Introduction Ecology is the study of the inter relationships between organisms and their environment.

The environment includes both non-living (abiotic) components, such as temperature and rainfall, and living (biotic) components, such as competition and predation . Ecology is a complex area of study which includes most aspects of biology. It is, in effect, the study of the lifesupporting layer of land, air and water that surrounds the Earth. This layer is called the biosphere. Ecosystems:- An ecosystem is made up of all the interacting biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) features in a specific area. Ecosystems are more or less self contained functional units. Within an ecosystem there are two major processes to consider: -The flow of energy through the system -The cycling of elements within the system An example of an ecosystem is a fresh water pond or lake. It has its own community of plants to collect the necessary sunlight energy to supply the organisms within it. Nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates are recycled within the pond or lake. There is little or no loss or gain between it and other ecosystems. Within each ecosystem, there are a number of species.

Each species is made up of many groups of individuals that together make up a population. Populations:- A population is a group of interbreeding organisms of one species in a habitat. In the different habitats of an oak woodland there are many populations e.g. nettles, woodpeckers etc. The boundaries of a population are often difficult to define. For example, in the oak woodland, all the mature woodpeckers can breed with one another and so form a single population. However, the woodlice on a decaying log at one side of the wood can, in theory, breed with those on a log a kilometre or more away at the other side of the wood. In practice, the sheer distance makes interbreeding unlikely and therefore they can be considered as separate populations. Where exactly the population boundary lies between these two populations is, however, unclear. Populations of different species form a community. Community: A community is defined as all the populations of different organisms living and interacting in a particular place at the same time. Within an oak woodland, a community may include a large range of organisms , such as oak trees, nettles, aphids etc. Habitat:- A habitat is the place where a community of organisms lives.

Within an ecosystem there are many habitats. For example, in an oak woodland, the leaf canopy of the trees may be a habitat for blue tits while a decaying log is a habitat for woodlice. A stream flowing through the woodland provides a very different habitat, within which aquatic plants and water beetles live. Within each habitat there are smaller units, each with their own microclimate. These are called microhabitats. The mud at the bottom of the stream may be the microhabitat for a bloodworm while the crevice on the bark of an oak tree may be the microhabitat for a lichen. Ecological niche:- A niche describes how an organism fits into the environment. A niche refers to where an organism lives and what it does there. A niche includes all the biotic and abiotic conditions required for an organism to survive, reproduce and maintain a viable population. Some species may appear very similar, but their nesting habits or other aspects of their behaviour will be different, or they may show different levels of tolerance to environmental factors, such as a pollutant or shortage of oxygen or nitrates. No two species occupy exactly the same niche.

1.2 To study a habitat, it is often necessary to count the number of individuals of a species in a given space. This is known as abundance. It is virtually impossible to identify and count every organism. To do so would be time-consuming and would almost certainly cause damage to the habitat being studied. For this reason only small samples of the habitat are usually studied in detail. As long as these samples are representative of the habitat as a whole, any conclusion drawn from these findings will be valid. There are a number of sampling techniques used in the study of habitats. These include: -Random sampling using frame quadrats or point quadrates. -Systematic sampling along transects. Quadrats There are three factors to consider when using quadrats: The size of the quadrat to use. This will depend upon the size of the plants or animals being counted and how they are distributed within the area. Larger species require larger quadrates. Where a species occurs in a series of groups rather than being evenly distributed throughout the area, a large number of small quadrats will give more representative

results than a small number of large ones. The number of sample quadrats to record within the study area. The larger the number of sample quadrats the more reliable the results will be. As the recording of species within a quadrate is a timeconsuming task a balance needs to be struck between the validity of the results and the time available. The greater the number of different species present in the area being studied, the greater the number of quadrats required to produce valid results. The position of each quadrat within the study area. To produce statistically significant results a technique known as random sampling must be used.

Random Sampling It is important that sampling is random to avoid any bias in collecting data. Avoiding bias ensures that the data obtained are valid. Suppose we wish to investigate the effects of grazing animals on the species of plants growing in a field. We begin by choosing two fields as close together as possible in order to minimise soil, climatic and other abiotic differences. One field is regularly grazed by animals, such as sheep, whereas the other has not been grazed for many years. We would then take random samples at many sites in each field using quadrats and record the information.

But this is not truly taking a random sample, as we may unknowingly be introducing an element of personal bias e.g. will we deliberately try to avoid an area covered in nettles? A better method of random sampling is to: -Lay out two tape measures at right angles, along two sides of the study area. -Obtain a series of co-ordinates by using random numbers taken from a table or generated by a computer. -Place a quadrat at the intersection of each pair of coordinates and record the species within it. Systematic sampling along transects It is sometimes more informative to measure the abundance and distribution of a species in a systematic rather than a random manner. This is particularly important where some form of transition in the communities of plants and animals takes place. For example, the distribution of organisms on a tidal seashore is determined by the relative periods of time that they spend under water and exposed to air, that is, their vertical height up the shore. The stages of zonation are especially well shown using transects. A line transect comprises a string or tape stretched across the ground in a straight line. Any organism over which the

line passes is recorded. A belt transect is a strip, usually a metre wide, marked by putting a second line parallel to the first. The species occurring within the belt (between the lines) are recorded. Measuring abundance Random sampling with quadrats and counting along transects are used to obtain measures of abundance. Abundance is the number of individuals of a species within a given space. It can be measured in several ways, depending upon the size of the species being counted and the habitat. Examples Include: Frequency, which is the likelihood of a particular species occurring in a quadrat. e.g. If a species occurs in 15 out of 30 quadrats, the frequency of its occurrence is 50 per cent. (15/30 * 100) advantages - It is useful where a species, such as grass is hard to count. - It gives a quick idea of the species present and their general distribution within an area. disadvantages -It does not provide information on the density and detailed

distribution of a species. Percentage Cover, which is an estimate of the area within a quadrat that a particular plant species covers. advantages -It is useful where a species is particularly abundant or is difficult to count. -Data can be collected rapidly. -Individual plants do not need to be counted. disadvantages -It is less useful where organisms occur in several overlapping layers (more probably plants)

To obtain reliable results, it is necessary to ensure that the sample size is large, that is, many quadrats are used and the mean of all the samples is obtained. The larger the number of samples, the more representative of the community as a whole will be the results. Mark-release-recapture techniques The methods of measuring abundance described above work well with plant communities but not with most animals. Most animals are mobile and move away when approached. Others are often hidden and are therefore difficult to find and identify.

A different technique is used to estimate the abundance of animals.

-A known number of animals are caught. -Marked in some way. -Released back into the community. -Some time later, a given number of individuals is collected randomly. -The number of marked individuals is recorded. -The size of the population is then calculated as follows: Estimated population size= t. no. of individuals in first sample X t. no. of individuals in second sample / number of marked individuals recaptured. This technique relies on a number of assumptions: -The proportion of marked to unmarked individuals in the second sample is the same as the proportion of marked to unmarked individuals in the population as a whole. -The marked individuals released from the first sample distribute themselves evenly amongst the remainder of the population and have sufficient time to do so. -The population has a definite boundary so that there is no immigration into or emigration out of the population. -There are few, if any, deaths and 'births' within the population.

-The method of marking is not toxic to the individual nor does it make the individual more conspicuous and therefore more liable to predation. -The mark or label is not lost or rubbed off during the investigation.

Analysing Data The quantitative data collected from an ecological survey then have to be analysed and interpreted. The first stage is usually to present the data in the form of a table or graph. This makes it easier to compare data, for example, from two different locations. Such comparisons can be made more precisely using statistical analysis of the data. Comparing the mean of two sets of data is helpful, but it tells us nothing of the spread of the data about the mean. It is therefore useful to calculate the standard deviation as well. Only tentative conclusions may be drawn from two sets of data as there are many factors that can contribute to these differences. One such factor, that chance alone is the reason for the difference, can be checked statistically. This can be done by testing the significance of differences between two sets of data. The results show whether these differences are due to some particular factor or are just a matter of chance. Data can also be analysed for possible correlations and

causes. Statistical tests can be used to calculate the strength and direction of any correlation between two variables. One example is the Spearman Rank correlation. Showing that two variables correlate statistically does not prove that one causes the other, they may both be affected by the same environmental factor. 1.3 The number of individuals in a population is the population size. Population Growth Curves - A period of slow growth as the initially small number of individuals reproduce to slowly build up their numbers. - A period of rapid growth where the ever-increasing number of individuals continue to reproduce. The population size doubles during each interval of time, as seen by the gradient of the curve, which becomes increasingly steep. - A period when the population growth declines until its size remains more or less stable. The decline may be due to the food supply limiting numbers or to increased predation. The graph therefore levels out with only cyclic fluctuations due to variations in factors such as food supply or the population size of predators. Population Size

Imagine a situation in which a single algal cell, capable of asexual reproduction, is placed in a newly created pond. It is summer and so there is plenty of light and the temperature of the water is around 12 degrees; mineral nutrients have been added to the water. In these circumstances the algal cell divides rapidly because all the factors needed for the growth of the population are present. There are no limiting factors. In time, things change: - Mineral ions are used up as the population becomes larger. -The population becomes so large that the algae at the surface prevent light reaching those at deeper levels. -Other species are introduced into the pond, carried by animals or the wind, and some of these species may use the algae as food or compete for light or minerals. -Winter brings much lower temperatures and lower light intensity of shorter duration. These limiting factors cause the population growth to slow, cease or even cause the population size to diminish. Ultimately the population is likely to reach a relatively constant size. There are many factors, biotic and abiotic, which affect this ultimate size. Changes in these factors will influence the rate of growth and the final size of the population. In summary:

No population continues to grow indefinitely because certain factors limit growth, for example, the availability of food, light, water, oxygen and shelter, and the accumulation of toxic waste, disease and predators. Each population has a maximum size that can be sustained over a relatively long period and this is determined by these limiting factors.

Abiotic factors are concerned with the non-living part of the environment Biotic factors are concerned with the activities of living organisms and include, for example, competition and predation.

Abiotic factors The abiotic factors that influence the size of a population include: Temperature. Each species has a different optimum temperature at which it is best able to survive. The further away from this optimum, the smaller the population that can be supported. Plants and cold blooded animals At temperatures below the optimum, the enzymes work more slowly and so their metabolic rate is reduced. At temperatures above the optimum, the enzymes work

less efficiently because they gradually undergo denaturation. In both cases the population grows more slowly. Warm blooded animals Warm blooded animals such as birds and mammals can maintain a relatively constant body temperature regardless of the external temperature. However, the further the temperature of the external environment gets from their optimum temperature, the more energy these organisms expend in trying to maintain their normal body temperature. This leaves less energy for individual growth and so they mature more slowly and their reproductive rate slows. The population size therefore gets smaller. Light As the ultimate source of energy for ecosystems, light is a basic necessity of life. The rate of photosynthesis increases as light intensity increases. The greater the rate of photosynthesis, the faster plants grow and the more spores or seeds they produce. Their population growth and size is therefore potentially greater. In turn, the population of animals that feed on plants is potentially bigger. pH This affects the action of enzymes. Each enzyme has an optimum pH at which it operates most effectively. A population of organisms is larger where the appropriate

pH exists and smaller, or non-existent, where the pH is very different from the optimum. Water and Humidity Where water is scarce, populations are small and consist of only species that are well adapted to living in dry conditions. Humidity affects the transpiration rates of plants and the evaporation of water from the bodies of animals. In dry air conditions, the populations of species adapted to tolerate low humidity will be larger than those with no such adaptions.

1.4 When two or more individuals share any resource (e.g. light, food, space, oxygen) that is insufficient to satisfy all their requirements fully, then competition results. Intraspecific competition Intraspecific competition occurs when individuals of the same species compete with one another for resources such as food, water, breeding sites, etc. It is the availability of such resources that determines the size of a population. The greater the availability, the larger the population. The lower the availability, the smaller the population. Examples -Limpets competing for algae, which is their main food. The more algae available, the larger the limpet population

becomes. -Oak trees competing for resources. In a large population of small oak trees some will grow larger and restrict the availability of light, water and minerals to the rest, which then die. In time the population will be reduced to relatively few large dominant oaks. -robins competing for breeding territory. A male robin has to establish a territory that provides an adequate food supply for one family of birds, to breed. When food is scarce, the territories become larger to provide more food. There are therefore fewer territories in a given area and fewer breeding pairs. Leading to a smaller population size. Interspecific competition Interspecific competition occurs when individuals of different species compete for resources such as food, light, water etc. Where populations of two species initially occupy the same niche, one will normally have a competitive advantage over the other. The population of this species will gradually increase in size while the population of the other will diminish. If conditions remain the same, this will lead to the complete removal of one species. This is known as the competitive exclusion principle. The principle states that where two species are competing for limited resources, the one that uses these resources most effectively will ultimately

eliminate the other. In other words, no two species can occupy the same niche indefinitely when resources are limiting. Which of the species in a niche has the competitive advantage depends upon the conditions at any point in time. If one species can tolerate a higher temperature than another, a rise in environmental temperature will favour it. If however there is a fall in environmental temperature, the other species is more likely to become dominant.

To show how a factor influences the size of a population it is necessary to link it to the birth rate and death rate of individuals in a population. For example, an increase in food supply does not necessarily mean there will be more individuals, it could just result in bigger individuals. It is therefore important to show how a factor, such as a change in food supply, affects the number of individuals in a population. For example a decrease in food supply could lead to individuals dying of starvation and directly reduce the size of a population. An increase in food supply means that more individuals are likely to survive and so there is an increased probability that they will produce offspring and the population will increase. This effect therefore takes longer to influence population size.

1.5 Predation

This is another type of interspecific relationship: the predator-prey relationship. A predator is an organism that feeds on another organism, known as their prey. Predators have evolved to become better adapted for capturing their prey: faster movement more effective camouflage better means of detecting prey Prey have equally become more adept at avoiding predators: better camouflage more protective features such as spines concealment behaviour Both predator and prey have evolved together. If either of them had not matched the improvements of the other, it would have most probably become extinct. Predation Predation occurs when one organism is consumed by another. When a population of a predator and a population of its prey are brought together in a laboratory, the prey is usually exterminated by the predator. This is largely because the range and variety of the habitat provided is normally limited to the confines of the laboratory. In nature this is different because:

the area over which the population can travel is far greater the variety of the environment is much more diverse there are many more potential refuges Therefore some prey can escape predation, so although the prey population falls to a low level, it rarely becomes extinct. Evidence collected on predator and prey populations in a laboratory does not necessary reflect what happens in the wild. It is also difficult to obtain reliable data on natural populations because it is not possible to count all the individuals in a natural population. Its size can only be estimated from sampling and surveys. These are only as good as the techniques used, none of which guarantee complete accuracy. We must therefore treat all data produced in this way with caution. Effect of predator-prey relationship on population size The relationship between predators and their prey and its effect on population size can be summarised as follows: -Predators eat their prey, thereby reducing the population of prey. -With fewer prey available the predators are in greater competition with each other for the prey that are left. -The predator population is reduced as some individuals are unable to obtain enough prey for their survival. -With fewer predators left, fewer prey are eaten. -The prey population increases.

-With more prey now available as food, the predator population in turn increases. In natural ecosystems, however, organisms eat a range of foods and therefore the fluctuations in population size are less severe. Although predator-prey relationships are significant reasons for cyclic fluctuations in populations, disease and climatic factors also play a part. These periodic population crashes are important in evolution as they create a selection pressure whereby only those individuals who are able to escape predators, or withstand disease or an adverse climate, will survive to reproduce. The population therefore evolves to be better adapted to the prevailing conditions. 1.6 Human population size and growth rate The human population like that of other organisms, has for most of history been kept in check by food availability, disease, predators and climate. However, two major and relatively recent events have led to an explosion in human population. -The development of agriculture. -The development of manufacturing and trade that created the industrial revolution. Wars, disease and famine have only caused temporary reversals in this upwards trend.

The human population does not follow the typical sigmoid population growth curve that other organisms do (1.3) The exponential phase (rapid phase) in which the population grows rapidly, continues rather than gives way to the stationary phase in which the population stabilises. Factors affecting the growth and size of human populations. The basic factors that affect the growth and size of human populations are the birth rate and the death rate. The balance between these two factors determines whether a human population increases, decreases or remains the same. Individual populations are affected by migration. Migration is the movement of individuals from one population to another. There are two types: -Immigration, where individuals join a population from outside. -Emigration, where individuals leave a population. These also affect population size. population growth=(births + immigration)(death+emigration)

percentage population growth rate (in a given period)=population change during the period/population at

the start of the period x100

Factors affecting birth rates Birth rates are affected by: -Economic conditions. Countries with a low per capita income tend to have higher birth rates. -Cultural and religious backgrounds. Some countries encourage larger families and some religions are opposed to birth control -Social pressures and conditions. In some countries a large family improves social standing. -Birth control. The extent to which contraception and abortion are used markedly influences the birth rate. -Political factors. Governments influence birth rates through education and taxation policies. Birth rate= number of births per year/total population in the same year x1000 Factors affecting death rates Death rates are affected by: -Age profile. The greater the population of elderly people in a population, the higher the death rate is likely to be. -Life expectancy at birth. The residents of economically developed countries live longer than those of economically less developed countries. -Food supply. An adequate and balanced diet reduces death rate. -Safe drinking water and effective sanitation. Reduces death rate by reducing the risk of contracting waterborne

diseases such as cholera. -Medical care. Access to healthcare and education reduces the death rate. -Natural disasters. The more prone a region is to drought, famine, or disease, the higher its death rate. -War. Deaths during wars produce an immediate drop in population and a longer term fall as a result of fewer fertile adults. death rate = number of death per year/total population in the same year x1000 Population Structure In most economically well-developed nations, such as those of North America and Europe, there has been a large increase in life expectancy. This has lead to a change in societies, from those where life expectancy is short and birth rates are high, to those where life expectancy is long and birth rates are low. This change is called demographic transition. It leads to the levelling off of the population and the reestablishment of the typical sigmoid population growth curve. Demographic transition may not affect all countries as is does not automatically follow that what happens in one population will happen in another as they develop economically. There are many different factors that influence human population size.

As the future size of a human population depends upon the number of females of child bearing age, it is useful to know the age and gender profile of a population. This is displayed graphically by a series of staked bars representing the percentages of males and females in each age group. These graphs, called age population pyramids, give useful information on the future trends of different populations. Three types of population: Stable population- where the birth rate and death rate are in balance and so there is no increase or decrease in the population size. Increasing population-where there is a high birth rate, giving a wider base to the population pyramid (compared to a stable population). Fewer older people, giving a narrower apex to the pyramid. This type of population is typical of economically less developed countries. Decreasing population-where there is a lower birth rate (narrower base of the population pyramid). A lower mortality rate leading to more elderly people (wider apex to the pyramid). This type of population occurs in certain economically more developed countries, such as Japan.

Survival rates and life expectancy A survival curve plots the number of people alive as a function of time.

Typically it plots the percentage of a population still alive at different ages. But it can also be used to plot the percentage of a population still alive following a particular event, such as a medical operation or the onset of a disease. The average life expectancy is the age at which 50% of the individuals in a particular population are still alive. It follows that life expectancy can be calculated from a survival curve.