MIN 200
Course Outline SEMESTER 2
3 hours per week {one double period to allow lab. sessions & one single period for lectures and demonstrations) Texts : as listed for Geology-Mineralogy, Semester 1
Objectives: All the work in this semester is designed to provide the broad foundation for later work in geology, ground control, geochemistry, and geophysics. The principles of physical geology are continued, as well as practical experience given with maps. air photos, and qualitative techniques in geochemistry. Detailed work in mineralogy is begun, especially with the common ore minerals.
Marking/Evaluation/~ttendance:The same criteria of evaluation hold true for this semester as in the first one. However, this time, the 'field mark' will apply to projects only and, consequently, will account for a much smaller percentage of the term mark. Any students starting school in this semester should ensure that they approach the instructor to obtain copies of the first semester course outline in order to study the policy re. marking, evaluation, and attendance.
'
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Extra Help: All students should be aware of, and take advantase of the extra instructor time available. This can be arranged at any mutually convenient hour, but a certain time is set aside (currently Thursdays, after school) during which students can ask questions, seek help, study samples, etc. As a matter of courtesy, please advise the instructor if you wish to see him at any particular time Take advantage of this help! during this interval. Excuses don't get the job done.
Course Content: Week 2-1 -exam review, term preview, landforms, top0 maps & lab exercise Week 2-2 -Prop. of minerals (colour, lustre, diaphaneity), top0 map assign., other map types, air photos Week 2-3 -Deserts & lab exercise, Mineralogy (streak to habit) Week 2-4 -Drainage systems, placers, lab exercise, terms Week 2-5 -Struct. of Earth, isostasy, introd. to plate tectonics, Mineralogy (graphite & diamond) Week 2p6 -Volcanism, Mineralogy (sulphur, gold, tellurides) Week 2-7 -Volcanism, Mineralogy (native Ag, Pt, Cu)
'March
Break)
Week 2-8 -Volcanism, turbidity currents, intrusion Week 2-9 -Salt domes, regelation, Mineralogy (py, marcasite) Week 2-10-Mountain-building, Mineralogy (pyrrhotite & chalcopyrite) Week 2-11-Heat within the Earth, mineralogy (bn, asp, realgar, orp.), Geochem. blowpipe analysis Week 2-12-Metamorphism, Geology of Canada & shield areas in particular (provinces), Mineralogy (nicc., smaltite) , Geochem. cont 'd Week 2-13-Geochem., Mineralogy (cloan., cob., ruby Ag's)
Week 2-14-Mineralogy (arg., tetra., gn, sp., stib., moly), review
* Note: various tests, quizzes, and assignments will be disseminated throughout the semester for which there will be adequate warning. Rarely, if the need arises, there may be a spot quiz to remind students that studyiny is an on-going process !
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Instructor: P.J.Bateman
Revised March, 1992
- MINERALOGY
Fall, 1993
SEMESTER 3
4 hours per week {one double period block for lab periods & one
The same texts will be used in this semester as in Semester 2. In particular, students should have a current copy of: uuPhysicalGeologyuuby Plummer & McGeary, uuManual of Mineralogyuuby Hurlbut & Klein, and uuLab.Manual for Phys. Ge01.~' by Zumberge/Rutford STUDENTS SHOULD BE PREPARED TO CONSULT THESE TEXTS ON A MUCH MORE REGULAR BASIS THAN THEY MAY HAVE DONE IN THE PAST! In addition, supplementary notes will be provided off overheads and via handouts by the teacher.
This course is designed to build upon the fundamental Mineralogy learned in first year, to study the crystallization of minerals, to expand knowledge of the rock-forming minerals, to introduce the concepts of petrology, and to study some of the principal secondary silicates. Also, students will be introduced to graphical methods in Structural Geology. Courses in Hydrology and Plate Tectonics (a detailed look at the evidence) will be covered concurrently. Additional computer programs relative to geology will be demonstrated and introduced.
Marking/Evaluation/Attendance: The same rules apply as in the first year Geology/Mineralogy course. Details of these policies should be reviewed from your first year course outlines. Recall that the course is run as though you-areon the job! In other words, it is otherwise, necessary to be there, on time marks (which are your wages) will be deducted.
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Course Content:
1 Mineralogy: - 6 crystal systems; crystallographic . axes & Miller Indices; simple, combination, & halfforms, especially with reference to the Isometric system; Chlorides, Fluorides, Oxides, & Carbonates; Silicates - and simultaneous introduction to Petrology; secondary silicates
2 . Structural Geology: - introductory graphical techniques to deal with horizontal strata, tilted strata, & rule of V's, folded strata and plunge. Continue work with folding and faulting, including work with block diagrams; problems involving the repetition and omission of beds due to both folding and faulting
3 Hydrology - this course will consist of lecture . topics and lab-type exercises. Topics will include the hydrological cycle, porosity and permeability, the water table, unconfined and confined aquifers, piezometric surface, locating wells/springs/boreholes, identifying aquifers, Theissen polygons, estimation of recharge, construction of groundwater contours & flow nets, water level change maps, some hydrostatics and hydraulics, cone of depression & surface subsidence, groundwater in fractured rock versus pervious granular material, environmental pollution exercises
4 . Plate Tectonics - a comprehensive review of the historical and present day evidence for plate tectonic theory. 5.
MINERALOGY
2nd YEAR
...................
This
year,
we
start
by
considering
how
'
minerals
are
constructed, and use our findings to classify the mineral kingdom to allow us to identify families of minerals, broad
..........
mineral environments, and some of the characteristics that lend the physical,properties. Together, this data allows us to identify better, and to understand the basic building blocks for our later topic - Rocks.
Everything around us can be placed into two very broad classes, ORGANIC and INORGANIC. The former includes substances of including some gem materials the plant and animal kingdoms such as pearl, coral, and amber. The latter, INORGANIC, includes all substances of the mineral kingdom.
......
FORM :
mineral forms under reasonably favourabl~ circumstances, the atoms of the element that make - the up .mberal will arranve themselves in an orderly fashion .--"-. yielding a definite and characteristic internal structure CRYSTALLINE. On the other hand, if the substance is formed very rapidly, or for some reason in a way that prevents the atoms from arranging themselves in an orderly fashion, the material is called AMORPHOUS (without form) eg glass. These two forms are analogous to a battalion of soldiers
standing at attention (crystalline) versus a crowd of people
If
......
-
...
\
//
GROWTH:
geodes o r v u g s , and p e r f e c t i o n
and s u f f i c i e n t m i n e r a l i z i n g s o l u t i o n o f t e n d e t e r m i n e s t h e s i z e a t t r a c t i o n o f l i k e a t o m s , f o r m i n g l a y e r u p o n l a y e r from t h e c e n t r e outward, p r o d u c e s a d e f i n i t e g e o m e t r i c form, w i t h f a c e s s o s y m m e t r i c a l l y p l a c e d and s o smooth & h i g h l y r e f l e c t i v e , t h a t it c r e a t e s d o u b t on t h e p a r t of i n e x p e r i e n c e d o b s e r v e r s t h a t t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n made by Man. MINERAL CLASSIFICATION
A]
By
CkmAca-tion
( ao x i d e s ,
definite
. .. . . ..
&
they a l s o [WE
tend t o o c c u r i n s i m i l a r g e o l o g i c a l
environments
B] By & h z r n a l
of X-Rays.
Structure
a t o m s bond t o g e t h e r i n d e f i n i t e
( s urlbut, H
pg.
1, for
and
It should be noted t h a t t h e important anions of t h e E a r t h ' s c r u s t a n d u p p e r m a n t l e , 0-', OH-, F-, C1-, and S' -, a r e much mineral larger than the as common cations (with,the
' ) exception of K
arrangements interstices of to
structures anions,
maintain
balance.
overhead o f NaC1)
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Page 1 o f 6
,
Some of the chief characters o f minerals depend upon the arrangement o f t h e i r molecules, or, i n other words upon t h e i r c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n . Definition: Laue photograph: 2 25. Most minerals show a tendency t o assume d e f i n i t e geometric forms, bounded by planes. These forms are c a l l e d c r y s t a l s .
There are & systerr~so f c r y s t a l 1i z a t i o n , t o one o r another of which a1 1 c r y s t a l s belong. Substances which a r e n o t c r y s t a l 1ine, t h a t i s , t h e i r molecules a r e n o t arranged i n any d e f i n i t e o r d e r , a r e said t o be amorphous glass i s one o f these.
1.
<
- 3 axes
a3t L
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4 ,
axis
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43
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A?
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= b - c & =
ALSO
ayb
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r i g h t and l e f t a x i s
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2.
Crystallization
Page 2 o f 6
3 . Hexagonal system 4 axes, 3 horizontal, & 1 vertical The three horizontal axes of equal length make an angle of 60' w i t h one o a n ~ t h e r ~ a n d t h e v e r t i c a ln e s t a n d s a t r ' t 's t o theotherthree. The v e r t i c a l a x i s i s longer o r shorter than t e h o r i z o n t a l axes.
a,=
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Orthorhomblc system
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Crystal 1i z a t i o n 6. T r i c l i n S c system
,
Page 3 o f 6
3 axes, a l l of unequal length, and no tuo of t h e Is. three axes cross each other a t r ' t
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CRYST4LLOGR,*\;J!IX:
.-.:'the science
o f crys'talsa-
Crystal. Forms. -. .. There are 6 c r y s t a l systems. I n each c r y s t a l system there are several c r y s t a l forms. Some o f the c r y s t a l forms occurring i n t h e c r y s t a l s,ystems are l i s t e d below.
1.
Hurlbut p.
( v i i) Hexoctahedron :
(b) Combination forms
(i) = Hexahedron: 6 faces Cube ( i i ) Octahedron: 8 faces (ii) Rhombic Dodecahedron 12 faces i ( i v ) Tetrahexahedron: (v ) Trapezohedron : ( v i ) Trisoctahedron:
( c ) Half-forms
OD
O 0 OD &
( i i i ) Etc.
(i Tetrahedron % form of Octahedron ) Mineral Tetrahedrite (Cu, Fe, Zn, Ag)12 Sb4 SI3 (i) Pyri tohedron = Pentagonal Dodecahedron i t, form o f the Tetrahexahedron
2.
- -
TetraonalPrism facer:
Hurlbut p. v e r t i c a l faces
((
c-axi r
.
.
1 s t order prisms c u t the two h o r i z o n t a l axes equally. 2nd order prisms are one h o r i z o n t a l axis. D i tetragonal prisms cut the two h o r f z o n t a l axes unequal l y
11
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Physical Properties o f 3linerals The several physical p r o p e r t i e s o f minerals are: S p e c i f i c G r a v i t y (G o r S.G.) Hardness (H) Tenacity Cleavage Fracture Colour ( c o l o r ) Lustre (luster) Diaphanei t y
(9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) ('1 5) (16)
I.
q 2
Page 1 o f 5
;.$)g&cifi'c G r a v i t y (G br S.G.) i s the weight o f a substance compared w i t h t h a t o f an equal volume o f water. Thus a mineral w i t h a S.G. o f 3 i s t h r e e times as heavy as water.
g&
i~5.1 L ' L U ' D
S.G. = 1 3 . 6 ~ = 19.3
S.G. S.G.
=
jS65
S.G.
S.G.
The f i e l d method o f t e s t i n g s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f a mineral i s t o h e f t i t i n t h e hand. No impurity must be present because t h i s would be t e s t i n g t h e composite mass, and not t h e mineral. See the J o l l y balance devised by Kraus which i s one o f t h e best methods o f obtaining t h e s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y o f a mineral ... ~ c '661 H O D -ari-it t o l.,rfil(h~ o e 5 l a d ~ @y H A u O . S ~ll&r~dness i s resistance t o abrasion o r scratching, and i s comnonly designated 'approximately by number, according t o Moh's scale o f hardness.
p r'L
PAP)
Thumb n a i l Copper or s i 1ver c o i n K n i f e blade Window glass File Quartz o r F l i n t Emery wheel
............ 2%
.3 ........... % - 6
.......... 5% - 6 .................. Wi - 7
....... 7 ........... 8 - 9
MINERALOGY
Page' 2 o f 5
With p r a c t i c e hardness can be c l o s e l y estimated w i t h t h e k n i f e alone. Hardness must be t e s t e d on a smooth sound surface, and b r i t t l e n e s s must not be confused ), s c a l y ( ), and g r a n u l a r ( w i t h hardness. Fibrous ( ) minerals o f t e n crumble e a s i l y and seem much s o f t e r than they are. The o r e minerals o f t h e heavy metals s i l v e r , copper, l e a d are s o f t , m~ostly below 3. Sulphides, arsenides, and oxides of i r o n , n i c k e l and c o b a l t a r e r e l a t i v e l y s o f t ; other sulphides are mostly s o f t , as are a l s o most carbonates,sulphates, and hydrous minerals. The very hard minerals are c h i e f l y oxides and s i l i c a t e s , and many o f them c o n t a i n aluminium. - ? @ P e h a c i t ~ i s t h e degree o r character o f cohesion. I n o t h e r words, t e n a c i t y i s t h e way a mineral tends t o c l i n g together when i t i s roughly t r e a t e d . The d i s t i nctions commonly recognized are: (a)
(b)
Sectile
- t h e mineral -
may be c u t w i t h a k n i f e .
(c)
(d) E l a s t i c (e) B r i t t l e
minerals w i l l bend b u t w i l l then s p r i n g back t o t h e i r o r i g i n a l shape. minerals a r e f r a g i l e and e a s i l y broken, t h e opposite t o tough. Such minerals w i l l break i n t o pieces by g e n t l y hammering
( f ) Friable
These minerals
(g) D u c t i l e - minerals can be drawn o u t i n t o wire, o r pressed i n t o other forms. h t ~ e b 4 ~ L i C TS P K ~ A ~ R " ' ~ ~ T ) $:81kava e i s t h e capacity possessed by marly rninerals f o r breaking w i t h smooth
d a r a l l e l t o c e r t a i n a c t u a l o r p o s s i b l e c r y s t a l faces, as i n t h e basal
cleavage o f t h e micas, t h e rhombohedra1 cleavage o f c a l c i t e , and t h e cubic
cleavage o f galena. Minerals which break w i t h ease i n such d i r e c t i o n s y i e l d i n g
smooth faces are s a i d t o have p e r f e c t cleavage. I n f e r i o r degrees o f cleavage a r e
terrned d i s t i n c t , i n d i s t i n c t , imperfect, e t c . P e r f e c t and d i s t i n c t cleavage mean
p r a c t i c a l l y t h e same thing. Imperfect cleavage i s seen on t h e mineral hornblende.
Note: A c r y s t a l face i s n o t t o be confused w i t h a cleavage surface.
Fracture - i s t h e term applied t o breakage t h a t , u n l i k e cleavage, does n o t produce smooth planes. Common forms o f f r a c t u r e are: (a) Conchoidal (b) tiackly
(c) Splintery
(d)
Earthy
breaking l i k e c l a y o r chalk.
(e)
MINERALOGY Colour (Color) t h e c o l o u r of t h e mineral i s perhaps t h e most used i n i t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . A mineral may have b u t one c o l o u r occur i n various shades and colours ( q u a r t z ) . The c o l o u r must the f r e s h surface o r f r a c t u r e . Vitreous minerals may o f t e n be c o l oured by impuri t i es
Lustre ( l u s t e r ) i s t h e surface appearance o f an object, o r t h e manner i n which i t r e f l e c t s l i g h t . I t i s independent of colour. Several kinds o f l u s t r e a r e commonly recognized f o r minerals. ( I ) Metal 1 i c i s t h e l u s t r e o f metals and o f some opaque minerals. Submetallic r e f e r s t o t h e same t h i n g i n a subordinate degree ( g r a p h i t e ) . A l l other l u s t r e s a r e non-metallic.
( % I ) Nsn-Metal1 i c !a) Vitreous - i s t h e l u s t r e s i m i l a r t o t h e broken surface o f glass. jb) Adamantine - i s a b r i l l i a n t o i l y l h s t r e , somewhat l i k e o i l e d uncut diamond. glass, e.g. ( c ) Resinous - i s t h e l u s t r e o f r e s i n o r s p h a l e r i t e . ' (d) Greasy, o i l y , p i t c h y , waxy, p e a r l y and s i l k y a r e s e l f - e x p l a i n i n g terms (e) D u l l - s i g n i f i e s t h e absence o f l u s t r e as i n chalk.
D i aphanei ty (Transparency)
(a)
Transparent
- can
I c e l a n d spar.
--e-6 -
MINERALOGY Taste
page 4 o f 5
Some minerals t h a t a r e s o l u b l e i n water have a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c taste. (a) (b) (c) (d) S a l t y o r s a l ine, t h e t a s t e o f common s a l t , NaC1. A1 k a l i n e , the t a s t e o f sodium bicarbonate, NaHC03. Acid, o r sour, t h e t a s t e o f very d i l u t e acids. Cooling, t h e t a s t e of n i t r e (potassium n i t r a t e ) , KNO3, o r potassium c h l o r a t e , KC103.
Odour (odor) Some minerals y i e l d a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c odour when s t r u c k w i t h e hamner, rubbed, breathed upon o r heated.
( a ) G a r l i c - l i k e odour - due t o t h e a r s e n i c (As) content o f arsenide minerals i ACCOU~) when t h e blowpipe and charcoal bar a r e used. ( b ) Sulphurous odour - the odour o f burning sulphur (sulphur d i o x i d e ) . ( c ) Clay ( a r g i l l a c e o u s ) odour - t h e odour of c l a y o r shale when breathed upon.
F eel Feel i s t h e sensation upon touching o r handling minerals. Some t h a t a r e very s o f t a n d ~ r e a s y , soapy (unctuous = o i l y o r soothing) t o t h e touch a r e contrasted r r i t h others t h a t are notably rough o r harsh.
'
Hold a small s p l i n t e r o r fragment (1.5 m. i n diameter) i n forceps. Hold t h e s p l i n t e r so t h a t a f i n e p o i n t o r edge can be exposed t o t h e t i p o f t h e o x i d i z i n g flame w i t h o u t heating t h e forceps. I f t h e fragment tends t o f l y t o pieces, o r i f i t fuses e a s i l y , t h e charcoal bar should be used as a support.
(1) Readily f u s i b l e - i f t h e f i n e p o i n t o r edge o f s p l i n t e r fuses t o a glass when exposed t o t h e flame. ( 2 ) F u s i b l e w i t h d i f f i c u l t y - i f t h e edge i s o n l y s l i g h t l y rounded. ( 3 ) I n f u s i b l e no e f f e c t even on t h e f i n e s t edge o f mineral s p l i n t e r , o r fragment.
S t r u c t u r e ( C r y s t a l H a b i t and C r y s t a l 1ine Aggregates) f:lost minerals do n o t occur as: (I) simple i n d i v i d u a l c r y s t a l s i n nature, b u t r a t h e r as (11) aggregates o f c r y s t a l s , o r i m p e r f e c t l y formed c r y s t a l s , o r ( I I ) simply as c r y s t a l 1ine masses. Some o f t h e terms used t o descri be t h e
I s t r u c t u r e o f specimens are:
1/(1) Massive: when the specimen has an i r r e g u l a r , i n d e f i n i t e shape. I t may be f i n e , medium, o r coarse grained. & H ~ L C O C J \ : P ~ Tf? "j) Crypto-crystal1 i n e : extremely f i n e c r y s t a l 1ine: impalpable = extremely dense, compact. 3 A:, a, <3) Fibrous: composed o f f i b r e s . The f i b r e s may be paralled, r a d i a t e , o r divergent i n any d i r e c t i o n . q 4 ) Col umnar : s t o u t f ibrous , formi ng columns ( 5 ) Capi 11ary: h a i r - 1 ike f i b r e s . A c i c u l ar: needle-1 ike. d ( 7 ) Reticulated: when t h e f i b r e s cross each o t h e r forming a net-11 ke s t r u c t u r e .
4) 6
MINERALOGY
Structure (cont I d . )
Page 5 o f 5
40)
-1)
2
, /
&./
6
)
.-
(16)
Botryoidal : grape-1 ike s t r u c t u r e o r small rounded surfaces. Geodal : c a v i t i e s l i n e d w i t h c r y s t a l s . Drusy : rough surfaces due t o innutnerabl e small f n p e r f e c t c r y s t a l s , e.g t h e mineral prehni te. M'lcaceous: t h i n sheets o r scales, 1i k e mica.
Larr~ellar: t h i c k sheets o r scales = p l a t e - l f k e .
Foliated: t h i n leaves.
For other s t r u c t u r a l terms used, see Text, pages
GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES HAILEYBURY SCHOOL OF MINES G 101 MINERALOGY -GEOLOGY E 150 t y p i c a l mineral specimens Arranged a1 phabetical l y and numbered
------------------@ L~ehVbhG.
&
Page 1 o f 3
To
(5
@ p a a ~ l i l n t@ L yo'to
@
H A u ~ h i @ % kar
yo
40
H rn
-4
o D o d ~
+ 144
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v e c ~
0
-4
Galena 48, 63
Garnet 125
Goethi t e 98
Gold 60
Graphite 134, 149
Greenoc k i t e 90
Gummi t e 88
Gypsum 22, 32
Page 2 o f 3
H a l i t e 1, 141
Hernati t e 45, 167
Hornblende 11
Huebneri t e 73
Idocrase 40
I lmeni t e 100
K a l i n i t e 140
Kaol in i t e 147
Limonite 87
L i n a r i t e 76
Magnetite 14, 54, 65, 136, 137
Meager 150
Microcl i n e 12
Muscovite 35
Molybdeni t e 64
Natrol it e 124
Nephel ine 104
Nephrite 70 (Jade)
N i c c o l i t e 56
Obsidian 18
Orthoclase 26
Phlogopite 10, 13, 117
Plagioclase 68 (Oligoclase) , 113 ( l a b r a d o r i t e ) 118 (sunstone), 127 Prochlori t e 109 P y r i t e 44, 58, 99 Pyroxene 15, 128 P y r r h o t i t e 57
, 114
(a1b i t e )
Quartz 27, 38, 51 (rose , 52 chalcedony), 53 ( f l i n t ) , 77 (amethyst], 93 [jasper), 94 (rose), 97 (smoky) 102, 110, 112, 130, 148 Scapoli t e 5, 89, 120 Scorodi t e 84 Serpentine 17, 106 S i d e r i t e 41 Silver 61 Smaltite 47 Sphaleri t e 3, 122 S t i b n i t e 123 Sulphur 31, 85, 133
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Talc 21, 80, 105 Thaumasi t e 37 Thoriani t e 49 Topaz 8 , 28, 50 Toumaline 71, 129 Trona 142 (a1 kal i n e ) Uranium bearing 135 Vanadini t e 92 Vermicu 7 it e 34 Willemite 82, 119, 121 Zircon 139
Additional Notes