ORIBELLO

Chapter 22: Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life

Evolution: y y y y Descent with modification A change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation A pattern: revealed by data from a range of scientific disciplines A Process: consists of the mechanisms that produce the observed pattern of change

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y Aristotle: o 384-322 BC o Viewed species as fixed (unchanging) o Scala naturae, scale of nature, life-forms could be arranged on a ladder of increasing complexity Carolus Linnaeus o 1707 1778 o Developed the two-part, or binomial, system of naming organisms according to genus and species o Adopted a nested classification system, grouping similar species into increasingly general categories Fossils: the remains or traces of organisms from the past o New layers of sediment cover older ones and compress them into superimposed layers of rock call strata. o Paleontology: the study of fossils largely developed by Georges Cuvier (1769-1832)  Advocated catastrophism, the principle that events in the past occurred suddenly and were caused by mechanisms different from those operating in the present. o 1795, James Hutton (1726-1797) proposed that Earth`s geologic features could be explained by gradual mechanisms still operating. o Charles Lyell (1797-1875) incorporated Hutton`s thinking into his principle of uniformitarianism, which stated that mechanisms of change are constant over time. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck o 1744-1829  Use and disuse: the idea that parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those that are not used deteriorate. 1

ORIBELLO Inheritance of acquired characteristics: stated that an organism could pass these modifications to its offspring. Wrong, but deserves credit for recognizing that the match of organisms to their environments can be explained by gradual evolutionary change. 

22.2)
Charles Darwin: y y 1809 1882 Voyage of the Beagle: o Darwin spent most of his time collecting plants and animals and noting their differences in the characteristics that made them suitable for their environment o Earthquake = rocks containing fossils must have been raised there by a series of similar earthquakes.  Reinforced Lyell`s information: The physical evidence did not support the traditional view of a static Earth only a few thousand years old. o THE GALAPAGOS  Collected many different mockingbirds with different adaptations  FOCUS ON ADAPTATIONS: y Adaptation: characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific environments y Natural Selection: a process in which individuals with certain inherited traits leave more offspring than individuals with other traits. The Origin of Species o Two main ideas:  1) descent with modification explains life`s unity and diversity  2) natural selection brings about the match between organisms and their environment y Viewed history of life as a tree, with multiple branchings from a common trunk out to the tips of the youngest twigs. y Tips of the twigs represent the diversity of organisms living in the present. y Each fork of the tree represents an ancestor of all the lines of evolution that subsequently branch from that point. o Humans have modified other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits: artificial selection.

OBSERVATIONS: o Individuals in a population vary in their heritable characteristics. o Organisms produce more offspring than the environment can support. 2

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INFERENCES: o Individuals that are well suited to their environment tend to leave more offspring than other individuals. o Over time, favorable traits accumulate in the population. Natural Selection Summary: o Natural selection is a process in which individuals that have certain heritable characteristics survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals. o Over time, natural selection can increase the match between organisms and their environment. o If an environment changes, or if individuals move to a new environment, natural selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions, sometimes giving rise to new species in the process.  Key points: y Individuals do not evolve, populations evolve. y Natural selection can amplify or diminish only heritable traits traits that are passed from organisms to their offspring. y Environmental factors vary from place to place and over time a trait that is favorable in one place or time may be useless or even detrimental in other places or times. o Natural selection is always operating, but which traits are favored depends on the environmental context.

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Four types of data that document the pattern of evolution and illuminate the processes by which it occurs: y y y y Direct observations of evolution The fossil record Homology Biogeography

1. Direct observations: y Predators are a potent force in shaping the adaptations of their food source. y They are most likely to feed on prey individuals that are least able to avoid detection, escape, or defend themselves. y Results: decrease in the prey`s ability to reproduce and pass their traits to their offspring. o John Endler:  Studied impact of predators on guppies.  No two males look alike.  Female guppies are attracted to males with bright colors. 3

ORIBELLO Predict that predators would eat more of the brightly colored fish Intense predation caused natural selection in male guppies, favoring the trait of drab coloration. Drug-Resistant HIV Drug-resistant viruses that survive the early doses pass on the alleles that enable them to resist the drug to their progeny, rapidly increasing the frequency of resistant viruses. KEY POINTS: o Natural selection is a process of editing rather than a creative mechanism. o Natural selection depends on time and place.  Favors those characteristics in a genetically variable population that provide advantage in the current, local environment.  

y y y

2. The Fossil Record: y Shows that past organisms differed from present-day organisms and that many species have become extinct. y Show evolutionary changes that have occurred over time in various groups of organisms. y Document the origins of major new groups of organisms. y Can also be used to test evolutionary hypotheses arising from other kinds of evidence. 3. Homology: y Analyzing similarities among different organisms. y Related species can have characteristics with an underlying similarity even though they may have very different functions: similarity from common ancestry is known as homology. y The underlying skeletons of the arms, forelegs, flippers and wings of different mammals are homologous structures that represent variations on a structural theme that was present in their common ancestor. y Comparing early stages of development in different animal species also reveals additional anatomical homologies not visible in adult organisms o such as all vertebrae embryos having a tail and pharyngeal pouches. o Not all vertebrae show tails and the pharyngeal pouches may function differently in each organism. leftover structures of marginal importance to the organism: vestigial structures are remnants of features that served important functions in the organism`s ancestors. Observations among similarities at the molecular level: o All forms of life use the same genetic language of DNA and RNA o Genetic code is essentially universal. Biologists often represent the pattern of descent from common ancestors and the resulting homologies with an evolutionary tree, a diagram that reflects evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms. 4

ORIBELLO o They are hypotheses that summarize our current understand of patterns of descent. CONVERGENT EVOLUTION: the independent evolution of similar features in different lineages.  Sugar glider in Australia is superficially very similar to flying squirrels in North America.  Sugar glider has many other characteristics that make it a marsupial and not a eutherian.  In such examples in which species share features because of convergent evolution, the resemblance is said to be analogous, not homologous.

4. Biogeography: y The geographic distribution of species. y Continental drift: the slow movement of Earth`s continents over time. y 250 million years ago, these movements united all of Earth`s landmasses into a single large continent: PANGAEA. y Evolution and continental drift can be used to understand and predict where fossils of different groups of organisms might be found. y Also use understanding of evolution to explain biogeographic data. o Example: islands generally have many species of plants and animals that are endemic, they are found nowhere else in the world. o Islands are colonized by species from the nearest mainland which give rise to new species as they adapt to their new environments.