiterhin Ärgernis

Verschiedenes: US-Supermarkt spart mit KLEA 407a, Hussmann und

Copeland deutlich Energie / Neues "Balanced Port" Expansionsventil
TX6 von ALCO CONTROLS / Supermärkte verwenden verstärkt das
Sicherheitskältemittel Suva HP 62
Blends, Anwendbarkeit der DIN 8955 bzw. DIN 8970

Autor: Karsch, Max
Gehnehmigungspraxis bei NH-3-Kälteanlagen

Autor: Schrempf, Bernhard
Lehrgangsreihe "Technische Gebäudeausrüstung": Beispiel:

Kältetechnik in Klimaanlagen. Praxisnahe Fortbildung am
Weiterbildungszentrum Technische Akademie Esslingen

"Kältemittel" - Wohin geht die Reise? Ganztägige

Vortragsveranstaltung der Kälteanlagenbauer-Innung
Niedersachsen/Sachsen-Anhalt am 4. März in Hannover
ASHRAE feierte den 100. Geburtstag

Euro-Verbundsätze von Schiessl im Härtetest

Autor: Schmid, Ulrich
Ansicht (Einsicht?) in den USA: FCKW-Ausstieg setzt auch R 22 unter

Druck
§ 10 (2) "Übergangsvorschriften": Eine neue Definition ist nicht

geboten!
Untersuchungen zum Ammoniakeinsatz in Gewerbekälteanlagen

Autor: Hommann, Günter; Thießen, Hans; Wobst, Eberhard
Der Compliant Scroll (3) (Fortsetzung aus KK 1/95)

Autor: Greder, Denis; Henchoz, Michael
Energieeffizienz und Mut zu neuen Kältemitteln. International Air-

Conditioning Heating Refrigerating Exposition '95, Chicago,
McCormick Place East, 30. 1.-1. 2. 1995
Die richtige Kombination von Kältemitteln nutzen - Auf der Suche

nach der effizientesten Kältemitteltechnologie. Ein "internationales"
Fachgespräch mit globalen Betrachtungen aus Anlaß der ARH-
Exposition '95 vom 30. 1.-1. 2. 1995 in Chicago
Autor: Mash, Anthony G.; Tudhope, Geoffrey R.D.; Dekleva, Thomas W.
FKW-Retrofit-Seminare I und II. Analysen zur Umstellung bestehender

FCKW-Kälteanlagen auf ozonverträgliche Kältemittel am 10. 11. 1994
in Hannover (I) und am 8. 12. 1994 bei BUNA GmbH in Schkopau (II) /
Fortsetzung aus KK 2/1995
Wärmepumpe mit Propan an der Ingenieurschule Luzern

Preußischer Landtag und Haus der Elektrotechnik in Berlin: Keine

RLT-Sanierung ohne Stacheln. Pressefahrt des Fachinstitutes
Gebäude-Klima e.V. - FGK - am 12. und 13. Oktober
Kampfansage von BG und FGK gegen Bakterienbildung.

Wartungssicherheit für den hygienisch einwandfreien Betrieb von
Luftbefeuchtungseinrichtungen
Autor: Wilcke, Michael
Möglichkeiten der Energieeinsparung in RLT-Geräten


Autor: Kaup, Christoph
Stulz mit Modular-Linie Premium Anbieter. Eine neue Qualität von

Präzisionsklimageräten bestimmt den Markt
VDKF-Umweltschutz-Seminar "Natürliche Kältemittel" in Neumünster

R 502 / R 22 - Ersatzkältemittel R 507 in der Gewerbekühlung

Autor: König, Holger
Der Compliant Scroll (2) (Fortsetzung aus KK 12/94)

Autor: Greder, Denis; Henchoz, Michael
Vielseitige Kälte- und Klimatechnik. Deutsche Kälte-Klima-Tagung

1994 des Deutschen Kälte- und Klimatechnischen Vereins DKV vom
16.-18. 11 1994 in Bonn
R 502-Ersatz? Schiessl forciert azeotropes R 507. Solvay-Solkane-

Seminar, gemeinsam mit Komponentenherstellern in Pulheim
Lecksuche und Dichtheitsprüfung in der Kältetechnik. Seminarreihe

der Bundesfachschule Kälte-Klima-Technik in Zusammenarbeit mit
dem ILK Dresden
15 Jahre Erba Kälte. Kälteproduktion und Kältehandel aus

Überzeugung
Vergleich von R 407c und R 410a mit R 22 in einer Zentralklimaanlage

für Wohnhäuser mit 10,5 kw Leistung
Autor: Linton, Jeff W.; Snelson, W.K.; a.o.
Natürliche Stoffe in der Kältetechnik. Linde's umweltfreundliche

Lösungen für Supermärkte
Autor: Haaf, Siegfried; Mall, Klaus; Rinne, Frank
Umweltschutzvorsorge und Deregulierung. VDKF lud

Bundestagsabgeordnete zum Fachgespräch am 15. Januar 1996 in
den Bonner Presseclub ein
Aufbau einer Versuchsanlage zur Messung der Leistung von

Ventilator-Luftkühlern (Fortsetzung aus KK 1/96)
Autor: Timm, Edgar; Arnemann, Michael
Kenmore Symposium in Köln. Trockner - Trockenmittel-Öle-

Kältemittel in Fahrzeug-Klimaanlagen
DKV setzt Maßstäbe. Deutsche Kälte-Klima-Tagung 1995 vom 22.-24.

11 1995 in Ulm

genehmigungsbedürftigen Anlagen nach 4. BlmSchV
Autor: Bothe, Achim
Zeit zum Umdenken IX - Erfüllen Sie die Erwartungen Ihrer Kunden?

Autor: Ockelmann, Carsten
Entfeuchtung von Raumluft mittels Membranabsorption (Fortsetzung

aus KK 1/96)
Autor: Hilke, Roland; Albrecht, Wolfgang; Weigel, Thomas; Paul, Dieter
Elimination of CFCs in domestic refrigerator production plant in

AUTOSAL, S.A. in Argentina. Government of Argentina Country
Program
Elimination of CFCs in two manufacturing plants of domestic

refrigerators of enterprises PIRAGUA S.A.I.I.F.C.A. and PIRAGUA SAN
LUIS in Argentina
Elimination of CFCs in domestic refrigerator production plants in

Aurora, S.A. in Buenos Aires, Argentina. Government of Argentina
Country Program
Project Proposals: Argentina

Montreal Protocol. Executive Committee; United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP)
Engineering Assistance For Conversion of Refrigerator Manufacture

to use of HFC-152a Refrigerant using conventional compressors. The
People’s Republic of China Country Program
Project Evaluation Sheet: The People’s Republic of China Country

Program
Montreal Protocol
Assessment of the Prospects for Hydrocarbon Technology in the

Global Domestic Refrigeration Market. Terms of Reference (Final
Draft)
Korporative Verfasser: World Bank; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Eschborn; Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC)
India: Ozone Projects Trust Fund Grant - Technical Support and

Investment Project (ODS Phaseout 1). Project Information Document
India: Ozone Projects Trust Fund Grant - Phaseout of Ozone Depleting

Substances (ODS Phaseout II). Project Document
China: Ozone Projects Trust Fund Grant - Phaseout of Ozone

Depleting Substances (ODS Phaseout 2). Project Information
Document
China: Ozone Projects Trust Fund Grant - Phaseout of Ozone

Depleting Substances (ODS Phaseout III). Project Document
Malaysia: Ozone Projects Trust Fund Grant - Phaseout of Ozone

Depleting Substances (ODS Phaseout II). Project Document

Mexico: Ozone Projects Trust Fund Grant - Ozone Protection Policy

and Institutional Strenghening Project
Reducing ODS Use by Developing Countries in Refrigeration

Group
Autor: Kuijpers, Lambert; Anderson, Kent; Gordon, James; [a.o.]
Chiller Refrigeration: ODS Phase-Out Alternatives

Division, Environment Department; OORG Chiller Working Group; ICF
Autor: Eydt, Bernard; Linquite, Peter; Kuijpers, Lambert; Menzer, Mark;
[a.o.]
Reducing ODS Use in Developing Countries in Domestic

Refrigerator/Freezer Insulating Foams
Division, Environment Department; OORG Foam Sector Working Group
Autor: Jeffs, Mike; Kuijpers, Lambert; Wenning, Udo; Souto, Sodario; [a.o.]
Zero ODS Foam Pre-Insulated Pipe Alternatives

Division, Environment Department; OORG Foam-Blown Pre-Insulated Pipes
Working Group
Autor: Jeffs, Mike; Broennum, Thomas; Lamberts, W.; Kuivalainen, Pekka;
[a.o.]
Reducing ODS Use in Foam-Blown Pre-insulated Pipes (with

particular reference to Poland)
Division, Environment Department; OORG Foam-Blown Pre-Insulated Pipes
Working Group
Autor: Jeffs, Mike; Broennum, Thomas; Karvinen, Jaakko; Kuivalainen,
Pekka; [a.o.]
CFC-12 to HCFC-22 Plant Conversion: OORG Production Sector Case

Study
Division, Environment Department; OORG Production Sector Working
Group
Autor: Harris, Michael; Vogelsberg, F.A.; Rama Rao, A.V.; Yun-Gong,
Feng; Wada, Hiroyuki
Technical Considerations for Chlorofluorocarbon Alternatives

Production in Developing Countries
Group
Autor: Harris, Michael; Rama Rao, A.V.; Vogelsberg, Tony; Wada, Hiroyuki;
Yun-Gong, Feng
Domestic Refrigeration: Refrigerant Alternatives

Group
Autor: Hansen, Poul Erik; Hardt, Laercio; Kuijpers, Lambert; Janssen,
Martien; [a.o.]
The Availability of Hydrocarbons for ODS Phaseout in Developing

Countries
Group
Autor: Harris, Michael; Joyner, Brian, D.; Collins, Gregory
World Bank 1996 Business Plan. Multilateral Fund of the Montreal

Protocol
1996 Work Program: Bank-Implemented Montreal Protocol Operations

as Proposed to the 18th Meeting of the Fund EC
Progress Report: Bank-Implemented Montreal Protocol Operations.

June - September 1995

Russian Federation: Greenhouse Gas Reduction Project (A

Component of Gas Distribution and Energy Efficiency Project). Project
Document
Korporative Verfasser: World Bank - Infrastructure, Energy and
Environment Division. Country Department III: Europe and Central Asia
Region
Vienna plus ten - The Vienna Convention: 10 years of achievement

VATIS (Value Added Technology Information Service): Ozone Layer

Protection Update July 1994, Vol. 4, No. 5
Korporative Verfasser: Asian and Pacific Centre for Transfer of Technology
(APCTT). New Delhi, India
IBD Info 1/95 -integrierter beratungsdienst-

Greenfreeze Weltweit: Chronologie einer umwelttechnischen

Revolution
Autor: Lohbeck, Wolfgang
Supermarket Greenfreeze: Supermarket Refrigeration & The

Environment
GTZ Yearbook 1995 GTZ Partners 356
14. GTZ Know-How Cooperation Partners

We like to present our major cooperation partners. All of them are able to
deliver industrially proven modules for hydrocarbon technology.
Henneke
offers cyclopentan foaming technology
Greiz
offers cyclopentan foaming technology
Foron
offers isobutan compressors, isobutan filling stations and engineering
dkk
offers engineering
Liebherr
offers isobutan filling stands, safety equipment and engineering
There are two training Centers for hydrocarbon technology in Germany:
Bundesfachschule Kälte Klimatechnik

Bruno Dreßler Str 14
D-63477 Maintal 2
Tel. ++49-6109-63001
Transferzentrum Kälte-Klimatechnik
an der Fachhochschule Karlsruhe
Postfach 2440
D-76012 Karlsruhe
Tel. ++49-721-22184
Fax ++49-721-20230
GTZ Yearbook 1995 GTZ Partners 357
GTZ Yearbook 1995 dkk 358
dkk
GTZ Yearbook 1995 FORON 367
Foron
Compressor Series KV/KVD
Design B and C for Hydrocarbons
FORON KV/KVD - compressors
FORON Since 1927 refrigerators and compressors have

been produced in the Saxon town
Scharfenstein.
Thus, FORON Hausgerate GmbH is one of the most traditional enterprises

manufacturing small-size refrigerating equipment in Germany.
Experience gained in hermetic compressor construction for more than 30
years opened the way for numerous solutions protected by patent law.
We have qualified and efficient personnel at disposal. Product planing,

development and preparation are concentrated in one hand.
Innovations are achieved by creativeness, diligence and persistence.
Our products are obtaining excellent energetic parameters.
Our hermetic compressors are quality-products with marks.
In 1995 we started production of the new compressor series KVD as a

development for the new refrigerant Isobutan.
In future we will interest you further for us through innovations, kind

behaviour to environment and Progress.
NEW
The compressors of series KV and KVD
Kind behaviour to environment
The new developed KVD-series and the well-proved KV-series meet all
demands for household refrigerators and freezers up to a refrigerating
capacity of about 11 () W.
Saving energy
By using of better motors and run capacitors the energy efficiency could be
improved decisively.
Small space required
A special design of compressors series KVD allows using the same height
as with compressors made for refrigerant R 12. With using refrigerant R
600a you need a double displacement to realise the same refrigerating
capacity. The connection technology is according to DIN 8929.
Improved energetic parameters
- Restriction of refrigerating capacity scatter - Important reduction of noise

emission by B-compressors - Increased energy efficiency
Additional extending of delivery
- With fastening element (clamp) for evaporation tray - Availability of suitable

evaporation tray - Fastening element like version 2 (see figure on page 13)
FORON
KV/KVD - compressors
Climatic class of execution
climatic class .RN anti T
-15°C...-35°C
0°C...-35°C
+15°C...-10°C
Rated voltage range
- 220 V...240 V/50 Hz (extension possible)
- allowed tolerance range of main voltage 187 V...255 V
Starting characteristics Starting of compressors is ensured when meeting

the following conditions:
- LST
reaching a compensating pressure in refrigerator system amounting to a
pressure according to a temperature + 15°C (100 % liquid refrigerant). -

max. pressure difference in intermittent operation for LBP 0,3 bar LBP/MBP
0.5 bar
- HST pressure difference up to condenser pressure according to a
temperature (100 % igerant) of 50°C and a suction pressure within the

evaporating temperate
Condensation temperature - With permanent operation the condensation

temperature should not exceed 50°C.
- Upon starting (reduction of refrigeration-system temperature until set-point

evaporation temperature) a maximum condensation temperature of 70°C
may be permitted for a short time.
Oilfilling The compressors are filled with a suitable refrigerator oil according
to DIN 51503.
Cleanliness, dryness The compressors are despatched in clean

(contamination particles c30 mg) and dry state. After final check, the
compressors are filled with dry nitrogen and the pipe ends are sealed tightly.
The capsule overpressure shall be 0,2 bar approximately.
Technological refrigeration connections
The pipe ends are made of thick-wall copper tube and ensure
uncomplicated soldered
Joints.
Pipe ends are delivered with inner pipe dimensions
suction - and process connection if 6,2 +0-2
pressure connection ¢ 5,0 +015
Electrical connections The designs N. and H. are equipped with

electromagnetic starter device (starting relay) and with externally arranged
motor protection switch responding to current and temperature. The
designs P and C are equipped with a PTC-motor starter and a closed
protector. The design C has an additional run capacitor. The electric
connections are located on a pre-assembled base plate with connecting
equipment (screw-type terminals M 3,5 and plug connectors 4,8) according
to DIN 8929. The relay combination consisting of preassembled base plate
with connection terminal, starting relay and motor protection switch as well
as protective cap and various connecting elements is delivered in a
separate packing. Upon request, the compressor can be delivered with
relay assembly mounted on it.
Safety technology The compressors are in compliance with DIN-VDE

0700 part 1 and part 34 safeguard: safety class 1
Packing Usual standard packing comprises 60 compressors in 3 layers with

the size of 1150 x 726x800 mm and a weight of 384 kg to 600 kg according
to type. Parcelled consignment is effected in folding corrugated-board
boxes.
Hints regarding proper operation During installation of compressors, take

into account the following standards:
DIN 8975 Technical safety guidelines for refrigeration installations
DIN-ISO 5149 Technical safety requirements for refrigeration installations
VBG 20 Accident-prevention regulation refrigeration installations, heat

pumps and cooling systems enclosed the executive instruction
DIN-VDE 0700 Safety for electric domestic appliances and similar purposes
Prior to installation into the refrigeration unit, the compressors shall be

accommodate
to the ambient temperature of about 20°C in order to prevent unwanted oil

expansion after filling in refrigerant and to ensure smooth starting of test
run. Only fill in the refrigerant quantity needed for the function of
refrigeration system. The refrigeration systems shall be dimensioned so that
oil penetrating into the refrigeration circuit is continuously returned to the
compressor. The heat exchangers shall be sufficiently dimensioned. Upon
increasing evaporation temperature and decreasing condensation
temperature, the energetic efficiency of the refrigeration system is raised.
FORON
KV/KVD - compressors
Electric circuit diagrams

Further information can be obtained from:
FORON Hausgerate GmbH FORON Hausgerate GmbH
Arnsfelder straße 4 compressor plant
09518 Niederschmiedeberg August-Bebel-Str. 24
09435 Scharfenstein
phone: 03735/605 201 phone: 03725/285 220
fax: 03735/605 251 fax: 03725/285 221
GTZ Yearbook 1995 Hennecke 377
Henneke
Polyurethan-Anlagentechnik
Ein Bayer Unternehmen
Pentane Process Technology - PPT

Most European manufacturers of refrigerators and deep freezers have

routed all signals to protection of the environment for a long time - i.e. much
earlier than required by the dates in the official Montreal protocol. They
directly decided in favour of the right direction: no intermediate solutions via
"soft fluorocarbons", but with Pentane as a substitute for fluorocarbon in the
rigid PUR foam. Pentane is absolutely future-oriented: no reduction of the
ozone layer (ODP = 0) and negligible global warming effect (GWP = 0.001).
in Germany alone the number of refrigerated appliances manufactured
without fluorocarbons and chlorofluorocarbons to the autumn of ’93 amounts
to far more than 1 million most of them thanks to Hennecke’s PENTANE
PROCESS TECHNOLOGY. So this industrial branch paves the way for the
other manufacturers processing rigid PUR foam. Pentane-blown systems,
however, are not limited to refrigerators, deep freezers, refrigerated display
cabinets, sandwich panels and long-distance heating pipes. Even semirigid
self-skinning foam, e.g. for the production of steering wheels, is blown by
means of Pentane.
CFC substitution schedule
ODP GWP
Blowing agent
CFC11 1 1
HCFC 22 0,05 0,36
HCFC 123 0,02 0,01
HFC 134 a 0 0,27
HCFC 141 b 0,08 0,09
HCFC 142 b 0,06 0,36
Pentane 0 0,001
Air 0 0
CO2 0 0,00025
Pentane is not only reliable with respect to ecology With regard to insulation
properties, dwell time and filling volume, Pentane-blown rigid PUR foam is
also hardly inferior to traditional R1 l-foams However every expert knows
that Pentane is flammable in case of specific gas concentrations in other
words production lines require harmonisation with the new technology Only
the consistent application of Hennecke´s PPT system ensures safe Pentane
processing at the way in Germany, the PPT system complies with the
Technical Instructions for Inflammable Liquids (TRbF), meets the
regulations of the Water Resources Law (WHG) as well as the requirements
of the Technical Control Board (T0V)
Blowing density at Boiling vapour flash mole wt Explosion heat trans-

agent point pressure at point limits mission
within air
g/cm3 ’C bar °C g/mol Vol% W/m K
CFC 11 1,49 +24 0,89 none 137,4 none 0,008
n-Pentane 0,63 +36 0,57 -45 72,2 1,4---7,8 0,013
c-Pentane 0,74 +49 0,35 -37 70,0 1,4.~7,8 0,010
Leading European manufacturers of refrigerators and freezers have

already Converted their production lines to Hennecke´s PPT system Can
there be more convincing evidence of the safe and economic character of
this technology?
The close cooperation with Bayer AG resulted in the development of a

safety system accounting for all possible situations - including the risk
component "human failure" Any thinkable potential danger, e g ignition
sources, ignitable mixtures or static charging was localised, defined and
eliminated by preventive measures in the course of comprehensive series of
tests Apart from tests at the laboratory, ignition tests with original supporting
moulds used in the production of refrigerators were performed and
individual safety installations were tested and optimised
Any knowledge and practical experience gained that way contributes to the
complete safety of the PENTANE PROCESSTECHNOLOGY. This was also
confirmed by the TUV, the German Technical Control Board, after
Hennecke’s PPT system had been tested and considered good quality
From the video documentation ignition tests:
The power of the Pentane explosion has destroyed the supporting mould;
parts of the mould are lying scattered around
The PENTANE PROCESS TECHNOLOGY is a graded and concatenated

process including primary and secondary measures. All primary measures
have one common important aim:
• the formation of potentially explosive atmospheres is prevented right from

the beginning - from the storage tank facility to the foaming station.
This includes e.g. special piping and seatings, safety valves, automatic
switch-off devices and supply stoppers, nitrogen inertizing equipment and a
number of other special devices.
Secondary measures include all technical installations guaranteeing

additional safety, e.g.
• encapsulations and encasings
• aeration and ventilation systems
• Pentane sensors and gas warning systems
• Pentane exhaustion systems
• safety control systems
• leakage monitoring and watchdogs

PENTAMAT and DELTAMAT facilities do not permit the occurrence of

external and internal leakage’s, because such units do not meter the
blowing agent directly - thanks to a new functional principle. A special
tandem pump (TP1 ) is used to take a partial stream from the constant
Polyol stream. The other half of the tandem pump (TP2) delivers a defined
larger quantity back into the Polyol stream: the lacking quantity is
automatically compensated for from the pressurised blowing agent line (see
diagram p. 7). The lubricants usually added to the blowing agent are not
required by this technology. The portion of blowing agent can easily be
varied by means of the frequency controlled motor (see 4).
This computer Controlled metering unit (approved by the TUV) is protected

in a way that an explosive atmosphere is impossible. The most important
safety elements include the following:
• double shaft Seatings
• special pipe screwings
• pressure switches
• safety valves and
• automatic Pentane feed stoppers in t case of failure or deactivation.
The output of Polyol is approx. 9.2 I/min (PENTAMAT 10) or 24 I/min

(PENTAMAT 30). A flow rate recorder for Polyol and Pentane is standard.
TECHNlCAL DATA
Pentamat 10 Pentamat 30
Polyol 9,2 I/min 24 I/min

Pentane 0,36- 2,3 I/min 0,96 - 6 I/min
= 4 - 25 Vol-% 4- 25 Vol-%
Connected
power 2,5 kW 5 kW
Functional principle PENTAMAT / DELTAMAT

1 Polyol main pump
2 Flow mete
3 Non-return valve
4 Frequency-controlled motor for tandem pump
5 Tandem pump TP 1
6 Tandem pump TP 2
7 Mass flow meter for blowing agent
8 Static mixer
9 Contact pressure gauge
10 Pressure holding valve
11 Work tank
Units of the DELTAMAT type, a variant of the PENTAMAT, are used for
lowboiling, soft blowing agents like R 22 and R 142b. They comprise an
additional pressure holding valve (s.10) to prevent internal evaporations of
the blowing agent during the metering and mixing operations.
Blowing agent Density at Vapour pressure max weight % Metering unit

at recomm-ended
20 °C 20 'C
g/cm3 bar
Cyclopentan 0,75 0,35 18 PENTAMAT
R 22 1,21 9,10 30 DELTAMAT
R 123 1,47 0,77 36 PENTAMAT
R 141b 1,27 0,65 31 PENTAMAT
R 142b 1,17 2,90 29 DELTAMAT
R 22/R 1,18 6,84 29 DELTAMAT

142b(60%/40%)
R 22/R 142b 1,16 5,60 29 DELTAMAT

(40%/60%)
R 134a 1,23 5,70 30 DELTAMAT

The design and the special process technology prevent the formation of
explosive atmosphere in this work tank including a new type of special
stirrer. Thanks to a powerful torque transmision without sealings the usual
stirrer shaft inlet in the cover is no longer required: therefore blowing agent
leakages - incl. gaseous ones - are impossible. Further to that the inside of
the tank is inertized by nitrogen - the formation of ignitable concentrations is
impossible.
Further primary safety measures include: screwings with

double sealings double protection against excessive pressure
self_locking valves for supply and draining
Pentane-specific level gauges and replenishing control system

Furthermore, the work tank is equipped with an automatic overcharge
protection and a permanency active level probe integrated into the Pentane
safety monitoring system The max. working pressure is 10 bar, standard

sizes are 250 I and 500 l.
High-pressure reaction casting machines of the type HK-P are used for the
metering of the mixture and the mixing operation.
A number of primary protective measures is used for a complete sealing to

the outside so that the formation of a Pentane/air mixture is impossible. So
e.g. all dynamic sealings are in double design and provided with a new type
of safety sealing liquid system. The other primary protections of the
PentanePolyol metering line fulfil any wish as well, e.g.:
• permanently ventilated metering pumps
• screwings with double sealings

• pumps, recirculation throttles and mixheads with monitors for leakages
• parts protected against corrosion
• seat valve to monitor the Isocyanate injector
The safety sealing liquid system identifies leakages in the internal and
external sealings by a rising or dropping liquid level (pending patent). in
dangerous situations the Pentane monitor is informed which then prevents a
restart.
Within the secondary measures in the PPT system the machines and units
like PENTAMAT, work tank and highpressure reaction casting machine of
HK-P type are completely encapsulated, aerated and equipped with
exhaustion device, Pentane gas sensors and further safety devices.
Even compact production units with all subassemblies can be encapsulated

- like the mobile PENTANE CENTERS which are recommended for a fast
and economic conversion to Pentane processing .
The new PENTANE CENTRE from the bird’s eye view:
1 ) Metering unit HK 650 P
2) Special tank Polyol/Pentane
3) lsocyanate tank
4) Temperature control units
5) Pentamat 10
6) Safety encapsulation
7) Exhaustion
8) PPT safety control system
9) HK control system
Exhaustion systems have to be installed within the secondary measures in

the PPT system at any point where Pentane gases may occur due to
human or technical failure. This does not only apply to PENTAMAT, HK-P
and work tank (safety valve), but also to all encapsulated wet part units like
the PENTANE CENTRE. With respect to the foaming operation in the
mould, careful routing of air and planned exhaustion controlled by flow
monitors are even among the primary safety measures, because the
foaming of the reactive mixture regularly and inevitably leads to the
formation of Pentane-containing gases in explosive concentration.
If cavities to be foamed are surrounded by materials with electrostatic

chargings - like e.g. plastic inliners of refrigerators -, additional safety
measures are required, because so-called brush discharges of the
electrostatic potential might result in an ignition of the Pentane-gas mixture.
This danger is prevented by means of a Hennecke idea for which patent is
pending: Before the start of the foaming process the cavity is filled with
nitrogen. The inert gas is blown in just before the shot via an additional
mixhead injector or a special gate valve (at the MP mixhead). Then the
formation of an explosive mixture is impossible. During the foaming
operation the nitrogen is displaced and exhausted.
Irrespective of high mass production figures or flexible production - the

PENTANE PROCESS TECHNOLOGY protects all critical zones; those of
oval conveyor, paternoster and turntable facilities as well as those created
during the production with stationary moulds. Hennecke’s newly developed
CycloFlex system is especially appropriate for Pentane processing. Mould
charging and foaming are performed in a central station where the PPT
system can be implemented economically and efficiently. Furthermore, the
PENTANE PROCESS TECHNOLOGY can be adapted to each Pentane-
blown rigid PUR foam and semi-rigid self-skinning foam production, e.g. to
the production of refrigerated trucks and containers, roof and wall elements,
composite tubes, tank insulations, hot water tanks or car components made
of semi-rigid self-skinning foams, like steering wheels for example.
The independent and decentralized control system is informed about all

trouble indications (in connection with the primary and secondary measures)
to definitely prevent Pentane or a Polyol/ Pentane mixture from getting into
the environment and avoid dangers due to ignition sources. The electronic
security system thus controls the entire plant and switches it off completely,
if required.
The most important alarm messages and reactions in case of trouble

indications are as follows:
• visual alarm by the leakage monitor
• control of the exhaustion
• deactivation of incoming and outgoing raw material
• switching metering unit, refilling system, Pentamat, mould control system

and conveying system idle
• sound and visual alarm for collective trouble
These gas warning devices (approved for explosive atmospheres) monitor

all critical plant components like storage tank facility, premixing, metering
and foaming and are included in the secondary safety measures. In case of
a failure they switch the "technical ventilation" to maximum performance and
the plant is immediately switched idle.
The PPT control system reacts to any primary or secondary trouble

indication and immediately affects the processing of Pentane, e.g. by
controlling the exhaustion performance (min. sextuple ventilation, max.
thirtyfold ventilation).
PPT Refrigerator Production with CycloFlex System

Hennecke has been manufacturing Polyurethane foaming machines for

nearly 50 years. Delivery programme: Reaction casting machines, moulds,
mould carriers, conveying systems as well as complete continuous and
discontinuous production lines for all cellular and non cellular Polyurethane
systems. Please ask for our delivery program.
The information in this leaflet is given in good faith but without warranty.
Design subject to alterations.
GTZ Yearbook 1995 Liebherr 403
Liebherr
GTZ Yearbook 1995 Greiz 407
Plasttechnik Greiz
automation and manipulator technique, peripheral equipment’s

according to technological requirements and as desired by customer
• mechanical milling devices

• vacuum milling devices
• release agent and colour application
• mixing head manipulator
• demoulding and charging devices
• gate cleaning
• devices for transport of insertions, finished parts etc.
premixing stations
according to technological requirements
• colour metering
• all known blowing agents
• gas loading system
• pentane or other rare gases
pentane safety-engineering
• controlled exhaustion (2 levels)
• pentane sensor
• controlled seals
• nitrogen inertiation
(tested by TUV, German Technical Examination Association) (fig. 1 1 )
plants for insulation technique

tailored according to the requirements of construction and subordinated
industries
• double belt plants
• daylight presses
• pipe insulation plants
• processing of all known layers
• CFC-free operation
tank farm
design and dimensions according to the technical requirements or as
desired by customer
scrap and waste material recovery

devices for
• size reduction
• ensilage
• metering and mixing
• devices for production of composite foam
moulds
(fig 12)
for all applications of polyurethane processing
Further technical developments expressly reserved.
Fig. 7 Mouldcarrier 2000 X 1000mm

Fig. 8 Mould carrier 550 x 550 mm
Fig. 9 Line for CFC-free refrigerator insulation

Fig. 10 Preparation for mould changing at a pipe insulation plant
Fig.11 Pentane premixing station

Fig 12 Mould and mould carrier for children´s safety seat stety seat
Polyurethane Processing Plants
with high efficiency and quality
for constant product features by reproducible process parameters under

safe control
Complete Polyurethane Processing Systems for...
• rigid foams
• flexible foams
• semi-rigid foams
• intergral skin flexible foams
• filling foams
• coating systems
consisting of the following components ...
• high- and low-pressure metering machine

• machine and system control
• mould carriers mould transfer and carrousel systems
• automation and manipulator technique, peripheral equipment’s
• premixing stations
• pentane safety engineering
• plants for insulation technique
• tank farms
• scrap and waste material recovery
Arguments speaking in our favour
• construction of more than 1500 polyurethane metering machines and

plants so far with more than 500 individual solutions till now
• more than 25 years of experience and readiness to realise special

requests of customers
• complete offer from one supplier
• department of application technique for foaming trials and intensive

advisory process engineering service
• highly qualified plant project preparation and development
• universal solutions with each level of automation desired
• modular design
• optimum linkage with other processing equipment superposed and/or

topped
• short delivery times
• high operation convenience and in consideration of ergonomic findings
• easy accommodation to modified assortment of production
• possible processing of foam systems CFC-reduced and CFC-free
• training of customers personnel (operation, maintenance etc.)
• requiring low maintenance and repair
• extensive after-sales service (spare parts, servicemen etc.)
• different size mixing heads (low pressure), convenient handling,

continuously variable mixing tool speed
• different size mixing heads (high pressure) with laminar mixture discharge
• high precision metering and high stability

• easy and cost-effective regeneration of mixing heads
• possibility of process data acquisition and documentation
• diagnostic-routine
• software adaptation to product and/or process changes
Our delivery program
metering machines
high pressure • mixing ratio and discharge
(fig. 1 and 2) output are continuously
6 types: variable, also automatically
• up to max. 20 I/min • cooling sets and devices for
• up to max. 135 I/min temperature regulation
• polyol gas loading system
• separate blowing agent metering device
• pole-change pump drives
• frequency controlled pump drives
low pressure (fig.3 and 4) 5 types:
• up to max. 1,0 I/min
• up to max. 63 I/min
machine and system controls (fig.5 and 6)
mould carriers
(fig.7and 8)
mould transfer and carrousel systems (fig.9 and 10)
• heat exchanger
• colour metering devices
• automatic filter
• mixing heads for up to 4 components
• inertiation mixing head
• closed circular pipelines
• reversing control units
• night circulation
• continuously variable
• automatic tank filling system
all known control systems can be used
• relay control
• store-programmable control
each as
• manual operation
• semi-automatic operation
• fully-automatic operation
stationary/mobile
• 1 - 3-dimensional foaming position setting for moulded parts
• supporting moulds for refrigerator housings and doors
• hot water flushing
• several mixing heads
• process data acquisition
• screen technique
• log printer
• process control systems
• user-friendly
• ergonomical
• safety equipment's
according to spatial conditions, piece numbers and weights
realisation of special Customised requirements
• turntables on framings or on floor
• oval conveyors
• carrousel systems (horizontal and vertical), dimensions and weights

optimizable
Fig. 1 High-pressure metering unit
Fig. 2 High-pressure mixing head with inertiation equipment

Fig. 3 Low-pressure metering unit
Fig. 4 Low-pressure mixing head

Figg 5 Process control (also convertable)
Summary of products processed by means of our Polyurethane

Processing Plants
Automobile industry
• seats/back rest
• steering wheel foaming
• arm-rests/neck- rests
• dashboards
• claddings
• motorcycle/moped seats
Insulating and cooling technique
• refrigerators/freezer chests • insulations for pipes,
• upright freezers/chest freezers containers, wagons etc.
• cold storage cells/cool rooms • sandwich structures
• climatic chambers (with different covering
• fresh keeping boxes layers)
• boilers
Technical articles
• TV set/loudspeaker
housings
• machine sheathings
• fan cowls/blades
• brushers/brooms
• floats
Furniture industry
• garden furniture ,,
• upholstery furniture components • picture frames
• decorative pieces of furniture
Leisure-Time industry
• ski cores
• tennis rackets
• bowling pins
• surf boards
• rocking horses/seats
• bicycle seats
Plasttechnik Greiz GmbH
Plauensche Straße 40-42
D-07973 Greiz
Germany
Telephone: (0 36 61 ) 79 - 0
Telefax: (0 36 61 ) 79 305
Telex: 331150 ptgd
Detailed documents about the various units are available on request.

GTZ Yearbook 1995 Index 425
Index
Bosch · 99; 109; 124; 132; 156; 217;
230; 248; 268; 284; 286
1
134a · 8; 13; 16; 19; 20; 21; 22; 27; C
28; 29; 66; 68; 71; 75; 93; 94; 95;
96; 97; 103; 107; 108; 109; 110; chiller · 32; 33; 161; 169; 203; 211;
111; 112; 113; 114; 115; 116; 117; 212; 216
118; 119; 124; 125; 127; 133; 142; China
143; 146; 147; 149; 150; 155; 156; bilateral project · 2; 6; 7; 8; 17; 25;
157; 158; 159; 163; 169; 172; 174; 118; 125; 223; 224; 225; 232;
175; 176; 177; 178; 180; 181; 182; 234; 235; 238; 284; 288; 294;
183; 184; 185; 186; 187; 188; 189; 295; 297; 300; 310; 332; 333;
190; 191; 195; 196; 197; 198; 199; 334; 353 Siehe GTZ
216; 217; 219; 222; 248; 284; 288; CO2 · 34; 58; 59; 61; 63; 66; 69; 75;
295; 325; 329; 333; 339; 341; 391 95; 97; 122; 162; 168; 180; 195;
198; 382
compressor · 8; 17; 19; 20; 22; 26;
A 28; 29; 30; 32; 34; 50; 51; 52; 54;
56; 57; 58; 59; 63; 64; 66; 70; 99;
Africa · 94; 117; 125; 335 100; 101; 107; 108; 109; 112; 113;
air conditioning · 52; 53; 59; 66; 96; 114; 116; 119; 129; 130; 143; 144;
103; 115; 122; 154; 161; 165; 169; 146; 147; 156; 157; 158; 161; 169;
209; 212; 213; 220; 221; 225 170; 174; 175; 176; 177; 180; 181;
ammonia · 18; 50; 51; 52; 54; 55; 56; 186; 188; 189; 190; 191; 193; 194;
57; 58; 69; 102; 160; 168; 169; 196; 197; 204; 205; 206; 217; 218;
171; 205; 210; 211; 212; 213; 214; 219; 226; 228; 229; 243; 244; 245;
216; 220; 221 248; 255; 263; 264; 353; 358; 369;
article-5 countries · Siehe article-5- 370; 371; 372; 374; 375; 376; 378;
country 379
article-5-countries · 1; 6; 16; 18 condenser · 32; 33; 50; 56; 108; 129;
169; 170; 174; 175; 194; 374
conversion · 5; 6; 7; 12; 17; 19; 20;
B 23; 70; 71; 78; 79; 87; 88; 90; 92;
112; 114; 115; 117; 125; 132; 153;
blowing agents · 68; 72; 82; 88; 133; 155; 156; 158; 159; 164; 166; 173;
135; 143; 162; 171; 198; 199; 200; 176; 182; 189; 196; 199; 200; 216;
219; 322; 391; 413 Siehe foam, 217; 224; 225; 227; 229; 232; 234;
foaming agents, insulation
235; 238; 242; 246; 247; 248; 262; 155; 158; 171; 172; 191; 199; 200;
266; 267; 268; 274; 396 211; 248; 268
cyclopentan · 7; 8; 11; 12; 19; 34; 68; safety · 20
71; 75; 76; 77; 78; 79; 81; 82; 84; foam · 7; 8; 11; 15; 34; 68; 71; 72;
86; 87; 88; 90; 92; 112; 125; 126; 73; 76; 77; 78; 79; 80; 81; 82; 84;
142; 155; 156; 157; 158; 166; 172; 85; 86; 87; 88; 89; 92; 124; 125;
184; 191; 198; 199; 200; 201; 202; 126; 132; 133; 134; 135; 137; 138;
203; 220; 224; 227; 228; 229; 230; 139; 140; 141; 142; 143; 149; 153;
231; 232; 234; 235; 236; 238; 240; 154; 155; 162; 165; 166; 171; 172;
248; 267; 268; 273; 274; 282; 285; 190; 198; 199; 200; 201; 202; 203;
287; 289; 358 219; 223; 224; 225; 226; 227; 228;
229; 230; 231; 232; 234; 235; 238;
240; 243; 244; 246; 248; 262; 263;
D 266; 268; 273; 274; 276; 287; 295;
297; 358; 381; 383; 387; 397; 399;
depletion · Siehe ozone, ODP 401; 402; 406; 414; 418; 419; 422;
dkk · 289; 290; 358; 360 426 Siehe foaming agent, PUR,
domestic refrigeration · Siehe : polyurethane
refrigeration Foron · 5; 25; 27; 29; 31; 34; 66;
drop in · 188 Siehe retrofit 124; 143; 156; 176; 217; 219; 230;
284; 286; 287; 290; 358; 369; 370;
372; 374; 375; 378; 379
E
ECOFRIG · 92; 125; 288; 297; 337 G
Electrolux · 124; 217; 219; 230; 248;
268; 284 Siehe manufacturer GEF · 16; 17; 224; 234; 330
energy efficiency global warming · 6; 16; 17; 19; 26;
energy consumption · 6; 54; 66; 27; 34; 69; 75; 90; 93; 94; 95; 98;
68; 90; 108; 109; 159; 169; 171; 117; 120; 122; 124; 133; 154; 162;
176; 178; 180; 196; 230; 234; 163; 164; 165; 167; 180; 382
244; 258; 263; 274; 279; 370; Greenfreeze · 3; 69; 70; 96; 99; 103;
371 105; 117; 118; 124; 125; 126; 284;
evaporator · 29; 32; 50; 56; 108; 129; 329; 356 Siehe FORON
142; 148; 149; 169; 170; 174; 175; greenhouse effect · 26; 34; 94; 119
189; 191; 193; 226 Siehe TEWI, global warming
ExCom · 11; 12; 86; 223 Greenpeace · 5; 9; 16; 17; 26; 27;
68; 71; 72; 75; 77; 81; 82; 85; 87;
92; 95; 96; 98; 99; 102; 103; 105;
F 108; 111; 113; 115; 120; 124; 125;
126; 143; 156; 217; 218; 295; 296;
flammability · 11; 20; 22; 69; 76; 77; 328; 329; 345; 356
88; 98; 99; 101; 103; 104; 118; GTZ · 1; 4; 1; 2; 3; 5; 6; 7; 8; 11; 12;
128; 130; 133; 135; 142; 148; 149; 13; 15; 22; 116; 223; 224; 225;
234; 235; 238; 282; 283; 284; 285;
288; 289; 290; 293; 294; 295; 296; 201; 204; 274; 385; 386; 399; 402
297; 304; 317; 318; 319; 328; 336; Siehe flammabiliy, safety Siehe
337; 353; 356; 358 flammability, safety
India · 2; 6; 7; 8; 17; 23; 25; 92; 107;
118; 119; 125; 183; 224; 284; 288;
H 295; 297; 298; 303; 308; 326; 327;
334; 335; 336; 337; 353; 356
Haier · 7; 23; 223; 224; 225; 226; insulation
227; 228; 232; 234; 235; 236; 237; foam
284 Siehe manufacturer PUR
HC-600a · 108; 111; 152; 157; 158; blowing agents · 15; 30; 68; 71;
163; 175; 176; 177; 178; 182; 183; 72; 73; 76; 77; 78; 81; 82; 83;
184; 185; 186; 188; 189; 190; 191; 87; 89; 90; 92; 101; 109; 124;
193; 195; 196; 197; 204; 217; 218 125; 126; 133; 140; 143; 153;
155; 171; 172; 173; 191; 198;
heat pumps · 53; 60; 63; 64; 65; 66;
199; 220; 224; 226; 227; 229;
158; 161; 162; 169; 204; 207; 217;
230; 232; 243; 263; 266; 267;
221; 323; 376 268; 287; 322; 383; 401; 413;
Henneke · 290; 291; 292; 358; 380 415; 416; 418; 426
Household · 1 isobutan · 7; 8; 11; 12; 13; 15; 19;
Household Refrigeration · Siehe : 20; 22; 28; 29; 30; 35; 57; 68; 70;
Refrigeration 71; 97; 98; 99; 100; 103; 106; 108;
household refrigerator · Siehe 111; 130; 133; 142; 143; 144; 145;
refrigerator 146; 156; 157; 159; 168; 171; 174;
169; 171; 175; 176; 178; 181; 182; 181; 183; 184; 185; 187; 188; 191;
183; 184; 185; 186; 187; 188; 189; 194; 196; 204; 205; 224; 227; 228;
191; 192; 193; 195; 196; 197; 199; 229; 232; 234; 235; 238; 240; 253;
200; 201; 202; 203; 204; 205; 206; 254; 282; 286; 287; 289; 358
209; 210; 216; 217; 218; 219; 220;
221; 222; 224; 225; 229; 230; 235;
238; 241; 282; 283; 284; 285; 286; L
288; 289; 290; 293; 294; 295; 297;
298; 321; 322; 324; 325; 328; 329;
leakproofness · 30; 32
330; 331; 336; 353; 355; 358; 369
Liebherr · 7; 72; 76; 103; 124; 126;
Hydrocarbon Technology · 1; 2; 5; 7;
156; 217; 223; 225; 226; 228; 230;
11; 15; 17; 21; 22; 23; 132; 229;
231; 232; 234; 235; 236; 248; 268;
241; 282; 283; 284; 289; 290; 293;
284; 285; 287; 292; 331; 358; 407
294; 295; 328; 353
lubricant · 59; 101; 112; 113; 114;
hygroscopic · 157; 158
116; 119; 129; 143; 146; 171; 172;
180; 182; 187; 188; 190; 248; 388
lubricants
I oils · 59; 101; 113; 119; 143; 146;
171; 172; 182; 187; 388
ignition · 31; 55; 57; 76; 100; 104;
136; 137; 138; 139; 146; 147; 148;
159; 188; 191; 192; 193; 196; 197;
293; 294; 343; 382 Siehe ozone,

M
global warming
ODS · 6; 20; 84; 86; 88; 90; 153;
manufacturer · 17; 20; 21; 34; 54; 58;
154; 164; 165; 166; 223; 224; 225;
72; 78; 79; 82; 84; 85; 86; 90; 92;
227; 228; 241; 242; 243; 244; 249;
99; 101; 102; 103; 108; 112; 114;
250; 256; 261; 262; 263; 264; 268;
115; 118; 124; 126; 130; 133; 134;
269; 270; 277; 283; 284; 285; 295;
143; 146; 149; 154; 155; 156; 157;
296; 300; 303; 329; 331; 333; 336;
158; 159; 165; 166; 176; 178; 185;
337; 353; 354; 355
186; 187; 190; 194; 196; 199; 202;
OORG · 15; 72; 78; 79; 84; 85; 90;
206; 207; 208; 209; 210; 216; 217;
92; 93; 101; 103; 112; 242; 250;
218; 219; 221; 222; 225; 226; 229;
258; 262; 271; 279; 282; 287; 295;
230; 232; 242; 243; 245; 248; 253;
300; 329; 332; 336; 337; 338; 354;
262; 263; 264; 268; 286; 287; 381;
355
384
ozone · 5; 7; 16; 18; 22; 25; 26; 27;
MF · Siehe Multilateral Fund Siehe
34; 68; 69; 71; 72; 73; 74; 75; 90;
Multilateral Fund
93; 96; 97; 116; 123; 124; 132;
Montreal Protocol · 1; 7; 9; 15; 16;
133; 143; 153; 154; 155; 156; 162;
26; 71; 72; 73; 86; 88; 108; 115;
164; 165; 166; 178; 180; 198; 199;
120; 123; 125; 132; 133; 151; 153;
214; 285; 335; 382 Siehe ODP
155; 162; 164; 173; 184; 199; 214;
ozone layer · Siehe ozone
215; 287; 298; 299; 300; 301; 302;
303; 304; 305; 306; 307; 308; 309;
310; 311; 312; 319; 320; 325; 326;
327; 329; 330; 331; 332; 333; 352;
P
353; 355
Multilateral Fund · 1; 5; 7; 11; 15; 16; pentane · Siehe cyclopentan, foam,
73; 88; 95; 112; 113; 114; 151; insulation
153; 154; 159; 164; 165; 166; 196; Plasttechnik Greiz · 292; 411; 428
215; 295; 297; 298; 299; 300; 301; polyole · 182; 198; 201; 202 Siehe
302; 303; 304; 305; 306; 307; 308; foam, cyclopentan
309; 310; 311; 312; 319; 325; 326; polyurethane
327; 329; 330; 331; 352; 353; 355; insulation
356 foam · 72; 73; 76; 77; 79; 86;
87; 90; 132; 133; 134; 143;
171; 201; 227; 228; 229; 230;
414; 419 Siehe PUR
O
propane
isobutane
ODP · 26; 71; 72; 73; 74; 75; 76; 89;
butane · 8; 15; 19; 28; 35; 51;
90; 92; 93; 97; 101; 116; 132; 133;
56; 57; 58; 68; 98; 99; 100;
135; 136; 142; 143; 154; 155; 162;
101; 104; 105; 108; 111; 113;
165; 171; 172; 178; 197; 198; 199;
116; 117; 124; 125; 128; 129;
210; 215; 219; 223; 229; 234; 248;
130; 143; 144; 145; 157; 168;
249; 256; 257; 268; 269; 277; 278;
171; 181; 183; 184; 187; 191;
194; 204; 205; 207; 208; 209;

S
210
PUR
safety · 11; 12; 16; 30; 31; 32; 34;
foam
35; 54; 55; 57; 58; 68; 69; 76; 77;
foaming agents
blowing agent · 34; 71; 73; 76; 87; 91; 98; 99; 103; 104; 105; 106;
77; 78; 79; 80; 81; 82; 84; 86; 112; 119; 133; 137; 143; 153; 154;
87; 91; 141; 153; 171; 172; 155; 156; 158; 159; 161; 165; 166;
230; 284; 381; 382; 383; 401 183; 188; 189; 191; 192; 193; 194;
195; 196; 197; 200; 201; 202; 203;
204; 210; 211; 216; 218; 221; 222;
R 227; 228; 229; 231; 232; 235; 238;
240; 246; 247; 248; 249; 251; 252;
R 12 · 27; 28; 29; 32; 33; 34; 100; 254; 266; 267; 268; 269; 273; 288;
338; 343; 371; 391 358; 376; 385; 386; 387; 389; 392;
R 600a · 28; 29; 30; 142; 371 393; 394; 395; 397; 399; 402; 413;
recovery · 68; 70; 89; 104; 114; 117; 417; 418; 422
153; 160; 162; 287; 288; 414; 418 SDC · Siehe Swiss Development
refrigerant · 1; 6; 7; 8; 11; 15; 17; 20; Cooperation
22; 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 32; 33; Swiss Development Cooperation · 1;
34; 49; 50; 51; 53; 54; 55; 56; 57; 7; 224; 297; 328; 336; 337; 353
58; 59; 64; 65; 66; 68; 70; 89; 92;
93; 95; 98; 99; 100; 101; 102; 103;
104; 105; 106; 107; 108; 111; 112; T
113; 115; 116; 117; 118; 123; 124;
126; 127; 128; 130; 132; 142; 147; TEWI
148; 153; 156; 157; 158; 160; 162; global warming
163; 164; 166; 167; 168; 169; 170; greenhouse effect · 34; 35; 164;
171; 172; 173; 174; 175; 176; 177; 171; 172; 180
178; 179; 180; 181; 183; 184; 185; thermal conductivity · 78; 79; 80; 81;
186; 187; 188; 189; 190; 191; 193; 82; 87; 91; 135; 136 Siehe foam,
194; 195; 196; 203; 204; 205; 209; insulation
210; 211; 213; 214; 215; 216; 217;
218; 221; 222; 224; 227; 229; 234;
240; 242; 243; 244; 246; 247; 248; U
263; 268; 287; 321; 322; 323; 370;
371; 374; 376 UNEP · 1; 11; 71; 72; 73; 74; 75; 77;
retrofit 82; 84; 85; 86; 87; 88; 90; 91; 95;
retrofitting · 22; 33; 114; 117; 125; 108; 111; 112; 113; 114; 123; 282;
188; 197; 273; 274 285; 287; 288; 295; 296; 297; 298;
300; 301; 302; 303; 304; 305; 306;
307; 308; 309; 310; 311; 312; 319;
320; 327; 329; 330; 331; 333; 334;
353; 356 Siehe Multilateral Fund
V W
valves · 194; 229; 387; 389; 392 World Bank · 11; 12; 78; 103; 117;
vapour compression · 160; 168; 169; 125; 158; 196; 242; 262; 289; 295;
170; 174; 175; 178; 323 Siehe 296; 298; 299; 300; 301; 302; 310;
compressor 326; 327; 329; 331; 332; 333; 335;
336; 337; 338; 353; 354; 355; 356
Siehe Multilateral Fund

Hydrocarbon Technology. The Use of Hydrocarbons As Foaming A

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Hydrocarbon

Dr. Peter Baz

For the full or partial reproduction of anything published in this yearbook

The Hydrocarbon Technology is now an acknowledged and widely

We hope that this Yearbook may contribute towards decisions in favour of

GTZ is co-operating with the Multilateral Fund Secretariat, the Worldbank,

Another important aspect of this GTZ support is the dissemination of the

Earlier this year we published a special issue of GTZ’s "Akzente", also on

We kindly ask for reactions to these publications. We particularly ask for

Thanks in advance for your support.

Dr. Peter Baz

Dr. Klaus Meyersen

Dr. Peter Störmer

Dr. Klaus Meyersen

All can be reached via e-mail: GTZ-GATE-FCKW@GEOD.GEONET.DE

2. Aims of the GTZ-CFC-Phase-Out-Support

Dr. Klaus Meyersen

Keen environmental awareness on the part of the German public has

Consequently, a spate of new ideas and activities aimed at protecting the

Considering the dynamic situation in Europe, the refrigerating equipment

At the same time, it is in our opinion necessary to avoid, that:

service package. Since a lot of experience is accumulating in Germany in

The China Project

The Indian Project

Support to be continued 96/97

FCKW@GEOD.GEONET.DE. This service provides information on various

3. The Status of Hydrocarbon Technology

Acceptance Now for Both: Cyclopentan and Isobutan

This made hydrocarbon technology a preferred technology in a sense, since

the project is approved; the Juliy ExCom-Meeting is said to have limited

A Later Switch to Isobutan is Possible

We believe that allowing this switch to hydrocarbon technology is indeed

objectives would be clarification through a comparison of the relative costs

4. The 12 Advantages of Hydrocarbon Technology

Dr. Klaus Meyersen

Monday, February 5th. 1996

I would like to point out that the aspects of hydrocarbon technology

On one hand, the introduction of hydrocarbon technology in the domestic

So I hope - by using my semi-official contacts - to help accelerate the

No Further Contribution to Global Warming

Unfortunately the Montreal Protocol is bound to support the ozone

The Technical Advantages will be the (!) Driving Force

There are likely more than 5 million refrigerators already produced in

The National Advantage of Know-How Independence

lessen dependence. This technology offers the chance to adapt national

carbons, means that there is no interfering chemical interaction, which in the

The Hydrocarbon Domino is Running

It is the conviction of people working actively in hydrocarbon projects that

5. Hydrocarbons as Refrigerant in Domestic

(Reprint from IIR Conference 1994 Proceedings

2. Ozone Layer and Greenhouse Effect

3. Techniques for Refrigeration

In 1990, an assessment was made for Germany that the share of

Due to intensive development work, the energy consumption of household

Thus, it becomes evident that the cold-vapour refrigerating technique has

That is to say, reason stood at the beginning.

Upon searching for a suitable hydrocarbon, the following criteria were

• equal or similar specific refrigerating capacity as compared to

Figure 6 contains a juxtaposition of the coefficients of performance

the mix R 600a/R 290 and R 600a in contrast to R 12 and, in particular, R

The following can be derived from considerations made with regard to

• The existing compressor design versions are generally appropriate for