American Beryllia Inc.

Designing With Beryllia

Thermal Design of Beryllia Components
2009

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Thermal Design of Beryllium Oxide Components

Heat Flow From the Second Law of Thermodynamics we know that heat will flow from a higher to a lower temperature. If we attach a heat source to one surface of a beryllia component and keep the opposite surface at a lower ambient temperature, heat will flow in the direction indicated. The heat will continue to flow as long as there is a temperature differential.

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In designing a beryllia component, you will have to determine what rate of heat transfer is necessary to keep your component within safe operational limits. Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction states that the rate of heat flow equals the product of the area normal to the heat flow path, the temperature gradient along the path, and the thermal conductivity of the medium.

This rate (q/t) is a unit of power and can be expressed in calories per second or the more familiar term: watts.

Fouriers expression describes the maximum power that can be dissipated by conduction. We can increase the heat flow rate or power dissipation by increasing the area through which the heat flows, by increasing the temperature gradient, or by increasing thermal conductivity of the material.

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Thermal Resistance If we start with Fouriers law and assume unidirectional heat flow, we see that, on integrating, an expression is realized which describes resistance to heat flow.

If we call x/KA=, then we have an expression for a term which relates power dissipation and temperature gradient. This term is called thermal resistance a property very similar in nature to electrical resistance. In fact, it is directly analogous to its electrical counterpart.

Electrical Analogs This brings up a very interesting point. All thermal equations have electrical analogs. Thus, a direct substitution of thermal terms into familiar electrical equations enables you to treat thermal network analysis in an identical manner to electrical network analysis. Electrical Expression Voltage Current Resistivity Resistance Capacity Capacitance Conductivity Conductance Equivalent Thermal Expression Temperature Differential T (C) Power P (watts) Thermal resistivity (inC/watt) Thermal Resistance (C/watt) Thermal Capacity c (cal/in3C) Thermal Capacitance C (watt sec/C) Thermal Conductivity K (watt/in - C) Thermal Conductance (watts/C) Page | 4

Let us now look at the simplest of all electrical expressions: Ohms Law. Looking at its analogs we see the thermal expression that was just derived from Fouriers Law.

OHMS LAW IR = V

FOURIERS LAW P = T

The power being dissipated, or heat flow, is analogous to current flow. T, the temperature difference, is analogous to voltage. And both electrical and thermal resistances react the same way. This formula shows what is happening thermally within a component. You can calculate the power dissipated, the heat rise, or thermal resistance, provided two of the three factors are known. Design Example Power For example, consider this beryllia substrate with a thermal resistance of 45C/watt when a semiconductor device is attached. If we do not wish the semiconductor to exceed a temperature of 150 C and the opposite surface of the beryllia is kept at 25 C, we can calculate how much power can be applied to the semiconductor.

Design Example Temperature In our second example we will use the same system. But, now the device will be operated at 2 watts and we will determine the maximum junction temperature. With thermal resistance and ambient temperature the same, substitution shows that the junction temperature will be 115 C for a 2 watt heat load. . Page | 5

Design Example Thermal Resistance We can also find out the thermal resistance of the component if we know specific operating conditions. For this example, the device is operated at 3 watts, the junction temperature is measured at 97 C, and the opposite face of the components will be held at 25 C ambient. Substitution shows that the thermal resistance of this system is 24 C/watt.

Thermal Resistances In Series In the previous three examples we have used to represent the total thermal resistance of the system. A thermal network usually contains several elements through which the heat will flow. In our semiconductor device example, there is a thermal resistance associated with the silicon, the bonding materials, and the beryllia substrate. These elements are in series and the thermal resistance of the network is the sum of each thermal resistance in the heat flow path. Page | 6

Thermal Resistance In parallel Our analogy with electrical resistance also holds for parallel heat flow paths. Multiple leads in an integrated circuit package, for example, are parallel heat flow paths as are heat loss through convection and radiation. The mathematics for handling thermal resistance in series and parallel is the same as for electrical resistors.

Thermal Resistance Network Here is a basic example for calculating thermal resistance when both parallel and series heat flow paths are utilized.

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Notice that a high thermal resistance in parallel with the heat flow path will have little effect; a high thermal resistance in series will seriously degrade performance.

Thermal Resistance Calculations

Now let us take a closer look at the thermal resistance of an element in a thermal network. The first component, X, is length of heat flow path. Thermal resistance will decrease as the element becomes thinner. A problem one can run into is to design an element so thin that it is not mechanically strong enough to be handled or attached to another component. The second element determining thermal resistance is thermal conductivity, K. This is a property of the material selected. Thermal conductivity values change with temperature. The final element determining thermal resistance is the cross-sectional area, A. This area is not easily measured because it depends on the size of the heat source and is affected by thermal spreading.

Thermal Spreading If a beryllia component is larger in diameter than the heat source, the heat will dispense as shown in this end view.

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This thermal spreading increases the average area through which the heat flows. With A increased, the thermal resistance is less for a given thickness of material. Consider a square heat source of side dimension, a, in intimate contact with a large slab of beryllia of thickness X.

The equations that describe thermal spreading are very complicated. A simplification that works is to assume that the heat spreads out at a 45 angle. We are then looking at a truncated pyramid. Thus, a good approximation of cross-sectional area comes about through integrating.

Which for a square heat source gives:

If the heat source is in the shape of a circle or a rectangle, the same principles apply to heat spreading. These formulas would be used to take into account the change in geometry.

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In an optimal design, the beryllia should be large enough in diameter to allow full thermal spreading. Increasing the diameter beyond this would have no further affect because the area normal to the heat flow path would not increase. If the diameter is too small to allow full thermal spreading, thermal resistance will be higher because the effective cross sectional area will be lessened.

Minimizing Thermal Resistance The first step in designing an efficient thermal system is to draw the thermal network. Include all components in the system as series or parallel thermal resistances.

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Now determine for each component in the system. Design a series path with minimized values. The four rules for minimizing thermal resistance are: Maximize the heat source surface area. Use a material with high thermal conductivity. Make the component as thin as possible Allow for full thermal spreading

Design Example Silicon Transistor. Here is an example to demonstrate how to improve thermal design with thermal network concepts.

Now we have the same semi-conductor bonded onto a beryllia substrate using a eutectic alloy.

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The thermal resistance is now 2.8 C/watt or a factor of almost forty below that shown in the previous example. Design Evaluation Poor Thermal Design Silicon 1.2 C/watt Epoxy 98.0 C/watt Alumina 9.8 C/watt 109.0 C/watt Good Thermal Design Silicon 1.2C/watt Eutectic 0.2C/watt Beryllia 1.4 C/watt 2.8 C/watt

Even though we are promoting beryllia, we want you to see by just substituting beryllia, the thermal resistance would not be greatly reduced. For if we used beryllia in the example on the left, with an epoxy bond, would only go down to 100.6 C/watt. If we kept the Al2O3 and substituted eutectic bonding, would reduce to only 11.2 C/watt. The total thermal network must be considered. Dont assume that by replacing only one component, you can archieve optimum design. If you are going to use beryllia, make sure that its effectiveness can be realized. A large thermal resistance in series will, for all practical purposes, negate the advantages of beryllia.

Thermal Conductivity Values This table lists the thermal conductivity for materials commonly used in thermal design.

Thermal Conductivity (W/M K)

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 265

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180 70 60 25 20 W/M K Aluminum Silicon Carbide Boron Nitride Aluminum Aluminum Nitride (AlN) (SiC) (BN) HP Grade Oxide (Al2O3) Oxide (Al2O3) 99% 96%

Beryllium Oxide (BeO)

Thermal Resistance Values These charts provide thermal resistance values for a range of materials with different thicknesses and cross-sectional areas. These values assume full thermal spreading. The values reported are calculated for 25 C and if higher temperatures are used, a simple inverse ratio can be used.

Thermal Resistance of Materials Beryllia

99.5% Alumina

96 % Alumina

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94% Alumina

Glass Borosilicate

Kovar

Silicon Semiconductor Grade

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Thermoplastic Thermosetting Alkyd Type

Thermal Resistance of Ceramic Metallizations Moly Manganese

Thin Film

Thermal Resistance of Bonding Materials Epoxy Silicone Variety

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Conductive Silver Filled Epoxy

Silicon Gold Eutectic at 25 C

Interface Thermal Resistance for a TO-3 Case Semiconductor to Mounting Surface 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. No Insulator, No Thermal Grease No Insulator, Thermal Grease Beryllia Insulator Anodized Aluminum Insulator Plastic Film Insulator (2 mil mylar ) .05 - .20 C/watt .005 - .10 C/watt .10 - .40 C/watt .35 - .70 C/watt .55 - .80 C/watt

Thermal Capacitance All of the thermal networks we have discussed so far have been in terms of equilibrium conditions where there is a continuous source of heat. As heat is firs applied, the temperature difference will increase as shown in this graph. Page | 16

This shows that there is a finite time required to approach thermal equilibrium gradients. The rate of temperature differential increase is identical to that of voltage build up in the more familiar resistance-capacitance network. Current flow, voltage, and capacitance are analogous to heat flow, temperature differential and thermal capacitance.

Thermal capacitance is a term with which we can determine the rate at which equilibrium is achieved.

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It is the product of the density, specific heat and volume of the heat conducting material. Design Example Thermal Capacitance

In this example we will calculate the thermal capacitance of a 1 x1 x .025 beryllia substrate. The density of beryllia is 47.2 gm/in3 and its specific heat is .25 cal/gm-C.

Material Property Values For Thermal Capacitance Calculation Specific Heat (cal/gm-C) BeO 99.5% 0.250 Al2O3 99.5% 0.210 Al2O3 96% 0.210 Al2O3 94% 0.210 Mica 0.200 Glass 0.200 Silver 0.056 Copper 0.093 Density (gm/cm3) 2.88 3.9 3.7 3.6 3.2 2.2 10.5 8.9 Gold Kovar Aluminum Silicon Teflon Epoxy Plastics Air Specific Heat (cal/gm-C) 0.030 0.110 0.220 0.180 0.250 0.200 0.300 0.240 Density (gm/cm3) 19.3 8.2 2.7 2.4 2.0 2.2 2.1 .0013

Thermal Time Constant

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In a thermal network the time constant, T, is equal to thermal resistance times thermal capacity.

The value of the time constant determines whether a system approaches equilibrium rapidly or slowly. If either or C increases, equilibrium is reached at a slower rate.

Design Example Thermal Time Constant The time constant for the 1 x1 x .025 beryllia substrate in the last example is determined by the product of the thermal resistance and the thermal capacitance. If we assume a thermal resistance value, say = 1.12 C/watt, then T would be 1.38 sec. Page | 19

Thermal Equilibrium How long would it take for this beryllia substrate to reach equilibrium? From our equation, the time would be infinite.

For a practical solution, consider the time required to reach 99.9% if the equilibrium temperature differential.

Substituting 1.38 sec. for T, and solving, gives t = 9.52 sec.

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For comparison, an alumina substrate of the same dimensions would have a much longer time constant and would not reach equivalent value in 62 seconds.

Intermittent Power If power is intermittently applied, the following curve describes T.

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For semiconductor devices, peak junction temperatures are a limiting factor in their application. If the power output desired results in a junction temperature higher than allowed, the device must be operated intermittently. The following examples are offered to calculate the time pulse durations which allow safe operation.

These equations describe T during heating (power on) and cooling (power off)

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If we have a time constant, T, of 1.38 seconds and apply power for 0.7 seconds, we can find the T after 3 seconds of cooling.

Thus at t = 3.7 seconds with power on for 0.7 seconds, the temperature differential within the substrate will have been raised to 4.5% of equilibrium T.

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If we were to turn power on and off continuously, the temperature differential would approach equilibrium value as shown by this series.

Graphically, the temperature differential would increase with each application of power as shown here.

Parallel Thermal Paths Convection The power radiated by convection equals the product of the convection coefficient (W/C-in2), convection surface area (A1) and the temperature difference from surface to ambient. Page | 24

The convection factor, h, takes into account the properties of the convective medium. Without substantial air flow, this factor is quite small. Typical Values For Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient Semiconductor Devices Cold Plate Mounted Still Air Forced Air Liquid Evaporative h (watts/C in2) .01 to .05 0.1 to 0.5 2.5 to 3.0 5.0 Free Convection Still Air Forced Air h (watts/C in2) 0.0001 to 0.001 0.01 to 0.05

Calculation Of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient Forced Air h=BV

0.75

/L

0.25

V = Velocity of Air L = Length of Surface in Direction of Flow B = Constant for Air Properties and Surface Configuration D = Constant for Air Properties E = Constant for Surface Configuration L = Length of Dissipator Force with Area Factor Ts TA = Temperature Difference between Dissipator & Ambient Air

Free Convection h = DE (Ts TA) 0.25 /L0.25

Parallel Thermal Paths Radiation Heat losses through radiation are the product of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant for a black body, the emissivity of the radiating body, the radiating surface area, and the temperature difference.

As temperatures below 300 C, radiated heat loss is usually small compared to conduction. Typical Emissivity Values Beryllia Alumina 96% (white) Copper Aluminum 0.87 0.88 0.05 0.04 Gold Nickel Kovar Silver 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.02

Thermal Shock There is a limit to the rate of temperature change that beryllia can withstand. If this rate is exceeded, the ceramic being brittle, will develop internal stresses that could exceed its tensile strength and could result in cracking. Page | 25

While the thermal strength of beryllia is high, it is a ceramic, and you must consider the effects of thermal shock if your design calls for large temperature changes in short time durations. Thermal Stress The magnitude of the stress is given by this expression and is equal to Youngs modulus times the coefficient of thermal expansion and temperature differential, divided by one minus Poissons ration.

The thermal shock must be instantaneous for this formula to apply, and thus it is a worst case condition. We demonstrated the calculation for the time it takes to distribute the heat within a component. Thus, you can now calculate T for your particular component and determine stress levels from the given formula.

Your Source For Beryllia Technology It is not possible in this written text to cover all the present and future capabilities of beryllium oxide ceramics. Please contact us and share you design problems or product opportunities. We will be glad to work directly with you in applying beryllia technology to your specific requirements.