102 L4 Prop

Chapter 4 Section A
Physical Principles of Physical Principles of Propagation Propagation
October, 1997
RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter
4 -1
Introduction to Propagation
I Propagation is a key process within every radio link. During propagation, many processes act on the radio signal. attenuation the signal amplitude is reduced by various natural mechanisms; if there is too much attenuation, the signal will fall below the reliable detection threshold at the receiver. Attenuation is the most important single factor in propagation. multipath and group delay distortions the signal diffracts and reflects off irregularly shaped objects, producing a host of components which arrive in random timings and random RF phases at the receiver. This blurs pulses and also produces intermittent signal cancellation and reinforcement. These effects are combatted through a variety of special techniques time variability - signal strength and quality varies with time, often dramatically space variability - signal strength and quality varies with location and distance frequency variability - signal strength and quality differs on different frequencies I Effective masteryof propagation relies on Physics: understand the basic propagation processes Measurement: obtain data on propagation behavior in area of interest Statistics: characterize what is known, extrapolate to predict the unknown Modelmaking: formalize all the above into useful models
October, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 4 -2
Propagation Effects of Earths Atmosphere

I Earths unique atmosphere supports life (ours included) and also introduces many propagation effects -- some useful, some troublesome I Skywave Propagation: reflection from Ionized Layers LF and HF frequencies (below roughly 50 MHz.) are routinely reflected off layers of the upper atmosphere which become ionized by the sun this phenomena produces intermittent worldwide propagation and occasional total outages this phenomena is strongly correlated with frequency, day/night cycles, variations in earths magnetic field, 11-year sunspot cycle these effects are negligible for wireless systems at their much-higher frequencies
More Atmospheric Propagation Effects

Rain Fades on MIcrowave Links I Attenuation at Microwave Frequencies rain droplets can substantially attenuate RF signals whose wavelengths are comparable to, or smaller than, droplet size rain attenuations of 20 dB. or more per km. are possible troublesome mainly above 10 GHz., and in tropical areas must be considered in reliability calculations during path design not major factor in wireless systems propagation I Diffraction, Wave Bending, Ducting signals 50-2000 MHz. can be bent or reflected at boundaries of different air density or humidity phenomena: very sporadic unexpected longdistance propagation beyond the horizon. May last minutes or hours can occur in wireless systems
RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter 4 -4
Refraction by air layers
Ducting by air layers

>100 mi.
October, 1997
Influence of Wavelength on Propagation

I Radio signals in the atmosphere propagate at almost speed of light
= wavelength C = distance propagated in 1 second F = frequency, Hertz
=C/F
= 0.345 m = 13.6 inches
for PCS-1900: for AMPS: F= 870 MHz F = 1960 MHz
= 0.153 m = 6.0 inches
I The wavelength of a radio signal determines many of its propagation characteristics

Antenna elements size are typically in the order of 1/4 to 1/2 wavelength Objects bigger than a wavelength can reflect or obstruct RF energy RF energy can penetrate into a building or vehicle if they have apertures a wavelength in size, or larger
4 -5
/2
October, 1997
Dominant Mechanisms of Mobile Propagation

Free Space
A D B d
with partial cancellation
Reflection
Knife-edge Diffraction
Most propagation in the mobile environment is dominated by these three mechanisms: I Free space No reflections, no obstructions first Fresnel Zone clear Signal spreading is only mechanism Signal decays 20 dB/decade I Reflection Reflected wave 180out of phase Reflected wave not attenuated much Signal decays 30-40 dB/decade I Knife-edge diffraction Direct path is blocked by obstruction Additional loss is introduced Formulae available for simple cases I Well explore each of these further...
4 -6
October, 1997
Free-Space Propagation
r I The simplest propagation mode Antenna radiates energy which spreads in space Path Loss, db (between two isotropic antennas) = 36.58 +20*Log10(FMHZ)+20Log10(DistMILES ) Path Loss, db (between two dipole antennas) = 32.26 +20*Log10(FMHZ)+20Log10(DistMILES ) Notice the rate of signal decay: 6 db per octave of distance change, which is 20 db per decade of distance change I Free-Space propagation is applicable if: there is only one signal path (no reflections) the path is unobstructed (i.e., first Fresnel zone is not penetrated by obstacles)
Free Space Spreading Loss energy intercepted by receiving antenna is proportional to 1/r2
d A D
1st Fresnel Zone

B First Fresnel Zone = {Points P where AP + PB - AB < /2 } Fresnel Zone radius d = 1/2 (D)^(1/2)
4 -7
October, 1997
Reflection With Partial Cancellation

Heights Exaggerated for Clarity HTFT
HTFT
I Mobile environment characteristics: Small angles of incidence and reflection Reflection is unattenuated (reflection coefficient =1) Reflection causes phase shift of 180 degrees I Analysis Physics of the reflection cancellation predicts signal decay of 40 dB per decade of distance Path Loss [dB ]= 172 + 34 x Log (DMiles ) - 20 x Log (Base Ant. HtFeet) - 10 x Log (Mobile Ant. HtFeet) SCALE PERSPECTIVE
DMILES
Assumptions: Flat earth, TX ERP = 50 dBm, @ 1950 MHz. Base Ht = 200 ft, Mobile Ht = 5 ft.
Comparison of Free-Space and Reflection Propagation Modes

1 -52.4 -69.0 2 -58.4 -79.2 4 -64.4 -89.5 6 -67.9 -95.4 8 -70.4 -99.7 10 -72.4
-103.0
DistanceMILES
Received Signal in Free Space, DBM Received Signal in Reflection Mode
15 -75.9
-109.0
20 -78.4
-113.2
4 -8
October, 1997
Signal Decay Rates in Various Environments

Signal Level vs. Distance
0
-10
-20
-30 -40 1 2 3.16 5 6 7 8 Distance, Miles of distance (10x) 10
One Octave of distance (2x)
One Decade
Weve seen how the signal decays with distance in two basic modes of propagation: I Free-Space 20 dB per decade of distance 6 db per octave of distance I Reflection Cancellation 40 dB per decade of distance 12 db per octave of distance I Real-life wireless propagation decay rates are typically somewhere between 30 and 40 dB per decade of distance
October, 1997
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Knife-Edge Diffraction
I Sometimes a single well-defined obstruction blocks the path, introducing additional loss. This calculation is fairly easy and can be used as a manual tool to estimate the effects of individual obstructions. I First calculate the diffraction parameter from the geometry of the path I Next consult the table to obtain the obstruction loss in db I Add this loss to the otherwisedetermined path loss to obtain the total path loss. I Other losses such as free space and reflection cancellation still apply, but computed independently for the path as if the obstruction did not exist
4 -10
R1
= -H
2
R2
(R
1
1 R2
0 -5 atten -10 dB -15 -20 -25 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
October, 1997
Local Variability: Multipath Effects

I The free-space, reflection, and diffraction mechanisms described earlier explain signal level variations on a large scale, but other mechanisms introduce small-scale local fading I Slow Fading occurs as the user moves over hundreds of wavelengths due to shadowing by local obstructions I Rapid Fading occurs as signals received from many paths drift into and out of phase the fades are roughly /2 apart in space: 7 inches apart at 800 MHz., 3 inches apart at 1900 MHz fades also appear in the frequency domain and time domain fades are typically 10-15 db deep, occasionally deeper Rayleigh distribution is a good model for these fades I these fades are often called Rayleigh fades
4 -11
Multi-path Propagation
Rayleigh Fading
A
/2 10-15 dB
October, 1997
Combating Rayleigh Fading: Space Diversity

D
Signal received by Antenna 1 Signal received by Antenna 2 Combined Signal

October, 1997
I Fortunately, Rayleigh fades are very short and last a small percentage of the time I Two antennas separated by several wavelengths will not generally experience fades at the same time I Space Diversity can be obtained by using two receiving antennas and switching instantby-instant to whichever is best I Required separation D for good decorrelation is 10-20 12-24 ft. @ 800 MHz. 5-10 ft. @ 1900 MHz.
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Space Diversity Application Limitations

D
Signal received by Antenna 1 Signal received by Antenna 2 Combined Signal

October, 1997
I Space Diversity can be applied only on the receiving end of a link. I Transmitting on two antennas would: fail to produce diversity, since the two signals combine to produce only one value of signal level at a given point -- no diversity results. produce objectionable nulls in the radiation at some angles I Therefore, space diversity is applied only on the uplink, i.e.., reverse path there isnt room for two sufficiently separated antennas on a mobile or handheld
4 -13
Where Space Diversity Isnt Convenient

I Sometimes zoning considerations or aesthetics preclude using separate diversity receive antennas I Dual-polarized antenna pairs within a single radome are becoming popular Environmental clutter scatters RF energy into all possible polarizations Differently polarized antennas receive signals which fade independently In urban environments, this is almost as good as separate space diversity I Antenna pair within one radome can be V-H polarized, or diagonally polarized Each individual array has its own independent feedline Feedlines connected to BTS diversity inputs in the conventional way; TX duplexing OK
Using Polarization Diversity
V+H or \+/
A B
A B Antenna A Antenna B Combined
October, 1997
The Reciprocity Principle

Does it apply to Wireless?
-148.21 db @ 870.03 MHz
-148.21 db @ 870.03 MHz
-151.86 db @ 835.03 MHz

October, 1997
Between two antennas, on the same exact frequency, path loss is the same in both directions I But things arent exactly the same in cellular - transmit and receive 45 MHz. apart antenna: gain/frequency slope? different Rayleigh fades up/downlink often, different TX & RX antennas RX diversity I Notice also the noise/interference environment may be substantially different at the two ends I So, reciprocity holds only in a general sense for cellular
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Chapter 4 Section B
Propagation Models Propagation Models
October, 1997
4 -16
Types Of Propagation Models And Their Uses

Examples of various model types
I Simple Analytical models
Used for understanding and predicting individual paths and specific obstruction cases Primary drivers: statistical Used for early system dimensioning (cell counts, etc.) Primary drivers: analytical Used for detailed coverage analysis and cell planning Primary drivers: statistical Characterizes microscopic level fluctuations in a given locale, confidence-of-service probability
I Simple Analytical
Free space (Friis formula) Reflection cancellation Knife-edge diffraction Okumura-Hata Euro/Cost-231 Walfisch-Betroni/Ikegami
I General Area models
I Area
I Point-to-Point models
I Point-to-Point
I Local Variability models
Ray Tracing - Lees Method, others Tech-Note 101 Longley-Rice, Biby-C Rayleigh Distribution Normal Distribution Joint Probability Techniques
I Local Variability
October, 1997
4 -17
General Principles Of Area Models

-50 -60 -70 -80 +90 +80 +70
RSSI, -90 dBm

-100 -110 -120 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33
Field Strength, +50 dBV/m

+60 +40 +30 +20
Distance from Cell Site, km
I Green Trace shows actual measured signal strengths on a drive test radial, as determined by real-world physics. I Red Trace shows the Okumura-Hata prediction for the same radial. The smooth curve is a good fit for real data. However, the signal strength at a specific location on the radial may be much higher or much lower than the simple prediction.
October, 1997
I Area models mimic an average path in a defined area I Theyre based on measured data alone, with no consideration of individual path features or physical mechanisms I Typical inputs used by model: Frequency Distance from transmitter to receiver Actual or effective base station & mobile heights Average terrain elevation Morphology correction loss (Urban, Suburban, Rural, etc.) I Results may be quite different than observed on individual paths in the area
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The Okumura Model: General Concept

70 100 Median Attenuation A(f,d), dB 80 50 70 d, km Urban Area (dB) 35 30 25 20 15
area Open
Correction factor, Garea
area pen asi o Qu

rea an a urb Sub
40 30 26 5 2 1 10 100 500 Frequency f, MHz 850 3000
10 9 dB 5
850 MHz 100 200 300 500 700 1000 Frequency f, (MHz) 2000 3000
The Okumura model is based on detailed analysis of exhaustive drive-test measurements made in Tokyo and its suburbs during the late 1960s and early 1970s. The collected date included measurements on numerous VHF, UHF, and microwave signal sources, both horizontally and vertically polarized, at a wide range of heights. The measurements were statistically processed and analyzed with respect to almost every imaginable variable. This analysis was distilled into the curves above, showing a median attenuation relative to free space loss Amu (f,d) and correlation factor Garea (f,area), for BS antenna height ht = 200 m and MS antenna height hr = 3 m. Okumura has served as the basis for high-level design of many existing wireless systems, and has spawned a number of newer models adapted from its basic concepts and numerical parameters.
Structure of the Okumura Model

Path Loss [dB] = LFS + Amu(f,d) - G(Hb) - G(Hm) - Garea
Free-Space Path Loss Morphology Gain 0 dense urban 5 urban 10 suburban 17 rural
35 70 Median Attenuation A(f,d), dB 100 80 70 d, km 50 Correction factor, Garea (dB) 30 25 20 15 10 5 850 MHz Frequency f, MHz 100 500 850 3000 100 200 300 500 700 1000 2000 3000 Frequency f, (MHz)
Open area
Amu(f,d) Additional Median Loss from Okumuras Curves

Urban Area
Mobile Station Height Gain = 10 x Log (Hm/3) Base Station Height Gain = 20 x Log (Hb/200)
si o Qu a
pen
area
40 30 26 5 2 1 10
a ur b Sub
r ea na
I The Okumura Model uses a combination of terms from basic physical mechanisms and arbitrary factors to fit 1960-1970 Tokyo drive test data I Later researchers (HATA, COST231, others) have expressed Okumuras curves as formulas and automated the computation
The Hata Model: General Concept

I The Hata model is an empirical formula for propagation loss derived from Okumuras model, to facilitate automatic calculation. I The propagation loss in an urban area is presented in a simple general format A + B x log R, where A and B are functions of frequency and antenna height, R is distance between BS and MS antennas I The model is applicable to frequencies 100 MHz-1500 MHz, distances 1-20 km, BS antenna heights 30-200 m, MS antenna heights 1-10 m I The model is simplified due to following limitations: Isotropic antennas Quasi-smooth (not irregular) terrain Urban area propagation loss is presented as the standard formula Correction equations are used for other areas I Although Hata model does not imply path-specific corrections, it has significant practical value and provide predictions which are very closely comparable with Okumuras model
October, 1997
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Hata Model General Concept and Formulas

(1) LHATA (urban) [dB] =69.55 + 26.16 x log ( f ) + [ 44.9 - 6.55 x log ( hb ) ] x log ( d ) -13.82 x log ( hb ) - A ( hm ) (2) LHATA (suburban) [dB] = LHATA (urban) - 2 x [ log ( f/28 ) ]2 - 5.4 (3) LHATA (rural) [dB] =LHATA (urban) - 4.78 x [ log ( f ) ]2 - 18.33 x log ( f ) -40.98 (4) A ( hm ) [dB] = [ 11 x log ( f ) - 0.7 ] x hm - [ 1.56 x log ( f ) - 0.8 ] (5) A ( hm ) [dB] = 8.29 x [ log ( 1.54 x hm ) ]2 - 1.1 (for f<= 300 MHz.) (6) A ( hm ) [dB] = 3.2 x [ log ( 1175 x hm ) ]2 - 4.97 (for f > 300 MHz.)
Formulas for median path loss are: (1) - Standard formula for urban areas (2) - For suburban areas (3) - For rural areas Formulas for MS antenna ht. gain correction factor A(hm) (4) - For a small to medium sizes cities (5) and (6) - For large cities
f - carrier frequency, MHz hb and hm - BS and MS antenna heights, m d - distance between BS and MS antennas, km
Environmental Factor C 0 dense urban -5 urban -10 suburban -17 rural
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October, 1997
The EURO COST-231 Model

LCOST (urban) [dB] = 46.3 + 33.9 x log ( f ) + [ 44.9 - 6.55 x log ( hb ) ] x log ( d ) + Cm -13.82 x log ( hb ) - A ( hm )
The COST-231 model was developed by European COoperative for Scientific and Technical Research committee. It extends the HATA model to the 1.8-2 GHz. band in anticipation of PCS use. I COST-231 is applicable for frequencies 1500-2000 MHz, distances 1-20 km, BS antenna heights 30-200 m, MS antenna heights 1-10 m I Parameters and variables: f is carrier frequency , in MHz hb and hm are BS and MS antenna heights (m) d is BS and MS separation, in km A(hm) is MS antenna height correction factor (same as in Hata model) Cm is city size correction factor: Cm=0 dB for suburbs and Cm=3 dB for metropolitan centers
October, 1997 RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter
Environmental Factor C 1900 -2 dense urban -5 urban -10 suburban -26 rural
4 -23
Examples of Morphological Zones

I Suburban: Mix of residential and business communities. Structures include 1-2 story houses 50 feet apart and 2-5 story shops and offices. I Urban: Urban residential and office areas (Typical structures are 5-10 story buildings, hotels, hospitals, etc.)
I Dense Urban: Dense business districts with skyscrapers (10-20 stories and above) and high-rise apartments
Suburban
Suburban
Urban
Urban
Dense Urban
Dense Urban
Although zone definitions are arbitrary, the examples and definitions illustrated above are typical of practice in North American PCS designs.
Example Morphological Zones

Rural - Highway Rural - Highway
Rural
Rural
Suburban
Suburban
I Rural - Highway: Highways near open farm land, large open spaces, and sparsely populated residential areas. Typical structures are 1-2 story houses, barns, etc. I Rural - In-town: Open farm land, large open spaces, and sparsely populated residential areas. Typical structures are 1-2 story houses, barns, etc.
Notice how different zones may abruptly adjoin one another. In the case immediately above, farm land (rural) adjoins built-up subdivisions (suburban) -- same terrain, but different land use, penetration requirements, and anticipated traffic densities.
The MSI Planet General Model

Pr = Pt + K1 + k2 log(d) + k3 log(Hb) + K4 DL + K5 log(Hb) log(d) + K6 log (Hm) + Kc + Ko Pr - received power (dBm) Pt - transmit ERP (dBm) Hb - base station effective antenna height Hm - mobile station effective antenna height DL - diffraction loss (dB) K2 - slope K1 - intercept K3 - correction factor for base station antenna height gain K4 - correction factor for diffraction loss (accounts for clutter heights) K5 - Okumura-Hata correction factor for antenna height and distance K6 - correction factor for mobile station antenna height gain Kc - correction factor due to clutter at mobile station location Ko - correction factor for street orientation This is the general model format used in MSIs popular PlaNET propagation prediction software for wireless systems. It includes terms similar to Okumura-Hata and COST-231 models, along with additional terms to include effects of specific obstructions and clutter on specific paths in the mobile environment.
Typical Model Results Including Environmental Correction

COST-231/Hata
f =1900 MHz. Dense Urban Urban Suburban Rural Tower Height, m 30 30 30 50 Tower Height, m 30 30 30 50 EIRP (watts) 200 200 200 200 EIRP (watts) 200 200 200 200 C, Range, dB km 0 -5 -10 -17 2.52 3.50 4.8 10.3
Okumura/Hata
f = 870 MHz. Dense Urban Urban Suburban Rural
October, 1997
C, Range, dB km -2 -5 -10 -26 4.0 4.9 6.7 26.8

4 -27
Propagation at 1900 MHz. vs. 800 MHz.

I Propagation at 1900 MHz. is similar to 800 MHz., but all effects are more pronounced. Reflections are more effective Shadows from obstructions are deeper Foliage absorption is more attenuative Penetration into buildings through openings is more effective, but absorbing materials within buildings and their walls attenuate the signal more severely than at 800 MHz. I The net result of all these effects is to increase the contrast of hot and cold signal areas throughout a 1900 MHz. system, compared to what would have been obtained at 800 MHz. I Overall, coverage radius of a 1900 MHz. BTS is approximately two-thirds the distance which would be obtained with the same ERP, same antenna height, at 800 MHz.
October, 1997
4 -28
Walfisch-Betroni/Walfisch-Ikegami Models
I Ordinary Okumura-type models do work in this environment, but the Walfisch models attempt to improve accuracy by exploiting the actual propagation mechanisms involved
Path Loss = LFS + LRT + LMS LFS = free space path loss (Friis formula) LRT = rooftop diffraction loss LMS = multiscreen reflection loss
Signal Level Legend
-20 dBm -30 dBm -40 dBm -50 dBm -60 dBm -70 dBm -80 dBm -90 dBm -100 dBm -110 dBm -120 dBm
Area View
I Propagation in built-up portions of cities is dominated by ray diffraction over the tops of buildings and by ray channeling through multiple reflections down the street canyons
October, 1997
4 -29
Distribution Statistics Concept

Signal Strength Predicted Vs. Observed
Statistical Techniques
I An area model predicts signal strength Vs. distance over an area This is the median or most probable signal strength at every distance from the cell The actual signal strength at any real location is determined by local physical effects, and will be higher or lower It is feasible to measure the observed median signal strength M and standard deviation M and can be applied to find probability of receiving an arbitrary signal level at a given distance
October, 1997
Signal Strength predicted by area model Observed Signal Strength
RSSI, dBm
Distance Normal Distribution
Occurrences
RSSI Median Signal Strength
dB
4 -30
Practical Application Of Distribution Statistics

I General Approach: Use a model to predict RSSI 10 % of loca ions exceed t Compare measurements with model th s RSSI i obtain median signal strength M 50 % RSSI , obtain standard deviation 90 % dBm now apply correction factor to obtain field strength required for desired probability of service I Applications: Given Dis tance A desired outdoor signal level (dbm) The observed standard deviation Normal Occur rences from signal strength measurements Dis ibut tr ion A desired percentage of locations which must receive that signal level RSSI Median Compute a cushion in dB which will Signa l give us that % coverage confidence
St th reng Percentage o l t ons where f oca i observed RSSI exceeds pred ted ic RSSI
Statistical Techniques
dB
Area Availability And Probability Of Service

I Overall probability of service is best close to the BTS, and decreases with increasing distance away from BTS Statistical View of I For overall 90% location probability within cell Cell Coverage coverage area, probability will be 75% at cell edge Result derived theoretically, confirmed in 75% modeling with propagation tools, and observed from measurements 90% True if path loss variations are log-normally distributed around predicted median values, as in mobile environment 90%/75% is a commonly-used wireless numerical coverage objective Area Availability: 90% overall within area Recent publications by Nortels Dr. Pete 75%at edge of area Bernardin describe the relationship between area and edge reliability, and the field measurement techniques necessary to demonstrate an arbitrary degree of coverage reliability
Cell Edge
Application Of Distribution Statistics: Example

I Lets design a cell to deliver at least 95 dBm to at least 75% of the Cumulative Normal Distribution locations at the cell edge 100% (This will provide coverage to 90% of 90% total locations within the cell) 80% I Assume that measurements you 75% have made show a 10 dB standard 70% deviation 60% I On the chart: 50% To serve 75% of locations at the 40% cell edge , we must deliver a 30% median signal strength which is 20% .675 times stronger than -95 0.675 dBm 10% Calculate: 0% - 95 dBm + ( .675 x 10 dB ) -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 = - 88 dBm Standard Deviations from Median (Average) Signal Strength So, design for a median signal strength of -88 dBm!
Normal Distribution Graph & Table For Convenient Reference

Cumulative Normal Distribution
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Standard Deviation from Mean Signal Strength
Statistical Techniques:
Standard Deviation -3.09 -2.32 -1.65 -1.28 -0.84 -0.52 0 0.52 0.675 0.84 1.28 1.65 2.35 3.09 3.72 4.27
Cumulative Probability 0.1% 1% 5% 10% 20% 30% 50% 70% 75% 80% 90% 95% 99% 99.9% 99.99% 99.999%
October, 1997
4 -34
Statistical Characterization
Building penetration
Building Penetration
Vehicle penetration
Typical Penetration Losses, dB

compared to outdoor street level Environment Type (morphology) Dense Urban Bldg. Urban Bldg. Suburban Bldg. Rural Bldg. Typical Vehicle Median Std. Loss, Dev. dB , dB 20 15 10 10 8 8 8 8 8 4
I Statistical techniques are effective against situations that are difficult to characterize analytically Many analytical parameters, all highly variable and complex I Building coverage is modeled using existing outdoor path loss plus an additional building penetration loss Median value estimated/sampled Statistical distribution determined Standard deviation estimated or measured Additional margin allowed in link budget to offset assumed loss I Typical values are shown at left
4 -35
October, 1997
Adding Multiple Attenuating Mechanisms
Composite Probability Of Service
Building
Outdoor Loss + Penetration Loss
COMPOSITE = ((OUTDOOR)2+( ENETRATION)2)1/2

P
LOSSCOMPOSITE = LOSSOUTDOOR+LOSSPENETRATION I For an in-building user, the actual signal level includes regular outdoor path attenuation plus building penetration loss I Both outdoor and penetration losses have their own variabilities with their own standard deviations I The users overall composite probability of service must include composite median and standard deviation factors
Calculating Fade Margin For Link Budget

I Example Case: Outdoor attenuation is 8 dB., and penetration loss is 8 dB. Desired probability of service is 75% at the cell edge I What is the composite ? How much fade margin is required? COMPOSITE = ((OUTDOOR)2+(PENETRATION)2)1/2
= ((8)2+(8)2)1/2 =(64+64)1/2 =(128)1/2 = 11.31 dB
Cumulative Normal Distribution
100% 90%
Composite Probability of Service
On cumulative normal distribution curve, 75% probability is 0.675 above median. Fade Margin required =
(11.31) (0.675) = 7.63 dB.

Calculating Required Fade Margin Building OutComposite Penetration Door Total Environment Type Median Std. Std. Area Fade (morphology) Loss, Dev. Dev. Availability Margin dB Target, % dB , dB , dB Dense Urban Bldg. 20 8 8 90%/75% @edge 7.6 Urban Bldg. 15 8 8 90%/75% @edge 7.6 Suburban Bldg. 10 8 8 90%/75% @edge 7.6 Rural Bldg. 10 8 8 90%/75% @edge 7.6 Typical Vehicle 8 4 8 90%/75% @edge 6.0
Composite Probability of Service
75%
80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Standard Deviations from Median (Average) Signal Strength
.675
October, 1997
4 -37
Chapter 4 Section C
Commercial Commercial Propagation Prediction Propagation Prediction Software Software
October, 1997
4 -38
Point-To-Point Path-Driven Prediction Models

I Use of models based on deterministic methods
Use of terrain data for construction of path profile Path analysis (ray tracing) for obstruction, reflection analysis Appropriate algorithms applied for best emulation of underlying physics May include some statistical techniques Automated point-to-point analysis for enough points to appear to provide large area coverage on raster or radial grid
I Commonly-used Resources
Terrain databases Morphological/Clutter Databases Databases of existing and proposed sites Antenna characteristics databases Unique user-defined propagation models
October, 1997
Path-Driven Propagation Prediction Tools

Data Structure
Geographic Overlay Format:
I Output Map(s) on screen or plotter
I Cell locations, cell grid I Terrain elevation data I Clutter data
Coverage field strengths @ probability probabilities @ field strength Best-Server C/I (Adjacent Channel & CoChannel) USGS & Commercial databases Satellite or aerial photography Roads, rivers, railroads, etc. State, county, MTA, BTA boundaries
I Traffic density overlay I Land use overlay

4 -40
The World as seen by a Propagation Prediction Tool

Propagation tools use a terrain database, clutter data for land use, and vectors to represent features and traffic levels. The figure at right is a 3-D view of such databases in the area of this demonstration. Notice the granularity of the data and the very mild terrain undulations in the area, exaggerated 8 times in this view.
October, 1997
4 -41
Survey Of Commercially Available Tools

I A wide variety of software tools are available for propagation prediction and system design I Some tools are implemented on PC/DOS/Windows platforms, others on more powerful UNIX platform I Capabilities and user interfaces vary greatly I Several of the better-known tools for cellular RF engineering are shown in the table at right
RF Prediction Software Tools Qualcomm
QEDesign CDMA Tool (Unix)
MSI
PlaNet (Unix) (Unix) (DOS PC) (Unix) (mainframe) (Unix) (DOS PC) (Unix)
LCC
CellCad ANet
CNET
Wings Solutions
ComSearch
MCAP
AT&T
PACE
Motorola
proprietary
TEC Cellular: Wizard (DOS) Elebra: CONDOR, CELTEC Virginia Tech MPRG
SMT-Plus Indoor Site Planning Tool
October, 1997
4 -42
Composite Coverage Plot

I A composite coverage plot shows the overall coverage produced by each sector in the field of view I The color of each pixel corresponds to the signal level of the strongest server at that point I Such plots are useful for identifying coverage holes and overall coverage extent
October, 1997
4 -43
Equal Power Handoff Boundaries Plot

I A Best Server Plot or in CDMA terms, an Equal Power Handoff Boundaries plot paints each pixel with a unique color to identify the best-serving sector at that point the boundaries shown are the equal-power points between cells I This type of plot is extremely useful in creating initial neighbor lists and identifying areas of no dominant server I Some tools (MSI Planet) can generate automatic neighbor lists from such a plot
Qualcomms QEDesign
Qualcomms commercial tool QEDesign offers a number of features targeted at CDMA system design and analysis. The figures above show the output of its microcell propagation analysis tool in the Washington, DC area, and a three-dimensional view of an antenna pattern. Other features of this package include live cursor mode in which the user can drag the cursor about and see in near-real-time the line-of-sight area visible from the selected location, or a coverage footprint calculated from that location.
General Survey Of Tool Features

Universal Basic Features of Most Tools I Automatically calculates signal strength at many points over a geographic area Use databases of terrain data, environmental conditions, land use, building clutter, estimated geographic traffic distribution, etc. User-definable 3-dimensional antenna patterns Automatically analyzes paths, selects appropriate algorithms based on path geometry Produces plots of coverage, C/I, etc. I Used for analysis of sites, interference, frequency planning, C/I evaluation, etc. I Drawback: requires significant computation power, time and RF staff special training
Signal Level Legend
-20 dBm -30 dBm -40 dBm -50 dBm -60 dBm -70 dBm -80 dBm -90 dBm -100 dBm -110 dBm -120 dBm
C/I Legend
>20 dB <20 dB <17 dB <14 dB
4 -46
General Survey Of Tool Features, Continued

A
Popular Features of Advanced Tools I Accepts measurement input, can automatically generate predicted-vsmeasured statistics and map displays I Automatic hexagon-manipulation grid utility I Maintains cell sites in relational database Easy manipulation, import, export I Flexible user interface allows multitasking I Allows multiple user-defined propagation models I Three dimensional terrain view I Roads, boundaries, coastline easily overlaid onto any display
October, 1997
A A A A AA A A A A
A A A
Pred. Meas Mean -76 72 Std. Dv 9 12 Samples 545 545
Area Name: DALLAS Initial Service Subs: 100,000 Date: Site Name Site # Latitude LongitudeType Capacity SITE - 1 SITE - 2 SITE - 3 SITE - 4 SITE - 5 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 33/17/4696/08/33 33/20/0896/11/49 33/16/5096/12/14 33/10/2896/11/51 33/25/2196/03/53 S322 S211 S332 S11 01 77 37 91 8 8
Number of Sites 5
Total Capacity (Erlangs)221
7 9 1 3 2 9 8 6 6 7 3 5 8 3 4 9
8 11 4
10
4 -47

More Popular Advanced Features I Produces plots of server boundaries, C/I plots, handoff boundaries, etc. I Allows interactive change of antenna number, type, orientation, power and tilt I Using growth-scaleable traffic input mask, can predict traffic carried by each site, # channels required Can automatically highlight cells not meeting specified grade of service I Algorithms for automatic frequency planning and optimization I User can define or mask cells to be changed or unchanged during automatic optimization
CELL 14 22 26X 26Y 26Z
ERL Channels 8.3 17 2.1 5 1.7 4 23 31 14 20
2 3 7 1 6 4 5
2 3 7 1 6 4 5
4 -48

More Popular Advanced Features I Identification of server and interferer signal levels in live cursor mode upon graphical coverage display I Generates bin C/I & coverage statistics for system evaluation I Predicted handoff analysis Statistical analysis of most likely handoff candidates Automatic generation of neighbor cell lists Percentage probability of handover I Runs on powerful workstations to minimize computation time
Cell 51 -82 dBm Cell 76 -97 dBm C/I +15 dB
C/I Pct. of Area >20 dB 93.0% <20 dB 7.0% <17 dB 2.2% Cell 18 Cell 24 48% Cell 16 22% Cell 17 18% Cell 05 8% Cell 22 4%
4 -49
Resolution Of Terrain Databases

I Elevation data in terrain databases can be stored in any of several formats: Contour vectors: lines of constant elevation in vector segment form, digitized from topographic maps Elevation sample points on rectangular grids with fixed spacing Elevation sample points on latitude-longitude grids with spacing of a fixed number of arc-seconds Data can be converted from one format to another
10m 10m
3 arc-seconds
3 arc-seconds
October, 1997
4 -50
Resolution Of Terrain Databases, Continued

I It is useful to know the horizontal (North Pole) N90 0 Greenwich, UK spacing in feet between sample points N60 W 30 in a terrain database using arc-seconds, N30 i.e., latitude-longitude spacing W 60 (Equator) 0 I North-South spacing is constant, W 90 S30 everywhere on the planet W 120 S60 1 arc-second = 101.34 feet (South Pole) S90 1 degree = 69.096 miles I East-West sample spacing varies with the cosine of the North Latitude 1 101.34 ft = 101.34 feet/arcsecond sec. at the Equator = 0 feet/arcsecond at Poles 101.34 ft * Cos (N Lat ) = 101.34 ft. * Cos (N Lat) per arcsecond, everywhere
Latitude Longitude
October, 1997
4 -51
Chapter 4 Section D
Commercial Commercial Measurement Tools Measurement Tools
October, 1997
4 -52
Propagation Data Collection Philosophy

I RF testing of sites is usually performed for one of two reasons: I Drive Testing for model calibration Prior to cell design of a wireless system, accurate models of propagation in the area must be developed for use by the prediction software. A significant number of typical sites are evaluated using the test transmitter and receiver to determine signal decay rates and to get a fairly accurate understanding of the effects of typical clutter in the area. Tests are also conducted to evaluate the additional attenuation which the signal suffers during penetration of typical buildings and vehicles. The focus is on developing models generally applicable to the area, not on the performance of specific individual sites. I Drive Testing for site evaluation Although propagation models for an area already have been refined, coverage of a particular site is so critical, or its environment so variable due to urban clutter, that it is essential to actually measure the coverage and interference it will produce. The focus is on this specific site.
CW or Modulated Test Signals?

I Can measurements of unmodulated RF carriers provide adequate propagation data for system design, or is it advisable to use a modulated RF signal similar to the type which will be radiated by actual BTS in the contemplated system? CW (continuous wave, I.e., unmodulated carriers) transmitters are moderately priced ($10K-$25K). CW-only receivers are priced from $5K to over $20K. Technology-specific GSM or CDMA modulated test transmitterreceiver systems are available, at costs in the $100,000$275,000 range per TX-RX system.
Modulated Systems Multiple Sites Simultaneously Propagation Loss Mapping FER, BER statistics Multipath Characteristics Usually no (expensive) Yes Yes Delay Spread CW Systems Yes Yes No
Usually Not. However, DSP post-processing can yield some multipath data using various transforms. (Not commercially available yet.)
4 -54
October, 1997
Summary of Available Commercial Tools

I Measurement data can be collected manually, but it is simply too tedious to obtain statistically useful quantities by hand I There are many commercial data collection systems available to automate the collection process I Many modern propagation prediction software packages have the capability to import measurement data, compare it with predicted values, and generate statistical outputs (mean error, standard deviation, etc.).
Commercial Measurement Systems Grayson Electronics:
Surveyor, Spectrum Tracker Wireless Measurement Instrument Handheld Logger
MLJ
CW test transmitters, receivers
Qualcomm
Mobile Diagnostic Monitor CDMA test TX-RX & analyzer
SAFCO
SmartSAM , SmartSAM Plus*, PROMAS*, CDMA OPAS32
COMARCO
NAS-150, NAS-250, NAS-350
LCC
Cellumate*, RSAT; Walkabout, RSAT 2000 w/expansion chassis* TDMA/AMPS, GPS
ZKSAM - AMPS tools Rohde & Schwarz: GSM Tools

4 -55
October, 1997
Elements of Typical Measurement Systems

Main Features
I Field strength measurement Accurate collection in real-time Multi-channel, averaging capability I Location Data Collection Methods: Global Positioning System (GPS) Dead reckoning on digitized map database using on-board compass and wheel revolutions sensor A combination of both methods is recommended for the best results I Ideally, a system should be calibrated in absolute units, not just raw received power level indications Record normalized antenna gain, measured line loss
October, 1997
Wireless Receiver
GPS Receiver Dead Reckoning
PC or Collector
4 -56
Typical Test Transmitter Operations

I Typical Characteristics portable, low power needs weatherproof or weather resistant regulated power output frequency-agile: synthesized I Operational Concerns spectrum coordination and proper authorization to radiate test signal antenna unobstructed stable AC power SAFETY: people/equipment falling due to wind, or tripping on obstacles electric shock damage to rooftop
A Typical Mobile Test Receiver

I Receivers and decoders are installed Main only for the appropriate technologies On/Off and frequency bands I Internal GPS or external GPS may be used, with or without deadRF to Int. GPS reckoning capabilities
inputs to internal RXs Up to 2 handsets may be connected for GSM or CDMA at 800 or 1900 MHz.
Internal GPS Receiver, if used Up to 4 technology-specific decoder boards: AMPS, TDMA GSM, CDMA Paging
Up to 4 technology and band-specific receivers: 800 MHz. cellular 150, 450, 800 Paging 1900 PCS
4 -58
Selecting and Tuning Propagation Models

I Parameters of propagation models must be adjusted for best fit to actual drive-test measured data in the area where the model is applied I The figure at right shows drivetest signal strengths obtained using a test transmitter at an actual test site I Tools automate the process of comparing the measured data with its own predictions, and deriving error statistics I Prediction model parameters then can be tuned to minimize observed error
Measured Data vs. Model Predictions
I Is the propagation model approximately correct? Is the data scatter small enough to justify use of a model? correct slope to match data correct position up/down on Y-axis?
Analysis of Measured vs. Predicted

I Several tools produce histograms showing the distribution of the differences between measured and predicted values I The mean of the difference between predicted and measured is a very important quantity. It should be small (on order of a few dB). I The standard deviation of the difference also should be small. If it is substantially larger than 8 dB., then either: the environment is very diverse (perhaps it should be broken into pieces with separate models for better fit) or the slope of the model is significantly different than the observed slope of the measurements (review the Sig. vs. Dist. graph)
October, 1997
4 -61
Displaying Error Distribution by Location
I Suppose a major hill blocked the signal in one direction, or the antenna pattern had an unexpected minimum in that direction I This would cause the data in the shadowed region to differ substantially from data in all remaining directions I Some tools can display the error values on a map like the one at right, to provide quick visual evidence for recognizing this type of problem
October, 1997
4 -62

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Chapter 4 Section A

Physical Principles of Physical Principles of Propagation Propagation

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Propagation Effects of Earths Atmosphere

More Atmospheric Propagation Effects

Refraction by air layers

Ducting by air layers

Influence of Wavelength on Propagation

= 0.153 m = 6.0 inches

I The wavelength of a radio signal determines many of its propagation characteristics

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Dominant Mechanisms of Mobile Propagation

with partial cancellation

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

1st Fresnel Zone

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Reflection With Partial Cancellation

Comparison of Free-Space and Reflection Propagation Modes

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Signal Decay Rates in Various Environments

-30 -40 1 2 3.16 5 6 7 8 Distance, Miles of distance (10x) 10

One Octave of distance (2x)

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

0 -5 atten -10 dB -15 -20 -25 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Local Variability: Multipath Effects

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Combating Rayleigh Fading: Space Diversity

Signal received by Antenna 1 Signal received by Antenna 2 Combined Signal

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Space Diversity Application Limitations

Signal received by Antenna 1 Signal received by Antenna 2 Combined Signal

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Where Space Diversity Isnt Convenient

Using Polarization Diversity

A B Antenna A Antenna B Combined

The Reciprocity Principle

-148.21 db @ 870.03 MHz

-148.21 db @ 870.03 MHz

-151.86 db @ 835.03 MHz

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Propagation Models Propagation Models

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Types Of Propagation Models And Their Uses

I Simple Analytical models

I General Area models

I Local Variability models

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

General Principles Of Area Models

RSSI, -90 dBm

Field Strength, +50 dBV/m

Distance from Cell Site, km

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

The Okumura Model: General Concept

area pen asi o Qu

40 30 26 5 2 1 10 100 500 Frequency f, MHz 850 3000

Structure of the Okumura Model

Amu(f,d) Additional Median Loss from Okumuras Curves

The Hata Model: General Concept

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter

Hata Model General Concept and Formulas

RF Engineering 102 v1.0 (c)1997 Scott Baxter