Using Commas

Use a comma--

--to set off introductory words and phrases.

For reasons of safety, only company employees are allowed in the work
area.
Whether the workers like it or not, they must wear hard hats in this
area.
On Wednesday, please try to be at the site by 7:30 a.m.

--when a dependent clause comes first in a complex sentence.

When it is safe, air normally contains about 21% oxygen and 79%
nitrogen.
After you have tested the air and found it safe, it is still prudent to have
a breathing device with you.

--between the clauses linked by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, so, for,
while, yet) in a compound sentence (containing two or more independent clauses).

One worker moved the truck into the on-coming lane, and a second
worker stopped the on-coming traffic.

(Without the comma, a serious accident might result.)

--to set off a nonrestrictive modifier.

Nonrestrictive: Vapor, which is the gaseous phase of a substance, can

be injurious. Restrictive: Vapors or gases that are noxious are directly
or indirectly harmful or destructive to the health or life of humans.
Gases that are non-poisonous may asphyxiate simply by mechanically
excluding oxygen.

--to set off explanatory material or definitions.

Workers must be outfitted with safety gear, hard hat and breathing
equipment, before entering the sewer.

--to separate introductory words or phrases, where confusion might result.

As foreman, Petersen has been a great success.

--to set off an interjection or a transitional element.

Interjection: There are numerous hazards, unfortunately, that can

cause physical injury in waste treatment plants.
 Transition word: An atmosphere containing less than 19.5% oxygen
by volume, however, is decidedly dangerous for humans

--to separate series of words, phrases, or clauses.

Natural gas, gasoline vapors, and hydrogen sulfide are all noxious
hazards in the confined space of a sewer.

The places which are most likely to harbor dangerous noxious gases or
oxygen deficiency are sewers with solid manhole covers, tightly-
covered pits or chambers, and deep tanks or pump suction wells.

Note: The comma before the and in a series is optional. However, most
technical writers use it consistently for clarity.

--to separate a series of coordinate adjectives.

Small, airless underground spaces are particularly susceptible to

noxious gas buildup

Note: The comma here can be seen as taking the place of and. The
words small and airless are called coordinate adjectives in that they
both describe the noun phrase underground spaces. Therefore there is
not comma to set off the word underground.

Do not use a comma--

--to separate two independent clauses…creating a comma splice.

Wrong: The term sewer gas is a misnomer, it is not a single gas.

Correct: The term sewer gas is a misnomer since it is not a single gas.

Wrong: It is actually sewage sludge gas with a high content of carbon

dioxide and varying amounts of methane, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide
and a small amount of oxygen, the hazard is usually from an explosive
mixture of methane and oxygen or from an oxygen deficiency.
Correct: It is actually sewage sludge gas with a high content of carbon
dioxide and varying amounts of methane, hydrogen, hydrogen sulfide
and a small amount of oxygen. The hazard is usually from an explosive
mixture of methane and oxygen or from an oxygen deficiency.

--when it separates a subject from its verb.

Wrong: Detection of an existing gas or vapor hazard and then taking

steps to remove or to protect against it, are the sure ways to prevent
accidents and loss of life.
Correct: Detection of an existing gas or vapor hazard and then taking
steps to remove or to protect against it are the sure ways to prevent
accidents and loss of life.

(c)David Tillyer
Prevention of Physical Injury

This is from a State of New York instruction manual for Waste Treatment Plant
Operators. The capital letters, end punctuation, and commas have been removed. Please
print out these safety instructions and replace the capital letters, end punctuation, and
commas. Then consult the answer key to check your work.

the major cause of injuries is slips and falls tools parts and other things should not be left

lying around grease droppings oil sludge and especially polymers should be cleaned up

as soon as possible warning signs railings and covers in place can protect against low

piping open tanks and open manholes or hatches the simple knowledge of proper lifting

techniques bending the knees and lifting with muscles of the legs can save many strained

or injured backs

Manholes

for work in manholes in streets safety requires full protective measures from traffic

hazards as well as from the hazards of explosive gases hydrogen sulfide or the lack of

oxygen in the manhole or sewer warning signs and barricades should be set up at suitable

distances on each side of the manhole on busy streets it may be desirable to station

workers to flag down and detour fast-moving vehicles on wide multi-lane streets the

service truck can be stationed on the side of the manhole toward on-coming traffic it is

important that sufficient workers be provided for the job at hand there should be at least

two workers at the top when one goes below a cage or guard device around the

manhole adds protection and aids entering and leaving the ventilation hole or lifting
notch

when lifting a manhole cover a pick-axe may slip and cause injury or if struck hard may

give off an igniting spark unless a cover is very heavy it is safer for one person to handle
it alone

before entering a manhole the confined atmosphere should always be tested for the

presence of explosive gases hydrogen sulfide and oxygen deficiency after determining

that the conditions are safe for entry positive forced air ventilation should be started and

operated continually whenever a worker is in the manhole or sewer there should also be

a continuous sampling of the atmosphere with a visual signal alarm device kept near the

worker

before descending into a manhole note should be taken of the width spacing and

arrangement of manhole rungs and if they are staggered particular care must be taken to

get started with the proper foot and to avoid falling steel rungs may lose their galvanizing

and become dangerously corroded each rung should be tested during descent while the

worker distributes weight evenly between feet and arms a safer means of entry would be

to use a manhole ladder which can be carried on the service truck the ladder should

extend about three feet above the street surface as the worker climbs down even with a

separate manhole ladder the worker should use caution as his or her boots may have oil

on the soles causing a fall

Safety Harness

on small sewers no one should enter a manhole deeper than the height of the chin without

wearing an approved parachute-type safety harness with rope attached in an emergency

when a safety belt may not be at hand a stout rope tied snugly under the arms with a
bowline or other non-slip knot may be the means of saving a life in either case at least

two people should be a the top of a manhole at all times when a third worker is inside in

order to handle the life line and help the worker if necessary a safety harness should also

be worn when entering any enclosed spaces around a sewage treatment plant such as

pump suction wells empty digestion tanks sludge storage wells or any other space

where access is difficult and assistance may be needed to climb out.

Back to the lesson

Prevention of Physical Injury -- Answer Key

The major cause of injuries is slips and falls. Tools, parts, and other things
should not be left lying around. Grease droppings, oil, sludge, and especially
polymers should be cleaned up as soon as possible. Warning signs, railings, and
covers in place can protect against low piping, open tanks, and open manholes
or hatches. The simple knowledge of proper lifting techniques, bending the
knees and lifting with muscles of the legs, can save many strained or injured
backs.

Manholes

For work in manholes in streets, safety requires full protective measures from
traffic hazards as well as from the hazards of explosive gases, hydrogen sulfide,
or the lack of oxygen in the manhole or sewer. Warning signs and barricades
should be set up at suitable distances on each side of the manhole. On busy
streets, it may be desirable to station workers to flag down and detour fast-
moving vehicles. On wide, multi-lane streets, the service truck can be stationed
on the side of the manhole toward on-coming traffic. It is important that
sufficient workers be provided for the job at hand. There should be at least two
workers at the top when one goes below. A cage or guard device around the
manhole adds protection and aids entering and leaving the ventilation hole or
lifting notch. When lifting a manhole cover, a pick-axe may slip and cause
injury or, if struck hard, may give off an igniting spark. Unless a cover is very
heavy, it is safer for one person to handle it alone.
Before entering a manhole, the confined atmosphere should always be tested
for the presence of explosive gases, hydrogen sulfide, and oxygen deficiency.
After determining that the conditions are safe for entry, positive forced air
ventilation should be started and operated continually whenever a worker is in
the manhole or sewer. There should also be a continuous sampling of the
atmosphere with a visual signal alarm device kept near the worker.

Before descending into a manhole, note should be taken of the width, spacing,
and arrangement of manhole rungs and, if they are staggered, particular care
must be taken to get started with the proper foot and to avoid falling. Steel
rungs may lose their galvanizing and become dangerously corroded. Each rung
should be tested during descent while the worker distributes weight evenly
between feet and arms. A safer means of entry would be to use a manhole
ladder, which can be carried on the service truck. The ladder should extend
about three feet above the street surface as the worker climbs down. Even with
a separate manhole ladder, the worker should use caution as his or her boots
may have oil on the soles, causing a fall.

Safety Harness

On small sewers, no one should enter a manhole deeper than the height of the
chin without wearing an approved parachute-type safety harness with rope
attached. In an emergency, when a safety belt may not be at hand, a stout rope
tied snugly under the arms with a bowline or other non-slip knot may be the
means of saving a life. In either case, at least two people should be a the top of
a manhole at all times when a third worker is inside in order to handle the life
line and help the worker if necessary. A safety harness should also be worn
when entering any enclosed spaces around a sewage treatment plant, such as
pump suction wells, empty digestion tanks, sludge storage wells or any other
space where access is difficult and assistance may be needed to climb out.