1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 A composite wall consist of alternative layers of fir ( 5 cm thick ) , aluminum ( 1
cm thick ), lead ( 1 cm thick ), and corkboard ( 6 cm thick ). The temperature is 60
C of the outside of the fir and 10 C on the outside of the corkboard. Plot the
temperature gradient through the wall. Does the temperature profile suggest any
simplifying assumptions that might be made in subsequent analysis of the wall?

Solution:

Thermal Conductivities:

k
fir
= 0.12 W/m.K (Table A.2, Appendix A)
k
alu
= 237 W/m.K (Table A.1, Appendix A)
k
ld
= 35 W/m.K (Table A.1, Appendix A)
k
cb
= 0.04 W/m.K (Table A.2, Appendix A).


Question No. 1: Plot the temperature gradient through the wall.

Answer:



Question No. 2: Does the temperature profile suggest any simplifying assumptions
that might be made in subsequent analysis of the wall?

Answer:

Yes, since the thermal conductivity of aluminum and lead are very high than fir and
corkboard, they are considered isothermal. Therefore consider only fir and corkboard.

fir
+ T
cb
= 60 C 10 C = 50 K

cb fir
L
T
k
L
T
k q

=
L
fir
= 5 cm = 0.05 m
L
cb
= 6 cm = 0.06 m

1. INTRODUCTION
Then,

( )( )
( )
( )( )
( ) m
T K m W
m
T K m W
q
cb
fir
06 . 0
/ 04 . 0
05 . 0
/ 12 . 0

=

=
T
cb
= 3.6T
fir


Then,

fir
+ 3.6
fir
= 50 K

fir
= 10.87 K

( )
|
|

\
|
= |

\
|
=
m
K
K m W
L
T
k q
fir
05 . 0
87 . 10
. / 12 . 0 = 26.09 W/m
2


Considering all walls:

T
fir
+ T
alu
+ T
ld
+ T
cb
= 60 C 10 C = 50 K

cb ld alu fir
L
T
k
L
T
k
L
T
k
L
T
k q |

\
|
= |

\
|
= |

\
|
= |

\
|
=

L
fir
= 5 cm = 0.05 m
L
cb
= 6 cm = 0.06 m
L
alu
= 1 cm = 0.01 m
L
ld
= 1 cm = 0.01 m

(
(
(
(

\
|
|

\
|
=
alu
fir
fir alu
L
k
L
k
T T
(
(
(
(

\
|
|

\
|
=
ld
fir
fir ld
L
k
L
k
T T
(
(
(
(

\
|
|

\
|
=
cb
fir
fir cb
L
k
L
k
T T
Then
1. INTRODUCTION

(
(
(
(

\
|
+
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
(
(

\
|
+
cb ld alu
fir
fir
L
k
L
k
L
k L
k
T
1 1 1
1 = 50 K

(
(
(
(

\
|
+
|

\
|
+
|

\
|
(

\
|
+
06 . 0
04 . 0
1
01 . 0
35
1
01 . 0
237
1
05 . 0
12 . 0
1
fir
T = 50
T
fir
= 10.87 K
( )
|
|

\
|
= |

\
|
=
m
K
K m W
L
T
k q
fir
05 . 0
87 . 10
. / 12 . 0 = 26.09 W/m
2

There it is equal to simplified solution.


1.2 Verify Equation (1.15).


Solution:

Equation (1.15)

T T
dt
dT
body
body

For verification only

Equation (1.3)
dt
dT
mc
dt
dU
Q = =

Equation (1.16)

T T Q
body

Then

T T
dt
dT
mc
body

T T
dt
dT
body


Then

T T
dt
dT
body
body
where mc is constant.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.3 q = 5000 W/m
2
in a 1 cm slab and T = 140 C on the cold side. Tabulate the
temperature drop through the slab if it is made of

Silver
Aluminum
Mild steel (0.5 % carbon)
Ice
Spruce
Insulation (85 % magnesia)
Silica aerogel

Indicate which situations would be unreasonable and why.

Solution:

L = 1 cm = 0.01 m

(a) Silver Slab

Si
L
T
k q

= = 5000 W/m
2

Thermal conductivity of silver at 140 C, 99.99+ % Pure, Table A.1, Appendix A
k
si
= 420 W/m.K
( )

=
m
T
K m W q
Si
01 . 0
/ 420 = 5000 W/m
2

T
Si
= 0.12 K

(b) Alumium Slab

alu
L
T
k q

= = 5000 W/m
2

Thermal conductivity of aluminum at 140 C, 99.99+ % Pure, Table A.1, App. A
K
alu
= 237.6 W/m.K
( )

=
m
T
K m W q
alu
01 . 0
/ 6 . 237 = 5000 W/m
2

T
alu
= 0.21 K

(c) Mild Steel Slab

ms
L
T
k q

= = 5000 W/m
2

Thermal conductivity of mild steel at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
K
ms
= 50.4 W/m.K
1. INTRODUCTION
( )

=
m
T
K m W q
ms
01 . 0
/ 4 . 50 = 5000 W/m
2

T
ms
= 0.992 K

(d) Ice Slab

ice
L
T
k q

= = 5000 W/m
2

Thermal conductivity of ice at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
ice at 0 C, k
ice
= 2.215 W/m.K
Note: there is no ice at 140 C, but continue calculation at 0 C.
( )

=
m
T
K m W q
ice
01 . 0
/ 215 . 2 = 5000 W/m
2

T
ice
= 22.57 K

(e) Spruce Slab

Si
L
T
k q

= = 5000 W/m
2

Thermal conductivity of spruce at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
K
sp
= 0.11 W/m.K @ 20 C (available)
( )

=
m
T
K m W q
Sp
01 . 0
/ 11 . 0 = 5000 W/m
2

T
Sp
= 454.55 K

(f) Insulation (85 % Magnesia)

Si
L
T
k q

= = 5000 W/m
2

Thermal conductivity of insulation at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
K
in
= 0.074 W/m.K @ 150 C (available)
( )

=
m
T
K m W q
in
01 . 0
/ 074 . 0 = 5000 W/m
2

T
Si
= 675.8 K

(g) Silica Aerogel Slab

Si
L
T
k q

= = 5000 W/m
2

Thermal conductivity of silica aerogel at 140 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
k
sa
= 0.022 W/m.K @ 120 C
1. INTRODUCTION
( )

=
m
T
K m W q
sa
01 . 0
/ 022 . 0 = 5000 W/m
2

T
sa
= 2,273 K


Tabulation:

Slab Temperature Drop, K
Silver 0.12
Aluminum 0.21
Mild Steel (0.5 % Carbon) 0.992
Ice 22.57
Spruce 454.55
Insulation (85 % Magnesia) 675.8
Silica Aerogel 2273



The situation which is unreasonable here is the use of ice as slab at 140 C, since ice
will melt at temperature of 0 C and above. Thats it.

1.4 Explain in words why the heat diffusion equation, eq. no. (1.13), shows that in
transient conduction the temperature depends on the thermal diffusitivity, , but
we can solve steady conduction problems using just k (as in Example 1.1).


Solution:
Equation (1.13)
( )
x
dt
dT
cA x
dt
T T d
cA
dt
dU
Q
ref
net
=

= =

Answer: The application of heat diffusion equation eq. no. (1.13) depends on the
thermal diffusivity as the value of
t
T

is not equal to zero as it I s under unsteady

state conduction. While in steady conduction depends only on k because the value of
t
T

= 0 for steady state conduction giving

2
2
x
T

= 0 , so
dx
dT
k q = .


1.5 A 1-m rod of pure copper 1 cm2 in cross section connects a 200 C thermal
reservoir with a 0 C thermal reservoir. The system has already reached steady
state. What are the rates of change of entropy of (a) the first reservoir, (b) the
second reservoir, (c) the rod, and (d) the whole universe, as a result of the
1. INTRODUCTION
process? Explain whether or not your answer satisfies the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.

Solution:

Equation (1.9)
L
T
k q

=
Thermal conductivity of copper at 100 C, Table A.1, Appendix A
k = 391 W/m.K
L = 1 m
T = 200 C 0 C = 200 K

( )

=
m
K
K m W q
1
200
/ 391 = 78,200 W/m
2
.K
Q = qA
A = 1 cm
2
= 1 x 10
-4
m
2

Q = (78,200 W/m
2
.K)(1 x 10
-4
m
2
) = 7.82 W

(a)
( ) K
W
T
Q
S
rev
273 200
82 . 7
1
1
+

=
&
= - 0.01654 W/K
(b)
( ) K
W
T
Q
S
rev
273 0
82 . 7
2
2
+
+
= =
&
= + 0.02864 W/K
(c) =
r
S
&
= 0.0 W/K (see Eq. 1.5, steady state)

(d) = + =
2 1
S S S
Un
& & &
= - 0.01654 W/K + 0.02864 W/K = + 0.0121 W/K

Since 0
Un
S
&
, therefore it satisfied Second Law of Thermodynamics.

1.6 Two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures of 27 C and 43 C, respectively,
are separated by a slab of material 10 cm thick and 930 cm
2
in cross-sectional
area. The slab has a thermal conductivity of 0.14 W/m.K. The system is operating
at steady-state conditions. What are the rates of change of entropy of (a) the
higher temperature reservoir, (b) the lower temperature reservoir, (c) the slab, and
(d) the whole universe as a result of this process? (e) Does your answer satisfy the
Second Law of Thermodynamics?

Solution:

Equation (1.9)
L
T
k q

=
Thermal conductivity , k = 0.14 W/m.K
1. INTRODUCTION

A = 930 cm
2
= 0.093 m
2

L = 10 cm = 0.10 m
T = 27 C (- 43 C) = 70 K
T
1
= 27 + 273 = 300 K
T
2
= -43 + 273 = 230 K

( )

=
m
K
K m W q
10 . 0
70
. / 14 . 0 = 98 W/m
2

Q = qA = (98 W/m
2
)(0.093 m
2
) = 9.114 W

(a)
( ) K
W
T
Q
S
rev
300
114 . 9
1
1

=
&
= - 0.03038 W/K
(b)
( ) K
W
T
Q
S
rev
230
114 . 9
2
2
+
= =
&
= + 0.03963 W/K
(c) =
r
S
&
= 0.0 W/K (see Eq. 1.5, steady state)

(d) = + =
2 1
S S S
Un
& & &
= - 0.03038 W/K + 0.03963 W/K = + 0.00925 W/K

Since 0
Un
S
&
, therefore it satisfied Second Law of Thermodynamics.

1.7 (a) If the thermal energy reservoirs in Problem 1.6 are suddenly replaced with
adiabatic walls, determine the final equilibrium temperature of the slab. (b) What
is the entropy change for the slab for this process? (c) Does your answer satisfy
the Second Law of Thermodynamics in this instance? Explain. The density of the
slab is 26 lb/ft
3
and the specific heat 0.65 Btu/lb-F.

Solution:

( )

=
3
3
3
/ 1
/ 018 . 16
/ 26
ft lb
m kg
ft lb = 416.468 kg/m
3

( )

=
F lb Btu
K kg J
F lb Btu c
. / 1
. / 8 . 4186
. / 65 . 0 = 2721.42 J/kg.K
k = 0.14 W/m.K
T = 27 C (-43 C) = 70 C
T
1
= 27 C + 273 = 300 K
T
2
= - 43 C + 273 = 230 K
A = 0.093 m
2

L = 0.10 m

(a)

=
2
1
T
T
T
dQ
T
Q

1. INTRODUCTION

=
2
1
T
T
T
cVdT
T
Q

( )

1
2 1 2
ln
T
T
cV
T
T T cV

( )

1
2 1 2
ln
T
T
T
T T

( ) ( )

=
300
230
ln
300 230
ln
1
2
1 2
T
T
T T
T = 263.45 K
(b)
( ) ( )
T
T T cAL
T
T T cV
T
Q
S
1 2 1 2

=

= =


( )( )( )( )( )
45 . 263
300 230 10 . 0 093 . 0 42 . 2721 468 . 416
= S = - 2801 J/K

(c) This will not satisfy the Second Law of Thermodynamic since this is not a rate of
entropy of production of the universe.


1.8 A copper sphere 2.5 cm in diameter has a uniform temperature of 40 C. The
sphere is suspended in a slow-moving air stream at 0 C. The air stream produces a
convection heat transfer coefficient of 15 W/m
2
.K. Radiation can be neglected.
Since copper is highly conductive, temperature gradients in the sphere will
smooth out rapidly, and its temperature can be taken as uniform throughout the
cooling process (i.e., Bi << 1). Write the instantaneous energy balance between
the sphere and the surrounding air. Solve this equation and plot the resulting
temperatures as a function of time between 40 C and 0 C.


Solution:

Energy Balance:
dt
dU
Q =
( )

= T T A h Q
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]

= = T T cV
dt
d
T T cV
dt
d
dt
dU
ref


Then:
( ) ( ) [ ]

= T T cV
dt
d
T T A h
1. INTRODUCTION
( )
( )

T T
cV
A h
dt
T T d

( ) C
A h
cV
t
T T +

ln
at T(t = 0) T
i
,
( )

= T T C ln

( ) ( )

+

= T T
A h
cV
t
T T
i
ln ln

x i
T
t
A h
cV
t
T T
T T
=

ln

=
A h
cV
T
x

x
T
t
i
e
T T
T T

T = 0 C + 273 = 273 K
i
T = 40 C + 273 = 313 K

=
A h
cV
T
x

3
3
4
r V =
r = (1/2)(2.5 cm) = 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m
2
4 r A =
( ) h
cr
r h
r c
A h
cV
T
x
3 4
3
4
2
3

= =
h = 15 W/m
2
.K


Properties of copper, Table A.1, App. A
= 8954 kg/m
3

c
p
= 384 J/kg.K
= 11.57 x 10-5 m
2
/s
2

( )( )( )
( ) K m W
m K kg J m kg
T
x
. / 15 3
0125 . 0 . / 384 3 / 8954
= = 955 sec

Then:
1. INTRODUCTION
( )
x
T
t
i
e T T T T

=
( )

+ = T e T T T
x
T
t
i

( ) K e T
t
273 273 313
955
+ =


K e T
t
273 40
955
+ =


955
40
t
e T

= C
where t in seconds

Tabulation:
Time, t, seconds Temperature, T, C
0 40
10 39.6
20 39.2
40 38.4
60 37.6
80 36.9
100 36.2
200 32.7
300 29.6
400 26.8
600 22
800 18
1000 14.7
5000 0.3
10000 0.0
100000 0.0
1000000 0.0
0.0


Plot:

1. INTRODUCTION


1.9 Determine the total heat transfer in Problem 1.8 as the sphere cools from 40 C to
0 C. Plot the net entropy increase resulting from the cooling process above, S vs
T(K).

Solution:

T = 0 C + 273 = 273 K
2
4 r A = ,
3
3
4
r V =
r = 0.0125 m
= 8954 kg/m
3

c
p
= 384 J/kg.K
= 11.57 x 10-5 m
2
/s
2

T = 40 C 0 C = 40 K

Total Heat Transfer:
Q = cVT = (8954 kg/m
3
)(384 J/kg.K)(4/3)()(0.0125 m)
3
(40 K)
Q = 1125 J - - - - Answer.

Plotting the net-entropy increase:

Equation (1.24)

1. INTRODUCTION
b
T
T
b
dT
T T
cV S
b
b

|
|

\
|
=

0
1 1

( )( ) ( )
b
T
T
b
dT
T T
S
b
b

|
|

\
|
|

\
|
=

0
1 1
0125 . 0
3
4
384 8954
3

(

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
=

0
0
ln ln 13 . 28
b
b
b
b
T
T
T
T
T
T
S
(

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
=
0
0
ln 13 . 28
b
b b b
T
T
T
T T
S
T
b0
= 40 C = 313 K

(

\
|
|

\
|
=
313
ln
273
313
13 . 28
b b
T T
S

T
b
, C T
b
, K S
40 313 0
35 308 0.0622
30 303 0.117
25 298 0.1642
20 293 0.2034
15 288 0.2344
10 283 0.2569
5 278 0.2707
0 273 0.2754

Plot:
1. INTRODUCTION


1.10 A truncated cone 30 cm high is constructed of Portland cement. The diameter at
the top is 15 cm and at the bottom is 7.5 cm. The lower surface is maintained at 6
C and the top at 40 C. The outer surface is insulated. Assume one dimensional
heat transfer and calculate the rate of heat transfer in watts from top to bottom. To
do this, note that the heat transfer, Q, must be the same at every cross section.
Write Fouriers law locally, and integrate between this unknown Q and the known
end temperatures.

Solution:

T
1
= 40 C

1. INTRODUCTION
T
2
= 6 C

dx
dT
kA Q =
x
D D
L
D D
=

1 2 1

D
1
= 15 cm = 0.15 m
D
2
= 7.5 cm = 0.075 m
L = 30 cm = 0.30 m
x
D m
m
m m
=
15 . 0
30 . 0
075 . 0 15 . 0

D = 0.15 m 0.25x

2
4
D A

=
dx
dT
D k Q

=
2
4

( )
dx
dT
x m k Q
2
25 . 0 15 . 0
4

=


( ) dT k dx x Q

=

4
25 . 0 15 . 0
2

( ) dT k dx x Q
m

4
25 . 0 15 . 0
3 . 0
0
2



Thermal Conductivity of Portland Cement, Table A.2, Appendix A.
k = 0.70 W/m.K

( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) 6 40
4
70 . 0 25 . 0 15 . 0
25 . 0
1
1
3 . 0
0
1

x Q
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( ) 34
4
70 . 0 15 . 0 3 . 0 25 . 0 15 . 0 4
1 1

=

Q
( ) ( ) ( ) 34
4
70 . 0
15 . 0
1
075 . 0
1
4

Q
Q = -0.70 W Ans.