Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India

The Energy and Resources Institute

A quarterly electronic newsletter on renewable energy and environment Vol. 1 Issue 1 March 2004 Solar power plant cost in India and Germany
C R Bhattacharjee

Solar power plants are a necessity at places in India like remote hilly areas and islands for providing electricity to improve the standard of living of the people. This paper focuses on how improvements in technology and competitiveness among players in the fields of manufacture, supply, and installation are leading to reduction in costs...

Using the indigenous knowledge of jatropha: the use of Jatropha curcas oil as raw material and biofuel
Jatropha curcas, hitherto considered a wild oilseed plant of the tropics, is now being regarded as a promising biofuel crop ideally suitable for growing in the wastelands of India. This crop is now in great demand even in the international scenario. This article covers the use of biofuel with special emphasis to the jatropha plant and its advantages and recent developments. This potential biofuel crop can bring about major economic activity such as providing rural electrification, income, and employment opportunities to the rural communities...

Current research
A compilation of annotated bibliographies from different leading periodicals on current research on renewable energy and environment...

Web updates
This section is picks up some of the web resources available in the fields of renewable energy and environment...

Conferences/Workshops/Seminars
Covering some of the major forthcoming events in the fields of environment, renewable energy, and sustainable developments...

Solar power plant cost in India and Germany

C R Bhattacharjee*
658, Lake Gardens, Kolkata - 700045, India crbhatt@vsnl.com

Abstract

olar power plants are a necessity at places in India like remote hilly areas and islands for providing electricity in order to improve the standard of living of the people. Financial constraints in the public sector and non-remunerative characteristics of economics act as disincentives to private entrepreneurs, which are impediments to the national programme of solar electrification of villages. Despite these constraints, the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources, Government of India is attempting to electrify as many villages as possible with the solar photovoltaic system. This paper attempts to show how improvements in technology and competitiveness among players in the fields of manufacture, supply, and installation are leading to reduction in costs, but not at the sharp rate that is competitive with conventional power. However, it appears that direct conversion of solar power to electricity is cheaper in India than in Germany.

country, which are located far away from the grid. Extending a line to these villages will be very expensive, and villagers will find it difficult to bear the tariff burden. Moreover, 20 000 villages have been identified as unapproachable from the grid line and will have to depend on alternative sources of power. These alternative sources could be solar or wind energy, biomass, biogas, or micro-hydel energy, which may be locally available to be harnessed in a useful manner. Incidentally, only these sources have been found to be technologically and commercially viable until now, especially in villages that are situated beyond a certain distance from the grid line.

Application of solar power

A solar power plant is a good option for electrification in areas that are located away from the grid line or where other sources are neither available nor can be harnessed in a technoeconomically viable manner. A solar power plant of the size 10100 kW (kilowatt), depending on the load demand, is preferable particularly with a liberal subsidy and low-interest soft loan from financial institutions. The idea is to raise the quality of life of the people subjected to poverty in these areas. This coupled with a low-gestation period, simple operation and maintenance are resulting in installation of solar power plants in remote areas of many states that need electrification. In contrast, extremely high cost of solar power plant installation is an obstacle to grid-connected applications in urban areas. Instead of a centralized power generation and distribution, individual DLS (domestic lighting

Electrification of remote villages

Besides food, shelter, clothing, and employment, the next priority in villages is affordable energy for cooking and lighting. The first important task, a gigantic task, will be to build a network for cooking with LPG (liquified petroleum gas) to do away with the drudgery and unhealthy practice of cooking with firewood/agricultural residue by millions of families in India. The second important one will be to provide electricity to improve the living conditions to act as an essential catalyst in alleviating poverty. However, there is a serious problem of extending the power line to the unelectrified 80 000 villages in the

* The author has been working in the power supply utility industry for 50 years in private and public sectors, and is presently a consulting engineer with an interest in renewable energy.

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systems) are also common in many rural unelectrified houses. The initial thrust for centralized plants with a distribution network to supply off-grid and quality power, i.e. power at the right voltage and frequency, came from a demonstration unit in Sagar Island in West Bengal. The plants in Sagar Island started with the unique feature of training people to operate and maintain the plants, besides generating an awareness through interaction with prospective consumers who at a later stage could take up the management on a cooperative basis. Following the same pattern, biomass-based power plants have also been set up in that area. Thus participatory involvement of the local people has ensured sustainability of the programme. The SPV (solar photovoltaic) mode of electrification started in 1998 after a system on a trial basis was commissioned in Kamalpur village in 1996. The four important components in a solar power system are solar modules, battery, inverter, and charge controller, besides other BOS (balance of system)/components. These four components incur more than two-thirds of the total cost. In fact, 50% of the project cost is invested on the solar modules. It would be interesting to observe how the cost behaved over the past 5 or 6 years.

In October 1998, regular electrification of villages through off-grid solar plant started. So far, 11 such plants have been set up, covering electrification of more than 25 villages in Sagar Island (Table 1). Each 25 kWp plant can cater to 150 service connections with an average load of 80 watts each to fulfil the domestic requirement and 80100 watts for shops for illumination, photocopying, battery charging, etc. A consumer pays 500 rupees (11 dollars) or 1000 rupees (22 dollars) as security deposit with a monthly charge of 100125 rupees (45.5 dollars) based on the demand for load. Decentralized power plants have been set up with liberal grants and loan, and are now operating on commercial lines. In the latest models of power plants, drinking water supply from the tube wells through solar power has also been incorporated. At some of these stations, hybrid wind generators have been installed on an experimental basis for augmenting energy supply and for studying behavioural functioning of wind and photovoltaic power generation in tandem. Tables 2 and 3 indicate that the prices of module, battery, inverter, and charge controller have reduced by approximately 21% over the past 6 years. However, it is yet to be

Table 1 Cost of module and percentage of total cost

Cost Installation Capacity kWp 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 55 110 110* Module (Rupees in 1000) 4617 5141 4317 4317 4317 3375 3375 3375 8175 17111 16112 Per watt Rupees 174.25 185.24 173 173 173 135.5 135.5 135.5 153.8 156 146.46 Total Percentage (Rupees in 1000) total 7345 9218 7968 7968 7968 7098 7098 7098 15379 29842 31373 63 56 54 54 54 48 48 48 53 57 55

Name Kamalpur Mrityunjay Khasmahal Gayenbazar Mahendra Natendrapur Haradhanpur Mandirtala Mousuni-I Mausuni-II ParthPratim

Month and year February 1996 October 1998 May 1999 May 1999 August 1999 August 2000 November 2000 December 2000 March 2001 April 2003 March 2004

*expected Source: Figures have been derived from basic cost data of WBREDA (West Bengal Renewable Energy and Development Agency)

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Table 2 Cost of battery, inverter, and charge controller Cost per watt (rupees) Name Kamalpur Mrityunjay Khasmahal Gayenbazar Mahendra Natendrapur HaraDhanpur Mandirtala Mousuni-1 Mausuni-11 ParthPratim Total project 294 369 319 319 319 284 284 284 280 284 285 Battery 34 39 41 41 41 27 27 27 37 41 40 Inverter 35 42 63 63 63 58 58 58 34 71 55 Charge controller 10 13 3 3 3 12 12 12 not quoted 71 16

Source: Figures have been derived from basic cost data of WBREDA (West Bengal Renewable Energy and Development Agency) Table 3 Cost of solar power in Germany and annual generation Total No. of capacity installations (kWp) 453 895 Module cost 74.3% 1215 2250 Inverter cost 11.8% Annual generation (kWh/kWp) 732 860 Cost in Euro per kWp 5307

Region of Germany North-west South Capacity range 50120 kWp

Source: Doblemenn JT. 2003. Germanys solar success. Renewable Energy World 6(6): 74

ascertained whether the life expectancy and efficiency of solar cells has improved during this period. In the case of BOS, the cost is around 45% of the total project expenditure and indicates no change in the price structure. In a way, the expenses have reduced considering the expansion of scope of work under the BOS category like longer period of the initial annual maintenance (5 years now instead of 2 years earlier) as part of the capital expenditure, sophisticated control building (with better floors and walls), water supply, etc.

Cost and output in India and Germany

Table 2 shows the cost characteristics of a few important items of BOS while Table 3 refers to range of installed plant capacity and annual generation for Germany. In India, the price of battery varies between 27 rupees per watt and 41 rupees per watt, but better quality products have come up in the market to service solar power stations with replacement guarantees extending from 5 years to 7 years. The cost of an inverter

has increased considerably by almost 33% from 42 rupees to 55 rupees contrary to the price of electronic items, which are generally decreasing. Charge controllers are however on a declining trend. From Tables 2 and 3, it appears that the cost of the SPV stand-alone power plants with an additional battery to store energy for supply in the evening hours to meet the villagers need is 285 000 rupees (6264 dollars) / kWp. In Germany, the cost of a roof-top or other type grid-connected units, exclusive of a battery in the range of 50120 kWp of capacity, of a solar plant is 289 760 rupees (6368 dollars). This implies that the Indian solar plant works out to be cheaper. The cost of a module in Germany is above 70% of the total cost as against 50%55% in India. The cost of an inverter is around 12% of the total cost in Germany, whereas it is nearly 19% in India. From the performance point of view, energy delivered in Germany is 786 kWh/kWp per annum against more than 850 kWh/kWp available in the country. The variation might be attributable to the difference in solar radiation in each country.

Conventional thermal and non-conventional power

Overall cost per watt has reduced by nearly 23% as seen in the competitive bidding in West Bengal in India. Capital cost of thermal generation is as low as 40 000 rupees per kW. Compared to this, decentralized solar power generation is 285 000 rupees per kW or 3.5 times higher. Cost has

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reduced by 50% over two decades and should descend further by 50% so that conversion of solar power to electricity is commercially viable for general application. There is an additional element of fuel charge in the tariff connected with thermal power due to dangerous repercussion from pollution and health hazards. Instead, solar power happens to satisfactorily addresses this serious issue free from recurring cost on fuel to provide clean energy. Ironically, though the SPV system is utilized to help poor people in remote areas in third world countries. The same technology works for well-to-do people in urban areas in the developed countries. In both the cases, states finance the schemes through incentives or some form of a grant. In one case, the environment is the deciding factor whereas, in the other, provision of power is an essential tool to

improve the quality of life. Therefore, it is little wonder that Japan, Germany, and the US, have several SPV installations with hundreds of megawatts in capacity as against only a few installations with tens of megawatt capacity in India and Africa, though they both have enough sunshine.

Acknowledgements
It is a privilege to convey my gratitude to Mr S P Gon Coudhury, Director and Mr Angsuman Majumder, Associate for basic data. End note 1 dollar = 45.5 rupees; 1 rupee = 2 cents (US) 1 Euro = 1.2 dollars

Using the indigenous knowledge of jatropha

The use of Jatropha curcas oil as raw material and biofuel
ith the increasing price of crude oil, the import bill of India on petroleum products is expected to cross 16 billion dollars during 2003. Therefore, the time has come to explore alternatives and tap traditional wisdom. Considering the seriousness of the cost of petroleum products and the pollution caused by the use of these products, many developed and developing countries have ventured into the use of vegetable oils as a better alternative to diesel. Suitable initiatives have also been made in India by government agencies, research institutions, and automobile industries. One of the major achievements of biodiesel research in India was the first successful trial run of a passenger train conducted on 31 December 2002, when the Delhi-Amritsar Shatabdi Express used 5% of biodiesel as fuel. Biodiesel will enable the Indian Railways to save on its rising fuel bill while controlling pollution levels. According to the Railways, sulphur and lead emissions were reduced significantly when biodiesel was used. Ultimately, the percentage of biodiesel would go up to 15%

in unison with the accepted global norms. The new green fuel extracted from the seeds of the jatropha plant is now being tested by Indian Oil in the laboratory for biodiesel. The plant can easily be grown on either side of railway tracks as it grows well in both arid and semi-arid conditions, requiring low fertility and moisture. The other advantages are the fuels contribution to the national energy pool and the potential for creation of jobs in rural sector.

Advantages of biodiesel
Some of the advantages of using biodiesel are given below. P The higher cetane number of biodiesel compared to petro-diesel indicates the potential for higher engine performance. P The superior lubricating properties of biodiesel increases the engine efficiency. P Their higher flash point makes them safer to store. P The biodiesel molecules are simple hydrocarbon chains, containing no sulphur. P They contain higher amount of oxygen

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(up to 10%), which ensures complete combustion of hydrocarbons. P Biodiesel almost completely eliminates life cycle carbon-dioxide emissions. When compared with petro-diesel, biodiesel reduces emission of particulate matter by 40%, unburned hydrocarbons by 68%, carbon monoxide by 44%, sulphates by 100%, PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) by 80%, and carcinogenic nitrated PAHs by 90%, on average. The use of biodiesel complements the working of the catalysator and can help a current Euro-I motor attain the Euro-III standards. P Use of biodiesel will lead to increased energy independence as well as increased economic activity from fuel production and utilization. It is also heartening to note that work has already been initiated in India to standardize the technique of esterification to convert oil into biodiesel. Keeping in mind the physical and chemical variations of oils from different species and the impact of biodiesel on the engine efficiency and environment, reputed research institutions and automobile industries have reported that biodiesel can reduce the wear and tear of engines and significantly reduce the oil pollution. This is now encouraging scientists and farmers to grow oilseedyielding species as an economically viable activity, particularly to develop marginal and wastelands that are under-utilized in the country. Presently most of the non-edible oils are obtained from seeds of the Indian tree species such as neem (Azadirachta indica), karanj (Pongamia pinnata), mahua (Madhuca species), undi (Calophyllum inophyllum), and jatropha (Jatropha curcas). Whereas the first four species grow into big trees, jatropha is a shrub that starts bearing fruits right from the first year onwards.

micro-grid electricity at the village level as well as replace diesel fuel in small-scale applications like irrigation pump sets. Rural electrification has long been recognized as the need to improve conditions in rural areas. In the past 25 years, developing countries have extended electricity supply to more than 500 million people in rural areas. Out of the four billion people in the developing world, about two billion, mostly in rural areas, are still without access to electricity. Crude oil / non-transesterified oil can be directly utilized into the grid for rural electrification. Oil is extracted from the Jatropha curcas seed by the press-oil extraction method using a very low-cost input machine. Through a simple chemical process, oil from Jatropha curcas seed can be converted to a fuel commonly referred to as biodiesel. Technology for such a process is easily accessible to rural communities. No modifications to engines are necessary to use biodiesel instead of petroleum-based diesel. It can be mixed with petroleum-based diesel in any proportion and used for decentralized microgrid electricity generation at the village level, as well as a replacement for diesel fuel in small-scale applications like irrigation pump sets. More reliable electricity can be produced from mini-grid systems rather than extensions from the central grid. For this purpose, interested villagers or farmers can be motivated to install the expeller, which extracts the oil from the seeds and expels the residue, as a future business prospect.

Biofuel
Jatropha curcas, hitherto considered a wild oilseed plant of the tropics, is now being considered a promising biofuel crop ideally suitable for growing in the wastelands of the country. This potential biodiesel crop can bring about major economic activity providing income and employment opportunities to the rural communities, says E Vadivel, Dean, Horticultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore. Jatropha cultivation can generate an income of 25 000 rupees

Rural electrification
Biodiesel is a biofuel that can directly substitute petroleum-based diesel and can be used in rural regions. It can be used to generate decentralized

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(520.83 dollars) per hectare in a year; and if grown over 200 hectares in a village, it can provide adequate employment to all landless workers all round the year, explains Vadivel. Belonging to Euphorbiaceae species (castor family), this tropical and sub-topical crop can thrive well in low rainfall regions and soils with problems. It is a hardy, drought-tolerant crop, and fast-growing, which can be easily cultivated without much care. Animals do not graze on jatropha plants, and the crop is widely propagated through seeds and vegetative means. Mass propagation through stem cuttings will ensure uniformity and early establishment. Mycorrhizal associations have been observed and are known to aid the plants growth even in low availability of phosphorus. The standardized extraction process for edible oils can also be adopted for extracting Jatropha curcas seed oil. The filtering mechanisms have been modified, and other parameters for preparing the matured seed for extracting the oil have been standardized.

the press and the project underwrites part of the costs of training people to make soap. The manufacturer has the incentive to encourage oilprocessing activities, as it will encourage more sales of presses. The soap has a ready market and it is believed that it can cure white spot, which is a fungal growth on the skin and common in Papua New Guinea.

Jatropha in Brazil
Frost-resistant or frost-tolerant varieties of jatropha are extensively grown in Parana, Brazil.

Large-scale jatropha plantation in Egypt

Irrigated by treated sewage water, 500 000 hectares is being developed with D1s agro-forestry technology as a plantation that will supply the feedstock for D1 refineries to be constructed in Ain Suchna and Alexandria.

Jatropha as a renewable source of diesel in Ghana

Several organizations and individuals in Ghana have shown an interest in the jatropha plant, which has several uses and could be used as a fuel for domestic use.

Additional benefits of jatropha plantations

P Fixation of up to 10 tonnes/hectare/year of CO2 will benefit international carbon trade. P Production of 1 tonne/ hectare/year of highprotein seed cake (60% crude protein) can be potentially used for animal and fish feeds, and organic matter could be used as organic fertilizer particularly in remote areas. P Utilization of various other products from the plant (leaf, bark and seed extracts) for other industrial and pharmaceutical uses. P Localized production and availability of quality fuel. P Restoration of degraded land over a period of time. P Generation of rural employment.

Jatropha cultivation in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa

Jathropa is taking off like wildfire in KwazuluNatal. There are as many as (approximately) 1000 growers in Kwazulu-Natal already involved in jatropha cultivation.

Indian initiatives
P In an effort to reduce air pollution and reduce fuel costs in the long-term, the Government of India has decided to go ahead with the production of biodiesel. During a recent interministerial meeting attended by several senior scientists from various institutes, the first steps towards production of biodiesel were taken. All the participants expressed a keen interest in the early introduction of biodiesel by transesterification of jatropha oil or other non-edible oils. The Planning Commission,

International initiatives of jatropha

Jatropha project in Papua New Guinea
A project on jatropha in Papua New Guinea supports a manufacturer in the development of

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P P

Government of India had prepared a report on the gradual introduction of biodiesel, which has been accepted as a basic reference document. Using the Commissions report as a framework, the institutes will go ahead with further developmental work on biodiesel. The Government of Tamil Nadu is to implement a developmental scheme on Jatropha curcas with plans to cultivate in 400 000 hectares. The RCAC (Rural Community Action Centre) in Tamil Nadu is promoting the plantation and use of jatropha. A firm in Tamil Nadu is working on a project to grow 600 000 hectares of jatropha on lands owned by farmers in various parts of Tamil Nadu. They will provide farmers with the seedlings and 3000 rupees per hectare for land preparation and plantation, as well as buy the entire production of jatropha seeds from the farmers on a contractual basis. The Indian Railway will grow jatropha along the railway tracks and plans to plant it along a 25 000-kilometre route on either side of the track. The plan is to replace 10% of the total petro-diesel consumption by jatropha. The project has already started on a pilot scale. The Maharashtra Agro-forestry Department has been actively encouraging growing of jatropha in watershed development projects. A similar project similar to Maharashtra is being attempted in Madhya Pradesh. The Planning Board of Haryana Government is planning to grow jatropha on 50 000 acres (5000 acres each year) to attract farmers to crop cycle diversification. The Gujarat Agricultural University is planning the plantation of jatropha on wastelands for income generation.

P Mahindra & Mahindra has successfully conducted large-scale trials of operating its tractors on biodiesel, while Mercedes-Benz is sponsoring jatropha production with a commitment to use biodiesel to run its cars. P DaimlerCrysler joins CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) to use jatropha oil for biodiesel production. The objective of the project is to demonstrate the feasibility of the jatropha biodiesel as a fuel for modern vehicles.

The Government's view on Jatropha curcas plantations

Initially, the Government of India proposes to promote Jatropha curcas plantations on Indian wastelands. Its oil, which is a potential substitute to diesel, possesses several other properties such as wide environmental tolerance, adaptability to grow on any type of soil or wastelands, easily propagated through seeds/cuttings, minimal afterplantation care, lesser gestation periods, is not grazed by animals even during drought, which strengthens its case for promotion in wastelands. The plantation over an area of 5 million hectares of wasteland comprising degraded forest land, non-forest land, agricultural field boundaries, public land along roads, irrigation channels and railway tracts, etc. is proposed to be undertaken in 200 districts of 19 states involving the participation of various departments/organizations of agriculture and rural development ministries, NGOs, cooperative bodies, farmers groups, etc. Initially pilot plantations over an area of 50 000 hectares each in Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh is proposed to be undertaken during 2003/04. To facilitate oil extraction and transesterification, three to four contiguous districts, on the basis of availability of wasteland, about 15 000 hectares per district, would be identified in these states. Besides undertaking new plantations, the existing collection of TBOs (tree-borne oilseeds) will also be enhanced by creating infrastructure facilities, like establishment of seed produce procurement and oil-expelling centres, in each of the identified potential states/districts of the country. Besides increasing the availability of vegetable oil, the seed procurement/collection operation is significant because the earnings of tribal collectors engaged in the collection of TBOs are to a larger extent dependent on the collection of seeds.

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In addition to providing employment to the tribal and other weaker sections of society, the available forest resources would also be optimally utilized with no additional requirement of land and inputs. Each seed produce procurement centre would be provided with preprocessing and processing facilities such as a processing shed, seed godown, cleaner and grader, decorticator, drier, de-pulper, oil expeller, moisture meter, weighting bridge, etc. The farmers/seed collectors will bring their seeds to these procurement centres for disposal at remunerative prices. The crushing of seeds will also be undertaken at these centres. The necessary facilities for storage of oil at these centres will be set up. In each district, 810 such centres would be set up through the

joint forest management societies, NGOs, the corporate sector, corporations, etc.

Sources
http://www.jatropha.de/ http://dbtindia.nic.in/r&d/biofuel.html http://www.baif.com/journals_d.htm http://www.uni-hohenheim.de/~www480/docs gf030224/jatropha-biodiesel.htm The Hindu Business Line, 4 January 2004 The Statesman, 3 March 2004 The Hindu, 3 January 2003 The Financial Express, 13 February 2003 Business Standard, 8 March 2003 The Hindu, 22 May 2003

Current research on renewable energy and environment

Sudha P*, Somashekhar H I, Rao S, and Ravindranath N H**. 2003. Sustainable biomass production for energy in India. Biomass and Bioenergy 25(5): 501515
*Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India **<ravi@ces.iisc.ernet.in> his paper assesses the biomass production potential for energy and its financial viability for India. The scenarios considered for estimating the biomass potential are incremental to biomass demand, sustainable biomass demand, and full biomass demand. Under these scenarios, two situations have been considered: no increase in cropland by 2010 and increase in cropland by 10% over the 1995 area. Annually, 62310 million tonnes of wood could be generated from the surplus land after meeting all the conventional requirements of biomass such as domestic fuelwood, industrial wood, and sawnwood, requiring an investment of 168 780 billion rupees. The annual energy potential of plantation biomass is

estimated to vary from 930 to 4650 PJ (Peta Joules). It is projected that the energy consumption in 2010 will be 19 200 PJ; thus plantation biomass could supply about 5%24% of projected total energy consumption in 2010. The key barriers to producing biomass for energy are the lack of demand for wood for energy and financial incentives to promote bioenergy, low productivity of plantations, inaccessibility of genetically improved planting stock, inappropriate silviculture practices for high yields of plantations, land tenurial barriers, and absence of institutions to integrate biomass production for energy and bioenergy utilities. (13 tables, 33 references)

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Shanavas A and Mohan Kumar B*. 2003. Fuelwood characteristics of tree species in homegardens of Kerala, India. Agroforestry Systems 58(1): 1124
*College of Forestry, Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala 680 656, KAU PO, Thrissur, India, <bm.kumar@vsnl.com> Indiscriminate use of natural resources in the past has lead to fuelwood shortages in many parts of the tropical world. To surmount this domestic energy crisis, not only must degraded sites be planned with trees having high fuel value potential but also must agro-forestry be promoted on arable lands. To enable the choice of species for such energy plantations/agro-forests in the humid tropics of peninsular India, the author assessed the heat of combustion and physical properties that determine the combustion of the phyto-fuels such as ash content, specific gravity, and moisture content. Bark and wood sample of 45-multipurpose tree species in home gardens of Kerala, India and three fuel materials of local importance (coconut [Cocos nucidera] endocarp, dried coconut spathe, and dehiscent rubber [Hevea braziliensis] pericarp) were evaluated. Variations were abound in the calorific values and physical properties of species and tissue-types. In general, the sequence for combustion of heat and specific gravity were heartwood, sapwood, bark; while mean ash percentage followed the reverse order (bark, sapwood, heartwood). Ash content had a negative correlation with combustion of heat, but specific gravity exerted a positive influence. Furthermore, ash content and wood specific gravity were inversely related. Although green moisture content increased in the order of bark, heartwood, sapwood, but it failed to show any predictable relationship with combustion of heat. (24 references, 10 tables)

Chavda T V and Philip S K*. 2002. Study of DC compressor based SPV powered refrigerator. SESI Journal 12(2): 101108
*SPRERI (Sardar Patel Renewable Energy Research Institute),Vallabh Vidhyanagar - 388 120 Gujarat, India <solar@spreri.org> Refrigerators working on DC (direct current) compressors are more suitable to work with SPV (solar photovoltaic) modules rather than the conventional refrigerators working on AC (alternate current) compressors. This paper presents results of a study undertaken to design and test a 170-litre capacity DC compressor-based refrigerator integrated with a SPV power supply unit. Specifications of SPV system suitable for the purpose were formulated during the study. Based on the current costs prevailing in the market, it was estimated that the cost of a 170-litre solar refrigerator along with SPV power supply system for rural applications would be 120 000 rupees. While the cost appears to be quite high when compared to a conventional AC refrigerator, yet this might be the only reliable and economical option for small refrigeration applications in many sites. SPRERI (Sardar Patel Renewable Energy Research Institute) is currently testing the system in a village to obtain field data and also to reduce the cost wherever possible. Use of a locally available refrigerator body with an imported compressor appears to be a promising option to reduce the cost of the system. (7 figures, 7 tables, 3 references)

Bhattacharya D K, Saxena S, Sharma V, and Ghosh D*. 2003. Development of solar yarn-drying machine-its performance and techno-economic evaluation. IREDA News 14(2): 5761
*Northern India Textile Research Association, Sector 23, Raj Nagar, Gaziabad 201 002, India The energy requirement of the textile industry is a considerable fraction (9%) of the total energy requirement of India. Wet processing of textile alone consumes 80% of this energy. This paper discusses the development of a solar yarn-drying machine, its performance and techno-economic evaluation. The performance of the solar dryer has been found to be quite beneficial and can save large quantities of fuel, if used in tandem with a conventional dryer. There is a need to undertake further studies to establish this technology in the industry. (4 tables)

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10

Babu G V, Sharat A and Nagaraju J*. 2002. Solar decolorization of Rhodamine B dye using concentrating collectors. SESI Journal 12(2): 7380
*Solar Energy and Thermal Instrumentation Laboratory, Department of Instrumentation, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India <solarjnr@isu.iisc.ernet.in> The widespread presence of persistent organic chemicals as pollutants in wastewater effluents from industrial and other sources continues to be a serious environmental problem. As a cleaner alternative to conventional decontamination technologies, TiO2 (titanium dioxide) mediated solar detoxification of organic pollutants is gaining widespread approval. A detailed experimental investigation was conducted on laboratory- and field-model solar reactors, both using parabolic trough concentrating collectors with TiO2 (Degussa P25) as the catalyst to detoxify Rhodamine B in an aqueous solution. The influence of photo catalyst and its mode of operation, addition of hydrogen peroxide, insertion of twisted tapes into the receiver tube, and the intensity of solar irradiance on the reaction rate were investigated. It was observed that the reaction rate varied with the square root of solar reactor concentration ratio. (5 figures, 5 references)

Filippini M*, Pachauri S**. 2004. Elasticities of electricity demand in urban Indian households. Energy Policy 32(3): 429436
*Centre for Energy Policy and Economics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich Switzerland **<shonali.pachauri@cepe.mavt.ethz.ch> In the past, several electricity demand studies have been published on India based on aggregate macro data at the country or sub-national/state level. Since the underlying theory of consumer demand is based on the behaviour of individual agents, the use of micro data, which reflects individual and household behaviour, more closely, can shed greater light on the nature of consumer responses. In this paper, seasonal price and income elasticities of electricity demand in the residential sector of all urban area of India were estimated for the first time using disaggregate level of survey data for about 30 000 households. Three electricity demand functions were economically estimated using monthly data for winter, monsoon, and summer season in order to understand the extent to which factors such as income, prices, household size and other household-specific characteristics influence variations observed in electricity demand in individual households. The results show electricity demand is income and price inelastic for all three seasons, and that household, demographic, and geographical variables are significant in determining the electricity demand. (5 tables, 25 references)

Reddy B S* and Balachandra P. 2003. Integrated energy-environment-policy analysis: a case study of India. Utilities Policy 11(2): 5973
*Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Goregaon (East), Mumbai 400 065, India <sreddy@igidr.ac.in> Various factors that influence the energy demand in India and develop the energy and environmental outlook in the year 2010 have been discussed in this paper. An integrated mathematical model incorporating various factors such as GDP (gross domestic product), population growth, energy intensity, environmental policies was developed. Using this framework, an SEP (sustainable energy planning) scenario was developed. A comparison was made with the baseline scenario, which showed that the implementation of various policy measures reduces the energy consumption levels and improves the environment. The energyrelated carbon dioxide emissions in 2010 are projected to decrease by about 13% (relative to baseline scenario). (12 tables, 4 figures, 7 references)

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Rana V*, Santosh, Kohli S**, and Yadvika. 2002. Pilot study on use of fixed film technique for performance enhancement of cowdung based biogas plants. SESI Journal 12(2): 93100
*Center for Rural Development and Appropriate Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110 016, India **<skohli@mech.iitd.ernet.in> Use of fixed technique or biofilters for enhancing biogas production with substrates of high solids content has been explored to a very limited extent in the past for reactors of very small size and data collected over a short duration. The present work focuses on the use of a new biofilter, which is an iron mesh in a matrix-like configuration in a larger size reactor with a capacity of 400 litres with cowdung slurry as the substrate. The use of stone chips as biofilter material has also been investigated. The data of daily gas production has been collected for one year. The iron mesh biofilter gave 10%24% more gas, while the stone chip biofilter performed more or less the same as compared with the control reactor. The study suggests the superiority of matrix-like configuration of biofilters as of iron mesh in comparison with lumped configuration as of stone chips. (3 figures, 14 references)

Kaushik S C*, Tyagi S K, and Mohan S. 2003. Performance evaluation of an irreversible Striling heat engine cycle. International Journal of Ambient Energy 24(3): 149156
*Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India The Stirling engine has attracted the attention of several generations of engineers and physicists due to it potential to provide high conversion of efficiency. However, the Stirling engine has not been used practically due to limitations in its technology. An irreversible heat engine model with a finite heat capacity of external reservoirs was used to evaluate the performance of a Stirling heat engine. The external irreversibilities were due to the finite temperature difference between the heat engine and external reservoirs as well as the direct heat leak loss between the source and the sink, while the internal irreversibilities were due to the regenerative heat loss and the other entropy generated during the two isothermal processes in the cycle. The power output was adopted as an objective function for optimization. The expressions for maximum power output and the corresponding thermal efficiency were derived. The effects of various parameters such as the effectiveness on the source- and sink-side and the regenerative heat exchangers, and the internal irreversibility parameter were studied in detail. It was found that the effectiveness of the regenerator affects only the thermal efficiency, while the effectiveness of heat capacitance rates of the hot- and cold-side heat exchangers, and the internal irreversibility affect both the parameters. The effects of the internal irreversibility parameter were found to be more than those of the other parameters on maximum power output and the corresponding thermal efficiency. (4 figures, 9 references)

Chandel S S*, Aggarwal R K, and Pandey A N. 2002. A new approach to estimate global solar radiation on horizontal surfaces from temperature data. SESI Journal 12(2): 109114
*State Council for Science, Technology and Environment, Himachal Pradesh, B 34, SDA Complex, Kasumpti, Shimla 171 009, India <shyam_chandel@hotmail.com> This paper presents a new correlation model for estimating monthly average values of global solar radiation from ambient air temperature data. The model closely follows Allens model and considers the effects of latitude and altitude of the location. Numerical calculations were made using the new model corresponding to three locations (namely Amritsar, Delhi and Shillong). The study shows that the new model predicts better values of global solar radiation as compared to other models. (1 table, 3 figures, 6 references)

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Dung T Q*, Anisuzzaman M, Kumar S**, and Bhattacharya S C. 2003. Demonstration of multi-purpose battery charging station for rural electrification. Renewable Energy 28(15): 23672378
*Solar Laboratory, 01 Mac Dinh Chi St., 01 District, Ho Chi Minh City,Vietnam **<kumar@ait.ac.th> A 1-kWp multi-purpose BCS (battery charging station) as a rural electrification system installed in a remote village in Vietnam provides charging facility to the batteries brought by users and also supplies electricity to a cultural centre. About 45 families charge their batteries (2050 ampere-hour capacity) for lighting, and for coloured or blackand-white TV sets. The BCS has provided better health services, new entertainment opportunities, and connected the isolated village to the world through a photovoltaic-powered radio telephone. The local and the district government actively participated in implementing the BCS, which has resulted in its continued operation since its installation in 1998. The details of the site selection, technical and financial management of the BCS are described in this paper. An analysis of the systems operation and use of the facility illustrate the factors that need to be considered for the successful implementation of BCS in remote rural areas of developing countries. (4 figures, 4 tables, 9 references)

Mirza U K*, Maroto-Valer M M, and Ahmad N. 2003. Status and outlook of solar energy use in Pakistan. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 7(6): 501514
*The Energy Institute, Pennsylvania State University, 209 Academic Projects Building, University Park P A 16802, US Pakistan lies in an area of one of the highest solar insolation in the world. This vast potential can be exploited to generate electricity for off-grid communities in the northern hilly area and the southern and western deserts. Besides electricity production, other applications such as solar water heaters and solar cookers also have vast potential. In this paper, the status and outlook of solar energy use in Pakistan has been discussed. The role of a research and development organization in promotion has been presented. It concludes that the current infrastructure has not been able to advance the status of solar energy of Pakistan and significant efforts are needed to utilize this cheap renewable energy source. (1 table, 3 figures, 20 references)

Dasappa S*, Sridhar H V, Paul P J, and Mukunda H S. 2003. Biomass gasification-a substitute to fossil fuel for heat application. Biomass and Bioenergy 25(6): 637649
*Center for ASTRA, Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India <dasappa@astra.iisc.ernet.in> This paper highlights case studies of low- and high-temperature industrial heating requirements being met using biomass gasification. The gasification system for these applications consists of an open top-down draft reburn reactor lined with ceramic. Necessary cooling and cleaning systems are incorporated into the package to meet the end-use requirements. Drying of marigold flower, a low-temperature application, has been considered to replace diesel fuel in the range of 125150 litre per hour. Gas from the 500 kg per hour gasifier system is piped into the producer gas burners fixed in the combustion chamber with the downstream process similar to diesel burner. The high-temperature application is meant for a heat treatment furnace in the temperature range of 8731200 K. A 300 kg per hour of biomass gasifier replaces 2000 litre of diesel or light diesel oil per day completely. The novelty of this package is the use of one gasifier to energize 16 burners in 8 furnaces with different temperature requirements. The system operates over 140 hours per week on a nearly non-stop basis over 4000 hours of operation replacing fossil fuel completely. (6 tables, 10 figures, 4 references)

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Technological developments
A new mercury detection method

ercury contamination in fish is a serious health concern. Methyl mercury contamination occurs when mercury pollution from automobile emissions or industrial waste washes into the ocean or groundwater. Aquatic organisms convert normal mercury ions into methyl mercury and release the compound into the water. Scientists at the US-based Scripps Research Institute have developed a screening method that can detect mercury contamination in fish. The method reported is fast and inexpensive. The new method for mercury detection uses a solution that changes colour if mercury traces are found in fish. To test, a tiny pellet of fish tissue is placed in a tube with a few drops of acid and enzyme solution, which digests the tissue within a few hours. The mixture is then stirred with a special dip-stick coated with a resin. The dip-stick is then put into another tube containing a mild acid that extracts the mercury from the resin, and then a few drops of solution is added into the tube. This solution

forms precipitates when it comes in contact with mercury. If the fish is contaminated, the liquid changes its colour and becomes colourless. The addition of a drop of dye allows the quantification of mercury contamination in fish. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection 2002 22(11): 1297

Adsorbed ozone cleans up wastewater

A team of chemical engineers at the University of Bradford, the UK has developed an efficient method to trap high concentrations of ozone by adsorbing it in beads of silica gel. Usually, ozone gas is treated by pumping ozone through water. However, the process can be very slow. By adsorbing in beads of silica gel, the ozone oxidizes organic compounds 10 times more efficiently than the conventional method. Once all the ozone gets adsorbed, the beads can be recharged by simply drying the beads and then pumping more ozone through it. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection 2002 22(11): 1298

Web updates
Solar Electric Light Fund
http://www.self.org/what.asp ELF (Solar Electric Light Fund, Inc.) is a non-profit charitable organization in India to develop and facilitate solar rural electrification and energy self-sufficiency in developing countries. The web site gives information about the current events in the solar community, SELFs renewable energy projects, solar electricity, and photovoltaic technology. energy. Services are provided even to implement the suggestions and monitor actual savings. The study covers energy accounting, analysis of specific energy consumption, performance of all major energy consumers/converters and distribution systems. This web site provides the information on the activities and achievements of Senergy.

Biodiversity online: quick guide

http://www.scidev.net/dossiers/biodiversity SciDev.Net has created a one-stop online guide, which provides up-to-date information on biodiversity challenges faced by developing countries. It looks at issues surrounding the need to protect global biodiversity in developing countries and the need to promote social and economic growth.

Energy audit
http://www.senergy-india.com/ Senergy is an ISO 9001-2000 certified company in Mumbai providing tailor-made solutions to optimize energy consumption. It conducts energy audits covering electrical and thermal

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SD Gateway
http://www.sdgateway.net/ The SD Gateway integrates online information developed by members of the Sustainable Development Communications Network. In addition to access over 1200 documents available on sustainable development topics, the web site provides services such as a calendar of events, a job bank, the Sustainability Web Ring. (This Internet tool allows users to navigate easily between web sites that deal with the principles, policies, and best practices for sustainable development.) By following the links through the web ring, information from around the world can be found on how to deal with crucial issues such as climate change, cleaner production, waste, poverty, consumerism, natural resource management, and governance, mailing lists (listservs), and news sites.

food, income and environmental quality, in every country and for all people. The organization works directly with people to build a better world by helping increase agricultural productivity and rural employment while protecting the environment. It is also working on a substitute for petrol and diesel for a clean transport fuel and a pollution-free environment. WII runs multi-disciplinary programmes that are sustainable, which means the project leads to long-term benefits for the end-user.

SolarAccess.com
http://www.solaraccess.com/about.jsp SolarAccess.com was started in 1998 by a group of renewable energy professionals who wanted their work to relate to their passion for solar energy, wind power, and other forms of renewable energy. With this passion for renewable energy and their desire to create a long-term sustainable (and, of course, a successful) business, they created perhaps the single-most recognized and trusted source for renewable energy on the Internet. By offering value-added information services via the Internet, their mission is to help promote the use of renewable energy worldwide.

Renewingindia.org Portal
http://www.renewingindia.org/aboutus.html This portal is maintained by WII (Winrock International India), which is an NGO registered under the Indian Societies Act and is based in New Delhi. WIIs mission is to develop and implement solutions that balance the need for

eNREE invites contributions

eNREE is meant for ENVIS members and all stakeholders interested in advancing, promoting, and sharing the knowledge in renewable energy and environment in India and abroad. We sincerely welcome your help in enriching this newsletter by sending us articles, case studies, etc. and also welcome feedback on the contents of the newsletter to help us make it more informative and rich in content.

Please send in your contributions to Mr Shantanu Ganguly Editor TERI, Darbari Seth Block Habitat Place, Lodhi Road New Delhi 110 003, India

Tel. E-mail Fax

2468 2100 or 2468 2111 shantanu@teri.res.in 2468 2144, 2468 2145 India + 91 Delhi (0)11

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Conferences/Workshops/Seminars
Environment
30 June2 July 2004 Rhodes, Greece Air Pollution 2004 Wessex Institute of Technology, Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton SO40 7AA, United Kingdom Tel. 44 238 029 3223 Fax 44 238 029 2853 E-mail shobbs@wessex.ac.uk Web site www.wessex.ac.uk GHGT-7th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies GHGT-7 Secretariat, Ted Morris, GHGT-7 Secretariat, Suite150, 10 Research Drive, Regina, Sk S4S 7J7, Canada Tel. 1 306 337 2290 Fax 1 306 337 2301 E-mail secretariat@ghgt7.ca Web site www.ghgt7.ca/

59 September 2004 Vancouver BC, Canada

Renewable energy
79 April 2004 Beijing, China Asia Renewable Energy Conference and Exhibition (REAsia 2004) Ms Vivian Li, Project Assistant of Renewable Energy Fairs, Grace Fair International Limited, Room 1311, Tower A, Zhongypun Building, Wangjing New Industrial Zone, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100 012, China Tel. 86 10 64390338 Fax 86 10 6439 0339 E-mail vivian@gracefair.com Web site http://www.gracefair.com WREN International Seminar. Mr Mark Hopkins, Project Director, British Council Seminars,1 Beaumont Place, Oxford OX1 2PJ, United Kingdom Tel. 44 1865 302 710 Fax 44 1865 557 368 E-mail Mark.Hopkins@britishcouncil.org Web site www.britishcouncil.org seminars Renewables 2004: International Conference on New and Renewable Energy Technologies for Sustainable Development Ms Maria Fernanda Afonso, Conference Secretary, Instituto Superior Tecnico, Dept. Mechanical Engineering, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001, Lisbon, Portugal Tel. 351 21 8417 378 Fax 351 21 8475 545 E-mail renewables@navier.ist.utl.pt Web site navier.ist.utl.pt/renewables2004 North American Conference of IAEE/USAEE USAEE Conference Headquarters, 28790 Chagrin Blvd., Ste 350, Cleveland, OH 44122, US Tel. 216 464 2785 Fax 216 464 2768 E-mail usaee@usaee.org Web site www.usaee.org/energy World Renewable Energy Congress VII & Expo Ms Ivilina Thornton, Senior Events Specialist, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1617 Cole Boulevard, MS 1623, Golden, Colorado, 80401, US Tel. 1 303 275 3781 Fax 1 303 275 4320 E-mail ivilina_thornton@nrel.gov Web site www.wrenuk.co.uk World Renewable Energy Council/Network (WREN) International Seminars in Britain: Renewable Energy Policy, Security, Innovation, Industry and Sustainability Contact: World Renewable Energy Network, PO Box 362, Brighton, BN2 1YH, UK Tel. 44 1273 625 643 Fax 44 1273 625 768 E-mail asayigh@netcomuk.co.uk Web site www.wrenuk.co.uk

37 May 2004 Brighton, UK

28 June1 July 2004 Evora, Portugal

810 July 2004 Washington, DC, US

28 August3 September 2004 Colarado, US

1623 October 2004 Brighton, UK

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About TERI

dynamic and flexible organization with a global vision and a local focus, TERI was established in 1974. While in the initial period the focus was mainly on documentation and information dissemination, research activities in the fields of energy, environment, and sustainable development were initiated towards the end of 1982. The genesis of these activities lay in TERIs firm belief that efficient utilization of energy, sustainable use of natural resources, large-scale adoption of renewable energy technologies, and reduction of all forms of waste would move the process of development towards the goal of sustainability. A unique developing-country institution, TERI is deeply committed to every aspect of sustainable development. From providing environment-friendly solutions to rural energy problems to helping shape the development of the Indian oil and gas sector; from tackling global climate change issues across many continents to enhancing forest conservation efforts among local communities; from advancing solutions to growing urban transport and air pollution problems to promoting energy efficiency in the Indian industry, the emphasis has always been on finding innovative

solutions to make the world a better place to live in. While TERIs vision is global, its roots are firmly entrenched in Indian soil. It is with this purpose that TERI has established regional centres in Bangalore, Goa, Guwahati, and Kolkata, and a presence in Japan, and Malaysia. It has set up affiliate institutes TERINorth America in Washington, DC, USA, and TERIEurope in London, UK. With a staff strength of over 500, drawn from multidisciplinary and highly specialized fields, offices and regional centres equipped with state-of-the-art facilities, and a diverse range of activities, TERI is the largest developing-country institution working to move human society towards a sustainable future. TERI makes effective use of the latest developments in modern information technology in both its in-house and outreach activities. TERI lays great emphasis on training, capacity building, and education. In 1999, it set up the TERI School of Advanced Studies, recognized as a deemed university by the University Grants Commission, India. The TERI School is evolving as a research university, offering doctoral and masters programmes in bioresources, biotechnology, energy, environment, and regulatory and policy studies.

ENVIS Centre on Renewable Energy and Environment

NVIS (Environmental Information System) was established as a plan programme under the MoEF (Ministry of Environment and Forests), Government of India, in December 1982. TERI has been hosting the ENVIS Centre on Renewable Energy and Environment since July 1984. The major objectives are collection and dissemination of information to support and promote research, development, and innovation in environmental information technology. Besides, TERI also hosts the EMCB (Environmental Capacity Building) Node on Renewable Energy and Environment since 2000/01 with ENVIS as a sub-component. The objective of the EMCB node is to build capacity in India through development and maintenance of a web site as an information clearing house for the identified sector. Since its inception, TERI ENVIS Centre and EMCB Node have been actively engaged in resource generation, data collection, problem recog-

nition, solution of problems, capacity building, and information dissemination activities. The Centre has identified the areas where data gaps exist in the renewable energy and environmental sectors: environmental impact of power, renewable energy and transport sector, pollution control technologies, hazardous wastes management, environmental laws and regulations, environmental economics, and environmental planning, management and policies. At the TERI ENVIS Centre, conscious efforts are being made to bridge these data gaps by wider information dissemination through journal publishing, query response service, document delivery service, capacity-building initiatives, and related activities. The library of the Centre subscribes to different journals, books, and CD-ROMs relevant to its scope and activities to remain updated and provide value-added services.

P Editor

Shantanu Ganguly

P Assistant Editor

Shehnaz Ahmed

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