Claim: 2 is irrational. Proof of the claim: Suppose2 is rational, i.e., 2 = a/b for some integers a & b with b >0.

We can assume that b is positive, since otherwise we can simply change the signs of both a & b. (Then a is positive too, although we will not need this). Let us choose integers a & b with 2 = a/b, such that b is positive and as small as possible. (We can do this by the Well-Ordering Principle, which says that every nonempty set of positive integers has a smallest element). Squaring both sides of the equation 2 = a/b and multiplying both side by b2, we obtain a2 = 2b2. Since a2 is even, it follows that a is even. Thus, a = 2k for some integer k, so a2 = 4k2, and hence b2 = 2k2. Since b2 is even, it follows that b is even. Since a & b are both even, a/2 and b/2 are integers with b/2 > 0, and 2 = (a/2)/ (b/2), because (a/2)/ (b/2) = a/b. But we said before that b is as small as possible, so this is a contradiction. Therefore, 2 cannot be rational. This particular type of proof by contradiction is known as innite descent, which is used to prove various theorems in classical number theory. If there exist positive integers a and b such that a/b = 2, then the above proof shows that we can nd smaller positive integers a and b with the same property, and repeating this process, we will get an innite descending sequence of positive integers, which is impossible. Recall that in the above proof, we said we can assume that b>0, since otherwise we can simply change the signs of both a & b. Other way to write this would be Without Loss Of Generality (WLOG), b > 0. Without Loss Of Generality (WLOG) means that there are two or more cases (in this proof the cases when b > 0 and b < 0), but considering just one particular case is enough to prove the theorem, because the proof for the other case or cases works the same way. In essence, therefore, the phrase WLOG may be used to indicate that the time and effort saving act of consideration of any one of the many possibilities (e.g. b>0 and b<0 in the 2 case considered above), does not cause any loss or injury to the proof by rendering it as logically incorrect. It therefore appears that this is the sort of advantage which is gained, for example, in solving differential equations on the basis of some symmetry consideration (specifically, the use of conservation laws in getting the first integrals, alternatively, association of a conserved quantity with a continuous symmetry operation: space translation ~ linear momentum; rotation~ angular momentum; time translation ~ energy.).

A similar practice is prevalent within the domain of legal civil procedure. Here, the word Prejudice refers to a loss or injury, and refers specifically to a formal determination in respect of a claimed legal right or cause of action. Thus, when a rule made under a certain act of law says The Central Government shall have power to make rules in respect of all or any of the matters referred to in section 3. In particular, and Without Prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely: (a) the standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes; (b) maximum allowable limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants for different areas; (c) the procedures and safe guards for handling of hazardous substances; ,etc the intention behind usage of the phrase Without Prejudice is to prevent any loss or injury to the generality of the foregoing power by way of avoiding any restriction which can prevent enforcement of certain measures which may be necessary, in certain specific circumstances, for the purpose of protection and improvement of the quality of environment and prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution. Thus, the rephrased rule may be conceived as The Central Government shall have power to make rules in respect of all or any of the matters referred to in section 3. In particular, and WLOG of the foregoing power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely: (a) the standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes; (b) maximum allowable limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants for different areas; (c) the procedures and safe guards for handling of hazardous substances; , etc. Most of us are introduced to "without loss of generality" before encountering formal group theory. To the uninitiated, the phrase almost seems like cheating, but soon we realize how intuitive and useful it is for simplifying and shortening proofs. As hinted above, is it true that behind every WLOG there is an implied symmetry group in play?

Some Examples Schurs Inequality: For nonnegative x, y, z and for r > 0 one has the symmetric inequality: 0 xr(x y)(x z) + yr(y x)(y z) + zr(z x)(z y) (We have equality here if and only if either (a) all three variables are equal or (b) a pair of the variables are equal and the third is zero). Proof: WLOG, assume x y z. We can do this because the expression at the right hand is symmetric in x, y, z. The symmetry group is S3 .

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra is a theorem about equation solving. It states that every polynomial equation over the field of complex numbers of degree higher than 1 has a complex solution. Polynomial equations are of the form:

P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + ... + a1x + a0 = 0

Where, an is assumed non-zero in which case n is called the degree of the polynomial P and of the equation above. ai's are known coefficients while x is an unknown number. A number a is a solution to the equation P(x) = 0 if substituting a for x renders it identity: P(a) = 0. The coefficients are assumed to belong to a specific set of numbers where we also seek a solution. The symmetry group, in this case, is is the multiplicative group of non-zreo real numbers. The Pigeonhole Principle: If three objects are to be painted in two colors, red and blue, then there must be two objects of the same color. Proof: Assume WLOG that the first object is red. If either of the other two objects is red, we are finished; if not, the other two objects must both be blue and we are still finished. The symmetry group is.