Your Introductory Guide To Citing, Referencing and Academic Writing at QUT

Your introductory guide to citing, referencing and academic writing at QUT.
www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
2011
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cite|write is a general introduction to citing, referencing and academic writing.
Find specific examples for QUT referencing styles at

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Contents
Citing and referencing
Why do it?
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QUTs recommended reference styles

Which style do I use?
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Citing
In-text citation Citation using an author-date style Citation using a numbered style Citing legal case and legislation Direct quotations: copying words exactly Short quotations Long quotations Acceptable changes to the original wording Indirect quotations/paraphrase: rewriting original words Summaries: referring to the sources main ideas
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Reference lists
Referencing books Referencing a chapter in an edited book Referencing journal articles Author-date styles (QUT APA and QUT Harvard) Numbered style (QUT Numbered) Legal style (QUT Legal)
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Citing and referencing

At university, you are expected to cite and reference all information you use in your assignments. Citing is when you use and acknowledge someone elses work to support your argument or illustrate your point. Referencing is when you give bibliographic information details such as authors family name and the date and title of publication about the sources you used in your work.
Why do it?
We cite to acknowledge someone elses work. You need to cite when you: use a direct quote from someone else give a summary of someone elses ideas paraphrase someone elses ideas copy some information (such as a picture, a table or some statistics). We reference to provide details about the sources, which have been cited. You need to reference in order to: support your ideas and arguments using expert facts or ideas acknowledge (give credit for) facts and ideas you have used help other readers find the original facts and ideas or works that you have used show readers the depth and quality of your reading and research. Citing and referencing are essential to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty that incurs severe penalties at QUT. Plagiarism is when you do not give credit to the author/s for information used in your own work, by: copying the work of another student directly copying or buying any part of another authors work directly copying and pasting information from the Internet paraphrasing or summarising someone elses ideas using the idea or thesis from someone elses work using experimental results from someone elses work.
Did you know?

You can become familiar with your responsibilities by reading QUTs policy on plagiarism (c/9.3 Procedures for academic dishonesty) at www.mopp.qut.edu.au/C/C_05_03.jsp
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QUTs recommended reference styles

Universities have standard referencing styles which help you to cite consistently and avoid plagiarism. QUT recommends four referencing styles: QUT APA an author-date style QUT Harvard an author-date style QUT Numbered (Vancouver) a numbered style QUT Legal (Written Assessment in the Law School) a footnote style
Which style do I use?

Your unit outline should indicate which style to use in your work. If you have any queries about the style to use, ask your lecturer or tutor.
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Citing
In-text citation
Any information (words, ideas, statistics, tables, data, pictures, photos, etc.) obtained from another author or source, whether it is used in a direct quotation or as a paraphrase, requires an in-text citation. Facts and ideas that are considered common knowledge within a discipline do not need to be cited. For example, Einsteins theory of relativity (E=mc2) would not need to be cited.
Citation using an author-date style

When you add a citation into your text using an author-date style (such as QUT Harvard or QUT APA), you need to include the following information to the sentence or paragraph: Authors family name or name of the source (organisation, government department, etc.) Year of publication look for the copyright symbol in the source. This is usually in the front pages of a book or at the bottom of an internet page. Page number where you found the information, (or paragraph () number if there is no page number on it). Summaries of information/sources often do not require page numbers, if the information comes from many pages.
Example
You must cite the sources of each idea or item of information you use, whether you quote, paraphrase or summarise or merely refer to it (Harris 2005, 5). authors family name year page
Go to www.citewrite.qut.edu.au to see examples in QUT APA, QUT Harvard, QUT Numbered and QUT Legal.
This information can be included either at the beginning or the end of the sentence or paragraph:
Example
At the beginning: Marras et al. (1995) note that peak load moment has been suggested to play a major role in defining lower back disorder risk. At the end: Peak load moment has been suggested to play a major role in defining lower back disorder risk (Marras et al., 1995).
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Citation using a numbered style

When adding a citation in your text, either place a superscript number (start at1) or a number in brackets (1) at the end of the information you are citing.
Example
At the beginning:
Marras et al.1 note that peak load moment has been suggested to play a major role in defining lower back disorder risk.
This number is then used to indicate the bibliographic information in the reference list.
Citing legal cases and legislation

Legal writing employs a numbered note style to reference its footnotes. This refers the reader to the relevant numbered note at the bottom (or foot) of the page where the information is provided. Students studying law at QUT are required to use the style guide titled Written Assessment in the Law School (referred to in cite|write as QUT Legal). If you are using a non-law reference style such as QUT Harvard for your writing, follow the requirements for that style for referencing sources such as books and journal articles. If you are citing cases or legislation, reference them in full in the text of your writing.
Example Section 189 of the Migration Act 1958 (Cth) requires an officer to detain a person who is suspected of being an unlawful non-citizen. In Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562 the court considered the detention and removal of unlawful citizens.
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Direct quotations: copying words exactly

When directly quoting, remember to: 1. Copy the words exactly from the original source. 2. Include the author-date or number as the in-text citation.
Did you know? Some students think it is okay if you copy and paste more than three words as long as you add the author/source name. This is not true. If you copy more than three words you must also have quotation marks.
Short quotations
Add quotation marks around the copied words.
Example
authors family name year page
Harris (2005, p. 5) writes you must cite the sources of each idea or item of information you use, whether you quote, paraphrase or summarise or merely refer to it. Note quotation marks to open and close
Go to www.citewrite.qut.edu.au to see examples in QUT APA, QUT Harvard, QUT Numbered and QUT Legal
If the quotation includes another quotation made in the original, use the opposite type of quotation marks (i.e. ...) to those (...) that you used first.
Did you know? You can use your own judgement on what constitutes a short quote. As general rules: APA suggests fewer than 40 words and Harvard suggests fewer than 100 words.
Long quotations
Long quotations use a different style to distinguish them from your normal text. Use a block quotation (i.e. not part of the sentence) Indent the block from the left and right margins Between the lines, use a single space only Do not use quotation marks for the block Include citation details either as a lead in to the block or at the end (see example for end placement).
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Example
In Using Sources Effectively, Harris describes many different ways students should reference their work in academic institutions. The author believes that students must understand the importance of referencing: An important part of using sources effectively lies in distinguishing between your own ideas and the ideas that come from outside sources When you make use of words, ideas or any information from a source other than your own knowledge and experience, you must give credit to the source in a citation. (Harris 2005, 1) Referencing is clearly an important skill for students who wish to succeed in academic courses.
Go to www.citewrite.qut.edu.au to see examples in QUT APA, QUT Harvard, QUT Numbered and QUT Legal
Did you know? It is important not to use too many direct quotations in your writing always check the assignment criteria for information about the use of direct quotations. A common rule is to use a maximum of 10 per cent of the word count as direct quotes in your assignment.
Acceptable changes to the original wording

If the original source has a grammar or spelling mistake that might be confusing, you should copy the mistake and add [sic] after the mistake. Note that [sic] must be in italics and in square brackets. However, there are three situations where it is acceptable to change the original words slightly: 1. You can change the capitalisation of the letter of the first word of the quotation to fit the flow of your sentence. In the example below, the A of As has been changed to a lower case a:
Harris (2005, p. 35) says as you work on your paper visit your instructor to ask for input.
2. You can add words in square brackets [ ] to make the meaning of the quote clearer to the reader:
Government [Queensland State] is concerned about the cost of water (Courier Mail, 2007, p. 1).
3. You can use an ellipsis, ( ... ), to show that you are leaving words out:
There is one exception to the rule of citing outside information. Common knowledge does not need to be cited whatever an educated person would be expected to know or could locate in an ordinary encyclopedia (Harris, 2005, p. 17).
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Indirect quotations/paraphrase: rewriting original words

Paraphrasing is writing the ideas of another author in your own words. You may use technical words that cannot be substituted. Make sure you accurately represent the source/authors ideas. If you paraphrase another author, you still need to provide an in-text citation.
Example Direct quotation
Cope (2007, 21) says that plagiarism, a failure to acknowledge sources of material correctly, is an offence against professional standards and is a form of academic dishonesty.
Paraphrase
According to Cope (2007, 21) plagiarism occurs when writers do not reference ideas, and this is a very serious offence.
or
Paraphrase
Cope (2007) mentions that plagiarism happens when writers do not give credit to authors; it is dishonest and not professional.
Summaries: referring to the sources main ideas

All ideas that are not your own should be cited (and later referenced). When you refer to general ideas or just want to acknowledge that an idea came from a secondary resource, then your in-text citation does not require a page number.
Example
Plagiarism is an issue that all students should be aware of (Cope 2007).
If you read from many sources and have written ideas in your own words, but you know that you learned these ideas from other people, list their names alphabetically in your in-text citation using a semicolon (;) to separate the sources.
Example
Academic writing is more formal and complicated than informal writing, especially when authors need to consider acknowledging referencing (Cope, 2007; Oshima & Hogue, 1991; Putnis & Petelin, 1999).
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Reference lists
A reference list contains details of every resource cited in your assignment. The reference list is placed at the end of your assignment. If you are using an author-date system, sources are listed in alphabetical order. If you are using a numbered system, sources are listed in numerical order. When you research and prepare for assessment, it is important to take down the full bibliographic details (including the page numbers) from which the information is taken. It is very time consuming to follow up references later.
Did you know?

Bibliographies are different from reference lists. They include references used in the assignment plus other relevant or useful sources not quoted from but used in the preparation of your assignment.
Below are general guidelines about the information that is to be included in your reference list and how to find it. However, the format and punctuation depends on the referencing style required for the particular assignment.
Referencing books
For a book, full bibliographic details include: book author/editor family name and first name initial(s), or organisations name. Include these details for as many authors or editors as the book recognises year of publication book title in full (main title and any subtitle noted) edition statement (unless it is the first) place of publication publisher.
You can find this information from the books first few pages or the library catalogue.
Referencing a chapter in an edited book

For a book chapter, full bibliographic details include: chapter author/editor family name and first name initial/s. Include these details for as many authors or editors as the chapter recognises year of publication chapter title book title in full book author/editor first name initials and family name page numbers place of publication publisher.
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Referencing journal articles

For a journal article, full bibliographic details include: article author family name and first name initial/s. Include these details for as many authors as the article recognises article title journal title date of publication date viewed (if article is electronic not print) volume and issue numbers page numbers database name/URL/DOI see citewrite.qut.edu.au for style requirements.
Dont Panic! Sometimes not all these details are available. Go to www.citewrite.qut.edu.au for examples of what to do.
Author-date styles (QUT APA and QUT Harvard)

The reference list provides the full details of all works and sources that have been cited in text. The reference list is arranged alphabetically by author (or by title where there is no author), and chronologically for each author where more than one work of an author is cited.
Numbered style (QUT Numbered)

The reference list at the end of the document provides the full details of all works and sources that have been cited in-text. References are in the order they appear in the document; i.e. in numerical, not alphabetical, order, with the number in square [ ] brackets.
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Legal style (QUT Legal)

A bibliography created using this style will include all secondary sources used in the preparation of the assignment, in addition to the secondary sources cited in the assignment (and referenced in the footnotes). Primary sources (cases and legislation) are not included in the bibliography. If you are required to list the cases or legislation you have used at the end of the assignment, this is called one of the following: case list table of cases legislation list table of legislation.
Example Case List
Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562 Giannarelli v Wraith (1991) 171 CLR 592 Peat v Lin [2005] 1 QdR 40
Legislation List
Acts Interpretation Act 1954 (Qld) Evidence Act 1977 (Qld) Evidence Act 1995 (Cth)
Bibliography
Harris R, Using Sources Effectively: Strengthening Your Writing and Avoiding Plagiarism, 2nd ed, Pyrczak Pub, California, 2005. Stuhmcke A, Legal Referencing, 3rd ed, Lexis Nexis Butterworths, Australia, 2005.
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Find guides for note taking and writing assignments at

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Contents
Academic writing
Why do it?
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Academic writing terms

Abbreviated forms of expression Active and passive voice Argument Authoritative source Cite | citing Conclusion Critical Evidence Introduction Paraphrase Person Point of view Reference Research Scope Thesis statement Word limit
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Academic writing structure

Overview Introduction Body paragraphs Conclusion Linking it all together
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Academic writing style

Precise expression Impersonal, objective tone Formal language Tentative conclusions
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Critical thinking
A model for critical thinking
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Appendix 1:Task words commonly used in essay questions Appendix 2: Useful linking words and phrases (transitions) Critical thinking template
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Academic writing
At university you will be expected to write in an academic structure and style.
Why do it?
There are a number of good reasons for this: Writing academically is a core skill you use to communicate in professional occupations. It benefits your learning. It trains you to think logically. It helps you learn the body of knowledge in your discipline. It is an excellent way for your lecturers to assess the extent of your understanding. The research and writing skills you learn will be vital for you to continue your professional development after you graduate.
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Academic writing terms

These are terms that are not commonly used in everyday conversation. When employed in a university context they convey a different meaning.
Abbreviated forms of expression

Abbreviations are used for a single word and consists usually of the first letter and other letters from the word with a full stop after, for example: para for paragraph or Mon. for Monday. Acronyms contain the first letter from a series of words and must be pronounceable: TAFE, Qantas. Initialisms contain the first letter of each word and are NOT pronounceable and not punctuated:QUT. Technically QUT is an initialism, although its acceptable to call it an acronym in common language.
Active and passive voice

In English, this refers to the form of the verb. An active voice means the focus of the sentence is on the person, animal or thing that is doing the action described by the verb. For example: The dog crossed the road. The focus usually is the part that comes first in a sentence. The passive voice means the focus of a sentence is on the person, animal or thing that is being acted upon. For example: The road is being crossed by the dog. In a passive voice, the verb is often formed by two words that indicate a state of being rather than an action. Examples of passive verbs include: has been, is being and will be.
Argument
An argument is a writing structure where you state your point of view relating to a topic and then outline the evidence that supports the point of view. The statement of your point of view is called the thesis statement and it is the direct response to the question or task of your assignment. The evidence is outlined logically in a series of points written in the body of your essay as paragraphs.
Authoritative source
An authoritative source is information written by an academic or expert in a field and has been reviewed by his/her peers to ensure that it has been properly researched and developed. Information used as evidence in an assignment should only come from authoritative sources.
Cite | Citing
To cite is to acknowledge the author or source within the text of your assignment. This information is used as evidence to support your point of view. You need to cite when you quote someone else in exactly the same words; give a summary of someone elses ideas; paraphrase someone elses ideas; or copy information such as a picture, table or statistics.
Conclusion
The conclusion is the final statement of your essay. It should repeat the topic, summarise the structure and restate the thesis statement.
Critical
To be critical in an academic context does not mean that it is necessarily a negative. Rather, it means to look at the subject, for example, an idea, a reading, a website, a solution to a problem and, examine the different aspects associated with it, and evaluate how good it is in terms of purpose. Your critical analysis may include positive as well as negative points.
Evidence
Evidence is a piece of information that supports a conclusion. Evidence for academic assignments comes from researching sources these include: authoritative books journals websites and other sources. It may take the form of quotes from experts, data from experiments, statistics, pictures, graphs and tables.
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Introduction
The beginning of your essay should introduce the topic, state the thesis and outline the structure of the essay.
Paraphrase
Paraphrasing is writing the ideas of another author in your own words. Paraphrased text should look substantially different from the original, but retain the same meaning.
Person
Person refers to the perspective of the writing. First person refers to the writer. This style of writing uses the pronouns I, me, myself, my, mine, we, us, ourselves, our, and ours. Second person refers to the one being spoken to. This style uses the pronouns you, yourself, your, and yours. Third person refers to the one being spoken about. This style uses the pronouns he, she, it, him, her, himself, herself, his, her, hers, its, they, them, themselves, their, and theirs. Most academic writing uses third person. There are exceptions, so you will need to clarify this with your lecturer.
Point of view
In assignments, you are often asked to defend your point of view or develop an argument relating to your topic. Students can mistakenly think this means they are expected to write their personal feelings about the topic. However, in academic terms, developing a point of view or argument means to research the evidence relating to the topic and develop your conclusions based on the evidence. Your personal ideas are not considered relevant in this context.
Reference
A reference is when you give detailed information such as author, date, title and publishing details about a source used in your work. A reference list usually appears at the end of your assignment. See also Cite.
Research
Researching topics means to write your assignment based on knowledge that has already been researched, reviewed and accepted by the academics in your field. This knowledge is found in academic books, journals and other sources considered authoritative. See also authoritative source.
Scope
The scope refers to how widely a topic is covered in an essay. The scope is dependent on the word length of the assignment with longer essays expected to cover the topic in more depth. The scope reflects the extent to which evidence justifies your argument. For example, if all your evidence relates to Australia, your point of view would support an Australian argument. However, this type of evidence cannot be generalised to all the countries of the world.
Thesis statement
This is the most important sentence in the introduction and indicates your point of view (position or argument) on a topic. The thesis statement should be a direct answer or response to your assignment question or task.
Word limit
The word limit gives you an idea of how much depth you are expected to cover. Lecturers set word limits in order to restrict the breadth and depth of your research and writing for a particular assignment. It is generally accepted that you can go 10 per cent over or under the word limit. If you are more than 10 per cent over you need to be more concise. If you are more than 10 per cent under you need to broaden your research. Always read the instructions, if it specifically says something like no more than 500 words then you are not allowed to go over that limit. Appendices, abstracts, executive summaries and the reference lists are not usually counted as part of the word limit. Quotations in the body of your paper are counted. Always check with your lecturer or tutor about what is included in the word limit for a particular assignment.
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Academic writing structure

Academic writing structure is the format used to clearly express the ideas that you develop based on your research. It may take many forms such as essays, reports, literature reviews, annotated bibliographies or reflective journals. This section focuses on essay writing as this is the foundation of all writing at university. An essay is composed of an introduction, body paragraphs and a conclusion.
For more information on structure for other writing genres go to www.citewrite.qut.edu.au
Overview
The essay structure can be seen as a diamond with the introduction and conclusion at the top and bottom and the body paragraphs fitting into the middle of the diamond in a series of smaller diamond shapes.
Introduction
Introduces the topic States the thesis Outlines the essay structure Topic sentence: Introduces paragraph topic Evidence sentences: Provide reasons and evidence that support the topic sentence Concluding Sentence: Summarises paragraph Repeats the topic Summarises the essay structure
Diamond shape of whole essay
Body Paragraphs
Diamond shape of each body paragraph
Conclusion
This shape may need to be modified depending on the aspects you need to cover in your task. For example, you may have less or more than the four body paragraphs or the assignment may have separate sections. It is essential that you check your unit details on QUT Blackboard or ask your lecturer or tutor for clear instructions about how to structure your assignment.
Note: Before you start researching and writing your assignment it is important that you understand what the question is asking you to do. For more information on assignment tasks refer to Appendix1: Task words commonly used in essay questions.
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Introduction
An introduction is a map for your reader and should be approximately 10 per cent of the total word count of your essay. An introduction should: 1. Reword the assignment topic to set the context of the essay. 2. Provide background information on the topic. This may include definitions of any important terms and the scope, defining the limits of what you will discuss in the essay. 3. State your thesis. This is the main point of your essay. The thesis statement is usually the answer to the question or main response to the task. 4. Outline the main points of the essay which back up your thesis statement. These should be listed in the order in which they are addressed in the essay.
Example of an introduction
The Assignment question
Australias tourism industry is the third largest in the country in terms of contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Much of its success is due to Australias unique geography. Analyse the geographical factors that both contribute to and hinder the success of tourism in Australia.
Introductory paragraph Paragraph element 1. Topic introduction Purpose The first sentence should introduce the topic in this case the success of Australias tourism industry. It should reflect the first sentence of the question to set the context for your response. Example Australias tourism industry contributes 3.9% of the countrys gross domestic product and Australia has been in the top ten of most desirable places to go on holiday 20002004 (Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (RET), 2009). There are many reasons for this success but two major factors are Australias distinctive geography, particularly its unusual landforms (Georgiou, 2007) and unique flora and fauna (Zeehan, 2008). However, a complication for the success of Australian tourism is the tyranny of distance and the high costs involved for travellers, particularly those from the Northern hemisphere (Proctor & Thomas, 2004). It will be argued that although logistical concerns warrant consideration, the value of the unique geography and wildlife outweigh the difficulties of Australias remote location.
2. Background information
This outlines the main factors involved in this discussion about Australian geography and tourism success. The scope of the essay will only cover these factors. They are landforms, flora and fauna and Australias distance from other parts of the world.
3. Thesis statement
This next sentence is the main point of the essay. It defines the relationship between these geographic factors and tourism success by stating how and to what extent these factors influence tourist numbers. This statement is the main response to the assignment task outlined in the last sentence of the question.
4. Essay outline
This needs to be a summary of the main points of your essay in the order in which they will be addressed in the body paragraphs.
In this essay the role of these three geographic factorslandscape, wildlife and distancewill be analysed.
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Body paragraphs
These paragraphs are the building blocks of an essay. They outline the points which link the main idea of the thesis to the evidence found in your research. Each paragraph (or group of paragraphs) should: 1. Start with a topic sentence which links the point of the paragraph with the main thesis statement of your essay. 2. Provide extra information to clarify or define terms or ideas in the point. 3. Cite evidence from your research to support the point you are making. 4. End with a concluding sentence which links the paragraph back to the main thesis or on to the next paragraph.
Example of a body paragraph

This paragraph supports the third point made in the essay previously outlined. Paragraph element 1. Topic sentence Purpose This sentence starts by referring to the thesis that Australias geography accounts for much of its tourism success. However, it goes on to also include the main point of this paragraph; which is that one aspect of Australias geography is its remoteness, which reduces the success. This explains the point made in the topic sentence. Example Australias geography accounts for much of its success as a tourist destination, yet it is also one of the most remote countries on earth.
2. Additional information
Both the proximity and the availability of other competing destinations put pressure on the Australian tourism industry. Overseas visitors take an average of 17 hours to reach Australia, twice as long as travel to other geographically unique locations (Proctor & Thomas, 2004). Physical landmarks such as The Grand Canyon, Mount Fuji and the Amazon Rainforest are all more accessible than Uluru for the majority of world travellers (Proctor & Thomas, 2004). Wildlife tourism such as in Tanzania and Kenya or the biodiversity of Costa Rica provide travellers cheaper experiences than visiting Australia (Proctor & Thomas, 2004). Also, international zoos frequently enable people to see Australian wildlife without leaving their home countries (Proctor & Thomas, 2004). It is likely that Australia misses out on potential tourism dollars due to physical separation from world population hubs.
3. Evidence sentences
These are essential to justify your point of view. Your evidence comes from your research and may include examples, data, quotes, statistics, graphics and illustrations. All supporting evidence must be from authoritative sources and cited in your essay.
4. Concluding sentence
Again, this sentence links the main thesis of the essay with the main point of the paragraph.
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Conclusion
In many ways, the conclusion is similar to an introduction except that the elements are placed in a different order. A conclusion should: 1. Restate the topic by paraphrasing the question 2. Sum up the main points made in your essay 3. Link these back to the thesis statement which is the main point of your essay.
Example of a conclusion
This is the conclusion of the essay started above, which analyses the relationship between Australias geographical features and its tourism success. Paragraph element 1. Topic restatement 2. Summary of main points Purpose This paraphrases the language of the question. Include a brief summary of the main points in the body of your essay in the order they were addressed. Example Australias abundant and unique geographical features make it a very desirable tourist destination. Tourists visit Australia for its incredible landforms, beaches and rainforests. They are captivated by Australias distinctive wildlife both in the wild and within zoological gardens. While it is true that Australia is one of the more remote tourist locations on earth, this distance offers an additional component to a travellers experience and sense of adventure. Australias tourism success benefits from geographic features, both geological and ecological, that set it apart from any other destination on earth. The distance from other countries mostly enhances the unique travelling experience offered by the land Down Under.
3. Thesis restatement
Link these points back to the main thesis statement made in your introduction.
Linking it all together

As well as structuring each individual paragraph in the body, you need to ensure that there is a logical flow to your essay. This is done by using transition signals, which are words and phrases that show the relationship between the information of one paragraph and the information of the next. These transition signals are mostly found in the topic and concluding sentences of the paragraphs.
For a table of useful transition signals see Appendix 2 at the end of this section.
For an example of a completed essay go to Writing Structure Overview in the Writing section of www.studywell.library.qut.edu.au
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Academic writing style

Academic writing style is the language used to clearly explain the ideas that you develop, based on your research. There are four main features of an academic writing style:
Precise expression
Be succinct. Each sentence should relate directly back to your assignment topic. Use verbs to describe rather than lots of adjectives. For example, she argued is shorter than she said forcefully. Keep your sentences short. Each sentence should express a single idea. Use the specialist and technical language of your discipline.
Impersonal, objective tone

Use non-emotive and non-judgemental language. For example, the term killed for food is more neutral in tone than cruelly massacred for meat. Use non-discriminatory and inclusive language. For example, the use of all men for all people is not considered inclusive as it leaves out any reference to women. Focus your sentences on the concepts you are discussing rather than peoples actions that reflect those concepts. For example, Sleeping patterns are shorter rather than people dont sleep as much.
Formal language
Most writing will follow these rules but there are exceptions, so be sure to check with your lecturer. Write in complete sentences that are structured into paragraphs. Write in third person. This means avoiding using pronouns such as I, me, my, you, your, we or our in your writing. Third person pronouns include he, she, they, them, it, his, hers and their. Do not use contractions. Examples of contractions include cant, wouldnt and dont. Rather, these should be written as cannot, would not and do not. Do not use abbreviations such as etc. e.g. or fig. Write such terms out in full. Do not use colloquial or slang words or phrases such as blah, blah, blah or he was off his face. Do not use text abbreviations such as lol, u, gr8 or IMHO.
Tentative conclusions
The conclusions you make from the evidence in your assignment should be modest, because definitive statements are easy to disprove. For example, the statement that men are physically stronger than women can immediately be disproved if a woman is shown to be physically stronger than a man. Qualifiers are words that limit or modify statements to make them less than absolute. Here are some examples of qualifiers: Referring to number: Most, many, several, some, a few, not many, on average.
Many migrants do not in very few cases.

Referring to probability: Definitely, most likely, probably, clearly, possibly, unlikely, perhaps.
It may, perhaps, be The disease most likely will

Referring to frequency: Usually, often, frequently, sometimes, occasionally, and rarely.
It often results in would rarely be opposed in court.

Referring to appearance: Appears, suggests, indicates, seem, points to, and tends to be.
as indicated in the data. The findings would suggest that
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Critical thinking
Critical thinking is a skill used to develop new knowledge or understanding about a subject. When your lecturer or tutor asks you to be more critical, what they mean is that you need to step back and question the claims being made, either by yourself or others in your readings.
Question claims
Find a new solution
Critical thinking
Find flaws in the evidence
Work out a better explanation
Critical thinking is a questioning process where you can find flaws in the evidence, which encourages you to find a better explanation or even a new solution to a problem. Critical thinking is required when an assignment asks you to:
Analyse Criticise
Argue Evaluate
Assess Examine
Justify Prove
Explore
Interpret
Disprove
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A model for critical thinking

You can improve your critical thinking by separating the ideas from your reading and your own writing into different parts (see the Critical Thinking Template at the back of this section).
Data: Facts, opinions, evidence used to support your claim.
Claim: The conclusion you want your audience to accept.
Warrant: Reasons why the data justifies the claim.
Qualifier : The strength or certainty of the claim.
Backing: Background assumptions validate the warrant.
Rebuttal: Why the claim, warrant or backing may not be true.
The Toulmin Model. Toulmin, S., Rieke, R. & Janik, A. (1985). An Introduction to Reasoning, NY: Macmillan.
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Critical thinking element 1. Claim
Purpose
Example
The claim is the argument you want your audience to accept. You summarise the argument in the thesis statement of your essay.
It will be argued that although logistical concerns warrant consideration, the value of the unique geography and wildlife outweigh the difficulties of Australias remote location as a tourist destination. Australias Tourism Commissioner states that 87 per cent of tourists (2000-2004) cited extraordinary natural phenomena as a significant motivating reason for their visit to Australia (RET, 2009). A study with Australia Post found postcards featuring Australian animals were sent overseas more frequently than all other postcard types combined (Zeehan, 2008, 52). ...tourists often cite remoteness as a positive reason to travel to Australia. A British backpacker claims that he, came to Perth because it was the most isolated city on earth (Georgiou, 30). What people say actually influences what they do. International postcards are most frequently sent by tourists. The experience of a British backpacker is representative of tourists more broadly.
2. Data
Data is the evidence that supports your claim. You should source data from academic sources such as peer reviewed articles, government publications or other types approved by your lecturer and available from the QUT Library.
3. Warrant
Warrant is what explains why the data supports the claim. Thinking about warrant can improve your argument, helping you to avoid simplistic or invalid thinking. Sometimes you need to explain your warrant explicitly in your essay or sometimes it can be assumed depending on your reader. Backing is the principle or underlying authority that grounds the warrant. Backing can be a rule, theory, law or fact that persuades your audience to accept that the warrant is reasonable. Just like warrant, backing can be part of your critical thinking process and may or may not end up explicitly discussed in your essay. Rebuttal is any evidence that counts against the data, warrant or backing of an argument.
4. Backing
87 per cent is a statistically significant number of tourists. Tourists do not choose their stamps randomly. Tourists chose their stamps based on their own preferences, rather than the preferences of the people they are sending the postcard to. Backpackers spend 68% of total tourist dollars spent in Australia. Overseas visitors take an average of 17 hours to reach Australia, twice as long as travel to other geographically unique locations (Proctor & Thomas, 2004, 35). While it is true that Australia is one of the more remote tourist locations on earth, this distance offers an additional component to a travellers experience and sense of adventure.
5. Rebuttal
6. Qualifier
A qualifier is used to alter the strength of a claim.
Use these elements to: Summarise the argument structure of an author Evaluate the claims made by an author Structure your own assignment Edit your own assignment for logical weaknesses.
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Appendix1: Directive words commonly used in essay questions

Account for

Explain why something has occurred.
Analyse
Take apart a concept or statement in order to consider its elements. Answers should be very methodical and logically organised.
Argue
An argument means to make clear, prove or accuse (see Critical thinking in Part 2 of this guide). You must have a particular point of view supported by evidence from reliable sources.
Assess
This requires a judgment about an idea or subject. You may need to state whether the idea or subject being discussed is valuable or relevant after acknowledging points for and against it. Your judgment should be influenced by other authors views as well as your own opinion (similar to Evaluate).
Comment on
State your opinion on a topic or idea. You may explain the topic or idea more fully. Your opinion must be supported by evidence from reliable sources.
Compare/ compare and contrast
This requires a balanced answer that sets items side by side and shows their similarities and differences.
Contrast
This requires an answer that points out only the differences between two or more topics.
Critically
Often used in conjunction with other directive words, such as critically discuss, critically examine or critically analyse. It does not mean criticise. Requires a balanced answer that points out mistakes or weaknesses and indicates any favourable aspects of the subject of the question. The decision or overall judgment you make must be supported with evidence from reliable sources.
Define
This requires an answer that explains the precise meaning of a concept. A definition answer will include a discussion of a concept and may also state the limits of a concept.
Describe
This requires you to describe the attributes or characteristics of a subject.
Differentiate
See Contrast.
Discuss
Explain the item or concept, and then give details about it with supporting information, examples, points for and against, plus explanations for the facts put forward from various points of view. This can be one of the most difficult types of essay question.
Enumerate
This requires you to list or specify and describe items or ideas one by one.
Evaluate
See Assess.
Examine
This requires you to investigate a topic thoroughly.
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Explain
Offer a detailed and exact explanation of an idea or principle, or a set of reasons for a situation or attitude. The explanation should increase the readers understanding of a topic or idea.
Explore
See Examine.
Generate
This often requires you to come up with new ideas or interpretations on a subject.
Hypothesise
A hypothesis is a theory regarding particular occurrences. You confirm hypotheses through testing. Suggest the reasons for, and processes by which something has occurred.
Illustrate/ demonstrate
This requires an answer that consists mainly of examples to demonstrate or prove the subject of the question. It is often accompanied with further instructions.
Interpret
Very similar to Explain. Describe what your subject means. Examine the key components of a topic or idea and give an evaluation of it.
Investigate
Research, study and carefully survey all areas of the subject.
Justify
Give only the reasons for a position or argument. The proposition to be argued may be a negative one. It should convince the reader of your point of view.
Outline
Summarise information about a subject. Only the main points and not the details should be included. Questions of this type often require short answers.
Prove/disprove
Both of these require answers that demonstrate the logical arguments and evidence connected with a proposition. Prove requires the points for, and disprove requires the points against.
Relate (relationship)
Make links or connections between two or more ideas, and show how these ideas are related, as well as the nature of the relationship.
Review
Analyse, criticise and comment on the main ideas of a topic. Your essay needs to be structured in logical order.
State
This requires an answer that expresses the relevant points briefly and clearly without lengthy discussion or minor details.
Summarise
See Outline.
Trace
Trace is frequently used in historical questions (but not only in History courses). It requires the statement and brief descriptionin logical orderof the stages in the development of a theory, a persons life, a process, etc.
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Appendix 2: Useful linking words and phrases (transitions)

For continuing an idea or introducing another idea In addition Similarly Furthermore Continuing this idea Pursuing this further Additionally Consequently Because Also In the same way Moreover Clearly then
For providing a contrasting or alternative view On the other hand Or Yet In opposition to Whereas Unlike the previous example Instead Although However For showing cause and effect Following Therefore For this reason Thus ... Consequently ... For restating a point or giving an example In other words For instance ... One such occurrence Also ... For showing sequence or time relationship Firstly After Later Sometime Thereafter Secondly As soon as Meanwhile Presently Then Finally In the meantime Next Eventually Soon In the first place Afterwards To demonstrate Specifically For example To illustrate In response As a result of ... The result Due to this ... The reaction While In contrast Nonetheless Even though Nevertheless Contrary to these findings In spite of Despite these findings
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Critical thinking template

Use this template to: Analyse the argument of an author. Evaluate the claims made by an author. Structure your own assignment Edit your own assignment for reasoning weaknesses.
Data: Facts, opinions, evidence used to suppor t your claim.
Claim: The main point
Qualifier : The strength or cer tainty of the claim.
Warrant: Reasons why the data justifies the claim.
Rebuttal: Why the claim, warrant or backing may not be tr ue .
Backing: Background assumptions validate the warrant.
see page 11
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Use and photocopy templates to help when studying for your assignments:
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TEMPLATES
REFERENCING AND NOTE TAKING TEMPLATES

Use these templates to record all the important reference details for the books, journal articles and internet sources that you find for your study. Once you have all the details, you can adapt the information to suit the referencing style you need to use for your reference lists (QUT APA, QUT Harvard, QUT Legal, QUT Numbered). You can also note down keywords you used to find the information and other details that might remind you where to find it again if necessary (e.g. a call number, or web address). Then use the lower section of the template to record notes from your reading and research. As you make notes from each book, journal article or website, try to organise them into three columns: 1st columnrecord themes or key ideas from your reading. 2nd columnrecord the page number that the key idea was on, and maybe some notes or a direct quote. 3rd columnrecord your own comments or questions about the key idea. This may include how or where you might use this in your assignment, how this links to other research you have done, and comments about issues to be clarified. This column is important as it helps you to develop your critical thinking skills.
Book:
Author(s): Year of publication: (and edition) Book title:
Publisher:
Keywords and/or source of information:
Themes/Key concepts:
Notes/Quotes/Content/Page number
Comments/Cross-referencing/Questions to be clarified/Terminology
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Book chapter:
Author of article:
Title of chapter:
Editor(s) of book: Year of publication: (and edition) Book title:
Publisher: Keywords:
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Journal article:
Author(s) of article: Year of publication: (and edition) Article title:
Journal title:
Volume No:
Issue No:
Page numbers: (if electronic or online) URL/ Database name and Date retrieved/DOI Keywords:
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Website:
Author(s) of page/site or organisation: Year of publication: (or site update) Title of webpage:
Date retrieved:
URL:
Page numbers (if any):
Keywords:
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DVD/Video:
Writer(s)/Director(s)/ Producer(s): Year of production:
DVD/Video title: Place of production/ publication: Publisher/Production company: NOTE: Keywords and/or source of information: Comments/Cross-referencing/Questions to be clarified/Terminology You will need to reference the name(s) and the function(s) of the originator(s) or the primary contributor(s). Indicate the format of the work in square brackets immediately after the title.
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Act:
Act Title: Year:
Jurisdiction: Criminal Code Act 1899 (Qld) Crimes Act 1914 (Cwlth)
Examples:
Keywords and/or source of information:
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Feedback
http://qutvirtual.qut.edu.au We welcome your comments on this booklet. If you have any suggestions or advice you can provide feedback via TELLQUT. Log onto QUT Virtual and click on the Services tab.
CRICOS No.00213J
QUT 2010 17446

Your Introductory Guide To Citing, Referencing and Academic Writing at QUT

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Your Introductory Guide To Citing, Referencing and Academic Writing at QUT

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Your introductory guide to citing, referencing and academic writing at QUT.

cite|write is a general introduction to citing, referencing and academic writing.

Find specific examples for QUT referencing styles at

QUTs recommended reference styles

Citing and referencing

Did you know?

QUTs recommended reference styles

Which style do I use?

Citation using an author-date style

Citation using a numbered style

Citing legal cases and legislation

Direct quotations: copying words exactly

authors family name year page

Acceptable changes to the original wording

Indirect quotations/paraphrase: rewriting original words

Summaries: referring to the sources main ideas

Plagiarism is an issue that all students should be aware of (Cope 2007).

Did you know?

Referencing a chapter in an edited book

Referencing journal articles

Author-date styles (QUT APA and QUT Harvard)

Numbered style (QUT Numbered)

Legal style (QUT Legal)

Example Case List

Find guides for note taking and writing assignments at

Academic writing terms

Academic writing structure

Academic writing style

Academic writing terms

Abbreviated forms of expression

Active and passive voice

Academic writing structure

For more information on structure for other writing genres go to www.citewrite.qut.edu.au

Diamond shape of whole essay

Diamond shape of each body paragraph

Example of a body paragraph

Linking it all together

Academic writing style

Impersonal, objective tone

Many migrants do not in very few cases.

It may, perhaps, be The disease most likely will

It often results in would rarely be opposed in court.

as indicated in the data. The findings would suggest that

Find a new solution

Find flaws in the evidence

Work out a better explanation

A model for critical thinking

Data: Facts, opinions, evidence used to support your claim.

Claim: The conclusion you want your audience to accept.

Warrant: Reasons why the data justifies the claim.

Qualifier : The strength or certainty of the claim.

Backing: Background assumptions validate the warrant.

Rebuttal: Why the claim, warrant or backing may not be true.

Critical thinking element 1. Claim

A qualifier is used to alter the strength of a claim.

Appendix1: Directive words commonly used in essay questions

Explain why something has occurred.

Compare/ compare and contrast

This requires you to describe the attributes or characteristics of a subject.

This requires you to investigate a topic thoroughly.

Research, study and carefully survey all areas of the subject.

Appendix 2: Useful linking words and phrases (transitions)