Culture in the Classroom
A Review of the Literature
Kevin Kaiser
ETEC 500
Dr. Clifford Falk
April 12, 2007
Culture in the Classroom 2
Culture in the Classroom
In the year 2007, First Nations students have a higher dropout rate than any other
segment of the North American population. If education can set a person free, then First
Nations students are not yet free. There is not a magic bullet that can beseech freedom,
but there are aspects of the education system that need to be addressed and fixed. As a
First Nations person who has entered what many researchers have stated to be
insurmountable odds a masters course I understand the need for good research to find
out what is working. Unfortunately, many researchers have conducted research to find out
what is not working. In researching this review, there have been many articles that have
made bold statements about how and what can be done to increase the First Nations
graduation rate. The following articles have been selected to reflect a growing cultural
need within the school system. The purpose of this proposed research is to investigate the
effectiveness of understanding First Nations culture within the school system and the
impact of this understanding on First Nations student’s attendance rates.
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The Reality
Perry cites Fixico in her research, “American Indian Victims of Campus
Ethnoviolence.”
More than one out of five American Indian men had less than five years of
schooling. The average educational level for all American Indians under Federal
supervision was five school years. Dropout rates for Indians were approximately
48 percent twice the national average. Only 18 percent of the students in Federal
Indian schools went to college whereas the national average was 50 percent. Of
those American Indians who enrolled in college, only three percent graduated
against a national average of 32 percent. Of those few Indians who graduated
from college, only one out of 100 obtained a masters degree or the equivalent.
(cited in Fixico, 2000, p. 155)
Many First Nations communities across North America have low graduation rates.
Moose River in Northern Alberta is one of those typical remote communities where the
graduation rate is at an all time low. Goddard and Foster (2000) interviewed teachers,
parents and students, and they found that the parents tend to allow the youth to do nothing
instead of doing homework. Goddard et al interviewed and observed educators, parents,
students and the community members in two remote areas in Northern Alberta. Many of
the parents in these communities have not graduated, and they do not push their children
Culture in the Classroom 4
to graduate. Their study came up with many questions pertaining to the dominant cultures
push of education and actual culturally sensitive delivery of formal instruction. Although
there is mandated First Nations control over Indian education, the study found that actual
delivery and curriculum reflect a southern approach to education.
Through understanding First Nations culture, a school can cater to the
community’s greater needs and increase their graduations rates. Greater understanding
leads to greater communication between the school and the community. This
communication can affect the retention rate of generations of students. Goddard and
Foster’s (2002) study in Northern Alberta found the lack of communication led to lack of
trust and respect between the school and the community. The parents of the First Nations
students failed to take ownership of their children’s failure in school because they did not
trust the school system. This lack of trust is traced back to the residential school days and
church run schools where there was an immense amount of physical and mental damage
done to the First Nations community. In many places, this damage continues, but in
different ways.
Goddard et al found many areas of cultural relevance within the system, but the
graduation rate was still low. The study was on one community, but it made reference to
the greater issues faced by many First Nations communities. Stronger reference to the
community’s history could have given the study more strength. The qualitative study of
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any community in need can lead to a greater understanding of the whole community, but
the study itself needs to remain local. By doing so, other communities can gain greater
understanding of one another.
The Need for Tolerance
Ethnoviolence, or hate crime, pushes students away from academia. Dr. Barbara
Perry sates, “This is a dramatically underexamined population, in that few if any of the
extant surveys of campus ethnoviolence make note of the particular experiences of
American Indian students.” (Perry, 2002, p. 3). Perry studied the amount and frequency
of ethnoviolence on results from twenty different campuses across the United States. Her
research led her to the connection of hate crimes and the power that they have to
marginalize Native American people. The evidence presented in Perry’s research is
derived from official government documents, and first hand accounts from victims of
hate crime in the past and present.
Lack of action by academic institutions on the topic of racism justifies the racist
attitudes and this affects all students. Perry (2002) sent out 200 surveys to Native
American college students containing open and closed questions dealing with hate crimes
on campus. Only 92 surveys were completed. Forty percent of the respondents stated that
they were victims of hate crimes because of their race. The conclusions from this small
unique study revealed that there is a need for campus wide understanding regarding
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Native American culture and their contributions to society.
Perry’s study reveals a deeper understanding of campus life. The lack of
respondents may have many reasons, but the approach to gain the information in the study
is effective. The questionnaire is universal, and lends itself to further research.
Racism and its effects on students is an area that deserves further research. The
basis of all racism is lack of understanding. Denis and Hampton’s (2002) literature review
on racism and First Nations people highlights the fact that racism is a major barrier in the
education of Canada’s first people. This review covers thirtytwo articles on the issue of
racism and First Nations people at all levels of education. All of the articles in this study
were found in ERIC ProCite, PsyInfo, Wilson Web and First Nations Periodical Index.
Racism is the number one issue keeping First Nations from completing high
school. To combat the stereotypes and inherent racism, Denis and Hampton (2002) found
that understanding First Nations culture has a direct effect on the retention of First
Nations students. Implementing antiracism policies and acknowledging the problem are
two ways that racism can be eliminated. By acknowledging the problem, the schools gain
understanding of First Nations people. Their review has an in depth understanding of how
racism is used, both explicitly and implicitly, in the educational system. Denis et al found
that prejudices, racism and discrimination by the institutions were prevalent in hindering
First Nations students from staying in school. They state, “It appears that it will be a
Culture in the Classroom 7
radical step in the right direction, if racism is acknowledged as a problem that limits the
educational and economic opportunities of Aboriginal people, in spite of the resistance.”
(Denis et al, 2002, p. 34). Their review directly reflects and attempts to understand the
reality of the low graduation rate.
Denis et al focus on the denial of racism within educational institutions at all
levels. This approach can pose a problem in their research because they attempt to cover
elementary, secondary and post secondary schools and address a politically charged
theme across the board. Adding success stories to evenly distribute their research would
have given the review more credibility.
Beyond High School
Buckley (1997) found that First Nations university students felt alienated at major
West Coast University. These First Nations students were not alienated because of the
colour of their skin. Rather, they were alienated for their worldviews. The researcher
conducted the study on eight individuals from diverse First Nations cultures and various
socio economic backgrounds. The study finds that while 17% of First Nations people
enter college level courses, only 4% graduate. This is from an already diminished pool of
people because a majority of the students do not make it to college. These numbers are
reflective of many other studies carried out across North America.
“Academic isolation” according to Buckley (1997) is the lonely feeling First
Culture in the Classroom 8
Nations feel while they are taking part in Western schooling systems. Often, there are
only one or two First Nations people in a graduate course, and the dominant culture does
not acknowledge the First Nations ways of knowing. Further, the University does not
understand the history of First Nations culture, or the contemporary issues that many
reserves are facing. This leads to the faculty to an understanding that hinders the
relationship between the students and teachers.
Further Research
By studying and researching First Nations people, including understanding
graduation rates, the researcher must be aware of protocol and follow all ethical
guidelines. Swisher and Tippeconnic (1999) attempted to connect First Nations
researchers to First Nations research. Their study, “Research to Support Improved Practice
in Indian Education” surveyed the data on graduation rates, and questioned how First
Nations researchers can communicate with the First Nations community to address the
issues further. Both of the authors are leaders in the Indian education system at the
University level. The research Swisher et al highlight in this article are mainly positive
case studies from across the United States. From these case studies, they attempt to bring
forth a new and more focused direction for First Nations educational research.
Swisher et al believe that top down approach within the school system is needed
where principals and teachers are supportive and caring and understanding of First
Culture in the Classroom 9
Nations culture. They found that programs that teach the native language have a higher
retention rate and an improved graduating rate. Many of the recommendations put forth
by Swisher et al do not come with thorough research to back their recommendations.
Although, this is one chapter in a book, based on the recommendations, there is still a
need for First Nations involvement and accountability on the native and nonnative sides
of the educational issue. Swisher et al have understood a unique aspect of the education
system by acknowledging that there is lack of representation of First Nations involvement
at the university level.
There are more First Nations students entering postsecondary institutions now
than ever before. Cole and Denzine in “Comparing the Academic Engagement of
American Indian and White College Students” found that while enrollment is up,
retention of the students is still hampered by frequent dropouts. Cole et al conducted their
study at a public university located in the southwestern United States, which was
surrounded by several large reservations. The sample size included five hundred forty
four undergraduate students and of this number, seventyfour identified as American
Indian. The College students completed Experiences Questionnaire, which has been used
by five hundred colleges, which entails eight pages and 109 items.
Cole et al found that contrary to previous studies, the American Indians were on
par with the nonnative students in any practices of study and generally adjusted well to
Culture in the Classroom 10
the culture of the school. They do state that results may be positive because of the
universities efforts to include First Nations culture in the culture of the school.
Cultural Relevance
Implementing a culturally relevant curriculum does not come without challenges.
Rick Hesch (1999) studied how implementing a teacher education program, using
LadisonBillings’ definition of a culturally relevant program, that offers culturally
relevant material can aid in building a better culture within academia. Cultural relevance
means, academic success, cultural competence and critical consciousness are needed to
truly implement a culturally sensitive education program. The challenge, according to
Hesch, is the history shared between First Nations people and the nonnative settlers in
Canada – the residential schools.
Hesch studied the densest urban First Nations area in Canada – Winnipeg,
Manitoba. Specifically, the study’s focus was on the Winnipeg Education Centre (WEC)
and their intentions on building a program to reflect a more just society. Hesch
constructed a timeline of the WEC in his research and provides a thorough overview of
what the WEC does to promote culturally relevant educators. The author uses primary
resources and private conversations to strengthen his point on cultural relevance. In what
is largely describing the WEC and the success of a culturally relevant program, Hesch
highlights how cultural programs can help ease minority students into the university
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setting. Hesch concludes by asserting that the WEC is needed to provide academic
incentives for minority education.
Assimilation remains an issue when First Nations enter into the education system.
In, “Native American Student Retention in U.S. Postsecondary Education” Larimore and
McClellan (2005) survey literature on higher education and First Nations student
retention in the secondary and postsecondary system. The article is well laid out, and it
highlights the major issues by citing many scholars who have studied Native American
student retention.
Larimore et al accessed early literature (1960s) that found First Nations students
had to choose between assimilating into the “white” culture and their own culture in order
to attend school. They contrast the early literature to contemporary issues surrounding
First Nations schooling and found that students had to maintain cultural ties while
resisting the pull of assimilation for academic success. This short, but detailed study
references over eighty articles that help the authors come to recommendations for further
research. Two important recommendations reveal the need for further qualitative studies
on Native American experiences in postsecondary institutions, and the development of
culturally based identity models for Native American people.
Conclusions
Research is needed within the First Nations community. Researching cultural
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relevance to increase graduation rates relates to many issues First Nations people face on
an ongoing basis. All issues: isolation, mistrust, respect, ethnoviolence, racism and
assimilation can be addressed by properly understanding culture within a community.
Places of learning are where the community starts, and greater understanding can lead to
better places for all community members.
The First Nations people represent a small percentage of the population of North
America. Further, the tribal differences are as vast as the land that First Nations people
occupy. This makes qualitative data difficult to be entirely useful for understanding First
Nations issues across this vast land. Although, the number of First Nations leaving high
school and postsecondary school are higher than the rest of the population, this trend has
existed for many decades.
The literature that is available, makes good use of the data, but fails to recommend
anything that is viable to retaining First Nations people in the education system. While
the results from postsecondary schools attempt to explain cultural relevance in a positive
light, the institutions tend to recognize the culture on the surface. The value of First
Nations culture must be entrenched in the system of education in order for cultural
relevance to take hold on the institution as a whole.
Beyond racism, the institutions need to address the academic isolation felt by
many First Nations students. Researchers, such as Buckley have long fought for greater
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understanding of First Nations culture in order for all levels of academia to retain First
Nations students. Their research offers researchers the opportunity to conduct further
qualitative data on the current state of First Nations education. Qualitative studies
regarding a culturally sensitive curriculum are needed. To truly understand how cultural
curriculums can affect student retention rates, these studies must take into account the
many ways of knowing in the many First Nations communities across North America.
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References
Buckley, Apanakhi (1997). Threads of Nations: American Indian Graduate and
Professional Students. Heritage College.
Cole, James S., Denzine, Gypsy M. (2002). “Comparing the Academic Engagement of
American Indian and White College Students.” Journal of American Indian
Education 41, no. 1 (2002)
Denis, Dr. Verna, Hampton, Dr. Eber. (2002). Literature Review on Racism and the
Effects on Aboriginal Education. Prepared for: Minister’s National Working
Group on Education Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Ottawa, Ontario
Goddard, Tim. Foster, Rosemary (2002) “Adapting to Diversity: Where Cultures Collide
Educational Issues in Northern Alberta.” Canadian Journal of Education 27
(2002): 120
Hesch, Rick. (1999). “Culturally Relevant Teacher Education: A Canadian InnerCity
Case.” Canadian Journal of Education 24, 4 (1999) 369382
Larimore, James A., McClellan. (2005). Native American Student Retention in U.S.
Culture in the Classroom 15
Postsecondary Education. New Direction for Student Services, no. 109, spring
2005. Wiley Periodicals.
Perry, Dr. Barbara. (2002). “American Indian Victims of Campus Ethnoviolence”
Journal of American Indian Education 41, no. 1 (2002)
Swisher, K.G., and Tippeconnic, J.W., III. (1999). Research to Support Improved
Practice in Indian Education. In K. G. Swisher and J. W. Tippeconnic III (eds.),
Next Steps: Research and Practice to Advance Indian Education.
Charleston, W.V.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools, 1999.