Lecture 8: Hermetian Operators and the Uncertainty Principle The material in this lecture covers the following in Atkins.

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Hermetian Operators
Hermetian Operators

One Definition of Hermitian operator

Consider a system described by the state function . ^ Let F be the operator representing the observable F The average value of F , or the expectation value is given by <F> =

* F d

A physical expectation value must be real Thus : <F> = <F>

* F d = ( * F d )

(F ) d = Hermitian

An operator that satisfy this condition is

Hermetian Operators

Alternative definition of Hermitian operator We shall now show that a hermitian operator A satisfy

*Agdx = g(Af)* dx ; if f and g are well behaved f

We have from the difinition of a hermetian operator

* A dx = (A )* dx
Let ( x ) = f(x) + cg(x); c = constant
We have : [f(x) + cg(x)]* A[f(x) + cg(x)]dt = [f(x) + cg(x)] (A[f(x) + cg(x)])* dt

This equation must hold for any c

Hermetian Operators

Alternative definition of Hermitian operator

We have : [f ( x ) + cg ( x )]* A[f ( x ) + cg ( x )]d = [f ( x ) + cg ( x )] (A[f ( x ) + cg ( x )])* d

Expanding :

*A f d + c f *A g d + f * g*A f d + cc* g*A g d = c

f ( A f)* d + c g ( A f)* d c* f ( A g)* d + c*c g ( A g)* d

The first and last term on each side are the same as A is hermetian

*A g dt + c* g*A f dt = c f f)* dt + c* f (A g)* dt c g (A

This equation must be satisfied for all c c=1

Hermetian Operators hus :

Alternative definition of Hermitian operator

f *A g dt + g*A f dt = g (A f)* dt + f (A g)* dt

*A g dt i g*A f dt = i g (A f)* dt i f (A g)* dt i f
after dividing with i

c=i

*A g dt g*A f dt = g (A f)* dt f (A g)* dt f

Alternative definition of Hermitian operator After adding the two equations from c = 1 and c = i :

Hermetian Operators

*A g dt + g*A f dt = g (A f)* dt + f (A g)* dt f *A g dt g*A f dt = g (A f)* dt f (A g)* dt f

*A g dt = g (A f)* dt f

The Uncertainty Principle

Operators with common eigenfunctions commute

Let the linear operators A and B have a complete set of common eigenfunctions
Agi = aigi Bgi = bigi

Let A and B represent two observables

In this case if the system is described by gi
A meassurement of A and B will have as the only outcome

< A >= ai

and

< B >= bi

The Uncertainty Principle

Operators with common eigenfunctions commute

Let the linear operators A and B have a complete set of common eigenfunctions

Ag i = a i g i

Bg i = bi g i

Then A and B must commute :

ABf BAf = [A,B]f = 0

for any function f

proof :
f = cigi
i

sin ce g i forms a complete set of eigenfunctions

The Uncertainty Principle f = cigi

[A,B]f = ?
i i

Operators with common eigenfunctions commute

i ABf = AB( c i g i ) = A( c i Bg i )
= A( c ibi g i ) = ( c ibi Ag i ) = c ibi a i g i
i i i

BAf = BA( c i g i ) = B( c i Ag i ) = B( c i a i g i ) = ( c ibi Bg i ) = c i a ibi g i = c ibi a i g i

i i i i i i

Thus :

ABf - BAf = [A, B]f = 0

The Uncertainty Principle

On the other hand :
If A and B do not commute :
Why ?

Operators that commute have common eigenfunctions

[A, B]f 0

Than we can not find a commen set of eigenfunctions gi such that :

Agi = aigi Bgi = bigi

We can not find states such that the meassurement of A and B each time have the same outcome ai and bi

The Uncertainty Principle

We have shown d d d ( x)f - (x )f = [ , x ]f = 1f dx dx dx d d [ , x ] = 1 ; [ x , ] = 1 dx dx Consider now : h d h d h ] = [ x, ] = = ih [x,p x ] = [ x, dx i dx i i

Important operators that don' t commute

Also :
x x x [x,p2 ] xp2 p2 x = xp2 p2 x + p x xp x p x xp x x x

px [x , px ] 2 ] = ihp + ihp = 2h 2 d x x [x,p x dx

[ x , p x ]p x

The Uncertainty Principle

For a particle in 3 - D

Important operators that don' t commute

[x,H] = [x, (T + V)] = [ x ,T ] + [ x ,V ( x , y , z )]

= [ x ,T ]

o
1 2 2 2 = [x, (px + py + pz )] 2m 1 = [ x, p2 ] x 2m 1 2 ] + 1 [ x, p2 ] + 1 [ x, p2 ] = [x, px y z 2m 2m 2m ih = px m

1 = ( 2ihpx ) 2m

We might also show :

] = h dV( x, y, z) [p x , H i dx

Important operators The Uncertainty Principle that don' t commute The two operators p x and x do not commute

[x,p x ] = ih

Thus we can not simultaniously find eigenfunctions to both operators

Consider a statefunction that is an eigenfunction to H

Since :

[ x , H ] = ih

The statefunction is not an eigenfunction to x

Thus a state described by will not have a sharp value for x

The meassurement of x can have different outcomes

The Uncertainty Principle

Also since :

] = h dV ( x , y , z ) [px , H i dx

Important operators that don' t commute

A system described by the statefunction

will not in general have a sharp value for px

That is the meassurement of px will have more than one outcome

Exceptions ?

What you should learn from this lecture 1. Dirac notation

* m F nd = m F n = m | F | n = m F n = Fmn

2. A hermitian operator A satisfy

* * * * A dx = (A ) dx or f Agdx = g(Af) dx

for the "well behaved functions , f, and g

3. If the linear operators A and B have a complete set of common eigenfunctions [A, B] = 0 4. If [A, B] = 0 , the linear operators A and B have a complete set of common eigenfunctions . In this case one can find states such that a meassurement of A and B will give the same outcomes an and bm each time the meassurements are carried out. The two values a n and bm are eigenvalues to A and B.

What you should learn from this lecture 5. The uncertainty relation of quantum mechanics : If A and B do not commute, [A, B] 0 , meassurements of A and B will give different values each time. If the standard deviation in the meassurements of A and B are A and B than : 1 AB = * [A, B] d 2i

Depending on the state we might have A B or A < B. However AB must be constant.

6. Im por tan t commutation relations : ] = [ x , T]; [x, px ] = ih;[p x , H] = h dV( x , y, z) [x, H i dx

Appendix A
The Dirac Notation

Dirac notation

We shall often be working with integrals of the form

m * ^ n d F

^ where F is an operator We shall introduce the D I R A C b r a c e t notation abbreviation

or

^ ^ ^ ^ m * F n d = <m| F |n > = (m| F |n ) = < m| F |n>

We might also write

^ m * F n d =

Fmn

Appendix A
For the special case in

Dirac notation
which F = 1 one has
^

m * n d = <m * | n > = <m|n>

We might refer to <m|n> as an overlap integral The special overlap integral

m * m d = <m * | m > = <m|m>

is refered to as the norm of m We have

<m|n>* = ( m * n d ) =

m n d

In particular

< m|m> = <m|m>

The Uncertainty Principle

Consider a large number N of identical boxes with identical particles all described by the same statefunction ( x , y , z ) :

Appendix B

Consider the observable A represented by the operator

Let [A, H] 0

Thus the system described by do not have sharp value for A.

The average (expectation ) value is defined by :
< A >= *A d

The Uncertainty Principle

Appendix B

The measurement of A on each of the n identical systems will give a different outcome A i
A 1 <A> A 2 An

We define the variance as :

2 A = * (A < A >)2 d

1 2 (Ai < A >)2 = A = ( A )2 i n

= * (A 2 2 < A > A + < A > 2 ) d

= *A 2 d 2 < A > *Ad + < A > 2 * d

= *A 2 d < A >2 = < A 2 > < A >2

The Uncertainty Principle

We define :
A =

Appendix B

2 A as the standard deviation

e shall later show that two for two observables A and B

AB = 1 * [A,B] d 2i [x,p x ] = ih

Consider as an example x and p x

Since :

1 * [x,p ] d = 1 h xp x = x 2 2i

We can not simultaniously obtain sharp values for x and px

The Uncertainty Principle

( x ) = expikx
p x = hk x = < x < p x = 0

Appendix B

( x ) = exp ikx
x = p x = hk < x < p x = 0

The Uncertainty Principle

Appendix B

We can write as a superposition of cosnx n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8...

= Cn cos nx
n

n0

= Cn (e inx + e inx )
n

n0

Now x decreases and px increases

The Uncertainty Principle

Appendix B