Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116 www.elsevier.

com/locate/jhydrol

Factors inuencing groundwater seepage in a large, mesotrophic lake in New York

R.L. Schneidera,*, T.L. Negleyb,1, C. Waferc
a

Department Natural Resources, 112 Fernow Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA b Syracuse Research Corporation, 301 Plaineld Road, Suite 350, Syracuse, NY 13212, USA c 4221 Wedgewood Lane, Raleigh, NC 27604, USA Received 30 July 2003; revised 20 September 2004; accepted 22 September 2004

Abstract Groundwater seepage is gaining recognition as a critical feature of lake shoreline environments, yet our understanding of this process is complicated by the considerable spatial heterogeneity observed in ow rates within and among lakes. This research investigated spatial patterns in groundwater seepage around the shoreline of Oneida Lake, a 207 km2 lake located in central New York, USA. Replicated, shielded seepage meters, with associated controls, were used to quantify rates and directions of groundwater ow along a 120 m stretch of shoreline throughout the summers of 19971999. These reference meters exhibited an average ow rate of 72 ml mK2 hK1 (nZ840; SEZ5) with individual ow rates as high as 1200 ml mK2 hK1. Additional meters, monitored in 1998, indicated that seepage patterns were highly synchronous but increased in magnitude of ow rate with increasing distances offshore up to 100 m from shore. In 1999, private landowners assisted in weekly monitoring of seepage meters at 28 additional sites distributed around the 88 km perimeter of Oneida Lake. The highest groundwater ow rates, averaging 100 ml mK2 hK1, consistently occurred along the northern and eastern shorelines; lowest ow rates, including areas of groundwater recharge, occurred along the western and southwestern shorelines, proximal to the lakes outlet. Spatial patterns in groundwater ow were surprisingly unrelated to substrate texture despite wide variability observed around the lake edge, from silty-clays, to sands, gravels and boulders. Broad-scale factors of underlying bedrock geology and regional precipitation patterns appear to be driving the observed spatial patterns in Oneida Lakes groundwater contributions. q 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Ground water seepage; Lake shorelines; Substrate texture; Flowpaths

1. Introduction Groundwater is gaining recognition as an invisible but critical linkage between terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Streamside-groundwater interactions have been the focus of much of the research and over 400 publications have evaluated riparian buffers for their

* Corresponding author. Tel.: C1 607 255 5662; fax: C1 607 255 0349. E-mail addresses: rls11@cornell.edu (R.L. Schneider), negley@syyres.com (T.L. Negley), ccwafer@ncsu.edu (C. Wafer). 1 Tel.: C1 315 452 8260, fax: C1 315 452 8440. 0022-1694/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.09.020

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

role as lters that help to protect water quality in associated streams (see reviews in Haycock et al., 1997). Many fewer scientic studies have evaluated the magnitude, timing, or chemistry of groundwater seepage along lake shorelines. Recent research has begun to quantify actual groundwater contributions directly through the use of seepage meters or indirectly through hydraulic gradient measurements derived from piezometer networks. This research indicates that the rates of groundwater ow vary temporally on weekly, seasonal, and inter-annual time scales (Downing and Peterka, 1978; Asbury, 1990; Shaw and Prepas, 1990a,b; Snucins et al., 1992). Absolute rates of ow can vary by several orders of magnitude and also change in direction over these different time periods (Kenoyer and Anderson, 1989; Shaw and Prepas, 1990a; Schneider, 1994; Sebestyen and Schneider, 2001). Some exciting but limited evidence suggests that such changes in ow rates, particularly the alteration of high to very low ows, will inuence the chemical composition of the discharging groundwater (Connor and Belanger, 1981; Schafran and Driscoll, 1990; Sebestyen and Schneider, 2004) with impacts on the productivity and health of shoreline plants (Loeb and Hackley, 1988; Lodge et al., 1989; Lillie and Barko, 1990; Hagerthey and Kerfoot, 1998). In addition to temporal variability, there is also considerable spatial variability in seepage (Mitchell et al., 1988). Within lakes, ow may differ between sites only meters apart or among disparate shorelines (Brock et al., 1982; Schafran and Driscoll, 1990). Early theoretical models, veried by a diversity of eld studies, predicted that ow rates would decrease exponentially with increasing distance from the lake edge (McBride and Pfannkuch, 1975; Brock et al., 1982; Winter, 1978, 1983; Pfannkuch and Winter, 1984; Cherkauer and Zager, 1989). However, a growing number of empirical studies contradicting this pattern have been reported, e.g. with discharge exhibiting offshore peaks, or increasing ow at greater distances offshore (Woessner and Sullivan, 1984; Mitchell et al., 1988; Shaw and Prepas, 1990a). These conicting results suggest that the underlying processes controlling lakeshore seepage need additional clarication. Spatial patterns in seepage may be further complicated by differences in shoreline substrates,

which range in texture from organic mucks and claysilts to sands or coarser textures. However, seepage meters, a commonly used technique for monitoring groundwater, are most easily installed in sandy substrates, with the result that little research has evaluated the role of substrate texture on ow rates or pore water chemistry. Mitchell et al. (1988), one of the few studies to consider this factor, reported a positive relationship between increasing ow rates and coarser sediments but noted that this effect was eliminated when permeable substrates overlaid an impermeable layer or conversely, when a thin layer of organic sediments overlaid highly permeable sands. Differences in substrate, from clay to sand or pebbles, may be one factor contributing to spatial differences and needs more evaluation. Understanding the process of groundwater seepage, and the factors controlling it, has particular relevance for the sustainable management of larger lakes that serve as important resources to surrounding communities for drinking water supply, sheries, recreation and other uses. Large lakes are more likely than small lakes and ponds to exhibit variation in shoreline substrates, aquifer characteristics, topography, or other features that have been shown to inuence groundwater seepage processes. However, only a few studies have quantitatively examined the contribution of ground water seepage into larger lakes, e.g. greater than 100 km2 in size (Woessner and Sullivan, 1984; Cherkauer and McBride, 1988; Loeb and Hackley, 1988; Isiorho and Matisoff, 1989; Isiorho et al., 1996a,b; Harvey et al., 1997). Oneida Lake, in central New York, provides an ideal, large lake system in which to examine spatial inuences on shoreline groundwater seepage. This mesotrophic lake has a surface area of approximately 207 km2, a perimeter length of 88 km, and is widely used for tourism, shing, and recreation. The importance of the lakes healthy ecosystem was highlighted in a 2000 angler survey which demonstrated that approximately eight million dollars in revenue is generated in the surrounding communities from the lakes recreational shery each year (Oneida Lake Watershed Management Plan and State of the Lake Report, 2002). Oneida Lake is a prime example of a well-studied ecosystem for which information on the process of groundwater seepage is strikingly absent. More than 120 papers have documented

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

the tight linkages between Oneida Lakes sheries, its water quality, nutrient availability, and the associated food webs (McQueen et al., 1992; Mellina et al., 1995). However, all of this research has made the general assumption that nutrients in the lake are derived solely from stream tributaries. The overall goal of this study was to examine the potential importance of groundwater to the Oneida Lake ecosystem and the factors that inuence it. Three more specic objectives were to: (a) document the rates, directions, spatial variability, and chemistry of groundwater entering a portion of the shoreline, (b) measure and compare rates of groundwater seepage at different locations around the entire 88 km perimeter of Oneida Lake; and (c) investigate the relationships between observed rates of groundwater ow and possible causal variables, including precipitation and substrate type. These objectives were accomplished through a series of complementary studies conducted during the summers of 19971999. 2. Methods 2.1. Study site Oneida Lake (43810 0 N, 75852 0 W) is located in central New York, approximately 18 km northeast of the city of Syracuse (Fig. 1). The lake is shallow, with a mean depth of 6.8 m and maximum depth of 16.8 m, and the lake neatly divides its 3579 km2 watershed into two halves, from south to north. Land use in the southern half of the watershed predominantly consists of agriculture, suburban sprawl from the city of Syracuse, small towns, woodlands, and a 2100 ha swamp. Underlying geology in this half consists of successive bedrock layers of limestone, shale, dolomite, and sandstone overlain by unconsolidated glacial till (Kantrowitz, 1970). The northern half is largely forested with numerous swamps, minimal agriculture, and scattered small towns. Underlying geology in the northern watershed consists of a 76 m thick, base layer of sandstone-shale, which intercepts and underlies a portion of Oneida Lake, and is overlain successively by layers of dolomite, middle shale, limestone and upper shale (Kantrowitz, 1970). Seven tributaries, four in the north, three in the south, provide surface water inputs to the lake. Oneida River, along the western shoreline, forms the only outow.

In 1997, a reference groundwater monitoring site was established along a 240 m stretch of the southern shoreline of Oneida Lake at the Cornell Biological Field Station (CBFS) located at Shackleton Point, Bridgeport, NY (Fig. 1). The primary land cover immediately upslope of the reference site consists of forests, elds, and scattered buildings of the Cornell Biological Field Station (CBFS). 2.2. Seepage measurements Groundwater ow rates in this study were measured using a modied version of the seepage meters initially described in Lee (1977). Each meter was constructed as a shallow stainless steel drum sealed at one end, measuring 51 cm in diameter by 15 cm in height. The meters were driven into the sediment, open end down, to a depth of 12 cm. A piece of 0.64 cm diameter PVC pipe, driven through the center of a rubber stopper, was placed in a hole cut in the top of the meter. A four l plastic bag was then attached to the external end of the PVC pipe. The bag collected groundwater that owed through the open end of the meter and then up through the PVC pipe. Seepage meters were modied from the original Lee design to reduce impacts from wave disturbance. A shield was constructed from the bottom 16 cm of a 19 l plastic water bottle, placed upside down over the collection bag on top of each meter, and fastened to the meter. Seven holes, 1 cm in diameter, were drilled in the bottle covers, allowing water to exit or enter the covers as the bag expanded or contracted with the ground water movement, while still protecting the bags from strong waves. Without the shields, meter readings were highly variable, with frequent occurrences of water loss. Subsequent research by the authors has shown that the shields effectively reduce wave inuences on bag uptake (Sebestyen and Schneider, 2001, 2004). Each bag initially was lled with 1 l of lake water at the start of each measurement to avoid problems of articial bag ination reported by Shaw and Prepas (1991) and Blancheld and Ridgway (1996), and to provide a measure for recharging ow. The bags remained attached to the meters for approximately 24 h, at which time the bags were removed. The change in bag volume was determined simply by emptying the contents into a graduated cylinder.

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

Fig. 1. Location of the reference study site along the southern shoreline of Oneida Lake in central New York, and position of the seepage meters monitored in the 1997 (circles, squares), 1998 (squares, triangles) and 1999 (circles) studies.

Increases in volume indicated groundwater discharge into the lake, and water loss indicated lake waters were recharging the groundwater. The seepage bags were checked daily, but were completely replaced on a weekly basis or more frequently if they showed signs of leaking or over-expansion caused by high seepage rates. Data were not used in analyses if

seepage meter bags had pinholes or were considered worn out, or if seepage meters had lost their covers, leaving the seepage bag exposed. Ground water seepage rates were calculated with the following equation: q Z DvaK1 tK1 (1)

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

where positive q indicates ground water discharge to the lake, negative q indicates ground water recharge to the aquifer, Dv is the change in seepage bag volume (ml) from the initial volume, a is the sediment surface area covered by the seepage meter (m2) and t is the elapsed time (hours) yielding seepage rates in ml mK2 hK1. 2.2.1. Controls In conjunction with selected meters, control meters were installed to measure the effect that physical factors, other than groundwater, might have on changes in bag volumes. Waves, currents, animal activity, or other disturbances in the immediate area can cause seepage meter bags to gain or lose water and these changes need to be accounted for in order to produce accurate estimates of groundwater ow rate. The controls were rst developed by Schneider (1994) to estimate a threshold of sensitivity for the seepage meter technique, and have been used successfully in subsequent studies (Sebestyen and Schneider, 2001). Similar to the meters, each control consisted of a metal drum (initially plastic) but it was perforated by numerous holes (8 cm diameter) that redirected any groundwater seepage away from the bag. The PVC tube was not inserted into a rubber cork in top of the drum, but instead was attached to a steel skewer, positioned above the drum, and angled at 458 from the vertical to minimize the potential for groundwater inow. A bag identical to that used for the seepage meters was attached to the end of the PVC tube. A shield covered the bag, as with the seepage meters, to reduce wave effects. The result was a plastic bag into which primarily lake water could enter or exit, while ground water entry was minimized. Controls were placed 1 m to the north of the associated seepage meter. Each control was checked at the same time as its corresponding meter and was relled with 1 l of lake water. 2.3. Reference sitegroundwater ow and chemistry In May 1997, 14 seepage meters were established at the reference site to document patterns in groundwater ow. The meters were set up along seven transects, consisting of 2 m per transect. One

meter in each transect was located 10 m from shore and the other was located 38 m from shore (Fig. 1). The meters were monitored daily from 16 June 1997 to 1 August for a total of 648 measurements over the 54 day study period. Eight controls were monitored in conjunction with the seepage meters for a total of 376 individual control measurements. Six of the meters along three transects, and their controls, were then maintained as reference meters and monitored throughout the subsequent summers of 1998 and 1999. Precipitation was monitored daily using a TruChek rain gauge located 150 m from the shoreline in an open eld. Hourly rainfall for the study period was also obtained from Syracuse International Airport, 17 km southwest of the study site, and from State University of New York at Morrisville, 45 km southeast of the study site. Nitrogen loads entering in groundwater were compared with nitrogen concentrations in associated lake surface waters and in stream waters from nearby Chittenango Creek (Fig. 1). Samples of ground water were collected from interstitial pore-spaces located from 25 to 35 cm below the sediment surface. Six pore-water samplers were installed adjacent to six selected meters. Each pore-water sampler consisted of a 190 mm (3/4 in.) PVC tube attached to a Delrine plastic point (Fig. 2; Schneider, 1994). The point was hollowed out and perforated with 2 mm diameter holes to allow water from the surrounding sediment to ow freely into the point. Polyethylene tubing

Fig. 2. Design of porewater samplers used in this study.

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

(4 mm internal diam.), covered with a polyethylene foam-type lter, inserted inside the point, was used to draw the porewaters up to the surface. Samples were collected using a syringe attached to a Luer-loke closure on the upper end of the tubing. Pore-water samples were collected for analysis of total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) once a week for ve weeks at each of the six samplers. A 60 ml syringe attached to plastic tubing was used to gently suction water samples from the interstitial pore spaces at the base of the sampler. At the time of sampling, the initial 60 ml of water withdrawn was discarded to eliminate any stagnant water in the well screen and tubing. After this cleaning procedure, two pore-water samples of 60 ml each were collected. Lake water samples were also collected for comparison to the ground water. Four 120 ml samples were collected for analysis of TDN. Samples were collected in the middle of the water column (approximately 0.5 m depth) to obtain the most representative sample of lake water, since surface water chemistry can be affected by atmospheric interactions. We were also interested in comparing the amount of nitrogen, found in ground water to that found in stream water. Nearby Chittenango Creek was used for comparison because of its relatively large drainage area, its mixture of agricultural and suburban land use, as well as its proximity to the study site (5.5 km; Fig. 1). On the ve collection dates, samples were collected using a Kemmerer bottle at four selected locations along the Route 31 bridge which crosses the creek in Bridgeport. Four 120 ml samples were collected for later analysis of total dissolved nitrogen. All water samples were chilled in an ice lled cooler until they were ltered in the lab immediately after sampling. Samples collected for dissolved nitrogen were ltered within 24-h using 0.45 mm glass ber lters. Samples were stored frozen, and then analyzed for TDN as nitrate (mg/l) using a persulfate digestion followed by cadmium reduction and spectrophotometric determination of the resulting nitrite complex using a Latchate Autoanalyzer. Replicates within each station and across the ve dates were averaged for the groundwater, lake, and stream water samples.

2.4. Distance from shore In 1998, the study was conned to the stretch of shoreline near the reference site, and concentrated on examining the inuence of distance from shore on average groundwater ow rates. The original six reference meters, located at 10 and 38 m from shore, were included in the study and in addition, meters were installed along the same transects at distances of 70 and 100 m from shore (Fig. 1). Because the meter farthest from shore on the northern transect proved problematic to sample, it was later excluded from the study. Thus, there were 11 seepage meters that were monitored at least four times weekly, for a total of 448 measurements, from 15 June through 11 August 1998. At the end of the summer, the bathymetry within the study area was mapped out on a calm day by measuring water depth at 1-m intervals along each of the three transects. 2.5. Lakewide monitoring In 1999, the study was expanded to assess groundwater processes on a lake-wide scale. In order to accomplish the intensive sampling necessary to encompass the entire 88 km shoreline, a network of lakeshore owner volunteers was assembled to assist in the study. Participation by lakeshore residents enabled us to monitor sites that were distributed approximately uniformly around the lake, even though shoreline sites were largely in private ownership. Meters were installed along the shoreline of peoples homes by two researchers in late May, at a distance approximately 20 m from the lake edge. Substrate at the sites of installation varied over a broad range of sediment textures, from silty-clay to pure sand to pebbles, dense cobbles, or boulders. The coarser substrates have presented a barrier for researchers in the past, limiting their site selection. We alleviated the problem at four of the sites containing boulders or large cobbles by replacing them, down to a depth of approximately 30 cm, with a small bed of sand imported from nearby. Volunteers were trained and provided with data sheets. With their assistance, a single meter was monitored at each of 25 sites distributed relatively uniformly around the lake shoreline. An additional

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

three closely spaced seepage meters were monitored by park staff at the Verona Beach State Park, on the eastern shoreline, south of the inlet for the Erie Canal. The simplicity and ease of the seepage meter technique enabled the volunteers to provide accurate and reliable readings. Communication between researchers and volunteers was frequent, and any problems that arose were addressed promptly. Volunteers were asked to monitor their meters at least once weekly from June to September, and over the course of the study, a total of 357 readings were collected. Data were compiled by the researchers, and readings from each station were summarized by calculating the mean and standard error in measured seepage rate. The six reference meters were again monitored at Shackleton Point throughout the summer. 2.6. Substrate inuence At the end of the 1999 study, researchers analyzed the substrate at 25 of the lake-wide sites to determine whether surface sediment textures had any relationship to observed spatial patterns in groundwater seepage. A 0.25 m2 quadrat sampler, divided into a nine-section grid, was used to quantify the sediment texture at each of three, randomly selected, replicate points located within 2 m of each meter. The dominant grain size within each of the nine quadrat segments was determined by measuring the diameters of gravels and larger grains with a ruler and by feel analysis to distinguish the silt clay vs sand categories (Thein, 1979). The substrate was then characterized as one of six texture classes: silt/clay (!0.5 mm in diameter), sand (0.52 mm), gravel (216 mm), pebbles (1764 mm), cobble (64256 mm) or boulder (O256 mm). No attempt was made to determine organic matter content. Overall sediment texture at each seepage meters site was determined based on the percentage of the quadrat cells that fell in each of the six-grain size categories and then an average calculated for the three replicate quadrats. Regression analysis was used to examine the relationship between groundwater ow rate, averaged over the study period, and substrate grain size at each site (SYSTAT ver.9.0, SYSTAT Statistical Software Package, 1999).

3. Results 3.1. Reference sitegroundwater ow and chemistry Groundwater discharged to the lake throughout the study site with an average seepage rate of 81.4 ml mK2 hK1 G12.3 (G1 SE, nZ648 readings from 14 m) during summer 1997. Discharge rates were highly variable temporally and were not observed to be at or near a constant rate (Fig. 3). Mean seepage rates were as high as 505 ml mK2 hK1 at times of peak ground water discharge with individual seepage meter rates as high as 1150 ml mK2 hK1 recorded. Rates of seepage also varied spatially, with consistently higher seepage rates at three of the seven stations farther from shore. Control data indicated that groundwater was the major factor inuencing the observed seepage meter uxes, but was probably not the only contributing factor (Fig. 3). Controls gained on average only 4.1 ml mK2 hK1 from the initial 1 l throughout the study period, as compared with the 81.4 ml mK2 hK1 in the seepage meters. However, on any given date, various controls exhibited either water gain or loss, and occasionally exhibited a considerable range in values, particularly when wave action was severe. A conservative approach to interpreting the controls was chosen such that the summer-time average control value of 4 ml mK2 hK1 was used as a threshold index. Seepage ow rates observed to be slower than this value were considered to be inaccurate measurements of groundwater ow. An alternative approach, that of adjusting daily seepage rates to include losses or gains indicated by the controls, was not considered appropriate in this study. There was a tendency for average seepage rates to be correlated with average control values under high groundwater ow conditions (Pearsons rZ0.4685, p!0.01, nZ51). Timing and magnitude of precipitation events were examined for their potential inuence on temporal variability in seepage patterns (Fig. 4). Over the duration of the study, there were 19 rain events at Shackleton Point ranging in size from less than 126 mm per event. Rain events greater than 5 mm/day, recorded at Shackleton were associated with four of eight peaks observed in ground water ow (Fig. 4, June 24, July 2, 9, 21). On these dates, seepage exhibited a general trend such that rain events

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

Fig. 3. The average (G1 SE) groundwater seepage hydrograph recorded at the reference site (nZ14 seepage meters), and the average control seepage meter changes, from June to August 1997.

were associated with a sudden peak in the rate of seepage, followed by a drop and then a gradually increasing rate over the next several days. Seepage peaks that occurred on June 29 and July 12, 24, and 27 were not associated with storms observed directly at the site. However, spatial variability of rainfall across the watershed was high. On six occasions, Syracuse International Airport received precipitation while Shackelton Point received no detectable precipitation. A peak in seepage on July 26 was associated with no rainfall at either Shackleton or Syracuse but was coincident with a rainfall event at the Morrisville site. A comparison of total dissolved nitrogen (TDN) concentrations indicated that there were dramatic differences in the concentrations among the ground water (8.18G0.53 mg lK1, avg.G1 SE), lake water (0.42G0.01) and stream water (1.31G0.08) samples averaged across the ve sampling dates and location replicates. Groundwater samples consistently had concentrations of TDN that were approximately ten fold higher than in the overlying lake surface waters or in nearby Chittenango Creek. Temporal variations in groundwater TDN concentrations throughout the summer were negligible, uctuating from 7.01 to 9.58 mg lK1 among the ve sampling dates. 3.2. Distance from shore There were notable spatial patterns in groundwater seepage associated with distance from shoreline in the second part of the study. The average seepage rate for

the 11 m along the three transects across all dates in 1998 was 52 ml mK2 hK1 (G6, nZ485) and again there was considerable variability over time. This overall average discharge rate was comparable to the rate observed in the six reference meters alone, and less than the average rate observed the previous year (Fig. 5). Average groundwater ow rates did not diminish with increasing distance from shore, as expected. Rather, there was a trend such that the absolute magnitude of the ow rate was comparable to or greater in the meters farther from shore, up to distances at least 100 m from the lake edge (Fig. 6). However, given the great temporal variability within each meter, when calculated across all dates, the differences in average ow among meters at the four different distances were not signicant (ANOVA; nZ11 m, 4 distances, 172 values; FZ0.149, pZ0.711). Most interesting, was the nding that the patterns and timing of ow increases and decreases were highly synchronous among the meters (Fig. 6). However, the groundwater ow rates exhibited dramatically greater ranges of uctuation with increasing distance from shore. The uctuations at these more distant meters resulted in seepage rates that were exaggerated in both directions. Immediately after rainfall events, when seepage rates increased in nearshore groundwater, there were clearly greater increases at the meters farther from shore. After extreme events, the ow rates were at least four fold higher at the more distant sites. Similarly, during periods when groundwater ow was

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

Fig. 4. Average groundwater seepage hydrograph at the reference site in 1997 in conjunction with rainfall data collected directly at the study site and at two additional locations, Syracuse International Airport and Morrisville, within the southern half of the watershed.

decreasing, rates at the more distant sites plummeted more quickly and more extremely; sometimes to rates more than three times lower than nearshore sites. 3.3. Lakewide study Groundwater ow at the reference site was lower in 1998 and 1999 than observed in the rst year of the study, possibly reecting the development of the regional drought (Fig. 5). However, the controls exhibited unusually high water losses on average, suggesting that wind or other factors were a particularly big inuence during the 1999 season

and that measured seepage readings may somewhat underestimate actual ow rates. The results of the lake-wide monitoring project demonstrated that the groundwater ow observed at the reference site was not a localized phenomenon (Fig. 7). Rather, at many sites around the entire lake groundwater seepage patterns were comparable to, and greater than, the measured ow at the Cornell Biological Field Station site. There also was a distinct spatial pattern around the lake perimeter, with generally higher average ow rates along northern shorelines and lower rates at southern sites. The highest average ow rates were observed at sites along the northern (site 18:

10

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

Fig. 5. A comparison of the average groundwater ow rates, averaged among all seepage meters and controls, for the summers from 1997 to 1999.

194.4 ml mK2 hK1) and eastern shores (site 28: 234.3 ml mK2 hK1). The lowest ow rates and sites of groundwater recharge, e.g. reversed ow with lake waters owing into the substrate (site 10: K15.8 ml mK2 hK1), were observed along a 10 km stretch of the southwestern corner and western shoreline, in the area of Oneida Creek, the outow for the lake. Along much of the southern shoreline, ow rates were uniformly low, comparable to the CBFS reference site. Along the eastern shoreline, there was higher ow; one site there exhibited the highest recorded rate, nearly four times greater than the ow at CBFS. 3.4. Substrate inuence There was considerable variability in substrate texture among the 25 sites analyzed in the 1999 study. At the reference site, bottom sediments consisted predominantly of sand with scattered pebbles and cobbles. A grain size analysis of this substrate indicated that it consisted of 88.2% sand, 8.1% silt and 3.7% clay. The bathymetry along the three transects indicated a relatively level, slightly undulating bottom with a slight gradient of 0.008 m drop in elevation per meter of distance. Although bathymetric measurements were not conducted at the other lakeshore sites, it was qualitatively apparent that some

Fig. 6. Summer 1998 hydrographs of the average groundwater ow rate from replicated seepage meters (nZ3 replicate stations per distance) at four distances from the lakeshore edge. Note the greater magnitude of groundwater ow responses with increasing distance from shore and also the high synchronicity of the peaks.

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

11

Fig. 7. Average groundwater seepage rates (C1 SE) measured at 29 locations around the shoreline perimeter of Oneida Lake throughout the summer of 1999.

were more steeply sloped while others had gradients comparable to that of the reference site. The substrates at the remaining sites ranged from very ne to very coarse textures. Based on the replicated quadrat analysis of sediment type, three sites were composed of greater than 59% siltclays; eight sites were composed of 90% or greater sand content; ve sites were dominated by coarse substrates of gravels, pebbles or larger texture sizes and, at four of these, boulders were present in the sample quadrats. The remaining eight sites consisted of mixed substrate textures. There was no overall difference between northern and southern sites. Rather, both shorelines were composed of a mixture of substrate textures.

What was interesting was the observed lack of relationship between the average rate of ow and the associated substrate composition among the 25 sites. There were no signicant correlations among the 25 sites between groundwater ow rate at each site and the average number of quadrat cells dominated by any of the three grain sizes (siltclay: Pearsons rZ0.1908, pZ0.3608; sand: rZ0.1802, pZ0.3888; coarse sediments e.g. O2 mm diam.: rZ0.0018, pZ0.9931). We considered the possibility that removing the boulders and replacing them with sand in order to install meters represented a disturbance to the substrate that affected the groundwater ow rates and biased subsequent analyses. However, removal of

12

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

the four relevant data points had no affect on the results of the statistical analyses. Flow patterns were more strongly related to location around the lake, with the highest ow rates along the northern shoreline, regardless of substrate characteristics.

4. Discussion The combined approach of intensive studies at the reference site complemented by lake-wide monitoring and substrate sampling, resulted in a comprehensive portrait of groundwater seepage in Oneida Lake and provides useful insights into groundwater processes in other large lakes. The ndings indicate that groundwater seepage is a signicant and ubiquitous process throughout the entire 88 km perimeter of Oneida Lake and occurs at considerable distances across the lakebed. Several pieces of evidence suggest that both temporal and spatial patterns observed in the rates and directions of seepage are strongly linked to position of each lakeshore segment relative to the watershed and the regional groundwater ow system. Despite the considerable range in surcial substrate texture around the lake perimeter, from silty-clays, to sands, gravel, pebbles, and boulders, there were surprisingly no signicant relationships with average groundwater ow rates. These ndings have interesting implications for shoreline biogeochemical processes and for management decisions related to maintaining whole lake ecosystem health. These ndings will also provide a useful model for predicting groundwater ow connections within other large lakes as well as in embayments of the Great Lakes system. The overall average rate of ow measured at the six reference meters was 72 ml mK2 hK1 (nZ840; SEZ5) across the three summers. There was both daily and inter-annual variability in average ow rates, as has been reported in numerous studies elsewhere. The highest observed rates occurred in 1997 before the onset of a regional drought, after which, the average ow rates declined. The observed rates are moderate to low values compared to the wide range of groundwater ow rates reported in other lakes (Shaw and Prepas, 1990 a,b). However, our studies were conducted during drier summer months, and the 1999 perimeter study was conducted during an

unusually severe drought year. A few studies have shown that groundwater seepage rates are considerably higher in the early spring, in association with snowmelt (Gubala et al., 1991; Snucins et al., 1992; Sebestyen and Schneider, 2001), and seepage ow in Oneida Lake is expected to parallel this pattern. Although the seepage ow rates were generally low, the control meters provided a useful minimum threshold level each year, by which to judge whether seepage meter readings were valid measures of groundwater seepage or articially elevated by waves or other factors. Data from the reference site provide valuable insights concerning possible mechanisms driving the groundwater ow. Spikes in groundwater ow rate were coincident both with rainfall directly on-site (Downing and Peterka, 1978) but also, on several occasions, with rainfall events only occurring elsewhere in the watershed, at least 10 km farther away. This nding suggests that the shoreline seepage is tied into integrated system that includes both shallow groundwater ow paths and also longer, more regional groundwater owpaths. The short-term seepage hydrographs support this conclusion, exhibiting a rapid short-term rise and fall which would be associated with shallow, rapid lateral ow of recently inltrated rainfall, followed by a gradual rise indicative of more regional water table contributions. Flow patterns observed during the 1998 distancefrom-shore study provided additional insights. Flow changes were highly synchronous among stations but increased in intensity or spikiness, both positive and negative, with increasing distance from shore, out to a distance of 100 m. To our knowledge, this is the rst report of such a pattern in the literature, though few other studies have monitored seepage at the frequency needed to detect it. The cause of the increased offshore spikiness is unclear and more research is certainly needed, perhaps using isotopic tracer studies, to understand how ow paths connect the shoreline to upland areas. What was insightful was the nding of strong synchronicity among stations in response to rainfall. This synchronicity makes it unlikely that entirely different groundwater owpaths are contributing to the nearshore and offshore stations. Indeed, if shallow, more rapid recharge in the adjacent uplands were contributing to localized owpaths, one would expect the reversed pattern, with greater

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

13

spikiness in the near shore area. Instead the observed synchronicity indicates a strong hydraulic integration between the upland recharge areas and the entire shoreline out to a distance of at least 100 m. This proposal of an integrated groundwater ow system is consistent with Oneidas underlying bedrock consisting of multi-layered sandstone and limestone aquifers, probably interconnected by fractures and karst features. The resulting network would result in a very different medium for water movement than a homogenous, unconsolidated aquifer. Thus, it is not surprising that our ndings disagree with simpler models that assume isotropic, homogeneous media and predict an exponential decrease in ow rate with distance offshore (McBride and Pfannkuch, 1975; Brock et al., 1982; Pfannkuch and Winter, 1984; Genereux and Bandopadhyay, 2001). Our results do suggest that such simple models may not be applicable in larger lake systems where more variable and complex aquifer conditions often occur. Alternative theoretical frameworks are needed for understanding these more complex systems. Regardless of the cause, the nding that the seepage process is occurring at distances of 100 m or even greater into the Oneida lakebed indicates that seepage is an important process, inuencing vast expanses of lakeshore and probably the lake ecosystem as a whole. Such distance-from-shore processes in groundwater ow are being complicated by the practice of lake level manipulation. The lowering of lakes each fall to prevent shoreline ice build-up and shoreline scour is a common practice on lakes throughout the Northeastern US. Oneida Lake levels have been controlled in this way since the 1950s, such that water levels are dropped by 1 m in late fall each year, exposing shoreline substrate out to hundreds of meters around the entire lake shoreline. This drop occurs at a time when water levels normally are starting to rise. Preliminary data collected on groundwater seepage at the reference site during fall months suggests that the combination of factors may cause an increase in the localized head gradient, with seepage being redirected to the new waters edge, several 100 m farther offshore. More research is denitely needed concerning the effects of lake level manipulation on shoreline groundwater processes. The results of the lake-wide monitoring project support the conclusion that connections to the regional

groundwater aquifers are driving spatial patterns in seepage. There were consistently higher ow rates observed along the northern and eastern shorelines as compared with the southern sites. There was a reversal of ow, with lake water recharging the groundwater, at western stations located within 10 km of Oneida Creek, the lakes only outow. This pattern ts neatly with the spatial pattern of surface water contributions previously reported in a study of surface water inputs into Oneida Lake. Approximately two-thirds of the surface water inow to Oneida Lake comes from the northern watershed, primarily from Fish Creek (Greeson, 1971). However, it is important to note that our studies were conducted under dry conditions. In springtime or wetter periods, there may be a westward shift in the hinge line; that is, some of the sites observed recharging the groundwater may shift to become discharging sites (Anderson and Munter, 1981). Such parallels between the spatial patterns of surface water and groundwater have been reported in other studies (Mitchell et al., 1988). Several factors may account for the greater contribution of groundwater from the northern portion of the watershed. This area receives 127 cm (50 in.) of precipitation annually as compared with approximately 97 cm (38 in.) in the southern half of the watershed. Much of the northern precipitation occurs in the form of an annual snowpack accumulation of more than 5 m, the highest value east of the Rocky Mountains as a result of its position within the Lake Ontario snowbelt (Pack, 1972). This greater snowpack in the northern watershed may have both a delayed time of snowmelt due to the extensive forest cover and increased inltration due to depressionfocused recharge in the thousands of pocket wetlands distributed throughout the area. These factors would further contribute to higher groundwater ow rates along the northern shoreline than were observed in the southern half of the watershed. There was considerable variability in substrate texture measured around the entire Oneida Lake shoreline. However, it was surprising to observe that surface substrate texture did not seem to inuence average seepage ow rate. High or low ow rates were observed equally in ne or coarse textured substrates. This lack of relationship is in contrast to other studies where higher ow rates were observed in sand than in clay or muck substrates. None of these

14

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

studies included the coarser textured gravels, cobbles or boulders (Mitchell et al., 1988; Fellows and Brezonik, 1980; Isiorho et al., 1996a,b). One explanation for the disagreement is that only the characteristics of the very surface substrate were examined in our study and that it is the permeability of the deeper, underlying substrate, which is more important in controlling rates of groundwater seepage. It is also likely that the more subtle localized inuences of substrate are being overridden by strong horizontal hydraulic head gradients in the associated drainage basins. No actual studies have documented the groundwater potentiometric surfaces for this watershed, however, such steep gradients would be expected in both halves of the watershed given the enormous size of the contributing basins (3600 km2), the high annual precipitation rates (97127 cm), and the extensive porous underlying aquifers. Horizontal hydraulic head gradients should also be greater along the northern than southern shorelines due to the additional 31 cm of precipitation that contribute each year as compared with the southern basin. There are limited other reported data with which to compare this contribution of sediment texture to groundwater seepage patterns. However, further research is certainly warranted and the strategy of transplanting a shallow bed of sand to facilitate seepage meter implantation may prove useful to future research efforts. Substrate texture, particularly the presence/absence of silts and clays, has been shown to interact with changes in seepage ow rates to inuence pore water chemistry (Schafran and Driscoll, 1990). This interaction of sediment with ow and chemistry directly within the plant rooting zone can then impact the composition and health of associated plants (Lillie and Barko, 1990; Hagerthey and Kerfoot, 1998; Sebestyen and Schneider, 2004). The analysis of groundwater chemistry at the reference site, although limited, has important implications for lake ecosystem health. TDN concentrations in the groundwater averaged 8.4 mg lK1, and were over six times higher than that measured in the adjacent lake surface waters or in nearby stream tributary waters. This nding suggests that groundwater seepage may be a critical source of nutrients, or contaminants, to the lake, in addition to tributary contributions. Groundwater contamination by septic systems and other human activities is a commonly acknowledged

process (Chen, 1988). On Oneida Lake, shoreline development has been continuous over the past half a century, with almost the entire lake perimeter now occupied by cottages and houses positioned within a 100 m of the lake edge. The majority of these residences have septic systems with sewering occurring on less than one-third of the lakes perimeter. In general, there is little information available on the groundwater loadings of nitrogen or any chemical constituent elsewhere around the lake. But, because there was measurable seepage observed around the entire shoreline of Oneida Lake, groundwater loadings of nutrients or more toxic contaminants may ultimately be playing a very important role in the lakes sheries and other ecosystem processes. Further examination of groundwater chemical inputs into the lake certainly is warranted. In addition, historical as well as contemporary land uses need to be evaluated when considering groundwater contaminant transport into the lake. Some interesting recent age-dating, using chlorouorocarbons, of groundwater from wells in the northern watershed also suggests that some of the groundwater entering Oneida Lake may be several decades old (Komor, 2001). All told, the ndings of the study presented here have important implications for the contribution of groundwater to the Oneida Lake system. The nearly constant ux of groundwater along the shoreline, and probably throughout a large portion of the lakebed as well, suggests that groundwater undoubtedly impacts the nearshore ecosystem, affecting both its physical and biological structure. In other lake systems, it has been demonstrated that, among other important effects, increased aquatic plant productivity has been associated with sites of groundwater ow (Lodge et al., 1989; Lillie and Barko, 1990; Schneider, 1994; Hagerthey and Kerfoot, 1998). Groundwater ow has also been associated with success of sh spawning (Blancheld and Ridgway, 1996). It is possible that groundwater seepage may be similarly inuencing organisms along Oneida Lakes shoreline. Groundwater ux throughout much of the lake bed is also contributing to lake wide hydrologic budgets and chemical availability. Recognizing these contributions, and the linkages with the surrounding uplands is critical for long-term sustainable protection of the Oneida Lake ecosystem.

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116

15

Acknowledgements This research was supported by a grant from the US Department of Agriculture, CSREES Hatch project no. NYC-147447. C. Doughtery, M. Kalvestrand, as well as numerous private landowners provided invaluable eld assistance. Dr Ed Mills generously gave access to the resources of the Cornell Biological Field Station. We also greatly appreciate the thoughtful comments of two anonymous reviewers.

References
Anderson, M.P., Munter, J.A., 1981. Seasonal reversals of groundwater ow around lakes and the relevance to stagnation points and lake budgets. Water Resour. Res. 17, 11391150. Asbury, C.E., 1990. The role of groundwater seepage in sediment chemistry and nutrient budgets in Mirror Lake, New Hampshire. PhD Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. Blancheld, P.J., Ridgway, M.S., 1996. Use of seepage meters to measure groundwater ow at brook trout redds. Trans. Am. Fisheries Soc. 125, 813818. Brock, T.D., Lee, D.R., Janes, D., Winek, D., 1982. Ground water seepage as a nutrient source to a drainage lake: Lake Mendota, Wisconsin. Water Res. 16, 12551263. Chen, M., 1988. Pollution of ground water by nutrients and fecal coliforms from lakeshore septic tank systems. Water, Air, Soil Poll. 37, 407417. Cherkauer, D.S., McBride, J., 1988. A remotely operated seepage meter for use in large lakes and rivers. Ground Water 26, 165 171. Cherkauer, D.S., Zager, J.P., 1989. Groundwater interactions with a kettle-hole lake: relation of observations to digital simulations. J. Hydrol. 109, 167184. Connor, J.N., Belanger, T.V., 1981. Ground water seepage in Lake Washington and the Upper St. Johns River basin, Florida. Water Res. Bull. 17, 799805. Downing, J.A., Peterka, J.J., 1978. Relationship of rainfall and lake groundwater seepage. Limnol. Oceanogr. 23, 821825. Fellows, C.R., Brezonik, P.L., 1980. Seepage ow in Florida lakes. Water Res. Bull. 16, 635641. Genereux, D., Bandopadhyay, I., 2001. Numerical investigation of lake bed seepage patterns: effects of porous medium and lake properties. J. Hydrol. 241, 286303. Greeson, P.E., 1971. Limnology of Oneida Lake with emphasis on factors contributing to algal blooms, Open-le Report US Geol. Surv., NY Dep. Environ. Conserv. Albany, New York. Gubala, C.P., Driscoll, C.T., Newton, R.M., Schoeld, C.L., 1991. Chemistry of a near-shore lake region during spring snowmelt. Environ. Sci. Technol. 25 (12), 20242030.

Hagerthey, S.E., Kerfoot, W.C., 1998. Groundwater ow inuences the biomass and nutrient ratios of epibenthic algae in a north temperate seepage lake. Limnol. Oceanogr. 43, 12271242. Harvey, F.E., Lee, D.R., Rudolph, D.L., Frape, S.K., 1997. Locating groundwater discharge in large lakes using bottom sediment electrical conductivity mapping. Water Resour. Res. 33 (11), 26092615. Haycock, N.E., Burt, T.P., Goulding, K.W.T., Pinay, G. (Eds.), 1997. Buffer Zones: Their Processes and Potential in Water Protection. Quest Environmental, Inc, . Isiorho, S.A., Matisoff, G., 1989. Groundwater seepage and its implication on the water resources planning and management in the Chad Basin. J. Water Resour. 1 (2), 210215. Isiorho, S.A., Matisoff, G., Wehn, K.S., 1996a. Seepage relationships between Lake Chad and the Chad Aquifers. Ground Water 34 (5), 819826. Isiorho, S.A., Beeching, F.M., Stewart, P.M., Whitman, R.L., 1996b. Seepage measurements from Long Lake, Indiana Dune National Lakeshore. Environ. Geol. 28 (2), 99105. Kantrowitz, I.H., 1970. Ground-water resources in the eastern Oswego River basin, New York, State of New York Conservation Department, Basin Planning Report, ORB-2. Kenoyer, G.J., Anderson, M.P., 1989. Groundwaters dynamic role in regulating acidity and chemistry in a precipitation-dominated lake. J. Hydrol. 109, 287306. Komor, S., 2001. Ground-water age dating in community wells in Oswego County, New York, US Geological Survey Open-File Report 01-232, p. 17 Lee, D.R., 1977. A device for measuring seepage ux in lakes and estuaries. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22, 140147. Lillie, R.A., Barko, J.W., 1990. Inuences of sediments and groundwater on the distribution and biomass of Myriophyllum spicatum L. in Devils Lake, Wisconsin. J. Freshwater Ecol. 5, 417426. Lodge, D.M., Krabbenhoft, K.P., Striegl, R.G., 1989. A positive relationship between groundwater velocity and submersed macrophyte biomass in Sparkling Lake, Wisconsin. Limnol. Oceanogr. 34 (1), 235239. Loeb, S.L., Hackley, S.H., 1988. The distribution of submerged macrophytes in Lake Tahoe, California and Nevada, and the possible inuence of groundwater seepage. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 23, 19271933. McBride, M.S., Pfannkuch, H.O., 1975. The distribution of seepage within lake beds. US Geol. Surv. J. Res. 3, 505512. McQueen, D.J., Mills, E.L., Forney, J.L., Johannes, M.R.S., Post, J.R., 1992. Trophic level relationships in pelagic food webs-comparisons derived from long-term data sets for Oneida Lake, New York (USA), and Lake St. George, Ontario (Canada). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 49, 15881596. Mellina, E., Rasmussen, J.B., Mills, E.L., 1995. Impact of zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) on phosphorus cycling and chlorophyll in lakes. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 52, 25532573. Mitchell, D.F., Wagner, K.J., Asbury, C., 1988. Direct measurement of groundwater ow and quality as a lake management tool. Lake Reservoir Manage. 4 (1), 169178.

16

R.L. Schneider et al. / Journal of Hydrology 310 (2005) 116 Shaw, R.D., Prepas, E.E., 1990b. Groundwater-lake interactions: II. Nearshore seepage patterns and the contribution of groundwater to lakes in central Alberta. J. Hydrol. 119, 121136. Shaw, R.D., Prepas, E.E., 1991. Anomalous, short-term inux of water into seepage meters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 34, 1343 1351. Snucins, E.J., Allen Curry, R., Gunn, J.M., 1992. Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) embryo habitat and timing of alevin emergence in a lake and a stream. Can. J. Zool. 70, 423 427. SYSTAT Statistical Software Package. 1999. Copyright SPSS, Inc. 1998. Thein, S.J., 1979. A ow diagram for teaching texture by feel analysis. J. Agronomy Educ. 8, 5455. Winter, T.C., 1978. Numerical simulation of steady state 3D ground-water ow near lakes. Water Resour. Res. 14, 245 254. Winter, T.C., 1983. The interaction of lakes with variably saturated porous media. Water Resour. Res. 19, 12031218. Woessner, W.W., Sullivan, K.E., 1984. Results of seepage meter and mini-piezometer study, Lake Mead, Nevada. Ground Water 22 (5), 561568.

Oneida Lake Watershed Management Plan and State of the Lake Report. 2002. http://www.cnyrpdb.org/oneidalake/SOLW.asp Pack, A.B., 1972. Climate of New York, US Department Commerce, NOAA. Climatography of US No. 6030. Pfannkuch, H.O., Winter, T.C., 1984. Effect of anisotrophy and groundwater system geometry on seepage thru lake beds. I. Analog and dimensional analysis. J. Hydrol. 75, 213237. Schafran, G.C., Driscoll, C.T., 1990. Porewater acid/base chemistry in near-shore regions of an acidic lake: the inuence of groundwater inputs. Biogeochemistry 11, 131150. Schneider, R.L., 1994. Environmental controls of plant species diversity in coastal plain pondshore communities, PhD dissertation, Cornell University, p. 134. Sebestyen, S.D., Schneider, R.L., 2001. Dynamic temporal patterns of nearshore seepage ux in a headwater Adirondack lake. J. Hydrol. 247, 137150. Sebestyen, S.D., Schneider, R.L., 2004. Seepage patterns, pore water, and aquatic plants: hydrological and biogeochemcial relationships in lakes. Biogeochemistry 68, 383409. Shaw, R.D., Prepas, E.E., 1990a. Groundwaterlake interactions I. Accuracy of seepage meter estimates of lake seepage. J. Hydrol. 119 (14), 105120.