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2. MATTER, FORCE, MOTION, AND FRICTION

The concept of matter - We know that physics began with the more or less qualitative passive observation of obvious natural phenomena, such as the downward motion of a freely falling body, the tides of the ocean, the lightning, the rainbow, the mysterious behavior of magnets, etc. Very early there arose the notion of a material basis for these phenomena; they then came to be looked upon as properties of this basis, i.e., the thing called matter. Just what matter is, was never quite clear. Even today we cannot say with confidence what matter is, but we still talk about a great many physical phenomena as properties of matter, and with the greatly increased study of atomic structure we feel that we are reaching gradually a clearer understanding of the constitution of matter. The states or phases of matter - It is customary to divide matter into three groups in accordance with the appearance it presents to the eye and the effect it has on the other senses. These groups are known as states or phases. At any given temperature, e.g., that of the room (about 20C), certain substances take the solid form, others are in the liquid phase and still others are gaseous. We are all familiar with the general characteristics of these phases: how solids have a definite volume and shape which are not readily changed save by the application of stresses, while a liquid takes the shape of the vessel, in which it is placed, although its volume is definite and it possesses a free boundary surface. Finally, a gas takes both its volume and its shape from the containing vessel and has no free surface. Force and motion - Acceleration is always produced by force. Whenever a body is accelerating, a force is acting upon it to cause the acceleration. Thus, a force is applied to a body to set it in motion. Again, a force is applied to a body already in motion in order to speed it up, slow it down, or change its direction. Any change in velocity implies an acceleration, and this acceleration can be produced only by force. A force can be described as a push or a pull acting on a body. Although a force must act upon a body when it accelerates, it does not necessarily follow that a body will accelerate when a force acts upon it. When all of the forces acting upon a body are taken into account and these do not balance, then the unbalanced force is the resultant force acting on the body; this resultant always causes acceleration. Motion of a rigid body - We have, learned that forces applied to a body cause the body as a whole to accelerate in the direction of the resultant force. Such motion, in which every particle of the body has the same velocity and the same acceleration, is called translation. But a torque acting upon a body may produce an entirely different kind of motion, in which the particles of the body describe concentric circles about a fixed line as an axis, a motion known as rotation. In general, a body may undergo translation or rotation, or a combination of these motions, depending on how the forces are applied with respect to a particular point called the center of mass of the body.

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3. THE LAWS OF MOTION ANO UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

Newton's laws of motion - Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), one of the most profound scientists of all time, interpreted and correlated many observations in mechanics and combined the results into three fundamental laws, known as Newton's laws of motion. First law of motion -A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in motion continues to move at constant speed along a straight line, unless there is a resultant force acting upon the body. The first part of the law is evident from everyday experience; for instance, a book placed on a table remains at rest. The second part of the law is more difficult to visualize; it states that if a body is set into motion and left to itself, it keeps on moving without the action of any further force. This statement is correct; the body would continue to move without any reduction of velocity if no force acted upon it. However, experience shows that a retarding force is always present in the nature of friction. If friction could be eliminated entirely, a body once set into motion on a level surface would continue to move indefinitely with undiminished velocity. Therefore, uniform motion is a natural condition and maintains itself without the action of a resultant force. It is interesting to note that whether a body is at rest or moving with constant speed along a straight line, its acceleration is zero. Hence the first law of motion means that a body accelerates only while some resultant force acts upon it. Second law of motion - The acceleration of a body takes place in the direction of the resultant force acting upon it; the acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. In general, the greater the resultant force and the smaller the mass, the greater is the acceleration. Third law of motion - For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, and the two are directed along the same straight line. In this statement, the term "action" means the force that one body exerts on a second body, and reaction" means the force that the second body exerts on the first. It should be noted that the action and reaction are never exerted on the same object. Thus, action and reaction, although equal and opposite, can never balance each other. Consequently, the first and second laws deal with forces on a single body; the third law deals with the mutual forces between two bodies. Law of universal gravitation - Newton also showed that every particle in the universe attracts every other particle, and explained how this attraction is affected by the masses of the particles and the distance separating them. The law reads: Each particle of matter attracts every other particle with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Pull of gravity weight - The most familiar illustration of universal gravitation is the force of attraction which the earth exerts upon objects near it, causing the objects to accelerate downward when they fall. If an object is restrained so that it cannot fall when released, the earth exerts the same force on it, but the pull of the earth is balanced by some equal and opposite force exerted by the restraining agent. The force of attraction that the earth exerts on a body, that is, the pull of gravity on it, is called the weight of the body. The weight of a body is a force and can be treated in exactly the same way as any other force. Its direction is, however, always toward the center of the earth.
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The concept of momentum - Among the concepts of physics that have to do with force and motion, one of the most fundamental is momentum. The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and its velocity. This concept prompts a further consideration of Newton's second law of motion. This law states that a body acted upon by some resultant force undergoes a change of momentum which is equal to the impulse of that force (impulse is the product of a force and the time during which it acts). The impulse has the same direction as the force, and the momentums have the same direction as the velocities. The law of conservation of momentum is a principle which states that the total momentum of an isolated system stays constant regardless of any interactions that may take place among its parts. The law is one of the great generalizations of physics.

4. WORK AND ENERGY

Work - In popular language, the term "work" is applied to any form of labor, physical or mental, for producing any kind of result. In science and engineering, on the other hand, "work" has a definite technical meaning, which the following illustration will make clear. When a man moves a box along the floor by a steady push, or raises it from the floor to the top of a table, two things should be noted: first, that the man exerts a force on the box, and second, that the box undergoes a displacement in the direction of the force. Under these conditions the man or the force that he exerts is said to do work on the box. The amount of work done is the product of the force and the displacement of the object while the force is being applied. In symbols, when a constant force F is exerted on an object while the object undergoes a displacement D In the direction of the force, the amount of work done on the object is W=FD. Energy -A body is said to possess energy if it is able to do work. For example, a man or a horse can do work and so possess energy; the steam within the cylinder of a steam engine possesses energy since it is able to move the piston; the main spring of a watch possesses energy when wound, since it is able to drive the hands of the timepiece. Moreover, when a body does work, its energy is reduced by an amount exactly equal to the work done. Work and energy are expressed in the same units. There are many different forms of energy; thus, the spring just mentioned has mechanical energy, a hot substance has internal energy, coal has chemical energy, a charged capacitor has electrical energy, and so on. A body or a system of bodies may possess mechanical energy from either or both of two causes. First, whenever a body is in motion it is able to exert a force and do work in coming to rest; a moving body always possesses energy by virtue of its motion; this is called kinetic energy. A moving hammer has kinetic energy, and this enables it to do work in driving a nail. Second, a body that has been moved to a new position is sometimes able to do work because of this fact; for example, a raised weight can do work in falling and is commonly said to possess energy by virtue of its position; this is called potential energy. Conservation and transformation of energy - Whenever a body does work, its capability of doing further work is lessened, and this means that it possesses less energy than before. This reduction must not be regarded as a loss of energy, for in doing work the body has imparted an equal amount of energy to some other body, which, together with the first, constitutes a system. The energy given up by a body is imparted to others without loss, and thus within the system the total amount of energy remains unchanged. This illustrates a basic principle known as the conservation of energy, which states that energy can neither be
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created nor destroyed. Expressed differently, the total amount of energy in the universe remains constant. Although energy can be transformed from one kind to another, it is not destroyed in the process. When energy is expended in work against friction, it is said to be wasted, that is, rendered unavailable for useful purposes; but it is not destroyed, for it is converted into heat, which is recognized as a form of energy. Energy sources - This is the term applied to the sources from which energy can be obtained to provide heat, light, and power. Industrial society has been, based largely on the substitution for animal energy of power from heat of combustion of carboniferous fuels. It seems likely that it will be based in the future largely on heat from the sun and heat which is generated by nuclear reactions. Major carboniferous fuels are coal, petroleum, and natural gas - all fossil materials formed in finite amounts many millions of years ago. Other important fossil fuels are oil shales and tar sands. Minor fuels are forms of current production of vegetation. Nonfuel sources of energy are water, wind, terrestrial heat, atmospheric electricity, and sunlight. These last supply relatively unimportant parts of the world's total used energy, but all are renewable sources of energy. The supplies of elements suitable for nuclear reactions are finite but abundant.

6. POWER AND EFFICIENCY

Rate of doing work: power - In practice, where work is done upon a body, both the amount of work and also the time during which that work is done are important. For example, if a motor driven hoist has to raise its load quickly, a more powerful hoist and a larger driving motor are needed than if more time were allowed. Usually the size of machinery is determined, not by the total amount of work to be done, but by the rate at which it is to be done; that is, the amount of work required per unit of time. The time rate of doing work is called power. Since power is the time rate of doing work, the unit for power in any system of units is found by dividing the work unit in that system by the time unit. Thus, in the SI system, power is expressed in watts, and in the British gravitational system it is expressed in footpounds (pound-force feet) per second. In addition to the units of the standard systems, other practical units are in general use. The horsepower (hp) is the power provided by an agent while doing work at the rate of 33000 (ftlb)/min., or 550 (ftlb)/sec. The watt is a rate of doing work equal to 1 joule/sec. The kilowatt {kW} is a power unit used in rating electric machines. Simple machines - It is a matter of common experience that a stone firmly embedded in the ground can be dislodged with a crowbar, and that a heavy automobile can be raised by means of a jack. The crowbar or jack serves as an intermediate device upon which work can be done and which in turn does work upon some other object. A device that accomplishes this result is technically called a machine. The complex machines used in industry are found upon analysis to be made up largely of certain elements that may be considered simple machines in themselves. These simple machines comprise the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the screw, and the wedge.
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Usually a machine is employed in order to lessen the force required in doing a certain piece of work. Thus, if a 500-lb weight is to be lifted, a machine can be used to exert this amount of upward force upon it while the person operating the machine exerts perhaps only 50 pounds. It is thus possible, and indeed usual, to obtain a larger force from a machine than that which is exerted upon it, of course, this statement applies to force and not to energy; according to the law of conservation of energy, more work cannot be obtained from a machine than the energy supplied to it. Since work = force x distance, when the operator exerts a smaller force than does the machine, he exerts the smaller force through a correspondingly greater distance. The ratio of the force exerted by a machine on a load to the force exerted by an operator on the machine is called the mechanical advantage of the machine. Efficiency of a machine - Friction is present in all moving machinery, however well designed; consequently, the energy delivered by a machine is less than that supplied to it. More definitely, the principle of conservation of energy shows that energy input = energy output + energy wasted if no energy is stored up in the machine. Since energy used per unit time is power, it can also be said that power input = power output + power wasted. The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of its output to its input, both input and output being expressed in the same units of energy or power. The ratio of output to input is always less than unity; in practice, it is usually multiplied by 100 and expressed in per cent. High efficiency in a machine implies that in a given time a large part of the energy supplied to it is delivered by the machine to its load and a small part wasted. The efficiency of a large electric generator may be as high as 98 per cent. In some of the simple machines - a screw jack, for example - considerable friction is necessary to prevent the load from running down after it has been raised; because of the energy wasted in friction the efficiency of a screw jack is less than 50 per cent. Machines are rated in terms of their output; thus, a 5-hp motor is one that can deliver 5 hp without exceeding its design limitations; if its efficiency is 80 per cent, the power input to the machine is 5 hp/0.80 = 6.25 hp.

9. ENG INEERING MECHAN ICS PART ONE

Rigid body - We shall be mostly concerned in engineering mechanics with problems involving the equilibrium of rigid bodies. Physical bodies, such as we have to deal with in the design of engineering structures and machine parts, are never absolutely rigid but deform slightly under the action of loads which they have to carry. Force - For the investigation of problems of statics we must introduce the concept or force, which may be defined as any action that tends to change the state of rest of a body to which it is applied. There are many kinds of force, such as gravity force, with which we are all familiar, and the simple push or pull that we can exert upon a body with our hands. Other examples of force are the gravitational attraction between the sun and planets, the tractive effort of a locomotive, the force of magnetic attraction, steam or gas pressure in a cylinder, wind pressure, atmospheric pressure and frictional resistance between contiguous surfaces.
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Characteristics of a force - For the complete definition of a force we must know (1) its magnitude, (2) its point of application, and (3) its direction. These three quantities, which completely define the force, are called its characteristics or specifications. The magnitude of a force is obtained by comparing it with a certain standard, arbitrarily taken as a unit force. In engineering the unit of force is usually taken as the pound, which represents the weight of a certain platinum cylinder kept in the Tower of London. The magnitudes of forces are commonly measured by using various kinds of dynamometers. The point of application of a force acting upon a body is that point in the body at which the force can be assumed to be concentrated. Physically, it will be impossible to concentrate a force at a single point; that is, every force must have some finite area or volume over which its action is distributed. However, we often find it convenient to think of such distributed force as being concentrated at a single point of application wherever this can be done without sensibly changing the effect of the force on the conditions of equilibrium. In the case of gravity force distributed throughout the volume of a body, the point of application at which the total weight can be assumed to be concentrated is called the center of gravity of the body. The direction of a force is the direction, along a straight line through its point of application, in which the force tends to move a body to which it is applied. This line is called the line of action of the force. The force of gravity, for example, is always directed vertically downward.

11. ENGINEERING MATERIALS - FERROUS METALS

Engineering materials - selection - In the design of machinery in general, a vast variety of materials of both organic and inorganic origin is utilized. We generally think of metals as the usual materials of design, but, although used to a lesser degree, such materials as wood, leather, rubber, and other plastics have widespread use, and others, such as fabrics, cork, special minerals, etc., have limited use. In making a selection of a material we must first decide what constitutes a proper material". A proper material may be defined as one which best performs the functions required with the least total cost. This does not mean that the material having the lowest unit cost is best, because a more expensive material may permit reduction of weight, easier heat treatment or fabrication, or it may possess other advantages that make the final result less costly. And at times, of course, luxury, appearance, or extreme safety is desired even at great expense. Designers are interested principally in the physical properties and the cost of the finished part, and only incidentally in the chemical constituents and methods of preparation from the raw material. The physical properties of most importance are strength, rigidity, resistance to corrosion and to fatigue failure, and in some cases, weight. Other properties that may be of importance are hardness, impact resistance, heat and electrical conductivity, wear resistance, low friction, machinability, and weldability. When several of these characteristics are desired simultaneously, selection of the most suitable and the most economical material is sometimes difficult. Ferrous metals - Iron - In general, we may say that certain groups of materials are used mainly because they are abundantly available and cheap. This condition is particularly true of the ferrous group of metals.

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Ferrous metals are the most commonly used, and, with proper alloying and treatment, they may be adapted to almost all simple needs. The advantages of iron, as a base metal, in addition to its abundance and low cost, are its strength and its adaptability to fabrication. It may be readily cast, forged, machined, and welded. Principal limitations are its weight and its susceptibility to corrosion. Plain carbon steels - Steel differs from cast iron in that it has no carbon in free state. The percentage of carbon varies from 0.08 to 1.5 with consequent differences in properties. Steel is classified according to carbon content approximately as follows: "Very mild", "mild", or "low carbon"; "medium carbon", and "high carbon" or "hard". Both low and mediumcarbon steels are generally used for machine parts, whereas high-carbon steels are used for springs or tools. Low-carbon steels are readily welded and forged since they are plastic over an extensive temperature range. They are very ductile and hence are resistant to shock and impact, but are not responsive to heat treatment by quenching. Medium-carbon steels are more difficult to forge and weld, but tensile strength and elastic limit can be increased considerably by quenching at the expense of lessened ductility. High-carbon steels are difficult to forge and weld but may be hardened to a good cutting edge by quenching. Alloy steels - When metals are dissolved in each other and then solidified, an alloy results. Alloy steel is obtained when the other elements added to the iron and carbon are in sufficient quantities to influence the physical properties. Practically all alloy steels must undergo special heat treatment to obtain the properties desired. The alloying elements used in steel are as follows: nickel, silicon, chromium, vanadium, tungsten, molybdenum, manganese, and copper. Several of these elements may be used simultaneously to obtain special physical properties when given a double heat treatment. High elastic limit with ample ductility, hard wearresisting surfaces combined with high core strength and toughness, high impact and fatigue resistance, are some of the properties that are readily attainable.

13. STRESS AND STRAIN

The strength of a material is its capacity to resist the action of applied forces. Unfortunately, the strength of a material cannot be represented by a single number, because its ability to resist the action of loads and forces depends upon the nature of those loads and forces and other circumstances of the environment of the material. Stress -When any solid body is subjected to external forces, there are set up within the body resisting forces called stresses. If the body is cut by an imaginary plane, each part of the body exerts forces on the adjoining part, these forces acting perpendicular and parallel to the surface defined by the imaginary cutting plane. These forces are usually indicated in pounds per square inch (psi). The stress is tensile where the force tends to elongate fibers in the member; compressive where the force tends to shorten fibers in the member; and shear where the force in the member tends to make adjacent planes in the member slide relative to each other. Deformation - The forces acting on a body cause changes in the geometry of the body; these changes increase as the forces increase. These changes in the geometry or shape of the body are called deformations or strains. Fortunately, for most materials the deformation is proportional to the applied loads until a certain stress is reached. The ratio of the stress to the strain within the proportional limit is called the modulus of elasticity of the material.

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14. THE DESIGN AND WORKING STRESSES

Design stress. All criteria of strength are modified in some way in order to obtain a design criterion. In its simplest form, the design criterion is a design stress, which may also be called a safe stress, or allowable stress. The stress used in design must be a safe stress if failure is not to occur, and such a stress is said to be allowable. The design stress is the stress value which is used in the mathematical determination of the required size of the machine member. It may be considered to be the stress that the designer hopes will not be exceeded under operating conditions. When the properties of the material are definitely known and when the stress can be accurately determined, this stress may be as high as 80 per cent of the yield stress, but 50 per cent is the usual value for nonshock and nonfatique conditions. General discussion. The selection of the design stress to be used in computing the size of a machine is one of the most important problems to be met by the designer. At the same time, it is one of the most vague and difficult problems. The experienced designers arrives at the design stress by an analysis of the service conditions that must be met, by an evaluation of the strength of the material under service conditions, and by deciding on the margin of safety that he desires between service conditions and actual failure. Service conditions include such factors as the magnitude of the loads applied; the method of load application, whether steady variable, or subject to impact; the type of stress: tension, compression, shear, or combined; and the temperature at which the member is to operate. Other factors such as appearance, the use of standard parts, ease of assembly, ease of repair, and the wearing qualities must also be considered; and in many cases these may be given only minor consideration. Tensile and fatigue tests are the ones from which failure can be most readily predicted. Other tests provide information that can be used to supplement these. Failure may mean actual rupture, a sudden increase in the strain without an increase in stress, a stress producing a permanent strain, or a stress exceeding the proportional limit. The working stress, as distinguished from the design stress, is the stress actually occurring under operating conditions. The working stress for a material is the permissible stress used in the design of a machine member if it is to resist the loads applied and operate satisfactorily for a reasonable period of time. The length of this period may vary with the type of service. We do not expect an automobile or an agricultural tool to last for ever. Technical improvements go on all the time and a machine may become obsolete in ten or twenty years/ If this is the case, one would not bee justified in going to any unnecessary expense of labor and material to make its service life extend indefinitely beyond any reasonable expectations. Stress concentration. Both theoretical and experimental investigations show that notches, holes, and indentations of various kinds cause local stresses much in excess of the average stress, which for tension or compression would be the load divided by the net cross sectional area. While this stress concentration is very serious, frequently it has been neglected in the past. Yet, no breakdowns have resulted. The test of Moore on the effect of key ways in shafts show an overall strength reduction not nearly so serious as the stress concentration would lead one to expect. The reason is that under steady or very slow varying load, the overstressed material can adjust itself plastically, so that the stress is transferred to
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adjacent, less severely stressed parts. This condition, however, holds true only for ductile materials. For brittle materials stress concentration is always serious. Many breakdowns in modern high speed machinery may be explained by stress concentration.

15. RIVETED JOINTS AND THREADED FASTENERS

Uses of riveted joints. In the assembly of the individual members to form a complete machine or structure, some form of fastening such as riveting, welding, bolting, or keying must be used. Riveting makes a permanent joint that cannot be disassembled without destruction of the rivets. Tanks, pressure vessels, bridges and building structures are commonly built of steel plates and rolled shapes riveted together. Rivets. A rivet is a permanent fastening consisting of a short round bar with a head formed at each end. Rivets are made of wrought iron or soft steel for most uses, but where corrosive resistance or light weight is a requirement, rivets of copper or aluminum alloys are used. In making up the joint, the rivet is inserted in a punched or drilled hole and the second head formed by a die or rivet set, pressure being exerted by hand hammers, air hammers, or air and hydraulic pressure machines. Types of joints. When two plates are simply laid over each other at the joint and riveted together as a Fig. 4, they form a lap joint. The tension forces acting on the plates, not being in the same plane, create a bending moment and thereby produce bending stresses in the plates and tensions in the rivets. When the plates are placed end to end and connected by cover plates, as a Fig. 5, they form a but joint. On account of the bending stresses, lap joints and single cover plate butt joints should not be used for high pressure service. Threated fasteners. Threated bolts and screws are used to hold the removable heads or cylinders, machine members that must be readily disassembled, and parts of large machines that must be built in small units for ease of manufacturing, assembling, or shipping. Screws are also used for the transmission of power; for instance, the lead screws on machine tools, screws on a presses, and similar devices. Screws are sometimes used as a means of adjustment or of obtaining accurate movement in measuring instruments such as micrometers. The pitch is the axial distance between corresponding points on adjacent threads and is equal to the reciprocal of the number of threads per inch. The lead is the axial distance a thread advances in one revolution. A single thread is one on which the lead equals the pitch; a double thread is one on which the lead equals twice the pitch; and a triple thread is one on which the lead three times the pitch. A screw thread is always understood to be single right hand unless otherwise specified.

16. MORE MACHINE MEMBERS

Shafts. The term shaft, or shafting, is applied to those machine members, mostly cylindrical and solid in cross section, although sometimes hollow, used to transmit power of motion and to furnish support for rotating elements, such as pulleys, gears, or flywheels. The term axle may be applied to the bar on which a wheel is mounted, or to the transverse member used to connect opposite wheels of a vehicle. In general, axles are subjected to transverse loads and are stressed principally in bending. A railway car axle is a representative example.
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Shafts may be subjected to torsional, bending, or axial loads, or to a many combination of these loads. If the load is torsional, the principal stresses induced is shear; if bending, the principal stresses are tension and compression. Shafts are generally made a ductile materials. Keys. The function of a key is to prevent relative motion between two machine members. In its more general application, a key consists of a square or rectangular bar of steel inserted half in a shaft and half in the keyed on member, such as a gear or pulley. Keys have been standardized and are generally proportioned to the shaft diameter. Since they are relatively inexpensive and are easily replaced, keys are frequently designed to fail when subjected to unexpected overloads, so that the other more expensive machine members are protected. Couplings. Commercial shafts are limited in length by manufacturing and shipping requirements, so that is necessary to join sections of long transmission shafts couplings. Couplings are also required to connect the shaft of a driving machine to a separately built driven unit. Permanent couplings are simply called couplings, while those which may be readily engaged to transmit power, or disengaged when desired, are called clutches. Brakes. Like clutches, depend upon the friction between two surfaces for their action, the difference being that clutches are used to keep the driving and driven members moving together, whereas brakes are used to stop a moving capacity of any brake depends upon the pressure between the braking surfaces, the coefficient of friction, and the heat radiating capacity of the brake. The heat radiating capacity is important since, during the operating of the brake, the contact surfaces are sliding over each other, and the work of friction generates a large amount of heat that must be dissipated to avoid overheating the brake and burning the facing material. Springs. The problem of spring design is the application of the principle that a load applied to any member will produce a proportionate deformation. In most machine members, the deformation must be kept low. In a spring, the reverse effect is desired, and the deformation must be relatively large, the spring being a machine member built to have a high degree of resilience.

Springs are used as cushions to absorb shock, as i machine supports, on automobile frames, and in airplane lending gear; as a source of power by storing up energy that is later delivered as driving power, as in clocks, trigger mechanisms, etc. ; and to maintain contact between machine members by exerting a direct force, as in clutches and brakes. Springs are also use as load measuring devices, as in spring balances, power dynamo meters, and in instruments such as gauges, meters, and engine indicators.

17. GEARING
Transmission gearing. The word gearing may be used as a general term for all machine elements used in transmitting motion. Belts, friction pulleys, and other types of power transmission that depend upon friction are subject to slippage and hence do not transmit a definite and invariable speed ratio. Chains and gear are used when positive drives are necessary, and where the center distances relatively short, toothed gears are preferred. Spur gears. This is the type of gear most commonly used to connect parallel shafts, which then rotate in opposite directions. They may be straight-tooth with the teeth parallel to the
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axes or helical with the teeth forming helices. In practice the name spur gear is given only to cylindrical gears profile from end to end. Helical gears. In helical gears, the teeth are cut in the form of a helix about the axis of rotation, one gear having a right-hand helix, and the mating gear having a left-hand helix. When straight-tooth spur gears begin to engage, the contact theoretically extends across the entire tooth on a line parallel to the axis of rotation. This sudden application of load produces high impact stresses and excessive noise at high speeds. When helical gears begin to mesh, contact occurs only at the point of the leading edge of the tooth, gradually extending along a diagonal line across the tooth as the gears rotate. The gradual engagement and load application reduce the noise and the dynamic stress so that helical gears may be operated at higher speeds and can sustain greater tangential loads than straight-tooth spur gears of the same size. Bevel gears. All gears previously discussed have had teeth cut or cast on cylindrical pitch surfaces. When the shafts intersect, the pitch surfaces are conical, and the gears are called bevel gears. The shafts intersect at any angle, and the bevel gears may have external or internal contact, and they may have straight or spiral teeth. Unless otherwise toothed and to have the axes intersecting at right angles. Worm gears. The maximum gear ratio advisable with helical gearing is about 10:1. For larger ratios, a gear may be train or double reduction should be used, or a worm and worm gear may be used (Fig.8). Worm and gear sets with ratios from 10:1 up to 100:1 are regularly employed, and ratios as high as 500:1 have been used. The worm and worm wheel, a type of screw gears, is a special case of helical gearing with nonparallel axes, the axes being at right angles. The worm may be cut with a single, double, triple, or quadruple thread. Efficiency of gears. It is generally assumed that the friction loss in gear teeth depends on the tooth profile, pitch-line velocity, surface finish, and lubrication. However, when there is sufficient lubrication to prevent overheating and scoring, the friction appears to be practically independent of the velocity. The finish of the tooth surface is the most important factor in the efficiency of 98 per cent or more. When lubrication is poor, the efficiency may drop as low as 95 per cent. The power loss in the supporting bearings must be considered in addition to the loss in the teeth themselves. Lubrication. To obtain the maximum life, the gears must be supplied with a generous supply of the proper lubricant. The lubricant must maintain an oil film between the teeth and must also carry away the heat of friction, especially from the pinion, which, having more contacts per minute tends to heat faster than the larger gear. The lubricant must be thin enough that penetrate the space between teeth and heavy enough that the pressure will not break the oil film. Oil should be kept clean, since grit and metal dust carried in suspension in the oil will cause abrasive action on the tooth surface. With proper lubrication and correct alignment of the bearings, a good pair of gears will have an indefinite life.

18. BEARINGS
Bearing classification: A bearing is a machine part which supports a moving element and confines its motion. The most important as well as the most common applications of bearings are those in which the relative motion between the members is either a sliding action guided in a straight line as between a planer table and its bed; or the motion is rotation, as in case of a shaft with its axis held in a fixed position by journal bearings, and end wise movement prevented by thrust bearings.
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A journal bearing is one which forms a sleeve around a shaft and supports a load at right angles to the shaft axis. The journal is that part of the shaft which rotates in the bearing. A thrust bearing is one which takes a thrust load in the direction of the axis of the shaft. When worn, the bearing may be restored to its original condition by replacing the liner. The piston pin bearing in an automobile connecting rod is a familiar example of this type of bearing. For ordinary work, light loads, and moderate speeds, unlined cast iron bearings may be used. Ball and roller bearings. Bearings for rotating members may be still further classified into two groups according to the type of support and the relative motion involved. Thus we have plain bearings, in which the shaft journal is supported directly by the bearing surface with which it is in sliding contact, except for the film or lubricant. Another group is ball and roller bearings, in which the journal is separated from the bearing support by balls and rollers. The surface in this case are principally in rolling contact. Ball bearings were developed along with the bicycle toward the end of the last century; roller bearings appeared even later; yet today these machine elements are of tremendous importance. Characteristics of ball and roller bearings. While ball and roller bearings are commonly known as anti friction bearings, and have certain advantages in reducing friction, they have other properties of as great importance. Dependability in service is perhaps their outstanding characteristic. They are less exacting with respect to lubrication than plain bearings. If well filled with grease and protected from dirt and moisture, they will run from three months to a year without attention; they need only additional lubricant. Another characteristic of anti friction bearings is their ability to support heavy overloads for a considerable period of time without sudden failure. There is no extremely great superiority from a standpoint of low operating friction of ball and roller bearings over plain bearings, provided the latter are perfectly lubricated. With imperfect lubrication, however, which is the case for many plain bearings, a considerable reduction in friction is obtained by the use of ball or roller bearings. Lubricants. Since there is relative motion between the contact surfaces, a certain amount of power must be absorbed in overcoming friction; and, if the surfaces actually touch, there will be more or less rapid wear. It is necessary to provide a lubricant to reduce the friction and to eliminate the wear as much as possible. A lubricant is any substance that will form a film between the rubbing surfaces, preventing, to some degree, the actual contact of the surfaces. Oils and greases are the most common lubricants, although water is used in thrust bearings and in bearings of some vertical water wheels where oil lubrication tends to corrode the bearings, water lubricated bearings are usually made of rubber. A few solids (such as graphite, mica, soapstone, talc and other greasy nonabrasive materials) are used as bearing lubricants. When properly used, they fill the cavities, smooth out the irregularities in the surfaces, and reduce the friction and wear below that produced between dry surfaces.

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19. AN INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Electricity comprises those physical phenomena involving electric charges and their effects when at rest and when in motion. Electricity is manifested as a force of attraction, independent of gravitational and nuclear attraction, when two oppositely charged bodies are brought close to one another. It is now known that the elementary (nondivisible) electric charges are possessed by electrons and protons. The charge of the electron is equal in magnitude to that of the proton, but is electrically opposite. The electron's charge is arbitrarily termed negative, and that of the proton, positive. Magnetism, those upon materials, manifests itself in the presence of moving electric charge. For this reason, magnetism was originally considered to be a part of electricity. Electric current is the transfer of electric charge per unit time. It is usually measured in amperes. The passage of electric current involves transfer of energy. Except in the case of superconductivity, a current always heats the medium through which is passes. On the other hand, a stream of electrons or ions in a vacuum, which also may be regarded as an electric current, produces no local heating. All mater may be classified as conducting, semiconducting, or insulating, depending upon with which electric current is transmitted through it. Most metals, electrolytic solutions, and highly ionized gases are conductors. Transition elements such as silicon and germanium are semiconductors, while most other substances are insulators. Conducting current is defined as the transfer of charge by the actual motion of charged particles in a medium. In metals the current is carried by free electrons which migrate through the spaces between the atoms under the influence of an electric field. Although the propagation of energy is a very rapid process, the drift rate of the individual electrons in metals is only of the order of a few centimeters per second. Direct current is electric current which flows is one direction only, as opposed to alternating current. The current may be of constant magnitude (as when produced by a battery), or it may vary with time (as rectified alternating current, or the output from a single pole dc generator) Alternating current is electric current which periodically reverses direction. Usually the current at a given point in a ac circuit varies with time, and the frequency of the current is the number of complete cycles per second. Is one complete cycle, the current goes through one maximum and one minimum value. Similar relations hold for the applied voltage. The standard frequently used in the United States in 60 cycles per second (cps); however, many countries use 50 cps. Advantages over direct current. For commercial use alternating current is superior to direct current because it is possible to increase of decrease the voltage by means of transformers. Electric power can be transmitted long distances at high voltage and low current with very little loss in transit, and then transformed to usable voltages at is destination. This is impossible with direct current. Also, ac generators are simpler in construction than dc generators since they do not require commutators. Nearly all the power industry now makes use of alternating current. Electrolysis is the separation of a chemical compound into its parts by passing an electric current through it. It is a method by which reactions are carried out in solutions of electrolytes or in molten salts by use of electricity. The electrodes of an electrolytic cell are immersed in a a direct current power supply. One of several reactions occurs at each
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electrode when current flows through the cell. Reduction, a reaction in which electrons are consumed, occurs at the electrode called the cathode; oxidation occurs at the anode. Applications are important and varied: industrial production of chemicals, metallurgical extraction of metals, electroplating of metals, metal finishing, and production of electricity in batteries. Metallic corrosion often involves electrolytic processes.

21. PUMPS, COMPRESSORS, AND FANS

The pump is a machine that draws a fluid into itself through an entrance port and forces the fluid out through an exhaust port. A pump may serve to move liquid, as in cross-country pipelines; to lift liquid, as from a well or to the top of a tall building; or to put fluid under pressure, as in a hydraulic brake. These applications depend predominantly upon the discharge characteristics of the pump. A pump may also serve to empty a container, as in a vacuum pump or sump pump, in which case the application depends primarily on its intake characteristics (See Fig. 10.). In mechanical pumps the fluid is conveyed by direct contact with a moving part of the pumping machinery. The two basic types are (1) velocity machines-centrifugal or turbine pumps, which impart energy to the fluid primarily by increasing its velocity, then converting part of this energy into pressure, and (2) displacement machines with pistons, cams or other confining forms which act directly on the fluid, forcing it to flow against a higher pressure. A pump located deep in a well may raise water or oil to the surface. At a ground level location a pump may deliver fluid to a nearby elevated reservoir or, through long pipelines, to a location at similar or different elevation. In a power plant, pumps circulate cooling water or oil at low pressure and transfer water from heaters at moderate pressure to steam generators at pressures of several thousand pounds per square inch. In chemical plants and refineries pumps transfer a great variety of fluids or charge them into reactors at higher pressure. In hydraulic systems, pumps supply energy to a moving stream of oil or water to move a piston or to rotate a shaft as required by the specific process. Principal parts of centrifugal pumps. Centrifugal pumps comprise a very wide class of pumps in which pumping of liquids or generation of pressure is effected by a rotary motion of one or several impellers. Every pump consists of two principal parts an impeller, which forces the liquid into a rotary motion, and the pump casing, which directs the liquid to the impeller and leads it away under a higher pressure. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is supported by bearings and driven through a flexible or rigid coupling by a driver. The compressor is a machine that increases the pressure of a gas, vapor, or a mixture of gases. The pressure of the fluid is increased by reducing the fluid specific volume during passage of the fluid through the compressor. When compared with centrifugal or axial-flow fans on the basis of discharge pressure, compressors are generally classed as high-pressure machines. Compressors are used to increase the pressure of a wide variety of gases and vapors for a multitude of purposes. A common application is the air compressor used to supply highpressure air for materials conveying, paint spraying, tire inflating, cleaning, pneumatic tools, and rock drills. Next is the refrigeration compressor, used to compress the gas formed in the evaporator. Other applications of compressors include chemical processing, gas transformation, gas turbines, and construction. A fan moves gases by producing a low compression ratio as in ventilation and pneumatic conveying of materials. Mechanical fans are used in systems for ventilating, heating and airconditioning of buildings; for cooling and drying different materials and products; for cooling
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internal-combustion engines; for dust exhaust; for conveying light materials; and for induced and forced draft for steam boilers. In a fan the change in fluid density is so small that the gas is regarded as incompressible. A fan develops a relatively low pressure difference of the order of a few inches of water to less than one pound per square inch. As a contrast, in an air or gas compressor the density change is appreciable; the pressure developed by the compressor is measured in pounds per square inch instead of inches of water.

23. THE STEAM ENGINE

Why does steam exert force? In all gases the molecules move rapidly. The higher the temperature of a gas, the more rapidly the molecules move and the harder they strike against the walls of the containing vessel and against each other. Under atmospheric pressure at sea level, water boils at 212F. But in the steam boiler of a locomotive, where it is possible to maintain a steam pressure of 250 pounds or more per square inch, a temperature of 400F. may be reached. This higher temperature increases the velocity of the molecules of stream, thereby storing up a vast amount of energy. The molecules of compressed steam, now moving at tremendous speed, will rush through an open passage so rapidly that much work can be done before their velocity is greatly reduced. How does the force of steam run an engine? Figure ll shows the action of steam in a steam engine. To operate a steam engine the engineer opens a valve, allowing the steam in the boiler to move through a pipe to the steam chest. From there it flows through channel C to the end of the cylinder compartment maked. The kinetic energy of the steam exerts a force which moves the piston to the left. The steam which was in compartment A is at the same time forced through channel C, and then out through the exhaust. If you have observed a steam locomotive, you have noticed above the connecting rod a smaller rod moving back and forth. This is the eccentric rod, which moves the slide valve shown in the diagram. This slide valve is so constructed as to admit steam first into channel C, then into channel C. When the piston moves to the left, the eccentric rod moves the slide valve to the right at the proper time, connecting channel C with the exhaust but opening channel C into compartment A, forcing the piston to the right, and forcing the used steam from compartment B through channel C out through the exhaust. Again at the proper time, the eccentric rod returns the slide valve to the left. Thus we have followed the steam into the cylinder and out again while the flywheel operated by the connecting rod makes one complete revolution. The steam turbine. This is the latest type of steam engine. It is used in great ocean liners, in power plants, and wherever a vast amount of steam power is needed. It consists of four fundamental parts: the rotor, which carries the blades or buckets; the stator consisting of cylinder and casing, which are often combined, and within which the rotor turns; the nozzles or flow passages for the steam, which are generally fixed to the inside of the cylinder; and the frame or base for supporting both the stator and rotor, the latter being carried in bearings. Cylinder, casing, and frame are often combined, particularly in small turbines. Accessories necessary for the successful continuous commercial operation are a controlling or governing system for adjusting the energy supply to the turbine to suit the load to be carried and for maintaining constant speed; a lubricating system, piping for steam supply and exhaust, and (for economical power generation in large quantities) a condensing system.
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Multi staging a steam turbine does not change the principle of operation. The only reason for adding stages is to increase the efficiency of the turbine at any given speed, and, as any stage has its best efficiency under certain conditions of speed and pressures, it is usually necessary to multistage the turbine to obtain the high efficiencies required today. The distinguishing difference between impulse and reaction turbines is that in the impulse turbine there is no appreciable expansion of steam in considerable expansion of the steam in the moving blades. Furthermore, it follows that in impulse turbines there is practically no difference between the pressure of the steam entering the moving blades and that of the steam leaving them, whereas in a reaction turbine there is a difference between these entering and leaving pressures.

24. THE GASOLINE AND DIESEL ENGINES

The gasoline engine is used in automobiles, trucks, tractors, motor-boats and airplanes. When a gasoline engine is running, use is being made of the force of expanding gases. The liquid gasoline is passed through a device called a carburetor, where it is changed from a liquid into a gas and at the same time mixed with air. This mixture of gasoline vapor and air is forced into the expanding gas, caused by the explosion of the mixture, is used to run the engine. The strokes of the piston. Practically all automobiles today are propelled by four-stroke (or four-cycle) engines; that is, there are four strokes of the piston for each explosion in the cylinder. The first stroke is the suction (or intake) stroke, during which the piston moves downward, creating a partial vacuum in the cylinder. To fill the partial vacuum a mixture of air and gasoline vapor from the carburetor is forced by air pressure through the intake valve into the top of the cylinder. The second stroke is the compression stroke. During this stroke both valves are closed, and piston moves upward and compresses the mixture of gases. In the third stroke, called the power stroke, both valves remain closed. After the mixture of gases has been compressed, an electric spark produced between the two points of a sparkplug explodes the mixture of gases, and the force of expanding gas sends the piston down with great strength. During the fourth stroke, called the exhaust stroke, the piston moves upward and the exhaust valve opens. The upward motion of the piston forces the burned gases out through the valve and an exhaust pipe containing a muffler. The cooling system. Part of the heat heats the engine. In order to remove heat from the engine so that it will not become overheated, a cooling system is necessary. The cooling system usually provides a circulation of water through a radiator and around the cylinders by means of a water pump. As the water (or some other cooling liquid) circulates, it takes heat from the engine; and as it passes through the radiator, it loses heat. Some types of gasoline engine are air-cooled. Diesel engines. The construction features of a high-speed diesel engine are almost identical with those of the gasoline engine. Diesel engines are used for trucks, buses, tractors, locomotives, and marine installations. They may also be used for passenger-car transportation. Instead of using gasoline for power, they use a heavy oil called fuel oil. Air is compressed in the cylinder, then fuel oil is injected, and ignition is instantaneous or spontaneous. Compressing air or any other gas raises its temperature. The compression pressure in the head of a gasoline engine rarely exceeds 120 pounds per square inch. In the diesel engine the pressure on the air in the cylinder head may be as great as 500 psi. This great pressure
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makes the air very hot, and the heat is sufficient to ignite the true fuel when it is injected. No electric spark is used in the true diesel, but modified forms of diesel engines use spark ignition.

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