JOEL K O V E L

EE

T H E T H E

E N D E N D

O F O F

C A P I T A L I S M T H E

O R

W O R L D ?

About this Book

The Enemy of Nature faces the h a r s h b u t i n c r e a s i n g l y i n e s c a p a b l e c o n c l u s i o n that c a p i t a l i s m is the d r i v i n g force b e h i n d the e c o l o g i c a l crisis, a n d d r a w s the r a d i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . J o e l K o v e l - n o t e d s c h o l a r a n d a u t h o r , also p u b l i c speaker a n d g r e e n c a m p a i g n e r - i n d i c t s c a p i t a l i s m , w i t h its u n r e l e n t i n g pressure t o e x p a n d , a s b o t h i n h e r e n t l y ecodestructive a n d u n r e f o r m a b l e . H e argues against the r e i g n i n g o r t h o d o x y that there c a n be no a l t e r n a t i v e to the capitalist system, n o t because this o r t h o d o x y is weak, but because s u b m i s s i o n to it is s u i c i d a l as w e l l as u n w o r t h y of h u m a n beings. K o v e l sees c a p i t a l as n o t j u s t a n e c o n o m i c system but a s the present m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a n a n c i e n t r u p t u r e b e t w e e n h u m a n i t y a n d n a t u r e . T h i s w i d e n i n g o f scope i s g i v e n t h e o r e t i c a l weight i n the s e c o n d p a r t o f the w o r k , w h i c h develops a positive synthesis between m a r x i s m , e c o f e m i n i s m a n d the p h i l o s o p h y o f nature. T h e n K o v e l t u r n s t o 'what i s t o b e d o n e ? ' H e criticizes e x i s t i n g e c o l o g i c a l p o l i t i c s for t h e i r evasion of c a p i t a l , advances a v i s i o n of e c o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n as the successor t o capitalist p r o d u c t i o n , a n d develops the p r i n c i p l e s for r e a l i z i n g this, a s a n ' e c o s o c i a l i s m ' , i n the c o n t e x t o f a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n p o l i t i c s . H e sees, p r e f i g u r e d in present struggle, the outlines of a society of freely associated p r o d u c e r s for w h o m the e a r t h i s n o l o n g e r a n object t o b e o w n e d a n d e x p l o i t e d , but the source o f i n t r i n s i c value. The Enemy of Nature is w r i t t e n in the spirit of the great r a d i c a l m o t t o , 'be realistic - d e m a n d the i m p o s s i b l e ! ' Its a u t h o r dares to t h i n k the u n t h i n k a b l e - we have a c h o i c e : capitalist b a r b a r i s m a n d ecocatastrophe, or the b u i l d i n g o f a society w o r t h y o f h u m a n i t y a n d n a t u r e .

THE

ENEMY

OF

NATURE

The end of capitalism or the end of the world?

About the Author J o e l K o v e l has b e e n A l g e r H i s s Professor o f S o c i a l Studies a t B a r d C o l l e g e , i n A n n a n d a l e , N e w Y o r k since 1988. H e was a w a r d e d a F e l l o w s h i p a t the J o h n G u g g e n h e i m F o u n d a t i o n i n 1987. I n 1998, K o v e l was a N e w Y o r k c a n d i d a t e for the U S Senate, a n d i n 2000 h e was a c a n didate for n o m i n a t i o n for P r e s i d e n t o f the U n i t e d States, o n b o t h occasions r e p r e s e n t i n g the G r e e n Party. H e lectures w i d e l y a n d has a p p e a r e d o n r a d i o a n d television broadcasts i n the U S A , C a n a d a , the U K , S o u t h A f r i c a a n d A u s t r a l i a . S i n c e the 1960s, h e has p u b l i s h e d n u m e r o u s j o u r n a l articles o n topics related t o psychoanalysis a n d psyc h i a t r y (his o r i g i n a l a r e a of study), as w e l l as p o l i t i c s a n d ecology. H i s recent b o o k s i n c l u d e : Red Hunting in the Promised Land ( S e c o n d E d i t i o n , C a s s e l l , L o n d o n , 1997) History and Spirit ( S e c o n d E d i t i o n , E s s e n t i a l B o o k s , 1998) In Nicaragua (Free A s s o c i a t i o n B o o k s , L o n d o n , 1988) The Radical Spirit: Essays on Psychoanalysis and Society (Free A s s o c i a t i o n B o o k s , L o n d o n , 1988) White Racism: A Psychohistory ( S e c o n d E d i t i o n , C o l u m b i a U n i versity Press, N e w Y o r k , 1984). The Age of Desire ( S e c o n d E d i t i o n , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y Press, N e w Y o r k , 1981).

Joel Kovel

Fernwood Publishing L t d NOVA SCOTIA Z e d Books L t d L O N D O N NEW YORK

Contents

Preface / v i i

Part I 1
The Enemy of Nature: The end of capitalism or the end of the world? was first published by Zed Books L t d , 7 Cynthia Street, L o n d o n Ni 9 J F , UK and Room 4 0 0 , 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, U S A , and in Canada by Fernwood Publishing L t d , PO Box 9 4 0 9 , Station A, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B 3 K 5S3, in 2 0 0 2 . Distributed in the U S A exclusively by Palgrave, a division of St Martin's Press, L L C , 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, U S A Copyright Joel Kovel, 2 0 0 2 Second impression, 2002 Cover designed by Andrew Corbett Set in Monotype Baskerville and Univers Black by E w a n Smith, London Printed and bound in the United K i n g d o m by Bookcraft L t d , Midsomer Norton The right of Joel Kovel to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: available National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication Data Kovel,Joel, 1 9 3 6 T h e enemy of nature : the end of capitalism or the end of the world? Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-55266-069-9 363.7 C2001-903587-X

The Culprit

1 3 13

Introduction The Ecological Crisis

O n h u m a n e c o l o g y a n d the trajectory o f the e c o l o g i c a l crisis /20

Capital
A case study /28 Accumulation /41 T h e m y s t e r y of g r o w t h revealed /38

28

Capitalism
T h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f life-worlds S p e e d - u p , o r the everG l o b a l i z a t i o n , o r the

51

d e c r e a s i n g c i r c u l a t i o n t i m e o f c a p i t a l /58 process /68 T h e m e n i n charge /]&

establishment of a p l a n e t a r y r e g i m e to supervise the e x p a n s i o n a r y T h e indictment/82

P a r t II 5

T h e Domination of Nature

87 89

On E c o l o g i e s
W h a t i s life? /o,2 O n h u m a n b e i n g /g8 Ecosystemic integrity

a n d d i s i n t e g r a t i o n /104

i. CapitalismEnvironmental aspects. 2. Environmentalism. I. Title.

H C 7 9 . E 5 K 6 8 2002

Capital and the D o m i n a t i o n of Nature

T h e p a t h o l o g y o f a c a n c e r u p o n nature /115 b i f u r c a t i o n o f nature / i 1 8 i n t e r l u d e /133 T h e gendered Philosophical

115

I S B N I 84277 0 8 0 2 cased ISBN i 84277 081 o limp

T h e rise o f c a p i t a l /125

On the r e f o r m a b i l i t y of c a p i t a l i s m /141

P a r t III

Towards Ecosocialism

147 149 152

Ecophilo-

Introduction 7 Critique of A c t u a l l y Existing Ecopolitics

L o g i c s o f c h a n g e /152 sophies /170 E c o f e m i n i s m /176 a n d fascism /179 G r e e n e c o n o m i c s /160 S o c i a l e c o l o g y /177 D e e p e c o l o g y /171 B i o r e g i o n a l i s m /173 Democracy, populism

Preface

Prfiguration
T h e B r u d e r h o f /190 S o c i a l i s m /198 O u r M a r x /206 E c o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n /212

190 G r o w i n g n u m b e r s of people are b e g i n n i n g to realize that c a p i t a l i s m is the u n c o n t r o l l a b l e force d r i v i n g o u r ecological crisis, o n l y to b e c o m e frozen in their tracks by the awesome i m p l i c a t i o n s of the insight. C o n s i d e r i n g that 222
T h e ecosocialist p a r t y a n d its v i c t o r y /232 S o m e questions /244

Ecosocialism
E c o l o g i c a l ensembles a n d the m o d e l l i n g o f ecosocialist d e v e l o p m e n t /225 A u s u f r u c t u a r y of the e a r t h /2j

the very possibility of a future revolves a r o u n d this n o t i o n , I d e c i d e d to take it up in a comprehensive way, to see whether it is true, a n d if so, h o w it c a m e about, a n d most importantly, w h a t we c a n do about it. H e r e is s o m e t h i n g of h o w this project began. S u m m e r s in the C a t s k i l l M o u n t a i n s of N e w Y o r k State, where I live, are usually quite pleasant. B u t in 1988, a fierce d r o u g h t blasted the region f r o m mid-June u n t i l w e l l into August. As the weeks went by a n d the vegetation b a k e d a n d the wells went d r y I b e g a n to p o n d e r s o m e t h i n g I h a d recently read, to the effect that r i s i n g concentrations of gases emitted by i n d u s t r i a l activity w o u l d trap solar r a d i a t i o n in the atmosphere a n d lead to ever-growing c l i m a t i c destabilizat i o n . A l t h o u g h the idea h a d seemed remote a t f i r s t , the r u i n o f m y garden brought it a l a r m i n g l y close to h o m e . Was the drought a fluke of the weather, or, as I was c o m i n g to t h i n k , was it a t o l l i n g b e l l , c a l l i n g us to task for a c i v i l i z a t i o n gone wrong? T h e seared vegetation n o w a p p e a r e d a h a r b i n g e r of s o m e t h i n g quite d r e a d f u l , a n d a call to a c t i o n . A n d so I set out on the p a t h that led to this book. T h i r t e e n years later, after m u c h w r i t i n g , t e a c h i n g a n d o r g a n i z i n g , after w o r k i n g w i t h the G r e e n s a n d r u n n i n g for the U S Senate in 1998 a n d seeking their presidential n o m i n a t i o n in 2000, a n d after several drafts a n d false starts, The Enemy of Nature is ready to be p l a c e d before the p u b l i c . It w o u l d have b e e n understandable to s h r u g off the d r o u g h t as just another piece of o d d weather (and, indeed, n o t h i n g that severe has o c c u r r e d since). B u t I h a d for some time been disposed to take a worst-case attitude w i t h respect to a n y t h i n g h a v i n g to do w i t h the powers-that-be; a n d since i n d u s t r i a l activity was close to the heart of the system, so were its effects on

Afterword Bibliography Index

255 258 266

viii The Enemy of Nature climate d r a w n into the zone o f m y suspicion. U S i m p e r i a l i s m h a d got m e going, initially i n the context o f V i e t n a m a n d later i n C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , where an agonizing struggle to defend the N i c a r a g u a n r e v o l u t i o n against U n c l e S a m was c o m i n g to a b a d e n d as the d r o u g h t struck. T h e defeat h a d been bitter a n d undoubtedly c o n t r i b u t e d to my irritability, but it p r o v i d e d i m p o r t a n t lessons as well, chiefly as to the i m p l a c a b i l i t y displayed by the system once one looked below its claims of d e m o c r a c y a n d respect for h u m a n rights. H e r e , far from the pieties, the effects of capital's ruthless pressure to e x p a n d arc encountered. I m p e r i a l i s m was such a p a t t e r n , manifest p o l i t i c ally a n d across nations. B u t this selfsame e v e r - e x p a n d i n g c a p i t a l was also the superintendent a n d regulator of the i n d u s t r i a l system whose exhalations were t r a p p i n g solar energy. W h a t h a d p r o v e d true about c a p i t a l in relation to empire c o u l d be a p p l i e d , therefore, to the r e a l m of nature as w e l l , b r i n g i n g the h u m a n victims a n d the destabilizations of ecology u n d e r the same sign. C l i m a t e change was, i n effect, another k i n d o f i m p e r i a l i s m . N o r was it the only noxious ecological effect of capital's relentless g r o w t h . T h e r e was also the sowing of the biosphere w i t h o r g a n o c h l o r i n e s a n d other toxins subtle as well as crude, the w a s t i n g of the soil as a result of the G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n , the prodigious species losses, the disintegration of A m a z o n i a , a n d m u c h more - spiralling, i n t e r p e n e t r a t i n g tentacles of a great crisis in the relationship between h u m a n i t y a n d nature. F r o m this standpoint there appears a greater 'ecological crisis', of w h i c h the p a r t i c u l a r insults to ecosystems are elements. T h i s has further i m plications. For h u m a n beings are part of nature, however i l l at ease we m a y be w i t h the role. T h e r e is therefore a h u m a n ecology as w e l l as an ecology of forests a n d lakes. It follows that the larger ecological crisis w o u l d be generated by, a n d extend deeply into, an ecologically p a t h o l o g i c a l society. R e g a r d i n g the matter f r o m this angle p r o v i d e d a m o r e generous view. No longer t r a p p e d in a n a r r o w e c o n o m i c d e t e r m i n i s m , one c o u l d see c a p i t a l not o n l y as a m a t e r i a l arrangement, but m o r e deeply, as a p a t h o l o g i c a l w a y of b e i n g cancerously l o d g e d in the h u m a n spirit. A n d if it is a whole w a y of b e i n g that needs changing, then the essential question 'what is to be done?' takes o n n e w dimensions. E c o l o g i c a l politics becomes m u c h m o r e t h a n m a n a g i n g the external e n v i r o n m e n t . It takes o n , rather, a frankly r e v o l u t i o n a r y aspect. A n d since the r e v o l u t i o n is against the c a p i t a l that is nature's enemy, the struggle for an ecologically just a n d r a t i o n a l society

Preface w i l l be the l o g i c a l successor to the socialism that agitated the last century a n d a h a l f before sputtering to an i g n o m i n i o u s e n d . T h e great question n o w becomes whether this 'next-epoch', ecological socialism c o u l d overc o m e the flaws that h a u n t e d a n d b r o u g h t d o w n the o r i g i n a l version. A b i g p r o b l e m h a n g i n g over these ideas is that very few people take t h e m seriously. I have been acutely aware f r o m the b e g i n n i n g of this project that the above theses are at a great distance f r o m so-called m a i n s t r e a m o p i n i o n . H o w c o u l d i t b e otherwise i n a time o f capitalist t r i u m p h , w h e n by d e f i n i t i o n reasonable folk are led to t h i n k that just a bit of t i n k e r i n g w i t h m a r k e t m e c h a n i s m s w i l l see us t h r o u g h o u r e c o l o g i c a l difficulties? A n d a s for s o c i a l i s m , w h y s h o u l d anyone w i t h a n up-to-date m i n d b o t h e r t h i n k i n g about such a q u a i n t issue, m u c h less t r y i n g to overcome its false starts? T h e s e difficulties extend over to the f r a g m e n t e d a n d d i v i d e d left side of o p i n i o n , whether this be the ' r e d ' left that inherits the o l d socialist passion for the w o r k i n g class, or the 'green' left that stands for an e m e r g i n g awareness of the ecological crisis. S o c i a l i s m , t h o u g h ready to entertain the idea that c a p i t a l is nature's enemy, is less sure about b e i n g nature's f r i e n d . It needs to be said that most socialists, though they stand for a cleaner environm e n t , decline to take the ecological d i m e n s i o n seriously. T h e y support a strategy where the worker's state w i l l clean up p o l l u t i o n , but are u n w i l l i n g to follow the r a d i c a l changes that an ecological p o i n t of v i e w implies as to the character of h u m a n needs, the fate of industry, a n d the question of nature's intrinsic value. M e a n w h i l e , Greens, however dedicated they m a y be to r e t h i n k i n g the latter questions, resist p l a c i n g c a p i t a l at the centre of the p r o b l e m . G r e e n politics t e n d to be populist or anarchist rather t h a n socialist, hence G r e e n s envision an ecologically sane future in w h i c h a suitably regulated c a p i t a l i s m , b r o u g h t d o w n to size a n d m i x e d w i t h other forms, continues to regulate social p r o d u c t i o n . S u c h was essentially the stance of R a l p h N a d e r , w h o m I challenged in the 2000 presidential primary, w i t h neither i n t e n t i o n n o r hope of w i n n i n g , but o n l y to keep the message alive that the root of the p r o b l e m lies in c a p i t a l itself. We live at a time w h e n those w h o t h i n k in terms of alternatives to the d o m i n a n t o r d e r risk exclusion f r o m polite intellectual society. D u r i n g m y y o u t h , a n d for generations before, a consensus existed that c a p i t a l i s m was embattled a n d that its survival was an o p e n question. For the last twenty years or so, however, w i t h the rise of n e o l i b e r a l i s m a n d the collapse of the

ix

The E n e m y of N a t u r e Soviets, the system has a c q u i r e d a n a u r a o f i n e v i t a b i l i t y a n d even i m mortality. It is quite r e m a r k a b l e to see h o w readily the intellectual classes go along, sheeplike, w i t h these a b s u r d conclusions, disregarding the w e l l established lessons that n o t h i n g lasts for ever, that a l l empires fall, a n d that a twenty-year ascendancy is scarcely a b l i n k in the flux of time. B u t the same m e n t a l i t y that went into the recently deceased d o t . c o m m a n i a applies to those w h o see c a p i t a l i s m as a gift f r o m the gods, destined for immortality. O n e w o u l d t h i n k that a m o m e n t o f d o u b t w o u l d b e i n t r o d u c e d into the official scenario by the screamingly obvious fact that a society p r e d i c a t e d on endless e x p a n s i o n must inevitably collapse its n a t u r a l base. H o w e v e r , thanks to a superbly effective p r o p a g a n d a apparatus a n d the intellectual defects w r o u g h t by power, such has not so far been the case. C h a n g e , if it comes, w i l l have to c o m e f r o m outside the r u l i n g consensus. A n d there is evidence that just such an a w a k e n i n g m a y be t a k i n g place. C r a c k s have been a p p e a r i n g in the g l o b a l i z e d edifice t h r o u g h w h i c h a n e w era of protest is emerging. W h e n the W o r l d T r a d e O r g a n i z a t i o n is forced t o h o l d its m e e t i n g i n Q a t a r i n o r d e r t o a v o i d d i s r u p t i o n , o r fence itself i n inside the w a l l e d city of Q u e b e c , or w h e n the president-select, G e o r g e W. B u s h , is forced by protestors at his i n a u g u r a t i o n to slink fugitive-like a l o n g P e n n s y l v a n i a A v e n u e in a sealed l i m o u s i n e , then it m a y fairly be said that a new spirit is in the air, a n d that the generation n o w m a t u r i n g , t h r o w n t h r o u g h no choice of their o w n into a w o r l d defined by the ecological crisis, are also b e g i n n i n g to rise up a n d take history into their o w n hands. The Enemy of Nature is w r i t t e n for t h e m , a n d for a l l those w h o are b e g i n n i n g to recognize the n e e d to break w i t h the given in o r d e r to w i n a future. An attitude of dissension c o n d i t i o n e d me to see the 1988 d r o u g h t as a h a r b i n g e r of an ecologically r u i n e d society. B u t that was not a l l I b r o u g h t to the task. I was also w o r k i n g at the time on my History and Spirit, h a v i n g been stirred by the faith of the Sandinistas, a n d especially their r a d i c a l priests, to realize that a refusal is worthless unless c o u p l e d w i t h a f f i r m a t i o n , a n d that it takes a n o t i o n of the whole of things to gather courage to reach b e y o n d the given. T h e r e is a w o n d e r f u l saying f r o m 1968, w h i c h s h o u l d guide us in the t r o u b l e d time ahead: to be realistic, one d e m a n d s the impossible. So let us rise up a n d do so. M a n y people h e l p e d me on the l o n g j o u r n e y to this b o o k - too many, I fear, for t h e m all to be i n c l u d e d here, especially if one takes into account, as we

Preface s h o u l d , the m a n y hundreds I met d u r i n g the p o l i t i c a l campaigns that provide m u c h of its b a c k g r o u n d . B u t there is no difficulty in identifying its c h i e f intellectual influence. S o o n after I d e c i d e d to confront the ecological crisis, I d e c i d e d also to l i n k up w i t h J a m e s O ' C o n n o r , founder of the j o u r n a l Capitalism, Nature, Socialism, a n d o r i g i n a t o r of the school of ecological M a r x i s m that m a d e the most sense to me. It p r o v e d one of the most felicitous m o m e n t s of my career a n d led to a c o l l a b o r a t i o n that is still active. As my m e n t o r in matters p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c a n d toughest c r i t i c , but mostly as a dear f r i e n d , J i m ' s presence is everywhere in this v o l u m e (although the d i s c l a i m e r must be u n d e r s c o r e d that its errors are m i n e alone). I have been i n d e b t e d t h r o u g h o u t to the CNS c o m m u n i t y for g i v i n g me an intellectual h o m e a n d f o r u m , a n d for countless instances of c o m r a d e l y help. T h i s begins w i t h B a r b a r a L a u r e n c e , a n d includes the N e w Y o r k e d i t o r i a l g r o u p - P a u l Bartlett, P a u l Cooney, M a a r t e n D e K a d t , Salvatore E n g e l - D i M a u r o , Costas Panayotakis, Patty P a r m a l e e , Jose T a p i a a n d E d w a r d Y u e n - a l o n g w i t h D a n i e l F a b e r a n d V i c t o r W a l l i s , o f the B o s t o n group, a n d A l a n Rudy. A n u m b e r of people have taken the trouble to give p o r t i o n s of the m a n u s c r i p t a close r e a d i n g d u r i n g various stages in its gestation - S u s a n D a v i s , A n d y Fisher, D e e D e e H a l l e c k , J o n a t h a n K a h n , C a m b i z K h o s r a v i , A n d r e w N a s h , W a l t Sheasby a n d M i c h e l l e Syverson - a n d t o t h e m a l l I a m grateful. I am further grateful to M i c h e l l e Syverson for the active support she has given this project d u r i n g its later stages. A m o n g those w h o have h e l p e d in one w a y or another at different points o f the w o r k , I t h a n k R o y M o r r i s o n , J o h n C l a r k , D o u g H e n w o o d , H a r r i e t Fraad, A r i e l Salleh, B r i a n Drolet, Leo Panitch, Bertell O i l m a n , F i o n a S a l m o n , F i n l e y Schaef, D o n B o r i n g , Starlene R a n k i n , E d H e r m a n , J o a n Martinez-Alier, Daniel Berthold-Bond and Nadja Milner-Larson. M i l d r e d M a r m u r p r o v i d e d , once a g a i n , stalwart support a n d p r a c t i c a l guidance t h r o u g h that sector of the real w o r l d that w i l l always baffle me. A n d to R o b e r t M o l t e n o a n d the people at Z e d , thanks for the help a n d the opp o r t u n i t y to j o i n the h o n o u r a b l e list of works they have shepherded into existence. I w o u l d also take the o p p o r t u n i t y to give thanks to B a r d C o l l e g e , my a c a d e m i c h o m e since 1988, a n d to its a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , especially L e o n B o t stein a n d Stuart L e v i n e , as w e l l as its faculty, staff (in p a r t i c u l a r , J a n e D o u g a l l ) , a n d students, for a l l the s u p p o r t - m a t e r i a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d s p i r i t u a l - over the years. In a time of d e c l i n i n g tolerance for dissident

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The Enemy of Nature views, it was an e x t r a o r d i n a r y piece of l u c k for me to f i n d B a r d , a n d this project w o u l d have been far l o n e l i e r a n d m o r e arduous w i t h o u t it. Last a n d as ever, not least, except in the ages of its y o u n g e r m e m b e r s , I thank the f a m i l y that sustains me. T h i s begins w i t h my wife a n d soulmate, D e e D e e , a n d extends to those w h o represent the c h i l d r e n of the future for w h o m the battle must b e fought: S o l m a r i a , R o w a n , L i a m , T o l a n a n d O w e n .

Preface i n d u c e d by powerlessness, a n d as it does, turns towards a p a t t e r n of terror a n d counter-terror in a cycle of vengeance. T h e dialectics o f terror a n d ecological disintegration are j o i n e d i n the regime of o i l . T h i s constitutes, on the one h a n d , the chief m a t e r i a l d y n a m i c of the e c o l o g i c a l crisis, a n d on the other, the o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e for i m p e r i a l d o m i n a t i o n of those lands where the conflict is b e i n g fought out. P e t r o l e u m fuels i n d u s t r i a l society, a n d the g r o w t h of the West is necessarily November 2001 a g r o w t h in the e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l of those lands where it is most strategically located. As these h a p p e n to be largely Islamic, so is the stage set for the great struggle n o w unfolding. T h i s is not the place to take up the c o n d u c t of this struggle except to say that it needs to be j o i n e d at the root of its causes. F r o m this perspective, resolving the ecological crisis a n d freeing h u m a n i t y f r o m terror - i n c l u d i n g , to be sure, the terror inflicted by the superpower on its victims - are two aspects of the same process. B o t h require the o v e r c o m i n g of empire, w h i c h requires the the u n d o i n g of what generates i m p e r i a l i s m over nature a n d humanity. It is an i l l u s i o n to t h i n k that this c a n be achieved w i t h o u t a p r o f o u n d restructuring o f o u r i n d u s t r i a l system, a n d , b y i m p l i c a t i o n , o u r whole w a y o f being. T h e g r i p o f i m p e r i a l i s m , whether o f o i l o r otherwise, c a n n o t be b r o k e n w i t h i n the terms of the current order. H e n c e what is r e q u i r e d to overcome g l o b a l w a r m i n g a n d the other aspects of the ecol o g i c a l crisis also goes for terror. A w o r l d must be built that does not need the fossil fuel economy, a w o r l d , as is argued in what follows, b e y o n d capital.

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T h e g r i m shadow over o u r future cast on S e p t e m b e r 11, 2001 o c c u r r e d between the c o m p o s i t i o n of The Enemy of Nature a n d its release, a n d c o u l d not be i n c o r p o r a t e d into its argument. Yet its significance is such as to c a l l for some b r i e f observations. First, because m u c h of this b o o k was w r i t t e n d u r i n g a p e r i o d of r a m p a n t e c o n o m i c g r o w t h , its m a i n theme, that of the relentless expansive pressure of c a p i t a l , m i g h t seem less i m p o r t a n t given the c u r r e n t b r u t a l d o w n t u r n of the w o r l d e c o n o m i c system. H o w e v e r , the same basic p r i n c i p l e s h o l d . F o r the pressure itself is what counts, whether or not it succeeds in i m p o s i n g g r o w t h . C a p i t a l is a crisis-ridden system, a n d a l t h o u g h there is never any clean c o r r e l a t i o n between crises in the e c o n o m y a n d those of ecology, the integrity of ecosystems is sacrificed at either e n d of the e c o n o m i c cycle. W h e n the e c o n o m y grows, sheer quantity becomes the d o m i n a t i n g factor; while w h e n , as now, it heads d o w n w a r d s , the d i m i n u t i o n in g r o w t h acts as a signal causing e n v i r o n m e n t a l safeguards to be loosened in o r d e r to restore accumulation. S e c o n d , the crisis posed by fundamentalist terror a n d that posed by g l o b a l ecological decay share certain basic features. As we w i l l see in the f o l l o w i n g pages, the ecological crisis is like a nightmare in w h i c h the demons released in the progressive d o m i n a t i o n of nature on a w o r l d scale c o m e back to h a u n t the master. B u t s o m e t h i n g of the same holds for t e r r o r i s m . F u n d a m e n t a l i s m ' s r e b e l l i o n is often seen as b e i n g against modernity, but this o n l y begins to matter in the context of i m p e r i a l i s m , that is, the progressive d o m i n a t i o n of humanity on a w o r l d scale. In the species of i m p e r i a l i s m k n o w n as g l o b a l i z a t i o n , the dissolution of a l l the o l d ways of b e i n g is part a n d p a r c e l of forcibly i m p o s e d 'free trade'. F u n d a m e n t a l i s m s arise w i t h i n d i s i n t e g r a t i n g p e r i p h e r a l societies as ways of r e s t o r i n g the integrity of ravaged communities. T h e project becomes i r r a t i o n a l because of the hatred

Part I

T h e Culprit

F o r e v e r y t h i n g that lives is H o l y A l l that is h o l y is p r o f a n e d

William Blake Karl Marx

To my grandchildren: O w e n , Tolan, L i a m , Rowan and Solmaria

1 Introduction

In 1970, g r o w i n g fears for the integrity of the planetary ecology gave rise to a n e w politics. On 22 A p r i l , the first ' E a r t h D a y ' was a n n o u n c e d , since to b e c o m e an a n n u a l event of re-dedication to the preservation a n d enh a n c e m e n t of the e n v i r o n m e n t . R e m a r k a b l y , the newly aroused citizens became j o i n e d by certain m e m b e r s of the elites, w h o , o r g a n i z e d into a g r o u p c a l l e d ' T h e C l u b of R o m e , ' even d a r e d to a n n o u n c e a theme never before entertained by persons of power, w h i c h a p p e a r e d as the title of their 1972 manifesto, ' T h e L i m i t s to G r o w t h ' .
1

T h i r t y years later, E a r t h D a y 2000 featured a c o l l o q u y between L e o n a r d o d i C a p r i o a n d President B i l l C l i n t o n , w i t h m u c h f i n e talk about saving nature. T h e anniversary also p r o v i d e d a convenient vantage p o i n t for surveying the results of three decades of ' l i m i t i n g g r o w t h ' . T h u s , at the d a w n of a n e w m i l l e n n i u m , one c o u l d observe that: h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n h a d increased f r o m 3.7 b i l l i o n to 6 b i l l i o n (62%); o i l c o n s u m p t i o n h a d increased f r o m 46 m i l l i o n barrels a day to 73 m i l l i o n ; n a t u r a l gas extraction h a d increased f r o m 34 t r i l l i o n c u b i c feet per year to 95 t r i l l i o n ; c o a l extraction h a d gone f r o m 2.2 b i l l i o n m e t r i c tonnes to 3.8 b i l l i o n ; the g l o b a l m o t o r vehicle p o p u l a t i o n h a d almost t r i p l e d , f r o m 246 m i l l i o n to 730 m i l l i o n ; air traffic h a d increased by a factor of six; the rate at w h i c h trees are c o n s u m e d to m a k e p a p e r h a d d o u b l e d , to 200 m i l l i o n m e t r i c tons per year; h u m a n c a r b o n emissions h a d increased f r o m 3.9 m i l l i o n m e t r i c tons a n n u a l l y to an estimated 6.4 m i l l i o n - this despite the a d d i t i o n a l impetus to cut back caused by an awareness of g l o b a l w a r m i n g , w h i c h was not perceived to be a factor in 1970;

4 The Culprit as for this w a r m i n g , average temperature increased by i F a h r e n h e i t - a d i s a r m i n g l y small n u m b e r that, b e i n g unevenly distributed, translates into chaotic weather events (seven of the ten most destructive storms in r e c o r d e d history h a v i n g o c c u r r e d in the last decade), a n d an u n p r e dictable a n d u n c o n t r o l l a b l e cascade of ecological t r a u m a - i n c l u d i n g n o w the m e l t i n g of the N o r t h Pole d u r i n g the s u m m e r of 2000, for the first time in 50 m i l l i o n years, a n d signs of the disappearance of the 'snows of K i l m a n j a r o ' the year f o l l o w i n g ; species were v a n i s h i n g at a rate that has not o c c u r r e d in 65 m i l l i o n years; fish were b e i n g taken at twice the rate as in 1970; 40 p e r cent of a g r i c u l t u r a l soils h a d been degraded; h a l f of the forests h a d disappeared; h a l f of the wetlands h a d been filled or d r a i n e d ; o n e - h a l f of US coastal waters were unfit for fishing or s w i m m i n g ; despite c o n c e r t e d effort to b r i n g to b a y the emissions of ozone-depleting substances, the A n t a r c t i c ozone hole was the largest ever in 2000, some three times the size of the c o n t i n e n t a l U n i t e d States; m e a n w h i l e , 2000 tons of the substances that cause it continue to be emitted every day; and 7.3 b i l l i o n tons of pollutants were released in the U n i t e d States d u r i n g !9993 2

Introduction 5 O n e - R u s s i a - has undergone the most catastrophic set of developments ever witnessed in a n a t i o n not i n v a d e d in war, w i t h such declines in life expectancy a n d rises in b i r t h defects that the c o u n t r y w i l l be d e p o p u l a t e d in a century or so if the rate continues; 1.2 m i l l i o n w o m e n u n d e r the age of 18 enter the g l o b a l sex trade each year; a n d 100 m i l l i o n c h i l d r e n are homeless a n d sleep on the streets.

T h e r e is, of course, m u c h m o r e . B u t my purpose is not to b l u d g e o n the reader w i t h statistics, o n l y to m a k e a p o i n t that is there for every sentient person to see, yet is c o n t i n u a l l y b o t h i g n o r e d a n d m i s u n d e r s t o o d . L e t me put it plainly. As the w o r l d , or to be m o r e exact, the W e s t e r n , i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d , has leapt into a prosperity u n i m a g i n a b l e to p r i o r generations, it has p r e p a r e d for itself a c a l a m i t y far m o r e u n i m a g i n a b l e still. T h e present w o r l d system in effect has h a d three decades to l i m i t its g r o w t h , a n d it has failed so abjectly that even the idea of l i m i t i n g g r o w t h has been b a n i s h e d f r o m official discourse. Further, it has been p r o v e d decisively that the i n t e r n a l logic of the present system translates ' g r o w t h ' i n t o i n c r e a s i n g wealth for the few a n d increasing misery for the many. We must begin o u r inquiry, therefore, w i t h the c h i l l i n g fact that ' g r o w t h ' so c o n c e i v e d means the destruction of the n a t u r a l f o u n d a t i o n of c i v i l i z a t i o n . If the w o r l d were a l i v i n g o r g a n i s m , t h e n any sensible observer w o u l d c o n c l u d e that this ' g r o w t h ' is a cancer that, if not s o m e h o w treated, means the destruction of h u m a n society, a n d even raises the question of the e x t i n c t i o n of o u r species. A simple e x t r a p o l a t i o n tells us as m u c h , once we l e a r n that the g r o w t h is u n c o n t r o l l a b l e . T h e details are i m p o r t a n t a n d interesting, but less so t h a n the c h i e f c o n c l u s i o n - that irresistible g r o w t h , a n d the evident fact that this g r o w t h destabilizes a n d breaks d o w n the n a t u r a l g r o u n d necessary for h u m a n existence, means, in the plainest terms, that we are d o o m e d u n d e r the present social order, a n d that we h a d better change it as soon as possible if we are to survive. O n e wants t o scream out this b r u t a l a n d p l a i n t r u t h , w h i c h s h o u l d b e o n the m a s t h e a d of every newspaper a n d the station-identification of every m e d i a outlet, the l e a d i n g issue before Congress a n d all governmental organizations, the focus of every c o n g r e g a t i o n a n d the centrepiece of every c u r r i c u l u m at all levels of e d u c a t i o n ... but is n o t h i n g of the k i n d . Yes, endless attention is p a i d to the crisis, a great deal of it useful, some of it

M o s t of these tendencies are accelerating. A n d they all are manifestations of what is p r o c l a i m e d by every responsible a n d authoritative source to be the best of news, namely, that the w o r l d gross e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t has i n creased in the 30 years since the e n u n c i a t i o n of the ' L i m i t s to G r o w t h ' by almost 250 p e r cent, f r o m 16 to 39 t r i l l i o n dollars. We need to a d d h u m a n costs to the picture, for d u r i n g this phase of u n p a r a l l e l e d prosperity: T h i r d W o r l d debt increased by a factor of eight; the gap between r i c h a n d p o o r nations, a c c o r d i n g to the U n i t e d N a t i o n s , went f r o m a factor of 3:1 in 1820, to 35:1 in 1950; 44:1 in 1973 - at the b e g i n n i n g of the e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y sensitive era - to 72:1, r o u g h l y twothirds of the w a y t h r o u g h it, a n d no one w o u l d deny that this s h o c k i n g ratio has increased since; between 1990 a n d 1998, p e r c a p i t a i n c o m e d e c l i n e d in 50 countries.

6 The Culprit t r i v i a l , a n d some p l a i n l y h a r m f u l . B u t where is the serious, systematic reflection of the b r u t a l t r u t h - that h u m a n i t y is in the hands of a suicidal regime, w h i c h scarcely anyone thinks it either possible or desirable to f u n d a m e n t a l l y change? W h e r e is the r a t i o n a l dissection of this system's assault on nature, a n d the d e r i v a t i o n of a p l a n to really change it - not to regulate this or that, or to resort to prayer or i n w a r d change, but actually to address the c a n c e r a n d lay out the lineaments of a cure? I s h o u l d hope, here. In any case, that is my goal, a n d if what I have to say is not true in every detail, or even sadly m i s t a k e n , at least it c a n serve to p u s h the debate about fundamentals along. I have no q u a r r e l w i t h m a n y of the virtuous a n d sensible e n v i r o n m e n t a l schemes put f o r w a r d these days. M y q u a r r e l i s o n l y w i t h the j u d g e m e n t that holds that p i e c e m e a l reforms are a l l that is needed. My grievance is against the attitude that refuses to look at the p r o b l e m as a w h o l e a n d to contemplate r a d i c a l change. F o r if the a r g u m e n t l a i d out above has even the slightest c l a i m on p l a u s i b i l i t y a n d it deserves repetition that the mass of evidence is such as to place the b u r d e n of p r o o f on those w h o w o u l d deny it - then its i m p l i c a t i o n s need to be s p u n out w i t h o u t r e g a r d for h o w unfashionable or unsettling these m a y be. If there is no effective discourse on the logic of the system's growth, a n d the w o r l d n o w sits b l a n d l y i n smug d e n i a l , o r even uneasily i n m o r b i d c o n t e m p l a t i o n , t a k i n g the w o r d o f greenwashers a n d c o n m e n o f all kinds instead of f a c i n g the ecological crisis squarely, then a w o r k is needed that strives just for such a discourse. I have written The Enemy of Nature, therefore, not because there is a lack of address to o u r e n v i r o n m e n t a l woes, but because scarcely any of the i n n u m e r a b l e works devoted to the subject develop the f o l l o w i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m what has been sketched out above: T h a t the ' r e i g n i n g system' in question is c a p i t a l i s m , the d y n a m i s m of w h i c h , c a p i t a l , is a strange beast i n d e e d , not at a l l accessible to c o m m o n sense, a n d e x t e n d i n g far b e y o n d its usual e c o n o m i c i m p l i c a t i o n s . T h a t the ' g r o w t h ' in question is essentially c a p i t a l expressing its innermost being. T h a t this is i n c o r r i g i b l e ; thus to seriously l i m i t capital's expansion throws the system into deep crisis. F o r c a p i t a l , it must always be ' G r o w or D i e ! ' It follows that c a p i t a l c a n n o t be r e f o r m e d : it either rules a n d destroys us, or is destroyed, so that we m a y have a lease on life. T h a t these i m p l i c a t i o n s d e m a n d of us that we rethink the question of

Introduction 7 r e v o l u t i o n , n o w generally thought of as l y i n g quietly in the d u s t b i n of history. I w o u l d argue, instead, that capital's c o m b i n e d ecodestructivity a n d i n c o r r i g i b i l i t y forces o p e n the prospect of a total r e v o l u t i o n , w h i c h I w o u l d c a l l ecosocialist, related to but distinct f r o m the socialisms of the past century. T h a t it is i n c u m b e n t u p o n us to i m a g i n e the contours of such a r e v o l u t i o n a n d spell t h e m out, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the c u r r e n t l y miserable state of r a d i c a l forces. N o w it m a y be that the times are changing. Perhaps the l o n g d o w n t u r n of resistance is c o m i n g to a close, because capital, h a v i n g achieved g l o b a l i z a t i o n , c a n n o longer r e i n i n the c o n t r a d i c t i o n s s t e m m i n g f r o m its d o m i n a t i o n of nature a n d humanity, so that people everywhere break loose f r o m the system. T h e r e are great signs to this effect, chiefly in the w o r l d w i d e outbreak of demonstrations taken against the u n h o l y trinity of g l o b a l c a p i t a l - the I M F , the W o r l d B a n k a n d the W T O .
4

A l t h o u g h The Enemy of Nature was b e g u n w e l l before the events in Seattle shook the w o r l d in 1999, it is, I believe, responsive to the same historical forces. It asks of those protesting g l o b a l i z a t i o n to consider where the logic of their actions points. H o w , in other words, do we go b e y o n d the first stages of c o n f r o n t i n g the system? In what sense c a n the regime of c a p i t a l be c h e c k e d , if it c a n no m o r e stop its u n r e l e n t i n g e x p a n s i o n t h a n a m a n c a n v o l u n t a r i l y stop breathing? A r e we ready to think t h r o u g h capital's overthrow a n d its replacement w i t h a n e w k i n d of society based on a n e w k i n d of p r o d u c t i o n ? A r e we ready, s p u r r e d by a d a w n i n g awareness that this crisis c a n n o t be resolved w i t h i n the existing system, to rethink this system in a l l its aspects, a n d really change it? T h e s e b r o a d questions, a n d some of the i n n u m e r a b l e issues a r i s i n g f r o m t h e m , are addressed in the chapters to come. T h e w o r k is d i v i d e d into three parts. In the first, ' T h e C u l p r i t ' , we i n d i c t c a p i t a l as what w i l l be called the 'efficient cause' of the ecological crisis. B u t first, this crisis itself needs to be defined, a n d that is what the next chapter sets out to do, chiefly by i n t r o d u c i n g certain ecological notions t h r o u g h w h i c h the scale of the crisis c a n be addressed, a n d by r a i s i n g the question o f causality. T h e t h i r d chapter, ' C a p i t a l ' , lays out the m a i n terms o f the i n d i c t m e n t , b e g i n n i n g w i t h a case study of the B h o p a l disaster, a n d p r o c e e d i n g to a discussion of what c a p i t a l is, a n d h o w it afflicts ecosystems

8 The Culprit intensively, by d e g r a d i n g the c o n d i t i o n s of its p r o d u c t i o n , a n d extensively, t h r o u g h ruthless e x p a n s i o n . T h e next chapter, ' C a p i t a l i s m ' , follows u p o n this by c o n s i d e r i n g the specific f o r m of society built a r o u n d a n d for the p r o d u c t i o n o f capital. T h e modes o f capital's expansion are e x p l o r e d , a l o n g w i t h the qualities of its social relations a n d the character of its r u l i n g class, a n d , decisively, the question of its adaptability. F o r if c a p i t a l i s m c a n n o t alter its f u n d a m e n t a l ecological course, then the case for r a d i c a l transf o r m a t i o n is established. A l l of w h i c h is, needless to say, a g r a n d challenge. T h e ecological crisis is intellectually difficult a n d h o r r i f i c to contemplate, while its o u t c o m e must always r e m a i n b e y o n d the r e a l m of positive proof. F u r t h e r m o r e , the line of reasoning p u r s u e d here entails extremely difficult a n d u n f a m i l i a r p o l i t i c a l choices. E v e n t h o u g h people m a y accept it in a c u r s o r y way, its awful dimensions m a k e resistance to the p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s inevitable. T h e argument developed here w o u l d be, for many, a k i n to l e a r n i n g that a trusted a n d a d m i r e d g u a r d i a n - one, moreover, w h o retains a great deal of p o w e r over life - is in actuality a c o l d - b l o o d e d killer w h o has to be put d o w n if one is to survive. N o t an easy c o n c l u s i o n to draw, a n d not an easy p a t h to take, however essential it m a y be. B u t that is my p r o b l e m , a n d if I believed in prayer, I w o u l d p r a y that my powers were adequate to the task. I n Part I I , ' T h e D o m i n a t i o n o f N a t u r e ' , w e leave the direct p r o s e c u t i o n of the case to establish its w i d e r g r o u n d . T h i s is necessary for a n u m b e r of reasons, but chiefly to avoid a n a r r o w economistic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . In the first of these chapters, the fifth overall, I set out to g r o u n d the argument m o r e deeply i n the p h i l o s o p h y o f nature a n d h u m a n nature. T h i s i s entailed in the shift f r o m a m e r e l y environmental a p p r o a c h to one that is genuinely ecological, for w h i c h p u r p o s e it is necessary to talk in t e r m s of h u m a n ecosystems a n d in the h u m a n fittedness for ecosystems - that is, h u m a n nature. If the goal of o u r effort is to b u i l d a free society in h a r m o n y w i t h nature, then we n e e d to appreciate h o w c a p i t a l violates b o t h nature at large a n d h u m a n nature - a n d need to u n d e r s t a n d as w e l l h o w we c a n restore a m o r e integral relation w i t h nature. T h e s e ideas are p u r s u e d further in C h a p t e r 6 , w h i c h takes t h e m u p i n a historical f r a m e w o r k a n d i n relation to other varieties of ecophilosophy. We see here that c a p i t a l stands at the e n d of a whole set of estrangements f r o m nature, a n d integrates t h e m into itself. F a r f r o m b e i n g a m e r e l y e c o n o m i c a r r a n g e m e n t , t h e n , capital is the c u l m i n a t i o n o f a n ancient lesion between h u m a n i t y a n d nature, expressed

Introduction 9 in the n o t i o n of the ' d o m i n a t i o n of nature'. It follows that capital is a whole w a y of b e i n g , a n d not merely a set of institutions. It is therefore this w a y of b e i n g that has to be r a d i c a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d if the ecological crisis is to be overcome - even t h o u g h its t r a n s f o r m i n g must necessarily pass t h r o u g h a b r i n g i n g d o w n of the ' e c o n o m i c c a p i t a l ' a n d its enforcer, the capitalist state. We c o n c l u d e the chapter w i t h some p h i l o s o p h i c a l reflections, i n c l u d i n g a c o m p a c t statement of the role played by the elusive n o t i o n of the 'dialectic'. T h e n , in Part III, 'Towards E c o s o c i a l i s m ' , we t u r n to the question of 'what is to be done?' N o w the argument becomes p o l i t i c a l , a n d , because we are so far r e m o v e d these days f r o m t r a n s f o r m i n g society, to a b l e n d of U t o p i a n a n d critical thinking. We begin w i t h a survey of existing ecopolitics in C h a p t e r 7, to see what has been done to m e n d o u r relation to nature, a n d to assay its potential for u p r o o t i n g capital. O n e aspect of this critique is entirely conventional, if generally under-appreciated. We emphasize that capital stems f r o m the separation of o u r productive p o w e r f r o m the possibilities of its realization. It is, at heart, the i m p r i s o n m e n t of l a b o u r a n d the stunting of h u m a n capacities - capacities that need full a n d free developm e n t in an ecologically s o u n d society. Therefore, a l l existing ecopolitics have to be j u d g e d by the standard of h o w they succeed in freeing labour, w h i c h is to say o u r transformative power. T h e chapter ranges widely, f r o m the relatively well-established pathways to those relegated to the margins, a n d it generally finds the existing strategies wanting. It concludes w i t h a discussion of an insufficiently appreciated danger: that ecological movements m a y become reactionary or even fascistic. H a v i n g surveyed what is, we t u r n in the last two chapters to what c o u l d be. In the eighth chapter, 'Prfiguration', the general question of what it takes to break loose f r o m c a p i t a l is addressed. T h i s requires an e x c u r s i o n into the M a r x i s t n o t i o n of 'use-value', as that p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t of the econ o m i c system o p e n to ecological t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ; a n d another e x c u r s i o n into the tangled history of socialism, as the r e c o r d of those efforts that t r i e d - a n d essentially failed - to liberate l a b o u r in the past century. Finally, the chapter turns to the c r u c i a l matter of ecological p r o d u c t i o n as such, using for this p u r p o s e a synthesis w i t h e c o f e m i n i s m , a d o c t r i n e that connects the l i b e r a t i o n of gender to that of nature. We c o n c l u d e w i t h the observation that the key points of activity are 'prefigurative', in that they c o n t a i n w i t h i n themselves the g e r m of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ; a n d 'interstitial', in that they are w i d e l y dispersed in capitalist society. In the final chapter, ' E c o s o c i a l i s m ' , we

10 The Culprit attempt a m a p p i n g f r o m the present scattered a n d enfeebled c o n d i t i o n of resistance to the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of c a p i t a l i s m itself. T h e t e r m ecosocialism refers to a society that is r e c o g n i z a b l y socialist, in that the producers have been r e u n i t e d w i t h the means of p r o d u c t i o n in a robust efflorescence of d e m o c r a c y ; a n d also r e c o g n i z a b l y ecological, in that the 'limits to g r o w t h ' are finally respected, a n d nature is r e c o g n i z e d as h a v i n g intrinsic value a n d not s i m p l y c a r e d for, a n d thereby a l l o w e d to resume its inherently formative p a t h . T h i s i m a g i n i n g of ecosocialism does not represent a k i n d of god-like a s p i r a t i o n to tightly predict the future, but is an effort to show that we c a n , a n d h a d better begin to, t h i n k in terms of f u n d a m e n t a l alternatives to death-dealing capital. To this effect, a n u m b e r of pertinent questions are addressed, a n d the w h o l e effort is r o u n d e d off w i t h a b r i e f a n d speculative reflection. S o m e last points before t a k i n g up the argument. I expect some c r i t i c i s m for not g i v i n g sufficent weight to the p o p u l a t i o n question in what follows. A t n o p o i n t , for example, does o v e r p o p u l a t i o n appear a m o n g the c h i e f candidates for the mantle of p r i m e or efficient cause of the ecological crisis. T h i s is not, however, because I discount the p r o b l e m of p o p u l a t i o n , w h i c h is most grave, but because I do see it as h a v i n g a secondary d y n a m i c - not secondary in i m p o r t a n c e , but in the sense of b e i n g d e t e r m i n e d by other features of the system.
3

Introduction 11 humanity. In practice, this means r e p l a c i n g capitalist w i t h ecologically sound/ socialist p r o d u c t i o n t h r o u g h a restoration of use-values o p e n to nature's intrinsic value. I expect, too, that some w i l l find the views of The Enemy of Nature too one-sided. It w i l l be said that there is a h a t r e d of c a p i t a l i s m here that leads to m i n i m i z a t i o n of a l l its s p l e n d i d achievements a n d u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n of its p r o d i g i o u s recuperative powers. W e l l , it is true that I hate c a p i t a l i s m a n d w o u l d w a n t others to do so as w e l l . I n d e e d , I hope that this a n i m u s has g r a n t e d me the w i l l to pursue a difficult t r u t h to a transformative e n d . In any case, if the views expressed here seem h a r s h a n d u n b a l a n c e d , I can say o n l y that there are no e n d of opportunities to hear hosannas to the greatness of L o r d C a p i t a l a n d o b t a i n , as they say, a m o r e n u a n c e d view. N o r is hatred of c a p i t a l the same, I hasten to a d d , as h a t i n g capitalists, t h o u g h there are m a n y of these w h o s h o u l d be treated as c o m m o n c r i m i n a l s , a n d all s h o u l d be dispossessed of the i n s t r u m e n t that corrupts their soul a n d destroys the n a t u r a l g r o u n d o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . T h i s latter g r o u p includes myself, a l o n g w i t h m i l l i o n s of others w h o have been tossed by life into the capitalist pot (in my case, for example, by p e n s i o n funds in the f o r m of tradeable securities; in all cases by h o l d i n g a b a n k account or using a credit card). O n e of the system's marvels is h o w it makes all feel c o m p l i c i t in its m a c h i n a t i o n s - or rather, tries to a n d usually succeeds. B u t it needn't succeed, a n d one w a y of p r e v e n t i n g it f r o m d o i n g so is to realize that in fighting for an ecologically sane society b e y o n d c a p i t a l , we are struggling not just to survive, but, m o r e fundamentally, to b u i l d a better w o r l d a n d a better life u p o n it for a l l creatures.

I r e m a i n a deeply c o m m i t t e d adversary to the

recurrent n e o - M a l t h u s i a n i s m that holds that if o n l y the l o w e r classes w o u l d stop their w a n t o n breeding, all w i l l be well; a n d I h o l d that h u m a n beings have a m p l e p o w e r to regulate p o p u l a t i o n so l o n g as they have p o w e r over the terms of their social existence. To m e , g i v i n g people that p o w e r is the m a i n p o i n t , for w h i c h p u r p o s e we need a w o r l d where there are no m o r e lower classes, a n d where a l l people are in c o n t r o l of their lives. The Enemy of Nature need make no apologies for m o v i n g w i t h i n the M a r x i s t t r a d i t i o n , a n d for a d h e r i n g to f u n d a m e n t a l tenets of socialism such as the necessity of e m a n c i p a t i n g labour. B u t its a p p r o a c h is not that of t r a d i t i o n a l M a r x i s m . W h a t M a r x bequeathed was a m e t h o d a n d a p o i n t of view that require fidelity to the p a r t i c u l a r forms of a given historical e p o c h , a n d the t r a n s f o r m i n g of its o w n v i s i o n as history evolves. Since M a r x i s m emerged a century before the ecological crisis m a t u r e d , we w o u l d expect its received f o r m to be b o t h incomplete a n d flawed w h e n g r a p p l i n g w i t h a society, such as ours, in advanced ecosystemic decay. M a r x i s m needs, therefore, to become m o r e fully ecological in r e a l i z i n g its potential to speak for nature as well as

Notes
1. M e a d o w s et a l . 1972. 2. M u c h of this is taken f r o m D o n e l l a M e a d o w s , ' E a r t h day plus thirty, as seen by the E a r t h ' , distributed on the internet, A p r i l 2000. M e a d o w s , tragically recently deceased, is also the co-author of M e a d o w s et a l . 1992, a follow-up study to The Limits to Growth (Meadows et al. 1972), w h i c h argued hopefully - but mistakenly - that, of all the major environmental crises, ozone depletion was the o n l y one against w h i c h concerted international effort h a d been successful. 3. Personal c o m m u n i c a t i o n , D a n i e l Faber. T h i s is the highest for the ten-year p e r i o d d u r i n g w h i c h such measurements have been taken (these being, a c c o r d i n g to Faber, almost certainly too low, as the i n f o r m a t i o n is based on voluntary reports by c o r p o r a tions).

12 The Culprit
4. H e r e is another straw in the w i n d . At a meeting in O c t o b e r 2000 of 222 delegates to a conference in C h i a p a s , M e x i c o , of indigenous communities of the A m e r i c a s , the resolution was adopted that as 'neoliberalism was merely the strategy to e x p a n d the reach of global capitalism ... the general objective w o u l d be [to] A c h i e v e the defeat of capitalism in the A m e r i c a s - especially in its current manifestation: n e o l i b e r a l i s m ' ( A C E R C A 2001). S u c h sophistication a n d m i l i t a n c y w o u l d have scarcely been possible a decade ago. 5. M e a d o w s et al. 1992. T h e authors - no M a r x i s t s - conclude (p. 118) rather grimly: '[there is] ... a self-limiting constraint on p o p u l a t i o n . P o p u l a t i o n w i l l eventually level off, if industrial output per capita rises h i g h enough. B u t the m o d e l contains no selfl i m i t i n g constraint on capital. We see little " r e a l - w o r l d " evidence that the richest people or nations have lost interest in getting richer. Therefore we have assumed that capitalowners w i l l continue to try to m u l t i p l y their wealth indefinitely a n d that consumers w i l l continue to be w i l l i n g to increase their c o n s u m p t i o n . '

2 The Ecological Crisis

S o m e t h i n g has gone t e r r i b l y w r o n g i n the relations between h u m a n i t y a n d nature. C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g article, quoted in its entirety, w h i c h appeared in the Guardian Weekly d u r i n g 1999:
1

E n v i r o n m e n t a l refugees fleeing from drought, floods, deforestation and degraded l a n d totalled 25m last year, outnumbering those displaced by war for the first time, according to the R e d Cross. T h e 1999 W o r l d Disasters report, an annual survey of humanitarian trends, said that last year's 'natural disasters' were the worst on record, creating 5 8 % of the world's refugees. 'Everyone is aware of the environmental problems of global w a r m i n g and deforestation on one h a n d and the social problems of increasing poverty and growing shanty towns on the other,' A s t r i d Heiberg, the president of the international federation, said, 'but when these two factors collide, you have a new scale of catastrophe.' Last year environmental problems drove 25m people from their l a n d to already vulnerable squatter communities on the edge of fast-growing cities. Dr H e i b e r g predicts that 'combination of human-driven climate change and rapidly changing social and economic conditions w i l l set off a chain reaction of devastation leading to super-disasters.' T h e report looks at the consequences of H u r r i c a n e M i t c h on C e n t r a l A m e r i c a , and the 'deadly twins' E l N i n o and L a N i n a , which altered sea temperatures in the Pacific and Atlantic, causing droughts and floods on the continents each side of the oceans and believed to be made more extreme by global warming. Last year was the hottest recorded. El N i n o caused the worst drought in Indonesia for 50 years, setting off a chain reaction of crises, the report says. T h e rice crop failed, the price of imported rice quadrupled, the currency dropped by 8 0 % and riots erupted.

14TheCulprit In the countryside forests burned out of control, covering areas with a toxic layer of smoke. El N i n o is estimated to have cost 21,000 lives in 1998, while the deforestation in China's Yangtze river contributed to flooding that affected the lives of 180m people. C u r r e n t trends are putting millions more into the path of potential disaster. O n e billion people are living in the world's unplanned shanty towns, and 40 of the 50 fastest growing cities are located in earthquake zones. A n o t h e r 10m live under constant threat of floods. C h i n a , whose rponse to the floods in the Yangtze has been to plant millions of trees, has invested more than $3bn in flood control over the past 40 years and estimates it has saved the economy about $13bn in avoided losses. Peter Walker, director of disaster policy for the R e d Cross, said: 'We have to think internationally the same way as we do domestically. We don't wait until a house catches fire and then raise money for the fire department. We must spent [sic] more money before disaster strikes.' A g r i m watershed, i n d e e d , that catastrophic effects f r o m e n v i r o n m e n t a l sources w o u l d g r o w to exceed those s t e m m i n g f r o m direct h u m a n aggression. B u t this remarkable occurrence has m o r e to do w i t h b o o k k e e p i n g t h a n w i t h basic mechanisms. F o r surely there is not e n v i r o n m e n t a l catastrophe in one c o l u m n a n d h u m a n aggression in another, like the neat w o r k of accountants. H u m a n aggression has always h a d a lot to do w i t h disruptions in the n a t u r a l g r o u n d of society - consider all the wars d r i v e n by depletion of soils - while d i s r u p t i o n of the e n v i r o n m e n t is virtually always related to h u m a n activity, w h i c h as we k n o w is a l l too often m a r k e d by 'aggression'. In fact, the ' e n v i r o n m e n t ' itself is m a r k e d everywhere by h u m a n hands, a n d what we call nature has a history. N o w , however, that history is p l a i n l y entering a new phase. Was H u r r i c a n e M i t c h a n 'act o f G o d ' , i n this time w h e n global w a r m i n g , finally accepted as the p r o d u c t of h u m a n activity, goads storms to n e w levels of fury? A n d to what extent were its h o r r i f i c effects the result of deforestation a n d the displacement of p o o r people to unstable hillsides a n d other places i n h a r m ' s way? C a n a n earthquake's destruction b e d i v o r c e d f r o m the fact that 40 of the 50 fastest-growing cities are chaotically built over fault-lines? W e r e E l N i n o a n d L a N i n a themselves affected b y g l o b a l w a r m i n g , hence to some degree socially caused? T h e n there are the effects

The Ecological Crisis 15 related to g o v e r n m e n t a l p o l i c y a n d c o r r u p t i o n , themselves the o u t c o m e of g l o b a l e c o n o m i c a n d p o l i t i c a l circuits. I n I n d o n e s i a , for example, the b u r n i n g was 'out of c o n t r o l ' , in g o o d measure because S u h a r t o , then the dictator o f that c o u n t r y a n d d a r l i n g o f the i n t e r n a t i o n a l business c o m m u n i t y , h a d t u r n e d over great swatches of forests to his cronies. Finally, is there not s o m e t h i n g deficient about the response of the authorities? W h e n the R e d Cross official calls for the s p e n d i n g of m o n e y to stave off disaster, is he b e i n g p r u d e n t or b u r e a u c r a t i c a l l y stupid? Isn't s o m e t h i n g m u c h m o r e substantial t h a n t h r o w i n g m o n e y at the problems called for? Is not government, as the saying used to go, p a r t of the p r o b l e m ? T h e issue is not society a n d nature, as two i n d e p e n d e n t bodies b o u n c i n g off each other. It is the e v o l u t i o n , accelerating w i t h a m a z i n g velocity, of an ancient lesion in h u m a n i t y ' s relation to nature. We have b e c o m e witnesses to the i n f l a m m a t i o n of this l o n g - s m o u l d e r i n g pathology - witnesses, victims, a n d , i f w e a w a k e n i n time, healers. In the m e a n t i m e , all sorts of unpleasant surprises result f r o m the ceaseless a n d unpredictable interaction of destabilized ensembles of nature - let us call t h e m ecosystems. T h u s the greenhouse effect resulting f r o m a c c u m u l a t i o n of heat-retaining gases is i m p l i c a t e d not o n l y in these storms but also in a renewed proliferation of deadly infectious disease - b o t h the recurrence of long-time killers such as m a l a r i a a n d tuberculosis a n d the appearance of n e w a n d exotic forms such a s the E b o l a , H a n t a a n d West N i l e viruses. O n l y
2

a generation after m e d i c a l science was confidently p r e d i c t i n g the e n d of infectious disease, we enter an e p o c h of pandemics of the scale of the plaguer i d d e n fourteenth century. T h e r e are m a n y reasons for this, a n d a m o n g t h e m is g l o b a l w a r m i n g , w h i c h , by destabilizing climate, leads to increasingly chaotic weather a n d habitat alteration. T h i s releases the pathogens as w e l l as their vectors f r o m feedback loops of c o n t r o l . T h e story o n l y begins here: b e y o n d the effects of c l i m a t e , other processes of habitat d e t e r i o r a t i o n supervene, notably destruction of forests because of logging, the desperate c u t t i n g of firewood by destitute peoples, or the shift f r o m a subsistence e c o n o m y to one based on cattle or export crops. T h e s e interact w i t h climated r i v e n changes in fundamentally incalculable ways, w h i c h i n c l u d e the fact that deforestation itself affects climate. E q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t are the direct effects on the hosts of these pathogens, w h i c h in the aggregate greatly lower resistance to infection. T h e 'nature' that is the object a n d subject of the ecological crisis includes

16 The Culprit the ecosystem k n o w n as the h u m a n body. At this level, m a l n u t r i t i o n , u n e m p l o y m e n t , social a l i e n a t i o n , systematic p o i s o n i n g by c h e m i c a l discharges, a n d the subtle effects of radioactive fallout a n d , i n d e e d , of c l i m a t i c change itself - a l l increase the l i k e l i h o o d that infections w i l l take h o l d a n d b e c o m e b o t h lethal a n d p a n d e m i c . A n d so, o f course, does the c u r r e n t b r e a k d o w n in h e a l t h care affecting i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l y vast n u m b e r s of people - recent estimates r u n as h i g h as 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 - w h o n o w essentially lack a l l m e d i c a l resources. In the current o r d e r of g l o b a l i z a t i o n , the w o r l d is subject to chaotic degrees of c i r c u l a t i o n of people, signals a n d substances, while c i v i l society a n d c o m m u n i t y disintegrate across a great range of settings. L e t h a l p a n d e m i c s are the inevitable a c c o m p a n i m e n t , as A I D S n o w l o o m s to d e c i m ate s u b - S a h a r a n A f r i c a , w i t h S o u t h A s i a a n d the f o r m e r Soviet U n i o n w a i t i n g their t u r n . A n d what o f the still m o r e subtle yet p r o f o u n d effects o f d e m o r a l i z a t i o n , as people w i t h no chance of real p o w e r over their lives lose hope in a sea of troubles, or t u r n to i r r a t i o n a l beliefs a n d self-destructive practices as an escape f r o m an u n b e a r a b l e a n d i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e reality? S h o u l d we not t h i n k of d e m o r a l i z a t i o n as an ecological p h e n o m e n o n ?
3

The E c o l o g i c a l Crisis 17 estimated 10 m i l l i o n species, the great majority u n k n o w n to o u r science. Elsewhere, about 10 p e r cent of the world's corals have d i e d f r o m the w a r m water, w i t h a n a d d i t i o n a l 2 0 - 3 0 per cent u n d e r threat. T h e s e are, as the o c e a n o g r a p h e r J a m e s Porter has put it, 'like the c a n a r y in the m i n e . T h e y are telling us that the water where they live is b e c o m i n g s u b o p t i m a l for their existence.' In parts of the I n d i a n a n d Pacific oceans, corals have d e c l i n e d by 8 0 - 9 0 p e r cent. B a c t e r i a a n d viruses released by sewage have led to a four-fold increase in 160 c o r a l sites a l o n g the coast of F l o r i d a . A b o u t 25 p e r cent of people 1 w h o visit F l o r i d a beaches n o w b e c o m e i l l as a result. In a d d i t i o n , as I m a n y as 40 p e r cent of shellfish off the coast of N e w Y o r k have been I f o u n d to be infected. A l l of this necessarily has a deleterious effect on fish populations, already so deeply c o m p r o m i s e d by overfishing that 13 of the world's 17 m a j o r fisheries are either depleted or in steep decline - a n d this in t u r n has m a j o r effects on society.
4

T h e s e changes r a m i f y t h r o u g h o u t the whole o f nature. T h e i m m e n s e ecosystem of the oceans comprises i n n u m e r a b l e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d others defined by p a r t i c u l a r d e p t h , or relation to the shore, or currents, or c o r a l reefs, a n d so o n , as w e l l as by the organisms that live w i t h i n a n d between t h e m . Assessments c a n be m a d e of the integrity of these sub-systems, as well as of the oceans as a whole, in relation to o n g o i n g changes in other aspects - for example, climate. As of the late 1990s, the f o l l o w i n g o b t a i n e d : T h e waters of the oceans have w a r m e d on average about 1.8 degrees F a h r e n h e i t d u r i n g the twentieth century. T h i s m a y not seem like m u c h . H o w e v e r , since w a r m e r water holds less oxygen, a s m a l l increase in heat energy c a n translate to a m a j o r decrease in o r g a n i c productivity. Studies have shown that the Pacific O c e a n off C a l i f o r n i a yields d e c l i n i n g v o l u m e of k e l p ; worse, d u r i n g the last 40 years, p r o d u c t i o n of zoop l a n k t o n has d r o p p e d by 40 p e r cent. As a result, m a n y species have m o v e d n o r t h w a r d , causing the p o p u l a t i o n of pelagic birds to decline by 40 p e r cent since 1987 (one species, the sooty shearwater, has d r o p p e d by 90 p e r cent). T h e set of these changes has brought about a 50 per cent loss of nutrients on the deep ocean floor, habitat to an i m m e n s e n u m b e r of creatures - an

F r o m these countless environmental events we derive a crisis of g l o b a l ecological proportions. T h e e n v i r o n m e n t is by definition a set of things outside us, w i t h no essential structure, while an ecology is a whole defined by internal relations. E n v i r o n m e n t s c a n be listed a n d n u m e r i c a l l y evaluated. Ecologies offer no such p a c k a g i n g a n d the boundaries between t h e m are sites of active t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , w i t h o u t a fixed line between inside a n d outside. In p a r t i cular, the b o u n d a r y between h u m a n i t y a n d nature becomes h i g h l y d y n a m i c , a n d a matter to be u n d e r s t o o d historically a n d transformed politically. It is in this spirit that we w o u l d a p p r o a c h the question of an ecological crisis. T h e ecological crisis is an abstraction f r o m an obdurate set of facts: that ' e n v i r o n m e n t a l ' troubles are b r e a k i n g out a l l over the place, that this is p e c u l i a r l y l i n k e d to the c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n d i t i o n , a n d that it clearly poses a m a j o r threat to the future integrity of society a n d nature. Logically, one c a n ascribe this to chance, or believe that the set of troubles is self-limiting a n d w i l l go away of itself in a little while. B u t neither of these propositions rests on m o r e t h a n wishful t h i n k i n g . T h i s leaves a m o r e sombre, but also m o r e r a t i o n a l alternative: that the ecological crisis w i l l not go away of itself, a n d that it is caused by h u m a n activity. F r o m this we m a y t u r n to u n d e r s t a n d i n g what this activity is as w e l l as whether a n d u n d e r what terms its effects on ecologies m a y be overcome.

18 The Culprit A n i n d i v i d u a l m a y experience ecological d i s r u p t i o n t h r o u g h some l o c a l p h e n o m e n o n : a b i r t h defect, say, or a s t h m a , or a flood, but in no case c a n any u n e q u i v o c a l extension be m a d e f r o m any of these p h e n o m e n a either to their i m m e d i a t e cause or to a g l o b a l process. Occasionally, s o m e t h i n g egregious comes a l o n g - a L o v e C a n a l , C h e r n o b y l or E x x o n V a l d e z . B u t there is no clear p a t h f r o m these infractions to a g l o b a l crisis, or even to a p a t t e r n of malfeasance, since it w i l l always be possible to argue that each instance is exceptional or remediable by some counter-measure. E c o s y s t e m damage is often difficult to assess, as in p h e n o m e n a such as g l o b a l w a r m i n g o r d e c l i n i n g s p e r m counts. A t this level, e m p i r i c a l evidence tends to get fuzzy, a n d we c o n t e n d w i t h n o t h i n g specific or, in some cases, even perceptible. T h e r e is general agreement about ozone d e p l e t i o n as an ecosystemic lesion. B u t reputable scientists have disagreed that g l o b a l w a r m i n g is even t a k i n g place, or that it is related to the inputs of c a r b o n d i o x i d e or methane, or that it is p e r m a n e n t , or that it is a b a d thing. T h i s f r a c t i o n comprises a d w i n d l i n g m i n o r i t y of the overall view, a n d , needless to say, does not c o r r e s p o n d to the v i e w a r g u e d here. B u t that is not the p o i n t . Science is n o t a p o p u l a r i t y contest, a n d m i n o r i t i e s , even i n d i v i d u a l s , have b e e n k n o w n to p r e v a i l in the c o u r t of t r u t h . W h a t e v e r the motives of the differing sides, they each c o n t e n d w i t h ultimate unprovability. H o w c a n one make useful comparisons about s p e r m counts, for example, across great stretches of time, l o c a t i o n a n d ethnic m a k e - u p , or where the investigators have never c o n f e r r e d about what they are doing? T h e same r e a s o n i n g holds for other k i n d s o f m e d i c a l - e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l data. Yes, a s t h m a rates have gone up in u r b a n areas; yes, m i c e have got cancer f r o m exposure to the apple f u m i g a n t A l a r ; yes, m a l a r i a is on the w a y back. B u t what does that prove, b e y o n d the fact that progress has its costs? T h e H o o k e r C h e m i c a l C o m p a n y c a n b e h e l d responsible for L o v e C a n a l , a n d E x x o n for the spill o f o i l f r o m one o f its tankers. A n d i n some cases, such as ozone depletion, c h l o r o f l u o r o c a r b o n p r o d u c t i o n c a n be h e l d responsible for ecosystemic b r e a k d o w n . B u t for the m a j o r i t y of ecosystemic threats, contestation a n d d o u b t seem to increase as one approaches a m o r e g l o b a l level of analysis. H o w , t h e n , c a n one assert a n y t h i n g at a l l about a crisis at the even grander level of an 'ecological crisis' affecting the entire relationship of h u m a n i t y to nature? In fact, this level is scarcely addressed, even by the most relentless a n d u n c o m p r o m i s i n g critics of the system. W h a t seems to h a p p e n instead is that

The Ecological Crisis 19 the p r o b l e m is taken to an ecosystemic level such as biodiversity loss or c l i m a t i c a b e r r a t i o n , f o l l o w i n g w h i c h the assertion is m a d e that governments, or 'the people', must b r i n g about basic change. T h i s change is a d m i t t e d to require 'large-scale', even ' p r o f o u n d ' e c o n o m i c adjustments as w e l l as a n e w 'lifestyle' in w h i c h the r i c h people of the N o r t h w i l l have to consume less a n d the p o o r people of the S o u t h w i l l have to b r e e d less. V a r i o u s r e c o m mendations are m a d e about tax policies, i n t e r n a t i o n a l governance, a n d the like. Obeisances are p a i d to the care of the earth, to a d o p t i n g a m o r e 'holistic' a p p r o a c h , o r getting i n t o u c h w i t h one's feelings about nature. A n d t h e n everyone goes h o m e a n d nature continues b e i n g ravaged. It is as if the elementary fact of e x t r a p o l a t i o n does not exist. Yes, it c o u l d be that El N i n o was a fluke, as far r e m o v e d f r o m h u m a n causality as the meteorite whose i m p a c t some 70 m i l l i o n years ago b r o u g h t the Jurassic era to a screeching halt. A n d yes, it c o u l d be that a l l this is u l t i m a t e l y for the g o o d . B u t h o w c a n it be d e n i e d that the ecological crisis has c o m e on w i t h a sickening r a p i d i t y by geo-historical standards, or that it is p l a i n l y accelerating, thereby p l a c i n g m o r e a n d m o r e ecosystems i n h a r m ' s way, a n d o p e n i n g the w a y for e x p o n e n t i a l l y increasing destabilization? As i n d i v i d u a l s we m a y be unable to see this directly, given the scale of change a n d the fact that, however m o m e n t a r y it m a y be f r o m a geological standpoint, the crisis o n l y rarely impacts on an i n d i v i d u a l life in a c o n v i n c i n g way, a n d even t h e n , the i m p a c t tends to be g l a n c i n g , as the sun comes out after the latest horrific s t o r m . B u t that a l l this has accelerated so in the last 30 years remains astounding, even as it fails to astound. F r o m the perspective of the universe as a whole, o u r existence looks like a R o m a n C a n d l e g o i n g off w i t h a ' w h o o s h ' , leaving little trace b e h i n d . However, despite the intellectual a n d e m o t i o n a l difficulties in understandi n g the g l o b a l ecological crisis, its existence is actually easier to establish t h a n that of any p a r t i c u l a r ecosystemic lesion. For we l o o k i n g not at any given p h e n o m e n o n , but at a crisis that conditions all p h e n o m e n a . T h e e m p i r i c a l test for an i n d i v i d u a l p h e n o m e n o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y one at so great a level of abstraction as, say, biodiversity loss, has to be settled by the gathering, analysis a n d interpretation o f a n i m m e n s e n u m b e r o f concrete data. T h e e m p i r i c a l test for the ecological crisis as a whole, on the other h a n d , rests on the t h o r o u g h l y obvious p o i n t that problems c o m p r i s i n g various e n v i r o n m e n t a l injuries are arising not r a n d o m l y but in a k i n d of historical crescendo that belongs to the present m o m e n t a n d to it alone. Yes, of course, societies

20

The Culprit have fouled their nests before, often p a y i n g for their actions w i t h e x t e r m i n a t i o n . B u t the evidently global character of the crisis before us brings f o r w a r d
5

The Ecological Crisis nature, namely, that the b o u n d a r y between h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l ecosystems is the site of the peculiarly h u m a n activity k n o w n as production, the conscious t r a n s f o r m i n g o f nature for h u m a n purposes. A l l creatures transform others - that is s i m p l y another w a y of expressing the d y n a m i c relations between ecosystems. B u t o n l y h u m a n s do so consciously, w i t h a l l that entails. T h e rest of this study w i l l be in effect a critique of those ways of p r o d u c t i o n a n d their relations to nature of the ways we change nature, a n d the ways nature changes us, a n d also a bit about the ways nature deals w i t h the effects of o u r productive activity. F r o m this standpoint, the ecological crisis m a y be said to be h u m a n p r o d u c t i o n gone b a d . P u t m o r e formally, the c u r r e n t stage of history c a n be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by structural forces that systematically degrade and finally exceed the buffering capacity of nature with respect to human production, thereby setting into motion an unpredictable yet interacting and expanding set of ecosystemic breakdowns. T h e ecological crisis is what is m e a n t by this phase. In it we observe the d e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n of lifecycles a n d the d i s j o i n t i n g of species a n d i n d i v i d u a l s , resulting in the f r a g m e n t a t i o n of ecosystems h u m a n as w e l l as n o n - h u m a n . F o r h u m a n i t y is not just the p e r p e t r a t o r of the crisis: it is its v i c t i m as w e l l . A n d a m o n g the signs of o u r v i c t i m i z a t i o n is the i n c a p a c i t y to c o n t e n d w i t h the crisis, or even to b e c o m e conscious of it. A l t h o u g h the essentials of the ecological crisis lie in qualitative relationships, its o u t c o m e w i l l t u r n u p o n quantity. It does not take the p r o v e r b i a l rocket scientist to tell us that if the l o a d p l a c e d by h u m a n s u p o n the earth's buffering c a p a c i t y keeps g r o w i n g , t h e n collapse w i l l ensue, w i t h c o n sequences that l o g i c a l l y i n c l u d e the possibility of e x t i n c t i o n . It is not o u r p r o v i n c e to dissect these buffering mechanisms, or h o w they are surpassed in the p l u r a l i t y of ecosystemic insults. N o r do I w i s h to evoke apocalyptic i m a g e r y to m a k e my p o i n t , or calculate the n u m b e r of years we have left u n t i l doomsday, if o n l y because the scenario of apocalypse, w i t h its sudden a n d total e n d a c c o m p a n i e d by rapture, r e t r i b u t i o n , a n d so o n , is not on the cards so m u c h as a k i n d of steady, deleterious f r a y i n g of ecosystem w i t h incalculable after-effects. O u r j o b in any case is to u n d e r s t a n d the social d y n a m i c s of the crisis, a n d to see whether a n y t h i n g c a n be done about t h e m . H e r e it is useful to consider society f r o m a ecosystemic standpoint, a n d p o n d e r the m e a n i n g of findings such as the fact that even as the situation of g l o b a l ecology has m a r k e d l y w o r s e n e d in the past 30 years, so has the level of elite reponsiveness d e c l i n e d .

21

r a d i c a l l y n e w factors: the i n t e r a c t i o n of p l a n e t a r y ecosystems, such as the atmosphere a n d the oceans; the i m m e n s e acceleration in species loss, to levels 10,000 times greater t h a n the b a c k g r o u n d ; the appearance of new, planetary breakdowns such as the ozone hole, or w i d e s p r e a d endocrine destabilization - a n d , of special i m p o r t a n c e for o u r practice, n e w orders of social i n t e g r a t i o n a n d disintegration. To repeat, this is an o l d lesion at a n e w level, like a s m o u l d e r i n g that breaks into o p e n flame, or a precancerous w a r t that becomes a m a l i g n a n t m e l a n o m a , a n d it requires measures of a r a d i c a l l y n e w sort. T h e ecological crisis is therefore not about any given ecosystem damage, such as g l o b a l w a r m i n g , species loss, resource d e p l e t i o n , or the w i d e s p r e a d i n t o x i c a t i o n by n e w chemicals, such as o r g a n o c h l o r i n e s , w h i c h have been released into the biosphere. It is about the fact that these kinds of things are a l l h a p p e n i n g together - that they a l l arise at a n d b e l o n g to the same m o m e n t i n history. T h e r e are i n n u m e r a b l e experts w h o p l a y the role o f Voltaire's D r Pangloss a n d m a k e a h a n d s o m e l i v i n g b y d e n y i n g the g r i m i m p l i c a t i o n s of one ecosystemic aspect or another of the crisis. B u t none of the experts or Panglosses has any answer for the fact of the crisis itself.
6

On Human Ecology and the Trajectory of the Ecological Crisis E c o l o g y takes on a h u m a n f o r m , since h u m a n s are part of nature, a n d , like all other creatures, require a p a t t e r n of relationships to survive a n d flourish. E a c h k i n d of creature has its ecological signature, w h i c h for h u m a n s is given in the terms of o u r p e c u l i a r species traits of sociality, language, culture, a n d the like. Society, w h i c h results f r o m the expression of these traits - that is, of o u r human nature - is p l a i n l y an ecosystem, since it is i n t e r n a l l y related a n d has d y n a m i c b o u n d a r i e s w i t h other, n a t u r a l ecosystems. We shall discuss this m o r e fully in Part I I , a n d here m a y confine ourselves to b r o a d l y c o n s i d e r i n g h o w it is that society becomes the agent of the ecological crisis. A l l of the characteristics of ecosystems, i n c l u d i n g degrees of destabilizat i o n a n d disintegration, apply to societies. B u t there is one p r o p e r t y that h u m a n society u n i q u e l y possesses as the species-specific expression of h u m a n

22 The Culprit Since Plato at least, people have been o b s e r v i n g the p o t e n t i a l for deleterious e n v i r o n m e n t a l effects, a n d since the p u b l i c a t i o n of G e o r g e Perkins M a r s h ' s Man and Nature in 1864, the p o s s i b i l i t y of systemic e c o l o g i c a l d a m a g e has been raised. M a r s h , however, was a visionary, a n d it took another c e n t u r y for the g r i m possibility of g l o b a l ecosystemic decay to enter the general consciousness a n d b e c o m e a c o n c e r n of elites. In 1970, the n o t i o n of the 'limits to g r o w t h ' entered the collective vocabulary, to be j o i n e d as time went on by other b u z z w o r d s such as 'sustainability' a n d 'throughput'.
7

The E c o l o g i c a l Crisis 23 T h e M a l t h u s i a n p r i n c i p l e that p o p u l a t i o n w i l l increase e x p o n e n t i a l l y a c r u d e r e d u c t i o n of conscious creatures to machines o b e y i n g the rules of elementary algebra - has n o w b e e n e m p i r i c a l l y as w e l l as theoretically d e m o l i s h e d . If there is to be a fatally destabilizing e x p o n e n t i a l increase of l o a d , it w i l l c o m e in the e c o n o m i c sphere. T h i s is certified by the figures just given, a n d , m o r e significandy, by the value a c c o r d e d t h e m in established channels o f o p i n i o n . W e c a n easily i m a g i n e the h o r r o r a n d outrage w i t h w h i c h an a n n o u n c e m e n t that p o p u l a t i o n w o u l d double in the next 20 years w o u l d be greeted. A s i m i l a r c l a i m m a d e for e c o n o m i c activity, however, n o t o n l y evades c r i t i c i s m but is greeted as t h o u g h a sign of the S e c o n d C o m i n g . P r e d i c t i o n s o f g r o w t h m a y o r m a y not t u r n out t o b e o n schedule. In fact, they got slowed a bit by the A s i a n financial m e l t d o w n s that b e g a n even as they were a n n o u n c e d , a n d all the vagaries of the g l o b a l e c o n o m y w i l l play a role in their r e a l i z a t i o n . W h a t matters, however, is that the w o r l d is r u n by those w h o see limits to g r o w t h as a n a t h e m a . T h e scenario of ecological collapse holds, in essence, that the cumulative effects of g r o w t h eventually o v e r w h e l m the integrity of ecosystems on a w o r l d scale, l e a d i n g to a cascading series of shocks. Just h o w the blows w i l l fall is impossible to tell w i t h any p r e c i s i o n , a l t h o u g h a n u m b e r of useful c o m p u t e r m o d e l s have b e e n a s s e m b l e d . " I n general terms, w e w o u l d anticipate i n t e r a c t i n g calamities that invade a n d rupture the core m a t e r i a l substrata of c i v i l i z a t i o n - food, water, air, habitat, b o d i l y health. A l r e a d y each of these p h y s i c a l substrata is u n d e r stress, a n d the logic of the crisis dictates that these stresses w i l l increase. O t h e r shocks a n d perturbations are likely to ensue as resource d e p l e t i o n supervenes - for example, in the supply of p e t r o l e u m , w h i c h is expected to b e g i n levelling off a n d then decline after the next ten y e a r s .
12

F o r a time it seemed as if h u m a n i t y h a d a w a k e n e d to its o w n h a r m fulness. B u t then s o m e t h i n g strange h a p p e n e d . E v e n as the v o c a b u l a r y of ecological c o n c e r n proliferated, a l o n g w i t h a large bureaucratic apparatus, n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l as well as g o v e r n m e n t a l , for p u t t i n g it into effect, a shift o c c u r r e d a n d the n o t i o n of 'limits to g r o w t h ' became pass. W h e r e once not so very l o n g ago there was substantial c o n c e r n that some c o m b i n a t i o n o f r i s i n g p o p u l a t i o n a n d i n d u s t r i a l e x p a n s i o n w o u l d o v e r w h e l m the earth w i t h catastrophic consequences for c i v i l i z a t i o n , today thoughts of the k i n d are distinctly unfashionable, even if not entirely extinguished. W h a t is o d d is that, as we have a l r e a d y seen, ' g r o w t h ' , w h e t h e r of p o p u l a t i o n o r i n d u s t r i a l output, certainly d i d not slacken i n this p e r i o d . T h e latter is especially t r o u b l i n g , i n a s m u c h as p o p u l a t i o n , however u n a c c e p t a b l y large it m a y be, shows signs of levelling across most of the w o r l d (even r e a c h i n g zero o r slightly negative levels i n J a p a n a n d some W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n countries, a n d rather precipitous declines in the f o r m e r Soviet bloc). N o t h i n g o f the sort c a n b e said a b o u t the other k i n d o f g r o w t h , that p e r t a i n i n g to i n d u s t r i a l output or p r o d u c t i o n in general, however this m a y be m e a s u r e d . A c c o r d i n g to the W o r l d w a t c h Institute, a m a i n s t r e a m organ8

Or some unforeseen e c o n o m i c shock w i l l

i z a t i o n charged w i t h m o n i t o r i n g the world's ecology, the g l o b a l e c o n o m y increased f r o m $2.3 t r i l l i o n in 1900, to $20 t r i l l i o n in 1990 a n d an astounding $39 t r i l l i o n in 1998. To quote, the ' g r o w t h in e c o n o m i c output in just three years - f r o m 1995 to 1998 - exceeded that d u r i n g the 10,000 years f r o m the b e g i n n i n g o f agriculture u n t i l 1990. A n d g r o w t h o f the g l o b a l e c o n o m y i n 1997 alone easily exceeded that d u r i n g the seventeenth century.' T h i s is
9

topple the balance: perhaps c l i m a t i c catastrophes w i l l trigger a collapse of the $2 t r i l l i o n g l o b a l insurance industry, w i t h , as J e r e m y Leggett has noted, ' k n o c k - o n e c o n o m i c consequences w h i c h are c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r e d i n most analyses o f climate c h a n g e ' .
13

Perhaps famines w i l l incite wars i n w h i c h

rogue nuclear powers w i l l l a u n c h their reign of terror. Perhaps a s i m i l a r fate w i l l c o m e t h r o u g h the e r u p t i o n of as yet unforeseen g l o b a l p a n d e m i c s , such as the r e t u r n of s m a l l p o x , c u r r e n t l y considered to be w i t h i n the range of possibilities o p e n to terrorist groups. Or perhaps a sudden break-up of the A n t a r c t i c ice shelf w i l l cause seas to suddenly rise by several metres, d i s p l a c i n g h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s a n d p r e c i p i t a t i n g yet m o r e violent c l i m a t i c

consistent w i t h the fact that w o r l d trade has increased by a factor of 15 over the past four decades, all of w h i c h lends support to the p r e d i c t i o n , m a d e in 1997, that gross w o r l d p r o d u c t w i l l double w i t h i n the next 20 years, that is, to some $80 t r i l l i o n d o l l a r s .
10

24 The Culprit changes. Or perhaps n o t h i n g so d r a m a t i c w i l l take place, but o n l y a slow a n d steady d e t e r i o r a t i o n in ecosystems, associated w i t h a rise in authorita r i a n i s m . T h e a p o c a l y p t i c scenarios n o w s o c o m m o n l y m a k i n g the rounds of films, best-selling novels, c o m i c books, c o m p u t e r games a n d television are not so m u c h harbingers of the future as inchoate renderings of the present ecological crisis. W i t h terror in the air, these mass fantasies c a n b e c o m e the logos of a n e w order of fascism - a fascism that, in the n a m e of m a k i n g the planet habitable, o n l y aggravates the crisis as it further disintegrates h u m a n ecologies. O r maybe things w i l l w o r k out a n d w e w i l l a l l m u d d l e t h r o u g h somehow. T h e n o t i o n of limits to g r o w t h m a y have been shelved, but the system has not b e e n sleeping. A vast c o m p l e x of recuperative measures has b e e n installed in its place, remedies that seek to restore ecological balance w i t h o u t t h r e a t e n i n g the m a i n e c o n o m i c engines. G i v e n the s k i l l a n d resources devoted to the project, there is b o u n d to be some g o o d news to report. W h a t is at issue, however, is adequacy: w h e t h e r a l l the p o l l u t i o n controls, efficiencies, t r a d i n g of credits, resource substitutions, i n f o r m a t i o n - r i c h c o m modities, engineered b i o l o g i c a l products, 'green business' a n d the like c a n compensate for r e t a i n i n g a system whose very heartbeat is g r o w t h w i t h o u t boundaries. R e m e m b e r , the p o i n t of a l l these counter-measures is not just to protect against ecological b r e a k d o w n , but to b r i n g on line n e w sources of growth. T h i s raises the spectre of a w o r l d like a gigantic P o t e m k i n village, where a green a n d orderly faade conceals a n d reassures, while accelerated b r e a k d o w n takes place b e h i n d its walls. A l l this brings us to the larger question of just what is g r o w i n g in the regime of ' g r o w t h ' . We c a n see right away that the answer engages a n u m b e r of levels. F r o m the standpoint of ecosystems, the concrete agents of b r e a k d o w n are the m a t e r i a l forces t h r o w n i n t o nature by o u r i n d u s t r i a l apparatus, a n d this is u l t i m a t e l y a question of molecules a n d energy flows, whether these be organochlorines, c a r b o n d i o x i d e or the blade of a c h a i n saw. B u t a l t h o u g h this level grows, it is as a f u n c t i o n of another k i n d of g r o w t h . H e r e we find the true g o d of society, a n d the actual subject of g r o w t h that its rulers w i l l not c o m p r o m i s e . At this level, what grows is the i m a g i n a r y a n d p u r e l y h u m a n entity o f m o n e y - not m o n e y i n itself, but m o n e y i n m o t i o n : C a p i t a l . T h e real issue o f the ecological crisis resides i n this mysterious entity a n d the social forces established for its n u r t u r e a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n . We have to ask w h e t h e r we c a n overcome the ecological
1. P. B r o w n 1999.

The Ecological Crisis 25 crisis w i t h o u t o v e r c o m i n g C a p i t a l . If the answer is n o , then the m a p of the future needs to be r e d r a w n .

Notes

2. E p s t e i n 2000. Epstein points out that 'several climate models predict that as the atmosphere a n d oceans heat up, E l N i n o s themselves w i l l become more c o m m o n a n d severe'. 3. ' A l l ecological disruptions ... tip the balance between people a n d microbes in favor of microbes.' Piatt 1996. See also M i h i l l 1996. T h e situation particularly affects c h i l d r e n , a n d itself is the result of a host of interrelated problems, i n c l u d i n g a precipitous decline of a i d f r o m r i c h countries to the poor. Sixteen A f r i c a n countries, along w i t h Bangladesh, N e p a l , I n d i a , V i e t n a m a n d Pakistan, spent less than $12 per person per year on health care in the late 1990s. C o n g o , in the grip of intractable c i v i l war, spent 40 cents, while T a n z a n i a spent 70 cents (as against $105.30 per person per year on its military). 4. Unless otherwise stated, the i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m this section is d r a w n f r o m M o n tague 1999. 5. P o n t i n g 1991 provides a useful summary. 6. An example of neo-Panglossism, extending to d e n i a l of the crisis itself, is a c o l u m n in the Wall Street Journal by M i c h a e l F u m e n t o (Fumento 1999), a senior fellow at the H u d s o n Institute. T h e title of this piece sets the tone: ' W i t h F r o g Scare D e b u n k e d , It Isn't Easy B e i n g G r e e n ' . T h i s refers to new findings of what h a d been a p u z z l i n g p h e n o m e n o n : the disappearance of m a n y frogs, a n d the appearance of grotesque b i r t h defects in m a n y others. T h i s is variously hypothesized as b e i n g due to pesticides or ozone depletion, a n d new findings suggest that the culprits are 'tiny parasites made in the factories of M o t h e r N a t u r e Inc.' F r o m this (and s i m i l a r l y a d d u c e d g o o d news regarding c h i l d health, a l o n g w i t h denials of global w a r m i n g , a n d so on), F u m e n t o argues that the ecological crisis is not really h a p p e n i n g except in the heated a n d opportunistic brains of environmentalists. F u m e n t o seems to think that what makes a p r o b l e m ' e n v i r o n m e n t a l ' is the identification of isolated pollutants as causes rather than l o o k i n g at disintegrated patterns a n d their mediated effects. At the ecosystemic level, F u m e n t o fails to realize that parasites are most definitely ecologically dependent creatures, a n d fails to ask whether the appearance of these parasites m a y be related to ecological destabilization (as is very m u c h the case w i t h the emergence of other diseases). T h e grotesque metaphor of M o t h e r Nature's factories m a y help us understand w h y this level of t h i n k i n g doesn't occur to h i m , as a factory is set up to produce singular c o m modities a n d to m i n i m i z e field effects. Similarly, F u m e n t o prates on about the g o o d news c o n c e r n i n g c h i l d health, specifically rules out air p o l l u t i o n as a cause of c h i l d h o o d asthma, then smugly walks away f r o m the p r o b l e m as though the whole disease were a figment of the imagination (or perhaps p r o d u c e d also by 'parasites', a n d thereby m o v i n g out of the e n v i r o n m e n t a l frame of reference). T h a t asthma rates have d o u b l e d in the last 20 years, a n d that, in a study reported at the same time in the New York Times, c h i l d r e n i n p o o r a n d m i n o r i t y communities i n N e w Y o r k C i t y are hospitalized 2 0 times as often as those f r o m affluent areas, w o u l d be inconsequential to h i m . M o r e generally,

26 The Culprit
F u m e n t o is led to the ridiculous position of b l a m i n g Greens a n d environmentalists for m a k i n g up the i n n u m e r a b l e manifestations of ecodestabilization, as t h o u g h the m y r i a d stories about ecological h a r m were no m o r e t h a n a G r e e n plot to t h r o w monkeywrenches into the m a c h i n e r y of progress. As for global w a r m i n g , in a 1991 study, W i l f r e d B e c k e r m a n ( B e c k e r m a n n 1991: 73) c o n c l u d e d that, although 'every aspect of the p r o b l e m that one peers into only reveals a whole new mass of uncertainties', nevertheless the evidence firmly suggests that the damage f r o m global climate change 'is n o t h i n g like as great as it is w i d e l y believed a n d certainly not the inevitable global catastrophic scenario h a w k e d a r o u n d by most e n v i r o n m e n t a l movements, politicians t r y i n g to get some mileage out of the environmental b a n d w a g o n , or sections of the m e d i a that love scare stories of any k i n d . ' T h e b i g answer, as far as he is c o n c e r n e d , is to remove 'existing market imperfections' that h a m p e r solutions, ' a n d governments should not let ecological h o r r o r stories frighten t h e m into m a k i n g any moves [to cut greenhouse gas emissions]' (ibid.: 83). A m o n g Beckermann's p r a c t i c a l recommendations: to the people of Bangladesh, one of the places slated to be i n u n d a t e d by rising seas, b u i l d dykes like the D u t c h , or if all else fails, emigrate. T h i s is an interesting suggestion given the present a n d likely future global attitude t o w a r d mass i m m i g r a t i o n . O n e wonders if he w o u l d welcome hordes of displaced Bangladeshis to O x f o r d , where he teaches. T e n years o n , a representative of the Scottish insurance industry told the H a g u e C o n ference, whose mission was to ratify the K y o t o protocols of 1997 (and that, as we know, failed to do so), that at the present rate, increasing damages f r o m global w a r m i n g w o u l d b a n k r u p t the w o r l d e c o n o m i c system by 2065; while in J a n u a r y 2001, the Intergovernm e n t a l P a n e l on C l i m a t e C h a n g e 'officially' put an e n d to the debate in c i t i n g a r o u n d 3,000 scientific studies to conclude that firm evidence of change is already evident in some 420 distinct ecosystems, a n d the future portends the worst-case scenario of 'ecological h o r r o r stories', w i t h temperature rises of as m u c h as 10 degrees F by the e n d of the century. 7. M a r s h 1965, about w h i c h A n d r e w G o u d i e writes that it was 'probably the most i m p o r t a n t l a n d m a r k in the history of the study of the role of h u m a n s in changing the face of the earth'. (Goudie 1991: 3). See also M e a d o w s et al. 1972. A n o t h e r l a n d m a r k study of the next decade was the B r u n d t l a n d R e p o r t ( B r u n d t l a n d 1987). 8. For present purposes, we m a y regard measures in m o n e t a r y units, like gross n a t i o n a l (or world) product as equivalent to, a n d m o v i n g in t a n d e m w i t h , measures of a directly physical k i n d , such as resource depletion. T h e r e are major problems w i t h this, i n c l u d i n g the adequacy of G N P as an indicator of e c o n o m i c well-being, a n d also its equivalency w i t h ecological processes. T h u s spending $100 on a psychoanalytic interview a n d b u y i n g S100 w o r t h of herbicide for one's l a w n are not exactly the same ecologically, although b o t h increase G N P by the same amount. In an ecologically sane society, as m a n y have p o i n t e d out, indices such as G N P w i l l no longer guide policy. For now, however, it is a useful indicator of the p r o b l e m . See C h a p t e r 7 for further discussion. 9. B r o w n 1999: 10. See also B r o w n et al. 1991: 23. 10. F r o m the authoritative voice of R e n a t o Ruggiero, then director of the W o r l d T r a d e O r g a n i z a t i o n , quoted 23 A p r i l 1997 in the Wall Street Journal. See next chapter for further discussion. 11. As in M e a d o w s et al. 1992. 12. Less in absolute terms t h a n in the cost of extraction. No effort need be made here to evaluate the precise contours of this l o o m i n g crisis - or that in other essential resources, such as topsoil. T h e situation is too c o m p l e x a n d unpredictable for that. A n d it moves in multiple directions. As petroleum gases, it might be hypothesized that its decline on the ecosphere a n d perhaps open the way for T h e question, though, is whether the currently ally w i t h these a n d other stresses. 13.

The Ecological Crisis 27

is the source of most of the greenhouse as a resource w o u l d place less of a l o a d new a n d ecological energy replacements. installed market system c a n deal ration-

Q u o t e d in G o l d s m i t h a n d H e n d e r s o n 1999: 99.

Capital29 immediately. If the exposure is h i g h , blindness, severe b a c t e r i a l a n d eosinop h i l i c p n e u m o n i a , o r l a r y n g e a l o e d e m a a n d cardiac arrest follow. W h a t has been said so far w o u l d e x p l a i n at the physiological level w h y

3 Capital

a p e r s o n w h o i n h a l e d M I C , say, as she slept, c o u l d b e c o m e dangerously i l l . W i t h i n this f r a m e w o r k , w e c a n say that M I C 'causes' the illness a n d death. Needless to say, such an e x p l a n a t i o n w o u l d tell us n o t h i n g about another set of questions, namely, w h y was the sleeper in such p r o x i m i t y to M I C , a n d m o r e , what was m e t h y l isocyanate d o i n g i n the e n v i r o n m e n t i n the first place, at so close a distance that it interacted w i t h bodies? To repeat, M I C does not exist in nature; a n d were it by chance to issue f r o m some n a t u r a l source such as a v o l c a n o , its fabulous reactivity w o u l d ensure it a very transient existence. H o w , t h e n , does M I C h a p p e n to be present so that bodies are affected by its violent c h e m i c a l proclivities? In other words, M I C c a n cause the illness, but not itself. T h e r e needs be a cause at a higher level o f generality that brings M I C i n t o existence a n d deploys i t i n certain ways. T h i s p r o p e r t y of b e i n g able to set other causes i n t o m o t i o n is what we m e a n by the 'efficiency' of a cause. W h a t 'causes' M I C is the fact of b e i n g produced, t h r o u g h the conscious

A Case Study T h e r e is a substance called m e t h y l isocyanate ( M I C ) , w h i c h does not exist in nature but was i n t r o d u c e d into the ecosphere by i n d u s t r y in the last century. A simple but very potent m o l e c u l e ( C H N C O ) , M I C i s w i d e l y used
3

in the m a n u f a c t u r e of pesticides a n d herbicides because of its reactivity a n d deadly effects o n l i v i n g organisms. A c c o r d i n g t o the website o f the U S Environmental Protection Agency: M I C ... is an ester of isocyanic acid ( H N C O ) . T h e parent isocyanic acid is a weak acid a n d exists in e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h cyanic ( H C N O ) acid [the differences between the two H N C O ' s being in the spatial configuration of the atoms]. M I C ' s b o i l i n g point is yet to be clearly established. It is a highly volatile and inflammable gas; its vapours are denser than air; it is stable under dry and neutral conditions at r o o m temperature but can violently react in the presence of acids, alkali, and the like. T h e carbon centre in the isocyanate group is electron deficient (electrophilic) and therefore w i l l react with electron-rich nucleophiles, e.g.: water, alcohol, phenol, alkali, and the like. B e i n g denser t h a n air, M I C v a p o u r does not dissipate but settles o n whatever is nearby. If exposed to water-bearing tissues, it reacts violently, l e a d i n g to changes that cannot be c o n t a i n e d by the n o r m a l protective devices of the affected o r g a n i s m . T h e a m o u n t of energy released by the e n s u i n g reaction swiftly exceeds the heat-buffering capabilities of the body. As a result, m a n y molecules of service to the o r g a n i s m are d e g r a d e d a n d / o r t h r o w n into disarray, w h i l e others that are toxic are f o r m e d . P u t simply, the b o d y suffers severe burns, especially of exposed tissues r i c h in water, such as lungs a n d eyes. C h e s t p a i n , breathlessness a n d severe a s t h m a result ; \

alteration of nature to serve h u m a n ends - in this case, i n d u s t r i a l ones relevant to the development of agriculture. Industry, however, does far m o r e t h a n p r o d u c e large a m o u n t s of strange substances: it also alters the h u m a n ecology, p u t t i n g some people in its way, a n d s e r v i n g others. C h e m i c a l science w i l l b e necessary t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w M I C affects l i v i n g tissue. I n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n , however, understands science a n d nature in o r d e r to b r i n g substances such as M I C i n t o the w o r l d , a n d to gather t h e m for its uses - in this case, the manufacture of pesticides for the purposes of m o d e r n agriculture. To u n d e r s t a n d the full event, then, a n d not just the p a t h o l o g i c a l effects on the o r g a n i s m , requires a grasp of the history a n d social relations o f p r o d u c t i o n , o f its i n d u s t r i a l t u r n , o f the peculiarities o f pesticide m a n u facture - a n d in this instance, of the reasons w h y so deadly a substance escaped sequestration a n d f o u n d its w a y i n t o h u m a n bodies, a n d if the p o i s o n i n g took place in m a n y lungs a l l at once, w h y they all h a p p e n e d to be there together to receive M I C ' s deadly embrace. T h e reader w i l l have doubtless gathered by n o w that I am referring to a very specific eco-catastrophic event: the release, on 4 D e c e m b e r 1984, of 46.3 tons o f m e t h y l isocyanate f r o m the factory r u n b y the U n i o n C a r b i d e c o r p o r a t i o n , an A m e r i c a n transnational w i t h a pesticide m a n u f a c t u r i n g

30 The Culprit facility i n B h o p a l , I n d i a . T h e gas escaped a r o u n d m i d n i g h t , a n d s o i t f o u n d the inhabitants of B h o p a l , great numbers of w h o m l i v e d close to the factory, sleeping. It is impossible to convey in words the suffering this caused. B u t some results c a n be e n u m e r a t e d : an estimated 8,000 people d i e d on the spot a n d as m a n y afterwards, w i t h over 500,000 i n j u r e d , some 50,000 to 70,000 of those injuries p e r m a n e n t . People were still d y i n g , 15 years later,
1

Capital31 purposes, that is, the c o r p o r a t i o n caused the factory to be built where a n d w h e n it pleased. In a l i t e r a l sense, this is an a b s u r d statement. U n i o n C a r b i d e is not a person w h o c a n put a n y t h i n g anywhere; a n d the actual people w h o i m m e d i a t e l y caused the M I C p l a n t t o arise i n B h o p a l were a great mass of labourers, architects, suppliers, a n d so o n , most of w h o m h a d no direct relation to the c o m p a n y but were h i r e d by subcontractors. Yet we c a n n o t c l a i m that these workers built the factory except as the necessary but p a r t i a l final h u m a n instrument, just as the tools in their hands were necessary but p a r t i a l t e c h n o l o g i c a l instruments. T h e r e f o r e the answer to the question of what caused a factory, or any other social p r o d u c t , to be built w o u l d be: that w h i c h effectively organizes the social l a b o u r that went into it. A n d , since l a b o u r is the h u m a n faculty of m a k i n g events h a p p e n , said cause, w h i c h organizes all the others, becomes efficient. In a different k i n d of society, where workers c o n t r o l l e d their productive life activity, or where, as in the o r i g i n a l , t r i b a l society, the whole c o m m u n i t y d i d the same, we w o u l d be entitled to e n d o u r a c c o u n t of what caused the factory to arise w i t h citation of the people w h o actually constructed it. B u t in o u r k i n d of society that statement w o u l d be false, since u n d e r the regime of capital workers do not determine their o w n activity. For an understanding, therefore, of the social o r g a n i z a t i o n of a vast n u m b e r of i n d i v i d u a l activities we w o u l d have to t u r n to that w h i c h c o m m a n d s a n d controls t h e m all in p r o d u c t i o n , a n d in this case such an agent w o u l d have to be the U n i o n C a r b i d e c o r p o r a t i o n , despite the fact that it is h e a d q u a r t e r e d thousands of miles away a n d served to express the interests of i n d i v i d u a l s w h o need never have set foot inside I n d i a , m u c h less B h o p a l . We m a y say, t h e n , that the workers, a n d so o n , were the i n s t r u m e n t a l causes of the factory at B h o p a l , while the U n i o n C a r b i d e c o r p o r a t i o n was the efficient cause. T h a t is, C a r b i d e was the agent capable of o r g a n i z i n g a n d fruitfully c o m b i n i n g all the factors r e q u i r e d for the p r o d u c t i o n of the factory, a n d , once it h a d been built, for the manufacture, d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d sale o f the products, i n c l u d i n g M I C a s a n i n t e r m e d i a r y p r o d u c t . I n any c o m p l e x p h e n o m e n o n , m a n y causal processes are at work. B u t insofar as the p h e n o m e n o n functions as a whole, we m a y identify an overarching, i n t e g r a t i n g k i n d of cause that sets the i n s t r u m e n t a l causes into m o t i o n , regulates t h e m , a n d directs t h e m t o w a r d an e n d - a n d the alteration of w h i c h w o u l d be necessary to change the p h e n o n e m o n as a w h o l e . S u c h is what is m e a n t by the efficient cause.
3

at a rate of 10-15 a m o n t h , a n d the ruins of the factory still deface the city a n d leach toxic materials into the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e worst industrial accident i n h i s t o r y B h o p a l has b e c o m e synonymous for the hazards posed to h u m a n beings by the industrial process, a n d an e m b l e m for the ecological crisis itself. To understand the cause of B h o p a l m a y give a w i n d o w on to the cause of the crisis, not in the sense that this is to be c o m p o s e d of horrendous accidents such as this, but because in Bhopal's magnitude all the elements of the crisis as a whole are concentrated. T o c o m p r e h e n d B h o p a l , however, w e need t o e x p a n d o u r t h i n k i n g f r o m the p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n to c o m p r e h e n d the role p l a y e d by h u m a n agency, a l o n g w i t h its ideological i m p l i c a t i o n s . U n d e r s t a n d i n g this event, where not one but thousands of lives were mutilated, involves the j u d g e m e n t of c o m p e t i n g claims a n d differing views of reality. M e t h y l isocyanate, as the active cause of b o d i l y damage, is a mute killer without motive or interest in the o u t c o m e of its chemistry. W h e n , however, we attempt to u n d e r s t a n d the causes of the accident at B h o p a l , we need to think b e y o n d the m o l e c u l a r level. F o r example, the element of money n o w enters the picture. It is not just the vast a m o u n t s at stake - some $3 b i l l i o n in damages o r i g i n a l l y asked by the I n d i a n government, w i t h $470 m i l l i o n finally agreed to by C a r b i d e (plus $50 m i l l i o n in legal fees, a n d $20 m i l l i o n offered for c o n s t r u c t i o n of a l o c a l hospital ) - but money's f u l l p o w e r in h u m a n existence: in short, a
2

whole social o r d e r is entailed, of power, a n d m e a n i n g , a n d the relationships between the actors of society. A n d now, too, we look for a k i n d of causation that w o u l d best c o m p r e h e n d these specifically h u m a n - e c o l o g i c a l issues. B u t let us be concrete, a n d consider what h a p p e n e d at B h o p a l that deadly n i g h t in 1984. Essentially, the questions c o m e d o w n to this: what was M I C d o i n g i n B h o p a l i n the f i r s t place? W h y was i t released i n such a m a n n e r ? W h y were the people so exposed, a n d w h y so shabbily treated? A n d as for the responsible agents, what were the d r i v i n g forces acting on I them? To the first question the answer is that U n i o n C a r b i d e put it there for its

32 The Culprit E a c h cause is specific for the level of effect it sets into m o t i o n . M e t h y l isocyanate is the efficient cause of the b o d i l y devastation w h i c h ensues u p o n its i n h a l a t i o n , just as U n i o n C a r b i d e was of the factory at B h o p a l . B u t what drives C a r b i d e ? A n d what o f the i n c i d e n t o f D e c e m b e r 1984 a n d its social sequelae? W h a t caused that, a n d h o w does this relate to the question of an 'efficient cause'? H e r e is where c o n f l i c t i n g views of reality enter most forcefully, because so m u c h is at stake. C a r b i d e has not d e n i e d that B h o p a l is the site of its factory or that M I C is its p r o d u c t - in fact it is quite p r o u d of the fact a n d the role it has p l a y e d in the so-called G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n , w h i c h has a u g m e n t e d food p r o d u c t i o n in nations of the S o u t h . As the c o m p a n y l a i d out in its website, 'Ironically, the p l a n t at B h o p a l h a d its o r i g i n in a h u m a n e goal: s u p p l y i n g pesticides to protect I n d i a n a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n ' , a n d m o r e generally, to enhance the ' " I n d i a n i z a t i o n " of industry in that c o u n t r y ' t h r o u g h its 'willingness to offer expertise, readiness to c o m p l y w i t h I n d i a n laws, a n d acceptance of a g r a d u a l a p p r o a c h to developi n g I n d i a n c o n s u m e r markets. U n i o n C a r b i d e ' s investment h a d g a i n e d u s w i d e s p r e a d g o o d w i l l - or so we thought.' Insisting on the integrity of its safety standards a n d quality controls ('a deeply i n g r a i n e d c o m m i t m e n t ... [with] stringent i n t e r n a l standards d a t i n g back to the 1930s'), the c o m p a n y is deeply distressed by h a v i n g been ' r e c a s t . . . as an archetypal m u l t i n a t i o n a l v i l l a i n , e x p l o i t i n g India's people a n d resources', a 'caricature [no doubt] designed to g a i n access to U n i o n C a r b i d e ' s financial resources'. As for the tragic i n c i d e n t , w i t h respect to w h i c h ' f r o m the first day, we h a d been m o v e d by c o m p a s s i o n a n d sympathy', the c o m p a n y h a d done its o w n investigat i o n p r o v i n g that the cause of the disaster 'was u n d e n i a b l y sabotage. T h e evidence showed that an employee at the B h o p a l p l a n t h a d deliberately i n t r o d u c e d water into a m e t h y l isocyanate storage tank. T h e result was the c l o u d of poisonous gas.' A l a s , this t r u t h has not caught o n , evidently due to the I n d i a n government's 'apparent indifference to the plight of the B h o p a l victims'. It is a c o h e r e n t e x p l a n a t i o n : the disaster at B h o p a l was n o t U n i o n C a r b i d e ' s fault, but that of a d i s g r u n t l e d employee, c o m p o u n d e d by the callousness a n d fecklessness of the I n d i a n government. In this universe of m e a n i n g , c o n f i g u r e d by the ever-present spectre of legal a c t i o n a n d m a j o r f i n a n c i a l consequences (remember the $50 m i l l i o n spent by the c o r p o r a t i o n to defend itself), causality equals blame, to be d e t e r m i n e d legally. A s i m i l a r discourse prevails t h r o u g h o u t the e c o l o g i c a l crisis, w h i c h tends to get

Capital33 r e d u c e d to a series of i n d i v i d u a l acts for w h i c h b l a m e - a n d financial allocations on the basis of b l a m e - b e c o m e the relevant c r i t e r i a . T h e discourse of blame, or fault, or legal responsibility, is essential w h e n it comes to p a r c e l l i n g out a degree of justice a n d restitution for victims. N o r , in this instance, is it difficult to ascertain, given the fact that patient investigat i o n has disclosed a m o u n t a i n of evidence relevant to u n d e r s t a n d i n g the fatal night. L e t me s u m m a r i z e , to indicate the p a r t i c u l a r dissection of this one horrific eco-disaster, a n d to p o i n t a w a y t o w a r d a w i d e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g : C a r b i d e never n a m e d the saboteur, n o r s u b m i t t e d its claims to a c o u r t of l a w u n d e r j u d i c i a l rules of evidence. It rather d e d u c e d his agency f r o m an analysis of the structure of its plant a n d let the matter rest at that.
4

T h e c o m p a n y failed to notify the authorities of the large a m o u n t s of M I C stored a t the plant. M o r e , they h a d designed the p l a n t i n a w a y that m a d e accidents m o r e or less inevitable - for instance, by using c a r b o n steel valves that c o r r o d e d w h e n exposed to a c i d . P r i o r to 1978, C a r b i d e p r o d u c e d its pesticide Sevin w i t h o u t directly using M I C . It switched to the use of the deadly i n t e r m e d i a t e in o r d e r to p r o d u c e m o r e cheaply, a n d b e g a n m a n u f a c t u r i n g i t i n B h o p a l i n 1980. I n fact, the G e r m a n c o r p o r a t i o n B a y e r m a d e S e v i n w i t h o u t M I C , i n a safer - but m o r e expensive - w a y L o c a l authorities u r g e d the plant to be built in another p a r t of B h o p a l , i n a n i n d u s t r i a l zone out o f range o f the p o p u l a t i o n . C a r b i d e refused, saying this was too expensive. T h e plant was l o s i n g money, because the d e m a n d for pesticides was d o w n , a n d hence c h r o n i c a l l y o v e r p r o d u c e d M I C , w h i c h C a r b i d e couldn't unload. T h i s l e d to an effort to cut costs, b e g i n n i n g in 1982. To quote K u r z m a n (1987: 25), 'such cuts ... m e a n t less stringent quality c o n t r o l a n d thus looser safety rules. A pipe leaked? D o n ' t replace it, employees said they were t o l d . Just p a t c h i t up. M I C workers needed m o r e training? T h e y c o u l d d o w i t h less [ i n c l u d i n g u s i n g instruction m a n u a l s i n E n g l i s h , w h i c h few c o u l d read]. P r o m o t i o n s were halted, seriously affecting employee m o r a l e a n d d r i v i n g some of the most skilled to seek w o r k elsewhere.' By late 1984, o n l y six operators, rather t h a n the o r i g i n a l twelve, were w o r k i n g w i t h M I C . T h e n u m b e r s o f supervisory p e r s o n n e l also h a d been halved,

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The Culprit a n d there was no m a i n t e n a n c e supervisor on the n i g h t shift. T h u s i n dicator readings were checked every two hours rather t h a n hourly, as required. In late 1981, i n h a l a t i o n accidents b e g a n a p p e a r i n g at the plant. E x p e r t s f r o m the U S A a p p e a r e d a n d w a r n e d o f a ' r u n a w a y r e a c t i o n ' inside a n M I C storage tank. T h i s followed u p o n other w a r n i n g s f r o m 1979 a n d 1980. O t h e r w a r n i n g s f r o m the I n d i a n authorities went u n h e e d e d . I n O c t o b e r 1982 a leak of M I C caused five workers to be hospitalized. T h e l o c a l authorities h a d no instruments to m o n i t o r air p o l l u t i o n near the plant. W h e n the workers at the p l a n t , t h r o u g h their u n i o n , protested a b o u t the safety hazards, they were i g n o r e d . O n e w o r k e r w h o went on a 15-day h u n g e r strike was fired. A l t h o u g h workers o r i g i n a l l y wore safety equipment, the g r o w i n g slackness caused this to be jettisoned. M o r e t h a n 70 p e r cent of workers h a d their p a y d o c k e d for refusing to deviate f r o m the p r e s c r i b e d safety routines. A l l the w h i l e , pressure t o keep m a k i n g M I C a s swiftly a n d cheaply a s possible was sustained. T h e night of the accident, a l e a k i n g carbon-steel valve was discovered, w h i c h a l l o w e d water t o slip into the M I C tanks. T h i s was not r e p a i r e d , as it w o u l d have taken too m u c h time - in other words, w o u l d have been expensive. In a d d i t i o n , the a l a r m on the tank h a d not w o r k e d for four years, a n d there was o n l y one m a n u a l b a c k - u p system instead of the four-stage system used i n the U S A . T h e flare tower that b u r n e d escaping gas h a d b e e n out of service for m o r e t h a n five m o n t h s , as h a d the vent gas scrubber. T h e refrigeration system installed to i n h i b i t the v o l a t i l i z a t i o n of M I C was also idle, to save p o w e r costs. N o r was the steam b o i l e r designed to help clean the pipes in active o p e r a t i o n , for the same reason. V i r t u a l l y every relevant safety i n s t r u m e n t , f r o m s h u t d o w n devices to m o n i t o r i n g tools to temperature gauges, were either in short supply, m a l f u n c t i o n i n g o r designed improperly. T h e m a i n t e n a n c e temperature of the M I C was kept at 20 degrees Celsius, a l t h o u g h the m a n u a l c a l l e d for a temperature of 4.5 degrees (this lower figure, needless to say, b e i n g m u c h cooler t h a n the average temperature of B h o p a l , hence m o r e expensive to m a i n t a i n ) . In a d d i t i o n , ' C a r b i d e ' s B h o p a l p l a n t was designed in such a w a y that, after the deadly gas leak b e g a n , the m a i n safety

Capital system - water sprays i n t e n d e d to " k n o c k d o w n " such a leak - c o u l d not spray water h i g h e n o u g h to reach the escaping stream of gas. In s u m , the plant's safety systems h a d been designed negligently. I n t e r n a l d o c u ments show that the c o m p a n y k n e w this p r i o r to the disaster, but d i d n o t h i n g about i t . '
5

35

Finally, the tank that e x p l o d e d h a d been m a l f u n c t i o n i n g for a week. Instead of d e a l i n g w i t h it, the p l a n t authorities used other tanks a n d let this one sit, a n d , in effect, stew. O n e o u t c o m e of 'stewing', as a n y cook knows, is the b u i l d - u p of pressure a n d temperature, b o t h of w h i c h c a n trigger further reactions in suitable substances.

So there is no question as to w h o was to blame for the h o r r o r at B h o p a l . Despite the crocodile tears a n d bleating protestions, U n i o n C a r b i d e stands revealed as precisely the 'archetypal m u l t i n a t i o n a l v i l l a i n ' it tries to deny being. I n d e e d , the o n l y question r e m a i n i n g at this level is w h y the firm was not h e l d fully accountable for its c r i m i n a l negligence. H o w e v e r , the issue of blame, while necessary, is by no means sufficient to grasp the m e a n i n g of B h o p a l , n o r does it clear up the question of causation. M I C c a n be h e l d to be the efficient cause of b o d i l y h a r m , as it is the destabilizing force t e a r i n g up the delicate balance of a l i v i n g ecosystem. C a r b i d e is s i m i l a r l y the efficient cause of the b u i l d i n g of the factory at B h o p a l . However, w h e n it comes d o w n to this incident, we see that C a r b i d e is itself subjected to other forces, a n d that the n o t i o n of efficient causation requires that these forces be given their due. T h e r e is no mystery here: at v i r t u a l l y every p o i n t listed above we find that C a r b i d e d i d this or that to lower its costs; further, that the 'this a n d that' h a d the effect of s u m m a t i n g the risks that the monstrously dangerous M I C (itself chosen as a p r o d u c t in o r d e r to lower costs) w o u l d escape; a n d , further, that C a r b i d e ' s b l a m e worthiness consisted precisely in the callous a n d self-serving w a y in w h i c h it was p r e p a r e d to put B h o p a l in h a r m ' s w a y in o r d e r to lower costs. Its evasion of legal responsibility needs to be u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n the universe of meanings that cluster about this p r i m e necessity, f r o m p a r t i c u l a r legal a n d p u b l i c relations manoeuvres to the whole i n t e r n a t i o n a l setup that makes an ancient a n d p r o u d c o u n t r y such as I n d i a so unable to stand up for the rights of its o w n people. T h e efficient cause here, t h e n , w o u l d have to c o m p r i s e not just the p a r t i c u l a r greed of this c o r p o r a t i o n , but the system i m p o s i n g u p o n it the never-ending pressure to cut costs - or, f r o m the other side, to make profits.

36 The Culprit C a r b i d e says it was in I n d i a to m a k e pesticides. B u t it makes pesticides in o r d e r to m a k e money. B e i n g a quintessential capitalist c o r p o r a t i o n of the m o d e r n type, U n i o n C a r b i d e has to make m o n e y - a n d has to keep m a k i n g it faster a n d faster - in order to survive in the w o r l d c o n f i g u r e d by its master, capital. An 'accident' is m e r e l y the statistically u n p r e d i c t a b l e e n d of a c h a i n of circumstances. T h e r e f o r e accidents are c o n t i n u o u s w i t h a range of less spectacular but equivalently disruptive destabilizations. W h e r e a sufficient n u m b e r of 'cost-cuttings-in-the-name-of profit' occur, there is an accident w a i t i n g t o h a p p e n . A t times, this m a y b e facilitated o r triggered b y h u m a n e r r o r - possibly itself a p r o d u c t of the same c o m p l e x (an u n d e r - t r a i n e d , d e m o r a l i z e d , alienated staff, for example). H o w e v e r , the ' h u m a n factor' fades as an independent cause to the extent people are shaped a n d distorted by the profit c o m p l e x . If we take C a r b i d e ' s o w n e x p l a n a t i o n to be true for present purposes, as p h o n e y as it actually is: suppose it was m o r e t h a n mere e r r o r that destroyed the p l a n t , but a saboteur w h o m a l i c i o u s l y set the gas loose that night. W h a t shaped h i m , then? W a s it inscrutable evil - or the p r o d u c t of a c h a i n of d e t e r m i n a n t s w i t h i n the force field of profitseeking? W a s he one of the workers w h o h a d been ' d i s c i p l i n e d ' for refusing to cut corners, or fired for g o i n g on strike - or was he s i m p l y b r u t a l i z e d by a c o n c a t e n a t i o n of causal factors d e s c e n d i n g u p o n h i m f r o m a hellish h u m a n ecology? W a s he psychotic - a n d if so, was this some k i n d of genetic p r o g r a m m i n g , or d i d it, too, descend f r o m the mass of alienations that c o m p r i s e d his life w o r l d , alienations in whose c o m p o s i t i o n the d o m i n a n t social system w i l l be f o u n d to o c c u p y a place at the e n d of every line? It is not that other factors are missing f r o m the network of causal p r o cesses that summate to cause an accident, or b e y o n d that, the ecological crisis itself. On the contrary, they must be present, i n a s m u c h as c o m p l e x events are o v e r d e t e r m i n e d . B u t they are present as scattered individualities, while t h r o u g h a n d a r o u n d t h e m , a great force field shapes a n d combines t h e m into the effective events that move the w o r l d . T h e m o r e globally a n d in terms of the whole we r e g a r d these things, the less we think in terms of i n d i v i d u a l b l a m e or l o o k for the 'accidents' that disrupt what is otherwise to be construed as a r a t i o n a l process. N o w we i n q u i r e whether the process is r a t i o n a l in the first place, a n d whether or not, in this light, 'accidents are w a i t i n g to h a p p e n ' . We also come to ask the larger question of whether the normal a n d non-accidental f u n c t i o n i n g of the system is in itself ecodestructive

Capital37 - in w h i c h case it is the system that c o n t i n u a l l y generates insults to ecologies o f one k i n d o r another a n d has t o b e transformed. A n attention l i m i t e d t o the p a r t i c u l a r contours of the i n d i v i d u a l event loses track of that larger pattern, of the merits of pesticides themselves, a n d m o r e generally, the G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n o f w h i c h they comprise a n essential p a r t , a l o n g w i t h the
6

never-ending ordeal, to w h i c h the nations of the S o u t h , such as I n d i a , are subjected in the w o r l d system. T h e n there was the payoff. O n the very day that the I n d i a n g o v e r n m e n t b a c k e d away a n d agreed not to prosecute C a r b i d e any further, as if by a m i r a c l e the c o m p a n y ' s stock went up by $2 a share on the N e w Y o r k stock exchange. T h i s seemingly s m a l l figure takes its significance f r o m the fact that the settlement of $470 m i l l i o n cost C a r b i d e ' s shareholders o n l y $0.43 a share. T h e r e f o r e those w h o h e l d C a r b i d e stocks were, so to speak, r i c h e r by $1.57 a share after the c o m p a n y 'suffered' the consequences of causing a n i g h t m a r e to descend u p o n the people of B h o p a l . B u t w h y d i d the price of C a r b i d e stock go up? T h e answer is b r u t a l l y revealing: because the c o m p a n y p r o v e d - in this first large-scale i n d u s t r i a l accident case affecting a transnational c o r p o r a t i o n operating in the so called ' T h i r d W o r l d , ' or S o u t h - that it could get away with murder, n o w a n d in the future. W a l l Street k n e w then that business c o u l d go f o r w a r d , a n d that the orderly extraction of profits f r o m the S o u t h h a d b e c o m e m o r e secure. W a l l Street - to be m o r e exact 'finance c a p i t a l ' - is the c o m m a n d a n d c o n t r o l centre of the system. T h e little n u m b e r s that flicker by on its tapes are c o m m o n reductions of the potential for c a p i t a l e x p a n s i o n as d e p l o y e d over the m a n i f o l d nergie points of the d o m i n a n t order. In this way, the i n d i v i d u a l factories a n d the m a n a g e r i a l decisions affecting t h e m are m a d e in the light of a larger a n d m o r e comprehensive entity, a gigantic force field that polarizes every event w i t h i n its range of influence, even as it c o n t i n u a l l y seeks to e x p a n d that range. T h i s is h o w the rules of the game are p l a y e d out. It also f o l l o w that the i n d i v i d u a l motives of C a r b i d e ' s executives are meaningless except as p u b l i c relations m a t e r i a l . W a r d M o r e house has w r i t t e n in r e g a r d to this event: ' H a d [Carbide's m a n a g e m e n t ] been genuinely f o r t h c o m i n g a n d m a d e t r u l y disinterested offers o f help o n a scale a p p r o p r i a t e to the m a g n i t u d e of the disaster, they w o u l d almost certainly have been c o n f r o n t e d w i t h suits by shareholders seeking to h o l d the m a n a g e m e n t accountable for m i s h a n d l i n g c o m p a n y funds.'
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T h u s it was c a p i t a l that constrained C a r b i d e . B u t there is another side,

38 The Culprit w h i c h makes this an ' i f pigs h a d wings they w o u l d fly' type of argument. People w h o are genuinely f o r t h c o m i n g a n d disinterestedly h e l p f u l d o not b e c o m e managers of large capitalist firms. T h e tender-hearted are p u s h e d off far d o w n the l a d d e r on w h i c h one ascends to such positions of power. F o r c a p i t a l shapes as w e l l as selects the kinds of people w h o create these events. T h e story o f B h o p a l a n d its corporate miscreant continues. C a r b i d e got out of the pesticide business, but on 7 F e b r u a r y 2001 m e r g e d w i t h the D o w C h e m i c a l company, w h i c h does make pesticides - a n d d i d make A g e n t O r a n g e for use d u r i n g the V i e t n a m war. T h e n e w c h e m i c a l colossus operates i n 168 countries a n d pulls i n m o r e t h a n U S $ 2 4 b i l l i o n i n revenue. T h e president a n d c h i e f executive of D o w stated that the m e r g e r s h o u l d save at least U S $ 5 0 0 m i l l i o n annually, t h o u g h regrettably 2,000 j o b s w o u l d be lost as w e l l . N o n e of the m e n at i n d i v i d u a l fault for B h o p a l has ever been brought to justice, nor, I t h i n k , w i l l they be in their lifetime. The Mystery of Growth Revealed T h e 'giant force field' is a m e t a p h o r for capital, that ubiquitous, all-powerful a n d greatly m i s u n d e r s t o o d d y n a m o that drives o u r society. T h e established v i e w sees c a p i t a l as a r a t i o n a l factor of investment, a w a y of using m o n e y to fruitfully b r i n g together the various features of e c o n o m i c a c t i v i t y F o r K a r l M a r x , capital was a ' w e r e w o l f a n d a ' v a m p i r e ' , ravenously c o n s u m i n g l a b o u r a n d m u t i l a t i n g the labourer. B o t h notions are true, a n d the second one, a p p l i e d to nature as w e l l as labour, accounts for the ecological crisis in a l l essential features. F r o m the standpoint of the ecological crisis, c o r p o r a tions such as U n i o n C a r b i d e are the soldiers of c a p i t a l , a n d institutions at a h i g h e r level in the system, like stock markets, the I M F a n d the Federal Reserve B a n k , the D e p a r t m e n t of the Treasury, a n d so o n , its general staff. O n c e these relationships are appreciated, B h o p a l is seen in clearer perspective - as an i n d i v i d u a l accident the repetition of w h i c h m i g h t be a v o i d e d if i n d u s t r y is careful e n o u g h , a n d , m o r e essentially, as the m a n i festation of anti-ecological tendencies inherent to c a p i t a l , w h i c h w i l l have their day one w a y or a n o t h e r so l o n g as c a p i t a l comes to organize social p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s e latter are twofold: 1. Capital tends to degrade the conditions of its own production. 2. Capital must expand without end in order to exist.

Capital39 T h e c o m b i n a t i o n makes a n ever-growing ecological crisis a n i r o n necessity so l o n g as c a p i t a l rules, no matter what measures are taken to tidy up one c o r n e r o r another. We n e e d to e x a m i n e w h y we talk of c a p i t a l as t h o u g h it has a life of its o w n , w h i c h r a p i d l y surpasses its r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n a n d consumes ecosystems in o r d e r to g r o w cancerously. C a p i t a l is not in itself a l i v i n g o r g a n i s m , needless to say. It is rather a k i n d of relationship like that set up by a cancer-causing virus that invades l i v i n g h u m a n beings, forces t h e m to violate ecological integrity, sets up self-replicating structures a n d polarizes the giant force field. It is h u m a n s l i v i n g as c a p i t a l , people w h o b e c o m e capital's personifications, w h o destroy ecosystems. T h e Faustian b a r g a i n that gave rise to this w a y of b e i n g arose t h r o u g h the discovery that fabulous w e a l t h c o u l d be achieved by m a k i n g m o n e y first o f a l l , a n d things t h r o u g h the m a k i n g o f money. T h o s e w h o d o not k n o w yet that capitalist p r o d u c t i o n is for profit a n d not use c a n l e a r n it right away f r o m w a t c h i n g W a l l Street discipline c o r p o r a t i o n s that fail to measure up to standards of profitability. Capitalists celebrate the restless d y n a m i s m that these standards enforce, w i t h its drive for i n n o v a t i o n , efficiency a n d n e w markets. T h e y fail to recognize - because a k i n d of failure of r e c o g n i t i o n is built into their b e i n g - that w h a t looks like resourcefulness a n d resilience f r o m one side becomes on the other an a d d i c t i o n a n d a t r e a d m i l l to o b l i v i o n . C o m m o d i t i e s a p p e a r e d a t the d a w n o f e c o n o m i c activity, a n d c o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n became generalized w i t h the advent o f c a p i t a l . T h e g e r m of c a p i t a l is inserted into each c o m m o d i t y , a n d c a n be released o n l y t h r o u g h exchange, a n d w i t h this, the conversion of w h a t is desirable into money. T o e m p l o y a f o r m a l i s m e m p l o y e d b y M a r x , w h i c h w e shall f i n d helpful to express o u r ideas as we p r o c e e d , every c o m m o d i t y is a c o n j u n c t i o n of a 'use-value' a n d an 'exchange-value'. U s e - v a l u e signifies the
8

c o m m o d i t y ' s place i n the ever-developing m a n i f o l d o f h u m a n needs a n d wants, w h i l e exchange-value represents its ' c o m m o d i t y - b e i n g ' , that is, its exchangeability, an abstraction that c a n be expressed o n l y in quantitative terms, a n d as money. B r o a d l y speaking, capital represents that regime in w h i c h exchange-value predominates over use-value i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f c o m m o d i t i e s - a n d the p r o b l e m w i t h c a p i t a l is that, once installed, this process becomes self-perpetuating a n d e x p a n d i n g . If p r o d u c t i o n be for profit - that is, for the e x p a n s i o n of the m o n e y value invested in it - t h e n prices must be kept as h i g h as possible a n d costs

40

The Culprit as l o w as possible. As prices w i l l t e n d to be h e l d d o w n by the c o m p e t i t i o n e n d e m i c to the system, in practice, c u t t i n g costs becomes a p a r a m o u n t c o n c e r n of capitalists. B u t costs of what? Clearly, of what enters i n t o the p r o d u c t i o n o f c o m m o d i t i e s . M u c h o f this c a n b e expressed i n terms o f other c o m m o d i t i e s - for example, fuel, m a c h i n e r y , b u i l d i n g materials, a n d so o n , a n d , crucially, the l a b o u r - p o w e r sold by workers for wages at the heart of the capitalist system. H o w e v e r , if the same analysis is done u p o n the latter, at some p o i n t we arrive at entities that are not p r o d u c e d as c o m m o d i t i e s , yet are treated as such in the great market that defines capitali s m . T h e s e are the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d 'conditions of p r o d u c t i o n ' , a n d they i n c l u d e p u b l i c l y p r o d u c e d facilities, i.e., infrastructure, the workers themselves, a n d , last but certainly not least, nature - even if this nature already expresses, as it almost always does, the h a n d of p r i o r h u m a n activity. T h e process is a manifestation of the ascendancy of exchange-value over use-value, a n d entails a t w o f o l d degradation. In the first place, we have the c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n o f nature, w h i c h includes h u m a n beings, a n d their bodies. H o w e v e r , nature, as we shall e x a m i n e further in Part I I , s i m p l y does not w o r k in this way. No matter what capital's ideologues say, the actual laws of nature never i n c l u d e m o n e t i z a t i o n ; they exist, rather, in the context of ecosystems whose i n t e r n a l relations are violated by conversion to the m o n e y f o r m . T h u s the ceaseless r e n d e r i n g into c o m m o d i t i e s , w i t h its m o n e t i z a t i o n a n d exchange, breaks d o w n the specificity a n d i n t r i c a c y of ecosystems. To this is a d d e d the d e v a l u a t i o n , or basic lack of c a r i n g , w h i c h attends what is left over a n d unprofitable. H e r e arise the so-called 'externalities' that b e c o m e the repositories of p o l l u t i o n . To the extent to w h i c h the c a p i t a l r e l a t i o n , w i t h its u n r e l e n t i n g c o m p e t i t i v e d r i v e to realize profit, prevails, it is a certainty that the c o n d i t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n at some p o i n t or other w i l l be d e g r a d e d , w h i c h is to say that n a t u r a l ecosystems w i l l be destabilized a n d b r o k e n apart. A s J a m e s O ' C o n n o r has d e m o n s t r a t e d i n his p i o n e e r i n g studies of this p h e n o m e n o n , this degradation w i l l have a c o n t r a d i c t o r y effect on profitability itself (the ' S e c o n d C o n t r a d i c t i o n of C a p i t a l ' ) , either direcdy, by so fouling the n a t u r a l g r o u n d of p r o d u c t i o n that it breaks d o w n , or indirectly, as in the case that regulatory measures, b e i n g forced to p a y for the health care of workers, a n d so o n , re-internalizes the costs that h a d b e e n expelled into the e n v i r o n m e n t . In a case such as B h o p a l , n u m e r o u s insults
9

Capital crisis as a whole m a y be regarded as its occurrence in a less concentrated but vasdy m o r e extended field, so that the disaster is n o w p l a y e d out m o r e slowly a n d on a planetary scale. It w i l l surely be r e j o i n e d to this that a great m a n y c o u n t e r v a i l i n g techniques are c o n t i n u a l l y i n t r o d u c e d to b l u n t or even profit f r o m the degradation of conditions of p r o d u c t i o n - for example, p o l l u t i o n - c o n t r o l devices, m a k i n g c o m m o d i t i e s of pollutants, a n d so o n . To some degree these are b o u n d to be effective. Indeed, if the overall system were in e q u i l i b r i u m , then the effects of the S e c o n d C o n t r a d i c t i o n c o u l d be c o n t a i n e d , a n d we w o u l d not be able to extrapolate f r o m it to the ecological crisis. B u t this brings us to the other great p r o b l e m w i t h capital, namely, that confinement of any sort is a n a t h e m a to it.

41

Accumulation In this respect, M a r x wrote in his Grundrisse: However, as representative of the general form of wealth - money - capital is the endless and limitless drive to go beyond its l i m i t i n g barrier. Every boundary is and has to be a barrier for it. Else it w o u l d cease to be capital - money as self-reproductive. If ever it perceived a certain boundary not as a barrier, but became comfortable w i t h i n it as a boundary, it w o u l d have declined from exchange value to use value, from the general f o r m of wealth to the specific, substantial mode of the same. C a p i t a l as such creates a specific surplus value because it cannot create an infinite one all at once; but it is the constant movement to create more of the same. T h e quantitative boundary of the surplus value appears to it as a mere natural barrier, as a necessity w h i c h it constandy tries to violate and beyond which it constandy seeks to g o .
10

T h e d e p t h of M a r x ' s insight s h o u l d be appreciated: capital is quantitative in its core, a n d imposes the regime of q u a n t i t y u p o n the w o r l d : this is a 'necessity' for capital. B u t c a p i t a l is equivalently intolerant of necessity; it constantly seeks to go b e y o n d the limits that it itself has i m p o s e d , a n d so c a n neither rest n o r find e q u i l i b r i u m : it is i r r e m e d i a b l y self-contradictory. E v e r y quantitative increase becomes a n e w boundary, w h i c h is i m m e d i a t e l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n e w barrier. T h e b o u n d a r y / b a r r i e r ensemble then becomes the site of n e w value a n d the p o t e n t i a l for n e w c a p i t a l f o r m a t i o n ,

of this k i n d interacted a n d became the m a t r i x of a ghastly 'accident'. For B h o p a l , d e g r a d a t i o n was concentrated in one setting, while the ecological

42 The Culprit w h i c h then becomes another b o u n d a r y / b a r r i e r , a n d s o f o r t h a n d o n into infinity - at least in the l o g i c a l schemata of capital. S m a l l w o n d e r that the society f o r m e d on the basis of p r o d u c i n g for the sake of c a p i t a l before a l l else is restlessly d y n a m i c , that it introduces n e w f o r m s of w e a l t h , a n d c o n t i n u a l l y makes the past forms obsolete, that it is obsessed w i t h change a n d a c q u i s i t i o n - a n d that it is a disaster for ecologies. Since each b o u n d a r y / b a r r i e r is a site for c o m m o d i t y f o r m a t i o n , this becomes the p r e s c r i p t i o n for the 'generalized c o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n ' that is one of capital's h a l l m a r k s . Needless to say, the process does n o t o c c u r neatly, as t h o u g h capitalists sat a r o u n d a n d selected their spots for n e w c o m m o d i t i e s . To some degree, of course, they do - i m a g i n e network executives t r y i n g to develop n e w sitcoms, or the auto manufacturers a n e w line of four-wheel drives. B u t the m o r e interesting examples are those where the u n p l a n n e d a n d m o r e or less spontaneous actions of the system create novel conjunctures, w h i c h are then seized u p o n as n e w places for profitable activity. T h e prospects, dear to capitalists, of m a k i n g businesses out of t r a d i n g p o l l u t i o n credits or the p h a r m a c e u t i c a l industry's search for n e w antibiotics to meet the n e w diseases unleashed by ecological destabilization itself are examples o f this k i n d . T h e constant creation o f anxieties a n d needs by the restless m o v e m e n t of the system is constantly funnelled into the circuits of n e w c o m m o d i t y activity. D o e s c a p i t a l i s m create an isolated, a n x i e t y - r i d d e n self whose survival requires b e i n g p l a c e d u p o n a market? W e l l , t h e n , c a p i t a l w i l l also step in to create c o m m o d i t i e s to service this tensely narcissistic state of b e i n g - articles of fashion a n d image, w i t h technologies to service these a n d a c u l t u r a l apparatus to go a l o n g - in the case of fashion, say, a whole range of magazines, p h o t o g r a p h i c studios, advertising agencies, p u b l i c relations firms, psychotherapies, etc, etc. C a p i t a l ' s regime of p r o f i t a b i l i t y is one of p e r m a n e n t instability a n d restlessness. E v e n in the r u l i n g class, no one 'rules' w i t h o u t p e r p e t u a l l y p r o v i n g himself, a n d the C E O must not o n l y p r o d u c e profit but m o r e importantly, increase the rate of profit, or be swiftly tossed aside. O n e c a n n o t rest content w i t h the given, but must constantly try to e x p a n d it. G r o w t h is s i m p l y equated w i t h survival as a capitalist, for anyone w h o fails to g r o w w i l l s i m p l y disappear, his assets a c q u i r e d by another. No matter h o w m u c h one has, one never really has a n y t h i n g : e v e r y t h i n g must be p r o v e d to exist a n e w the next day. H e n c e that w e l l - k n o w n trait of the bourgeoisie: no matter h o w r i c h they become, they always need to b e c o m e

Capital43 richer. A l l the fabulous ' g r o w t h ' of the last decade has not, by one i o t a , r e d u c e d the drive to accumulate still m o r e , n o r c a n it ever so l o n g as c a p i t a l reigns. T h e sense of h a v i n g a n d possessing dominates a l l others, precisely because its reality c a n never be secured. Strictly speaking, i n d i v i d u a l s c a n step off this wheel - m a k e their fortune a n d retire to raise p o l o ponies or cabbages. B u t they cease thereby b e i n g personifications of c a p i t a l , a n d others i m m e d i a t e l y step f o r w a r d to take their role. M o n e y - the f o r m of capitalist value - abstracts a n d dissolves all relationships, r e p l a c i n g t h e m w i t h the cash nexus. T h i s sets g o i n g the ruthless competitiveness inherent to c a p i t a l , since if m o n e y is the o n l y true b o n d , then there are no true bonds at a l l , a n d u n i v e r s a l envy, s u s p i c i o n a n d mistrust reign. T h e 'system w o r k s ' , for the c o m p e t i t i o n so i n d u c e d becomes the m o t o r f o r c i n g eternal g r o w t h a s the p r i c e o f survival. A n d because m o n e y c a n effortlessly e x p a n d even as its m a t e r i a l substrate is b o u n d by the laws of nature, the great pools of c a p i t a l e m e r g i n g f r o m the ceaseless transactions p r o v i d e the b e n c h m a r k of g r o w t h , a n d as they gather, press yet further for e x p a n s i o n . T h e pressure of capitalist g r o w t h is therefore exponential, that is, it becomes p r o p o r t i o n a l to the total m a g n i t u d e of the a c c u m u l a t e d c a p i t a l pressing for discharge. A s M a r x put i t i n a n o t h e r passage f r o m the same work: T h e barrier appears as an accident which has to be conquered. T h i s is apparent on even the most superficial inspection. If capital increases from ioo to 1,000, then 1,000 is now the point of departure, from w h i c h the increase has to begin; the tenfold multiplication; profit and interest themselves become capital in turn. What appeared as surplus value now appears as simple presupposition, etc, as included in its simple composition." If we u n p a c k this h i g h l y compressed passage (the Grundrisse was w r i t t e n as a n o t e b o o k for M a r x ' s o w n study, a n d not for an outside reader), M a r x is saying that in the regime of c a p i t a l any o r i g i n a l profit is o n l y a starting p o i n t . If the same process be c a r r i e d f o r w a r d t h r o u g h a second cycle, the same e x p a n s i o n a r y force w i l l be observed, o p e r a t i n g however f r o m the h i g h e r level. If 10 of some m o n e t a r y u n i t goes to i o o the first time a r o u n d , there w i l l be a tendency for it to go to 1,000 the second time a r o u n d . T h e r e f o r e capitalist p r o d u c t i o n is not o n l y e x p a n s i o n a r y (since m o n e y has to be t h r o w n into c i r c u l a t i o n for it to b e c o m e c a p i t a l , a n d a surplus value needs to be gained), but e x p o n e n t i a l l y so. As M a r x c o m m e n t e d in Capital:

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The Culprit T h e repetition or renewal of the act of selling in order to buy [i.e., C M C] finds its measure and its goal ... in a final purpose w h i c h lies outside it, namely consumption, the satisfaction of definite needs. But in buying in order to sell [i.e., M - C - M ' ] ment an endless one. For m o r e m o n e y is just m o n e y w i t h a larger n u m b e r w r i t t e n u p o n it, a n d so At the end of the movement, money emerges once again as the starting point. Therefore the final result of each separate cycle, in which a purchase and consequent sale are completed, forms of itself the starting point for a new cycle. T h e simple circulation of commodities - selling in order to buy - is a means to a goal which lies outside circulation, namely the appropriation of use-values, the satisfaction of needs. As against this, the circulation of money as capital is an end in itself, for the valorization of value only takes place within this constantly renewed movement. T h e movement of capital is therefore limitless.
13 1 2

Capital o f e n a b l i n g the passion. T h u s a l l reforms are installed t o p e r m i t g r o w t h to p r o c e e d u n c h e c k e d . In case anyone s h o u l d d o u b t this e n t h r a l m e n t , consider the following, d r a w n f r o m the early p a r t of 1997, a m o m e n t of h e a d y e x p a n s i o n for the world-system. T h i s news was greeted as t h o u g h a sign of the S e c o n d C o m ing. In a m a j o r article in the Wall Street Journal of 13 M a r c h 1997, the a u t h o r G . Pascal Z a c h a r y s a m p l e d the o p i n i o n o f experts f r o m the highest levels o f the e c o n o m i c system, a n d f o u n d t h e m u n a n i m o u s i n d e c l a r i n g p e r m a n e n t v i c t o r y for c a p i t a l on a g l o b a l scale (the o n l y exception was the d o u b t i n g G e o r g e Soros, w h o thought the b o o m ' m a y last a century'). ' T h e positive side is spectacular,' said H a r v a r d economist Jeffrey Sachs; while D o m i n g o C a v a l l o , architect of A r g e n t i n a ' s n e o l i b e r a l restructuring, a d d e d that 'We've entered a g o l d e n age.' T h e phrase, 'golden age' also expressed the sentiments o f the n e w U N S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l K o f i A n n a n ;
1 4

45

on the contrary, the end a n d the beginning

are the same, money or exchange-value, and this very fact makes the move-

while J o s e p h Stiglitz, the

W o r l d B a n k ' s c h i e f e c o n o m i s t , a d d e d that w i t h a ' r e p r o d u c i b l e ' w o r l d g r o w t h rate of 4 p e r cent p r e d i c t e d over the next twenty years, ' e c o n o m i c g r o w t h w i l l r e a c h historic levels that w i l l , in t u r n , o p e n up a n e w frontier for i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries'. I n the same newspaper o f 2 8 A p r i l , R e n a t o R u g g i e r o , t h e n d i r e c t o r o f

C a p i t a l ' s disregard for b o u n d a r i e s except as b a r r i e r s to be surpassed arises f r o m this f u n d a m e n t a l property. E v e r y b o u n d a r y in the real w o r l d is useless t o c a p i t a l unless i t c a n b e m o n e t i z e d a n d p l a c e d into a n M - C - M ' c i r c u i t , a t the e n d o f w h i c h a n o t h e r c i r c u i t must b e g i n . A n y delay o r r e t a r d a t i o n in the flow is registered as a m o r t a l threat. If a b o u n d a r y , or a feedback process, or an e c o l o g i c a l w a r n i n g signal is p r o d u c e d by one investment cycle, this becomes the starting p o i n t for another. It is even a bit m i s l e a d i n g to talk of b o u n d a r i e s as m e r e l y barriers. T h e y are, i n a s m u c h as c a p i t a l needs to keep in m o t i o n a n d so must refuse a l l boundedness. B u t the b a r r i e r - b o u n d a r y is also the p o i n t of investment, c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n a n d exchange. T h e r e f o r e c a p i t a l needs a n d seeks b a r r i e r - b o u n d a r i e s as sites of g r o w t h . It is like the oyster's b u i l d i n g of a p e a r l about a g r a i n of s a n d , but where the life-activity o f molluscs a n d other creatures w h o live i n ecosystems is defined by exquisite i n t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n , capital's g r o w i n g is like a reckless a d d i c t i o n , w h i c h tends to possess i n d i v i d u a l s in direct p r o p o r t i o n t o their p o s i t i o n i n the capitalist c o m m a n d structure. O f course, a degree of p r u d e n t c a l c u l a t i o n is de rigueur as w e l l . B u t this is not i n t e r n a l to the process of a c c u m u l a t i o n ; it is rather a p p l i e d f r o m w i t h o u t , as a w a y

the W o r l d T r a d e O r g a n i z a t i o n , gave his perspective on the g o o d news. W o r l d trade is what has b r o u g h t us this blessing, increasing by a factor of 15 in the last four decades. S i m p l e a l g e b r a gives a clearer n o t i o n of the w o n d e r of 4 p e r cent g r o w t h over two decades, by translating it i n t o a doubling of the p r o d u c t i o n of goods a n d services. A r o u n d 2020, then, r o u g h l y two o f e v e r y t h i n g n o w p r o d u c e d w i l l b e p r o d u c e d : twice a s m a n y cars, twice as m a n y jet planes, twice as m u c h insecticide, twice as m u c h m a t e r i a l wealth i n C h i n a a n d I n d i a . A l l this, a c c o r d i n g t o the W T O leader, because of trade (the ' o p e n e c o n o m i e s ' g r e w a n n u a l l y on the average of 4.5 p e r cent between 1970 a n d 1989; the 'closed' ones o n l y by 0.7 p e r cent - a n d n o w there are scarcely any closed economies remaining) a n d o p e n markets for capital; a n d i t makes the U S m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s 'almost giddy'. B o e i n g , for example, l o o k e d f o r w a r d to $1.1 t r i l l i o n b e i n g spent to double the size of the jet fleet in the next 20 years, three-quarters of this c o m i n g f r o m a b r o a d . F o u r times a s m a n y escalators were b e i n g b u i l t i n C h i n a a s i n the U S A ; m e a n w h i l e the w o r l d was e x p e r i e n c i n g such a n e x p a n s i o n o f c o n s u m e r i s m that, to take but one example, C i t i c o r p , starting f r o m scratch i n 1990, h a d seven m i l l i o n credit c a r d h o l d e r s i n A s i a a n d two m i l l i o n i n

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The Culprit L a t i n A m e r i c a by 1997. ' T h e potential exists for positive surprises that w o u l d drive g r o w t h even faster, such as massive sales of g o v e r n m e n t assets. " O n p r i v a t i z a t i o n , we've just scratched the surface," said Shaukat A z i z , C i t i c o r p ' s c h i e f p l a n n i n g officer.'
15

Capital it c o u l d wreak havoc at B h o p a l , whereas the evidence of storms is subject to m u c h uncertainty. B u t there is s o m e t h i n g c a l l e d the ' p r e c a u t i o n a r y p r i n c i p l e ' , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h society is obliged to err on the side of c a u t i o n where significant evidence exists of an ecologically disruptive relationship w i t h o u t a final p r o o f (which, given the nature of such events, m a y never transpire). It is clear that sufficient evidence exists as to the presence of greater quantities of t r a p p e d solar energy, a n d the m o u n t i n g frequency o f devastating s t o r m s .
16

47

R e c a l l : in 1970, o n l y three decades in the span of time, but an eternity so far as c a p i t a l is c o n c e r n e d , the n o t i o n of 'limits to g r o w t h ' seized the w o r l d elites, or at least the significant fraction of t h e m w h o put forth the report o f the same n a m e u n d e r the a u t h o r s h i p o f the ' C l u b o f R o m e ' . I n little m o r e t h a n a generation, then, the n o t i o n of c o n t a i n i n g ' g r o w t h ' , w h i c h is to say, r e i n i n g in c a p i t a l , h a d been effectively d r i v e n f r o m the collective m i n d o f the r u l i n g class. T h e last few years have been distinctly less e x h i l a r a t i n g f r o m the standp o i n t of ' g r o w t h ' ; i n d e e d , as this is b e i n g w r i t t e n , the e c o n o m y is in the g r i p of a l o n g - p o s t p o n e d d o w n t u r n . Nevertheless, however the concrete specifics constantly change, the essential m e n t a l i t y a n d d y n a m i c s r e m a i n the same, t h r o u g h r i c h times a n d poor. W i t h respect to global w a r m i n g , arguably the supreme instance of the ecological crisis, we n o w find a g a t h e r i n g r e a l i z a t i o n of just h o w deadly the prospects are. B u t the chaotic world-system keeps the response l a g g i n g far b e h i n d the pace o f events. C o n s i d e r o n l y the frequency a n d i m p a c t o f violent storms. T h e s e are the equivalent, on the c l i m a t i c level, of m e t h y l isocyanate, on the p h y s i o l o g i c a l level, t e a r i n g t h r o u g h a body. E a c h represents the i n t r u s i o n of w i l d energy u n c o n t a i n a b l e by ecosystemic buffering, w i t h chaotic a n d devastating results. In the last few years, we have seen H u r r i c a n e M i t c h , w h i c h l a i d waste t o H o n d u r a s a n d N i c a r a g u a , a l o n g w i t h other devastating storms, a l l l e a d i n g to deaths in the tens of thousands, w h i c h struck C h i n a , I n d i a , M o z a m b i q u e a n d V e n e z u e l a . I n the latter instance, the k i l l e r b e c a m e r a i n - i n d u c e d landslides s w e e p i n g d o w n o n shanty-towns on the lee side of a m o u n t a i n next to C a r a c a s , b u r y i n g or sweeping out to sea some 20,000 p o o r folk w h o w o u l d never have b e e n l i v i n g there in a just or sane society. E a c h of these catastrophes, observe, is of the scale of a Bhopal, yet n o n e is c o n s i d e r e d an event for w h i c h the i n d u s t r i a l system is to be h e l d responsible, because there is no accident to focus o n , n o U n i o n C a r b i d e t o b l a m e , o n l y the dispersal o f a n u n c o u n t able n u m b e r of ecosystemic insults, a n d the u n p r e d i c t a b l e yet inevitable reckoning. W e k n o w w i t h great p r e c i s i o n what M I C does a n d h o w i t got t o where

A f t e r a l l , what are storms but the c o m i n g d o w n o f

energy b e y o n d the capacity of the atmosphere to b i n d ? Yet in p r o p o r t i o n to the m e n a c e , the world-system's response is as negligent as was C a r b i d e ' s at B h o p a l .
1 7

T h e e x p l a n a t i o n lies w i t h i n the logic of a c c u m u l a t i o n . It is not just the obvious fact that any serious g r a p p l i n g w i t h greenhouse gas p r o d u c t i o n w i l l spell trouble for profit in the short a n d m e d i u m r u n that comprises the h o r i z o n of capital's v i s i o n . N o , there is another motive right here in the present. A n d that is a r e a l i z a t i o n that g l o b a l w a r m i n g , here a n d now, is good for business. In F r a n c e , for example, the terrible storms of 1999 not o n l y t u r n e d out to have little m a c r o - e c o n o m i c i m p a c t ; they are said to be, a c c o r d i n g to D e n i s Kessler, president of the F r e n c h Insurance C o m p a n i e s ' F e d e r a t i o n , 'a rather g o o d t h i n g for G D P ' . T h i s is because the damages caused by such events for a h i g h l y developed c o u n t r y are relatively l o w n o shanty-towns i n France, p l e n t y o f emergency e q u i p m e n t , a n d s o o n a n d exceeded in m o n e t a r y value by the funds spent on repairs, w h i c h tends to renovate d a m a g e d p r o p e r t y in a m o r e m o d e r n manner. As the a u t h o r of the article, H e r v K e m p f , c o m m e n t s : It looks as though the world's economic decision-makers have decided to do nothing about climate change on the basis that if no change happens, we shall take advantage of a f o r m of growth that continues to intensify the greenhouse effect; and if it does happen, we shall be able to protect ourselves from it - and it may even have a favourable effect on the global economy.
18

T h e 'we' here refers not to h u m a n i t y as a whole, but to the inhabitants of the ' d e v e l o p e d ' nations - to be m o r e exact, their p r i v i l e g e d classes. As for the others, w e l l , let t h e m eat m u d . L i k e the u n t o l d n u m b e r s of birds a n d other animals wasted by these storms, the fate of the p o o r is irrelevant to the great m a r c h of a c c u m u l a t i o n , a n d so becomes a non-issue. T h u s K e m p f c o m m e n t s : 'Venezuela's flood victims c o u n t e d for little e c o n o m i c a l l y in so

48 The Culprit far as the country's o i l output r e m a i n e d unaffected.' C o n s e q u e n t l y their fate, like that of b i l l i o n s of others, is discounted. S u c h t h i n k i n g is b o t h a manifestation of the ever-widening gap between the world's r i c h a n d poor, a n d a cause of that gap's w i d e n i n g . It is also a p r i m e e x a m p l e o f the k i n d o f reasoning specific t o capital, w h i c h employs p u r e l y quantitative indices such as gross domestic p r o d u c t ( G D P ) because they are convenient indices of a c c u m u l a t i o n . Scarcely a critic of the ecol o g i c a l crisis has refrained f r o m c o m m e n t i n g u p o n the stupid b r u t a l i t y of this n u m b e r , w h i c h reduces the l i v i n g a n d the d e a d alike to the c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r of w h a t c a n be extracted f r o m their c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n . It is necessary, t h o u g h , to see t h i n k i n g in terms of G D P as no mere error, but the actual logic of the r e i g n i n g power; a n d a l l cries for revising it to reflect h u m a n a n d ecological j u d g e m e n t s are s i m p l y risible so l o n g as that p o w e r remains i n place. B u t it still is an error, a n d a huge, future-threatening one. In the r e d u c t i o n of the w o r l d to value, a n d the e c o n o m y to G D P , there occurs b o t h an abstraction a n d a n a r r o w i n g . A l l things seen t h r o u g h the lens of capital b e c o m e c o m m o d i t i e s whose concrete sensuous ecological links are n o w m e r e l y quantities. H e n c e they drift apart a n d are separated. T h e bourgeois calculator of g l o b a l w a r m i n g reduces the subject to a series of storms a n d their effect on profits. A h a ! ' he says, 'we're still m a k i n g money,' then closes his books a n d narrows his v i s i o n , u n t i l he sees the w o r l d , in Blake's t e r m , ' t h r o ' n a r r o w chinks' in a prison-house of the m i n d , a n d forgets that g l o b a l w a r m i n g is a process at the level of the whole, a l l ecosystems engaged a n d m u t u a l l y interacting. W h i l e he counts his m o n e y a n d contentedly spews forth his greenhouse gas, events elsewhere take their course. C a p i t a l wants b o u n d a r i e s dissolved strictly a c c o r d i n g to its logic of endless a c c u m u l a t i o n , but there are other b o u n d a r i e s whose dissolution is not at all to its taste. T h e p o l a r ice cap melts, a n d oceanic currents are t r a n s f o r m e d . A n d then, like a colossal B h o p a l , all these little negligences m a y c o m e together some day into a very nasty surprise. Perhaps one day, the F r e n c h bourgeoisie m a y wake up to f i n d that the G u l f S t r e a m no longer flows by their fair country, but dissipates its w a r m t h into an undifferentiated sea. A n d what w i l l that d o t o the G D P ? W e have p a r a p h r a s e d the queen w i t h o u r 'let t h e m eat m u d ' , a n d m a y conclude this passage w i t h the prescient words of the king, to be interpreted literally as w e l l as m e t a p h o r i c a l l y : A p r s m o i , le deluge.'

Capital49

Notes
1. Estimated deaths range f r o m 2,000 to 20,000. T h i s figure is d r a w n f r o m K u r z m a n 1987: 130-3. For further summaries of evidence, see M o n t a g u e 1996; also the website www.corporatewatch.org/bhopal/. 2. M o n t a g u e : A f t e r all the lawyers a n d I n d i a n government officials h a d taken their fees a n d bribes, the average c l a i m a n t received about $300, w h i c h , for most victims, was not enough to pay their m e d i c a l bills.' 3. T h e n o t i o n derives f r o m Aristotle's Metaphysics, where the efficient cause is one of four elemental causes, the others b e i n g the f o r m a l essence (in Plato's meaning) of a thing, the ultimate material nature of that thing, a n d , t h i r d , the final cause, or goal, t o w a r d w h i c h a t h i n g is headed. T h e efficient cause is, by contrast, the source of a thing's m o t i o n , w h i c h m a y or m a y not be external to the t h i n g in question. M u c h of this exceedingly difficult text (actually a series of lecture notes) is given over to critique of Plato a n d other philosophers for not taking the efficient cause into account. Aristotle !947- 238-96. 4. T h i s passage, a n d most of the evidence in this section, are d r a w n f r o m K u r z m a n 1987. However, the next i t e m is taken f r o m testimony given at the e n d of 1999, in the o n g o i n g c i v i l action suits in I n d i a . K u r z m a n , it m a y be added, approached his w o r k as a journalist w i t h no axe to g r i n d , as revealed in a n u m b e r of sympathetic passages about Carbide's executive leadership. 5. M o n t a g u e 1996, citing L e p k o w s k i 1994. 6. S h i v a 1991. A great m a n y people n o w reject the w o r l d view of C a r b i d e as to the merits of this transformation, w h i c h a m o n g other things has d r i v e n m a n y r u r a l Indians to choose pesticides as a means of suicide. 7. M o r e h o u s e 1993: 487, quoted in M o n t a g u e 1996. 8. These terms appear on the first page of V o l u m e O n e of M a r x ' s Capital, an i n d i c a t i o n of h o w i m p o r t a n t he thought them. 9. D r a w n together in O ' C o n n o r 1998. T h e 'First C o n t r a d i c t i o n ' is that of the classical 'realization crisis', where cutting worker's wages makes it more difficult to purchase the commodities they produce. 10. M a r x 1973: 334. M a r t i n N i c o l a u s , translator a n d editor, draws a c o n n e c t i o n between this passage a n d Hegel's Science of Logic (Hegel 1969). 11. M a r x 1973: 335, italics in o r i g i n a l . 12. In the first cycle, the simple circulation of commodities, C is a c o m m o d i t y sold for a given sum of money, M, w h i c h is then exchanged for another c o m m o d i t y of equivalent value, C In the second cycle, w h i c h is of capital, a s u m of money, M, is advanced into circulation to pay for a commodity, C, w h i c h is then sold for a different sum o f money, M \ I f M ' i s greater than M , the p r i m e desideratum o f the capitalist, w e have M ' - M , o r A M , a s the 'surplus value'. M a r x uses the t e r m 'value' a s synonymous w i t h exchange-value. 13. M a r x 1967a: 252-3.

14. In an end-of-the-millennium survey by the B B C of w h o was the greatest m a n of the last 1,000 years, the secretary-general offered A d a m S m i t h as his first choice. C a n we imagine D a g Hammarskjld or U T h a n t d o i n g the same? A n n a n was instead rewarded for his unquestioning loyalty to transnational capital.

50

The Culprit
15. Z a c h a r y 1997; Ruggiero 1997. See C h a p t e r 8 for more on Stiglitz, w h o has been cast as a k i n d of hero because he was sacked for dissenting f r o m W o r l d B a n k policies. A d m i r a b l e this m a y have been, yet here he reveals a characteristically insane blindness to the implications of growth. 16. A c c o r d i n g to the N a t i o n a l O c e a n i c a n d A t m o s p h e r i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , the ten most costly disasters in the history of the U S A , i n c l u d i n g four hurricanes, have all h a p p e n e d in the 1990s. T a u b 2000: D i o . 17. T h e news that the N o r t h Pole h a d t u r n e d to water in August 2000 - for the first time in 50 million years - was greeted w i t h yawns a n d derision by r u l i n g elites. An op-ed in the Wall Street Journal o p i n e d 'So what?' in its headline, pretty m u c h representative. We cannot pursue this question here, but there is ample reason to believe that the K y o t o Protocols themselves fall far short of what is needed to c o n t a i n global w a r m i n g . 18. K e m p f 2000: 30.

Capitalism

C a p i t a l ' s responsibility for the ecological crisis c a n be s h o w n empirically, by t r a c k i n g d o w n ecosystemic breakdowns to the actions of c o r p o r a t i o n s a n d / or g o v e r n m e n t a l agencies u n d e r the influence of capital's force field. Or it c a n be d e d u c e d f r o m the c o m b i n e d tendencies to degrade c o n d i t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n (the S e c o n d C o n t r a d i c t i o n ) , on the one h a n d , a n d , on the other, the cancerous imperative to e x p a n d . A l t h o u g h the S e c o n d C o n t r a d i c t i o n m a y be offset in i n d i v i d u a l circumstances by recycling, p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l , the t r a d i n g of credits a n d the like, the imperative to e x p a n d c o n t i n u a l l y erodes the edges of ecologies a l o n g an ever-lengthening perimeter, overc o m i n g or d i s p l a c i n g recuperative efforts a n d accelerating a cascade of destabilization. O n occasion, the force o f c a p i t a l e x p a n s i o n c a n b e seen directly - as w h e n President G e o r g e W. B u s h a b r u p t l y reversed his pledge t o t r i m emissions o f C 0
2

i n M a r c h 2001, the day after the stock market

went i n t o free-fall a n d in the context of a gathering crisis of a c c u m u l a t i o n . M o r e b r o a d l y , it operates t h r o u g h a host of intermediaries e m b e d d e d w i t h i n

the gigantic machine for accumulation that is capitalist society.

We need to take a closer l o o k at h o w this society works on the g r o u n d . Too m u c h is at stake to close the argument w i t h a d e m o n s t r a t i o n of abstract laws. C a p i t a l is no a u t o m a t i c m e c h a n i s m , a n d the laws it obeys, b e i n g mediated by consciousness, are no m o r e t h a n tendencies. W h e n we say 'capital does this' or that, we m e a n that certain h u m a n actions are c a r r i e d out under the auspices of c a p i t a l . We need to l e a r n , t h e n , as m u c h as we can about just what these actions are a n d h o w they c a n be changed. C a p i t a l originates w i t h the e x p l o i t a t i o n of labour, a n d takes shape as this is subjected to the p e c u l i a r forces of money. Its nucleus is the abstraction of human transformative p o w e r into l a b o u r - p o w e r for sale on the market. T h e nascent capitalist e c o n o m y was fostered by the feudal state, then took over that state (often t h r o u g h revolution), c e n t r i n g it about capital a c c u m u l a t i o n .

52 The Culprit W i t h this, the capitalist m o d e of p r o d u c t i o n was installed as such - after w h i c h capital began to convert society into its image a n d created the c o n ditions for the ecological crisis. T h e giant corporations we rightly identify as ecological destroyers are not the whole of c a p i t a l , but o n l y its p r i m e e c o n o m i c instruments. C a p i t a l acts t h r o u g h the c o r p o r a t i o n , therefore, but also across society a n d w i t h i n the h u m a n spirit. B r o a d l y speaking, this has taken place in three dimensions - existentially, t e m p o r a l l y a n d institutionally. In other words, people increasingly live their lives u n d e r the terms of capital; as they do so, the t e m p o r a l pace of their life accelerates; finally, they live in a w o r l d where institutions are in place to secure this across an ever-expanding t e r r a i n : the w o r l d of globalization. In this way a society, a n d a whole w a y of being, are created hostile to the integrity of ecosystems.

Capitalism53 grown-ups develop a s i m i l a r need for giant sports-utility vehicles, or find gas-driven leaf-blowers indispensible for the c o n d u c t of life, or are shaped to take life passively f r o m the TV screen, or see the s h o p p i n g malls a n d their endless p a r k i n g lots as the ' n a t u r a l ' setting of society. N o t e a twofold alteration. T h e c o m m o d i t i e s so i n t r o d u c e d , say, the fourwheel drives, are b o t h ecodestructive a n d profitable; a n d the people w h o use a n d desire t h e m are, because of their c h a n g e d needs, themselves c h a n g e d in an 'anti-ecological' d i r e c t i o n , that is, they b e c o m e c o m p l i c i t in the ecological crisis a n d unable to take a c t i o n against it. In contrast to an ' e n v i r o n m e n t a l ' p o i n t of view, directed to what is located outside us, the ecological perspective includes not just external nature, but society as w e l l , a n d especially all aspects of life that have a 'nature-like' c o m p o n e n t , such as t r a d i t i o n , or c o m m u n i t y , or, most generally, the past. A l l these are to be t o r n up so that a c c u m u l a t i o n c a n p r o c e e d . H e n c e capital's relentlessly The Penetration of Life-worlds f o r w a r d - l o o k i n g attitude, a n d its i r o n lock on the logic of modernity. I first became aware of this process before I h a d any coherent realization of what capital meant, d u r i n g a t r o p i c a l m e d i c i n e elective taken in 1961 in the c o u n t r y o f S u r i n a m e , freshly b r o k e n f r o m D u t c h c o l o n i a l i s m yet very m u c h still in the W e s t e r n o r b i t . T h e experience entailed a range of ex3

T h e capitalist w o r l d is a colossal apparatus of p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d sales, perfused w i t h c o m m o d i t i e s . T h e average W a l - M a r t stocks 100,000 separate items (with 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 available t h r o u g h its website) a n d , as a drive t h r o u g h A m e r i c a bitterly confirms, W a l - M a r t s - some 2,500 as of early 2000, w i t h 100 m i l l i o n shoppers a week - s p r i n g up everywhere a l o n g the roadsides like gigantic toadstools, destroying the integrity of towns a n d feeding f r o m their decay. T h e r e is m u c h m o r e to this than the p e d d l i n g of
1

posures: to the capital city, P a r a m a r i b o , to smaller o u t l y i n g towns, a n d finally into the great equatorial r a i n forest for a three-week trip by dugout canoe escorted by native guides. I h a d the chance to see at first h a n d the t r i b a l way of life in an as yet relatively preserved rainforest ecosystem, a n d also s o m e t h i n g o f T h i r d W o r l d u r b a n i z a t i o n . T h e reader w i l l not b e surprised to l e a r n of my preference for the f o r m e r a n d r e p u l s i o n f r o m the latter. I h a d become subject to an o l d W e s t e r n desire: what M e l v i l l e or H u m b o l d t must have felt w h e n they e n c o u n t e r e d lands such as these. I travelled e n t h r a l l e d by the n a t u r a l grandeur, a n d equally by the v i b r a n t , dignified cultures I e n c o u n t e r e d a l o n g the river b a n k , the villages bright a n d c l e a n , a n d b r i l l i a n t l y decorated w i t h indigenous art. A l l o f life was c e r e m o n i a l , suffused w i t h music a n d dance, festive a n d , so it seemed, whole. O n e c o u l d have called the riverine village an i n t e g r a l h u m a n ecosystem were the t e r m in c i r c u l a t i o n in 1961. By c o m p a r i s o n , the dusty a n d dreary t o w n , u n d e r sway of the a l u m i n u m company, w i t h barracks for homes, a n d the W h i t e M a n ' s culture at every t u r n , was as alienating a spot as I h a d ever seen. It was a p p a l l i n g in itself, a n d especially a p p a l l i n g was the evident attraction of this dependent culture to the y o u t h of the villages

mere objects. As c a p i t a l penetrates society, a n d as a c o n d i t i o n for capital to penetrate society, the entire structure of life is altered. E a c h creature inhabits a ' l i f e - w o r l d , ' that p o r t i o n of the universe that is dwelt i n , or e x p e r i e n c e d . T h e life-world is, so to speak, what an ecosystem
2

looks like f r o m the standpoint of i n d i v i d u a l beings w i t h i n it. T h e use-values that represent the utility of c o m m o d i t i e s are therefore inserted into lifeworlds, the p o i n t of insertion b e i n g registered subjectively as a w a n t or desire, a n d objectively as a set of needs. As capital penetrates life-worlds, it alters t h e m in ways that foster its a c c u m u l a t i o n , chiefly by i n t r o d u c i n g a sense of dissatisfaction or lack so that it c a n truly be said that happiness is f o r b i d d e n u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m , b e i n g replaced by sensation a n d craving. In this way, c h i l d r e n develop such a c r a v i n g for caffeine-laced, sugar-loaded or artificially sweetened soft drinks that it m a y be said that they positively need t h e m (in that their b e h a v i o u r disintegrates w i t h o u t such intake); or

54 The Culprit a l o n g the river. A l t h o u g h by o u r terms they h a d little, there was no sign of m a l n u t r i t i o n or poverty as such in the village, yet the y o u t h w o u l d leave as soon as they c o u l d . T h e lure of cash for w o r k , the lure of C o c a - C o l a , the lure of the city b e y o n d the s m a l l t o w n - all this p r o v e d c o m p e l l i n g . M y stay was too brief, a n d m y powers o f observation too weak, for m o r e than speculation as to what destabilized the indigenous people of S u r i n a m e in 1961. Typically, what breaks up the life-world of t r i b a l society is some e n c r o a c h m e n t u p o n the l a n d . W i t h the p r o d u c t i v e f o u n d a t i o n o f society i n t e r r u p t e d , a c o m p l e x a n d disintegrative c h a i n of events is set in m o t i o n . As the ' o l d ways' no longer m a k e sense, a k i n d of desire is set loose, a n d as this is n o w relatively shapeless a n d boundless, the virus of c a p i t a l , w i t h its promise of limitless wealth, is able to take h o l d . T h i s is always a c c o m p a n i e d by the mass-cultural invasion that encodes capital's logos in the f o r m o f c o m m o d i t i e s . O n c e ' C o c a - C o l a , the real t h i n g ' replaces t r a d i t i o n a l reality, the i n t e r n a l c o l o n i z a t i o n that perfects the takeover of p e r i p h e r a l societies is w e l l u n d e r way. E x p a n d i n g c a p i t a l i s m , like the e x p a n d i n g C a t h o l i c i s m o f a n earlier conquest, does not so m u c h impose its ways tout court as meet the c o l o n i z e d life-worlds halfway. T h e actual result, t h e n , is generally syncretic, w i t h a considerable persistence of indigenous forms. A f i c i o n a d o s of the postm o d e r n are generally pleased w i t h this, seeing it as an a f f i r m a t i o n of 'resistance', 'diversity', a n d the like. B u t they c a n be no m o r e pleased t h a n c a p i t a l , w h i c h celebrates diversity as a source of n e w use-values. T h e M c D o n a l d ' s c o r p o r a t i o n , w i t h some 26,996 outlets in 119 countries as of the year 2000, offers a p a r t i c u l a r l y robust e x a m p l e of capital's g l o b a l p e n e t r a t i o n . Since 1955, M c D o n a l d ' s has p i o n e e r e d the i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n
4

Capitalism55 C a p i t a l ' s invasion takes place across an ecosystemic m a n i f o l d e n c o m passing b o t h culture a n d nature, w i t h points o f c o m m o d i t y f o r m a t i o n arising everywhere. F r o m this standpoint it is artificial to distinguish the s y m b o l i c a n d m a t e r i a l aspects of events - a l t h o u g h it s h o u l d be observed that the i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n of eating has definite somatic effects on a society. T h e m a g n i t u d e o f M c D o n a l d ' s activities i n H o n g K o n g i s suggested b y the fact that 25 of its top 50 outlets in the w o r l d were located there by 1997, a n d that in the 20 years since it a n d its fellow fast food e m p o r i u m s took h o l d , the average weight of a l o c a l teenager has risen 13 per cent, a n d the age of girls at m e n a r c h e has d r o p p e d to 12, c o m p a r e d to 17 in m a i n l a n d C h i n a . H o n g K o n g n o w has the second highest c h i l d h o o d cholesterol levels in the w o r l d , after F i n l a n d . M e a n w h i l e , in the 28 years since M c D o n a l d ' s entered J a p a n , its 2,000 outlets (as of 1997) c o n t r o l l e d 60 per cent of the h a m b u r g e r market a n d the per c a p i t a fat intake t r i p l e d .
5

T h e s e effects

p a r a l l e l those i n A m e r i c a a n d across the w o r l d , w h i c h has seen a n u n precedented increase in b o t h obesity a n d hunger, to the p o i n t where the n u m b e r s o f overweight a n d starving people are r o u g h l y equivalent. T h i s
6

is, to repeat, the normal w o r k i n g of the system, h i g h l y praised a n d emulated, a n d not the result of accidents such as B h o p a l . S u c h figures do not enter the o r d i n a r y ' e n v i r o n m e n t a l ' appraisals, but they are as m u c h part of the ecological crisis as p o l l u t i o n w i t h d i o x i n (whose b o d i l y a c c u m u l a t i o n , it m a y be a d d e d , is a direct f u n c t i o n of h o w m u c h fat is in the diet). A s i m i l a r splitting is p l a y e d out in the sphere of gender. As ecosystems are b r o k e n up a n d r e a r r a n g e d u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m , a fraction of w o m e n in m e t r o p o l i t a n regions attain considerable a u t o n o m y a n d opportunity, while conditions for the world's m a j o r i t y s h a r p l y deteriorate. T h i s is evident in the h i g h percentage of w o m e n in sweatshops a r o u n d the w o r l d (where fine m o t o r skills a n d p a t r i a r c h a l l y i m p o s e d docility are valued); the b u r g e o n i n g sex trade industries, where numberless w o m e n have now, in the era of free trade, become actual slaves (as have i n n u m e r a b l e others in the sweatshops); as w e l l as the general rise of rape a n d spousal abuse as c o n c o m i t a n t s of a disintegrating social order, so far gone that a recent U N I C E F report i n dicates that nearly h a l f the world's w o m e n c o m e u n d e r attack by those closest to t h e m .
7

of eating t h r o u g h conversion of the i m m e m o r i a l l y r i t u a l i z e d event of the m e a l into 'fast f o o d ' . As above, the o l d ways fail to m a k e sense, a n d a g a i n , n e w a n d syncretic desires, needs a n d c o m m o d i t i e s are inserted. R a t h e r t h a n s i m p l y p u s h beefburgers t o its g r o w i n g clientele i n A s i a a n d L a t i n A m e r i c a , M c D o n a l d ' s offers t h e m Vegetable M c N u g g e t s i n I n d i a , T e r i y a k i Burgers i n J a p a n , M c H u e v o s i n U r u g u a y , a n d s o o n , f r a y i n g the indigenous c u l t u r a l forms a n d w e a k e n i n g resistance to the culture of beef. E v e r y trick of the trade is pressed into action - clowns, children's games, playgrounds, an advertising budget second to none. C a p i t a l gets its c o m m o d i t i e s , a n d the people get a p s e u d o - c o m m u n i t y to break up life-worlds a n d further cultivate n e w desires a n d needs.

As capital penetrates, its disintegrating effects on ecologies are s h o w n most d r a m a t i c a l l y at boundaries. T h a t is w h y instruments like the N o r t h A m e r i c a n Free T r a d e A g r e e m e n t ( N A F T A ) have been such disasters for

56

The Culprit the b o r d e r towns a l o n g the U S - M e x i c a n border. T h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l l u t i o n has b e e n w e l l d o c u m e n t e d ,

8

Capitalism T h e fabric is m a d e f r o m certain elements u n k n o w n to nineteenth-century capitalist society: decay of r e l i g i o n , narco-trafficking, p r o m i s c u o u s l y available assault weapons, gangs (an estimated 250 in Juarez) w h o are a l a w u n t o themselves, a n d , in the case of places such as J u a r e z , the b r e a k i n g up of m o r a l systems that comes f r o m h a v i n g a s u p e r p o w e r suck a society's b l o o d w i t h instruments such as N A F T A a n d the maquiladora. T h e r e is a n i h i l i s m that brings out the predatory remorseless k i l l i n g potential in h u m a n beings b r e d i n c o n d i t i o n s o f extreme a l i e n a t i o n . Just as the p o p u l a t i o n of J u a r e z is u n k n o w n , so is the m u r d e r rate, although it is generally agreed to have at least d o u b l e d since the p r c - N A F T A year of 1991. H u n d r e d s of people s i m p l y disappear each year, but since m a n y are just passing t h r o u g h a n d k n o w n to no one, their fate c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d . Scores of others just show up as unidentifiable, b a d l y dec o m p o s e d corpses in dumpsters, or strewn about the desert. T h e m a j o r i t y of the corpses are of adolescent girls s h o w i n g signs of rape a n d sexual m u t i l a t i o n . A mass sex m u r d e r e r is sought - periodically, some g a n g or gangster is fingered a n d arrested - a n d then the finding of corpses resumes. D e b b i e N a t h a n has identified a p a t t e r n to the killings. T h e wages p a i d by maquiladoras provide m o r e t h a n subsistence; they are also solvents t h r o u g h w h i c h t r a d i t i o n a l bonds o f f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y break up. W h e n these bonds p a t r i a r c h a l l y repress w o m e n , w o r k i n g away f r o m h o m e in a factory c a n be e x p e r i e n c e d as liberating. It is like the o p e r a Carmen, a male fantasy of the w o r k p l a c e sexpot, here r e a d i l y seized u p o n by powerless y o u n g w o m e n . T h e teenage maquiladora workers have been raised on a c u l t u r a l diet of telenovelas a n d fotonovelas, endless variations on the theme of the p o o r but w o r t h y g i r l f o u n d by a r i c h older m a n , w h o , after the necessary travail, wins h i m . In the maquiladoras, the elements of this narrative are l a i d out a n d fully eroticized. O f t e n dressed to the nines u n d e r their chaste smocks, female workers vie for the attentions of the male supervisors, w h o flirt w i t h t h e m , ask t h e m for dates a n d set g o i n g a dense network of intrigue. T h e process is c o n t i n u e d into beauty contests a n d swimsuit competitions that t r a n s f o r m the dreary w o r k p l a c e into a f a i r y l a n d of r o m a n t i c fulfilment. T h e fantasy extends into the hours after work. In the sexually charged nightclubs to w h i c h w o u l d - b e C a r m e n s r e p a i r after dark, opportunities a b o u n d for selling the o n l y t h i n g of value they possess besides labour-power. F o r m a l a n d i n f o r m a l prostitution flourishes alongside, or in place of, factory e m p l o y m e n t . To further sweeten the pot, the clubs advertise contests such

57

but that affecting h u m a n ecosystems,

especially those i n c o r p o r a t i n g gender, are less w e l l k n o w n , a n d c a n be illustrated by an e x a m p l e f r o m one of the largest cities a l o n g the border. T h e city o f J u a r e z , M e x i c o , across f r o m E l Paso, seems s i m p l y tossed over the desert. T h e r e shouldn't be concentrations of people in these places, a n d there w o u l d n ' t be, were they not so close to the largest markets on earth. B u t the people arrive, wave after wave f r o m the south, l i v i n g in shanty-towns or colonias, a n d seeking a l i v i n g in the maquiladoras, or assembly factories, set up to take advantage of the opportunities p r o v i d e d by N A F T A . M a n y of the workers are y o u n g , 17 a n d under, a n d most are w o m e n some 60 p e r cent of the 170,000 maquiladora workers in J u a r e z , w h o e a r n $20-25 f
r a

six-day week where the cost of l i v i n g is at least 90 p e r cent

that of the U S A , a n d the turnover rate is over 100 p e r cent a year. A fair guess says 2 m i l l i o n people i n h a b i t J u a r e z , great n u m b e r s subsisting in c a r d b o a r d or c o r r u g a t e d m e t a l shacks, on the 1,100 miles of d i r t r o a d w i t h i n the city, w i t h hijacked electricity, water b o u g h t f r o m trucks (the city is scheduled to r u n out of water in about five years) a n d no sewers - often w i t h i n feet of the other c o u n t r y f r o m w h i c h the managers of their maquiladoras drive over in their Lexuses each m o r n i n g . Frederick Engels, whose d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f the w o r k i n g class o f M a n c h e s t e r , E n g l a n d , i n 1844, created the first awareness of p r o l e t a r i a n life u n d e r i n d u s t r i a l c a p i t a l i s m , w o u l d recognize the poverty of J u a r e z , for all its differences in t e r r a i n , weather a n d culture. H o w e v e r , Engels w o u l d almost certainly be startled by the degree of the rootlessness of the city - even t h o u g h rootlessness was also a feature of the M a n c h e s t e r workers - as w e l l as by its violence, although violence, too, was certainly a feature of mid-nineteenth-century Manchester, as it w o u l d be in any r a p i d l y t r a n s f o r m i n g society. B u t J u a r e z is s o m e t h i n g else. In the words of a l o c a l vendor, ' E v e n the d e v i l is scared of l i v i n g here.' As C h a r l e s B o w d e n puts it in his p o w e r f u l witness to h e l l on the b o r d e r : Juarez is different [from other, equivalently impoverished places] in a way that tables of wages and economic studies cannot capture: in Juarez you cannot sustain hope ... We tell ourselves that there are gangs and murders in A m e r i c a n [sic] cities. T h i s is true, but it does not deal w i t h the reality of Juarez. We are not talking about darkness on the edge of town or a bad neighborhood. We are talking about an entire city woven out of violence.
9

58

The Culprit a s ' M o s t D a r i n g B r a ' , o r 'Wet S t r i n g B i k i n i ' , w i t h prizes that generally exceed a week's salary. In these ways, hapless w o m e n m a y j o i n up w i t h their executioners, themselves suitably p o s i t i o n e d by the m a c h o b a r b a r i s m set g o i n g in places like J u a r e z , whose m u r d e r rate becomes a g r i m index of capitalist n i h i l i s m .
1 0

Capitalism Indeed. M r T o m n e y wants t o get the order-fulfilment time d o w n t o 9 0 seconds f r o m the c u r r e n t i n d u s t r y - l e a d i n g 150 seconds. ' T h e n e w t i m e r w i l l help. It emits a series of l o u d beeps every time an o r d e r isn't filled w i t h i n 125 seconds.' T h i s does t e n d to take away some of the fun of w o r k i n g for fast f o o d (an i n d u s t r y that averages as m u c h as 200 p e r cent t u r n o v e r annually).

59

Speed-up, or the Ever-decreasing Circulation Time of Capital T h e relentless e x p a n s i o n of c a p i t a l occurs p r i m a r i l y in terms of time, whose equivalence to m o n e y is m u c h m o r e t h a n m e t a p h o r i c . T h i s is s h o w n v i v i d l y in the case of 'fast-food', whose p e n e t r a t i o n we have already observed. It stands to reason that the 'fast' in this food applies to the p r o d u c t i o n process, as we see f r o m a recent lead article in the Wall Street Journal: 'Himayltakeyourorderplease?' says the drive-through-greeter at Wendy's Old-Fashioned [sic] Hamburgers. T h i s greeting takes only one second - a triumphant two seconds faster than is suggested in Wendy's guidelines and the speed of it was clocked by a high-tech timer installed this January. In just three months, the timer - w h i c h measures nearly every aspect of drive-through performance - helped knock eight seconds off the average takeout delivery time at this restaurant. But manager R y a n Tomney wants more. 'Every second,' he says, 'is business lost.' W e n d y ' s , whose ads p r o m o t e the a v u n c u l a r image of D a v e T h o m a s as the kindly, s l o w - m o v i n g a n d somewhat befuddled boss, is the fastest of the fastfood chains ('Most chains w o u l d sell their first-born to get that speed,' says a researcher). Its success translates into a u g m e n t e d profit in a time w h e n the spatial e x p a n s i o n of these e m p o r i a is r u n n i n g out of r o o m : for every six seconds saved at the d r i v e - t h r o u g h , sales increase by i p e r cent. T h e e n h a n c e d profitability means an emphasis on drive-through w i n d o w s (growi n g three times as r a p i d l y as on-premise sales), w h i c h in t u r n reinforces the culture of a u t o m o b i l i a (see below) while fostering waste of all sorts. T h e n there are the effects on those incidentals, h u m a n beings: T h e attempt to t u r n drive through into a science inevitably encounters two wild-cards: employees a n d customers. M a n a g e m e n t at b i g chains insist that employees like the timer because it turns their work into a game - can I make 300 consecutive sandwiches in less than seven seconds each? But working in the new w o r l d of sensors a n d alarms isn't always fun.

Certainly, the seven drive-through employees demonstrate incredible concentration and effort d u r i n g a recent lunch hour. T h e griller keeps 25 square burgers sizzling on the grill ('Not enough,' Mr Tomney says) and, within five seconds of a customer's order, places one on a b u n . O n c e the meat hits the b u n , the griller hands off to the sandwich makers, who have no more than seven seconds to complete each customized creation. Watching the operation, M r . Tomney looks for ways to save time. T h e bun grabber retrieves buns from the warmer the instant she hears a customer order through her headset. But watching her wait for a customer order, Mr Tomney [notices something]. H e r hands aren't positioned. 'Two hands on the bun-warmer door as the order is being placed, just like you're taking the frisk position,' her manager demonstrates, hands against the wall, legs slightly spread.
11

A n i c e l y chosen image, one must a d m i t , for this vignette of today's go-go society. T h e r a p i d g r o w t h of c a p i t a l is p a r a l l e l e d by the r a p i d rate of technol o g i c a l change, f r o m the m e c h a n i c a l technologies of the early i n d u s t r i a l p e r i o d to the electronic technologies (like the above timer) of the i l l - t e r m e d ' i n f o r m a t i o n age', on to the biotechnologies a n d nano-technologies of the century n o w u n d e r way.
12

T h e c o m m o d i t i e s o f this w o r l d are t o c a p i t a l

o n l y deposits of value, w h i c h w i l l not be freed unless those goods are c i r c u l a t e d , exchanged for money, a n d c o n s u m e d , i.e., realized. F o r c a p i t a l to 'grow', then, its realization must speed up; this routinely means a d i m i n u t i o n of its c i r c u l a t i o n time, f r o m the o r i g i n a l investment at the p o i n t of p r o d u c t i o n , to the speed-up - i.e., ' p r o d u c t i v i t y ' - of workers, to its release for the next cycle at the p o i n t of c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e significance of time for c a p i t a l is closely tied to its rupture f r o m nature. E x c h a n g e - v a l u e a n d m o n e y have no n a t u r a l g r o u n d ; they c a n be o n l y the abstraction of what enables one t h i n g to be m a d e equivalent to another. A p p l i e d to labour, this means that there is o n l y one standard by

60 The Culprit means o f w h i c h different h u m a n labours c a n b e c o m p a r e d i n m o n e t a r y terms, namely, the time e x p e n d e d in p r o d u c t i o n . Between this f u n c t i o n a n d the equally i m p o r t a n t one of regulating its c o m p l e x , technically c o o r d i n a t e d productive apparatus, c a p i t a l i s m becomes the time-obsessed society. It c o u l d never have c o m e to exist w i t h o u t p r o f o u n d shifts in temporality, f r o m a w o r l d regulated by the c o m p l e x a n d interrelated temporalities of ecosystems to one in w h i c h a single, u n i f o r m a n d l i n e a r standard is i m p o s e d u p o n reality a n d comes t o rule i t .
1 3

Capitalism61 d o , ' was the reply, 'just hustling customers.' No one took any notice; w h y s h o u l d they? T h e m a n was o n l y expressing the logic of the system. W i t h i n capital's order, where advertising lies so blatantly that it has to m a k e fun of itself a n d t u r n c o r r u p t i o n i n t o a j o k e , to question the hustling of customers is like q u e s t i o n i n g the need to breathe. T h e B u d w e i s e r c o r p o r a t i o n seems to have done the most w i t h this, especially w i t h their ' L i t e ' beer, w h i c h turns the m o r a l universe of a l c o h o l i s m into a selling p o i n t , as in c o m mercials where the lush professes 'I love y o u , m a n ' to his father, brothers, g i r l f r i e n d of the m o m e n t - a n y t h i n g to get the d r i n k , an exceptionally weak a n d tasteless c o n c o t i o n , it m a y be a d d e d . T h e class system of c a p i t a l conduces to endless p e r m u t a t i o n s of deceit in o r d e r to c o n c e a l its elementary injustice. As persons b e c o m e p e r s o n n e l , synthetic bonds replace the o r g a n i c ones of t r a d i t i o n a l society. T h e ethos here is ' m a n a g e r i a l ' a n d the techniques m a n i p u l a t i v e , a sign of o u r times b a c k e d by a vast apparatus for the e n g i n e e r i n g of h u m a n relations. As a recent article by one such technician put it in the headline, ' S h o w H u m a n i t y W h e n Y o u S h o w E m p l o y e e s the D o o r ' . T h e p o i n t i s that companies s h o u l d 'reinforce their cultures a n d m a i n t a i n trust even d u r i n g cutbacks'. T h i s self-evident piece of hypocrisy is no p r o b l e m for the m a n a g e r i a l m i n d .
1 6

T h e d e s y n c h r o n i z a t i o n between n a t u r a l time

a n d w o r k p l a c e time devolves, therefore, into a d i s a r t i c u l a t i o n of h u m a n b e i n g a n d nature. We w o u l d say that c a p i t a l binds time, y o k i n g l i n e a r t e m p o r a l i t y a n d social c o n t r o l into a regime supervised by clocks a n d their personifications such a s W e n d y ' s M r T o m n e y . A s M a r x put i t i n a p o i g n a n t
14

lament: If the mere quantity of labour functions as a measure of value regardless of quality ... It presupposes that labour has become equalized by the subordination of m a n to the machine or by the extreme division of labour; that m e n are effaced by their labour; that the p e n d u l u m of the clock has become as accurate a measure of the relative activity of two workers as it is of the speed of two locomotives. Therefore we should not say that one man's hour is worth another man's hour, but rather that one m a n d u r i n g an hour is worth just as m u c h as another m a n d u r i n g an hour. T i m e is everything, m a n is nothing; he is at the most, time's carcase [sic]. Q u a l i t y no longer matters. Q u a n t i t y alone decides everything; hour for hour, day for day.
15

It

goes w i t h o u t saying that people c a n be m a d e to accept this m o r a l i t y - were this not the case, r e b e l l i o n w o u l d have b r o k e n out l o n g ago. M a n a g e r i a l science not o n l y builds on the artifice of h u m a n i t y even as it reduces workers to disposable things it drills the workers to treat customers in the same way, t r a i n i n g t h e m to put on h a p p y faces, to m a k e p r o l o n g e d eye contact, a n d to speak to each a n d every customer. T h i s lesson, also, most workers i n t e r n a l i z e o n l y too w e l l . As one Safeway employee said: 'It is just a p r i d e that they have instilled in us that we s h o u l d treat everybody like we w o u l d like to be treated. We talk about b e i n g positive all the time. We have classes o n w i p i n g out negativity a n d [having] e n t h u s i a s m . "
7

B o u n d time signifies life l i v e d compulsively, estranged f r o m n a t u r a l cycles a n d indifferent to ecosystems u n d e r assault. Its acceleration is p l a y e d out across m a n y frontiers: Intensification of the sales-mentality, as everything, including the self, is reduced to commodity-form. A l o n g w i t h this, c o n t e m p t for t r u t h spreads t h r o u g h o u t society. L y i n g is e m b e d d e d in the pressure t o w a r d profitability, w h i c h depends u p o n p e r s u a d i n g someone to b u y s o m e t h i n g they d o n ' t really need at a p r i c e most advantageous to the seller. I recall once i d l y w a t c h i n g CS p a n d u r i n g the course of a C o n g r e s s i o n a l h e a r i n g on some issue between telephone a n d c a b l e - T V companies. O n e of the testifiers was asked what he d i d d u r i n g the w o r k day. T h e reasons for this question escape me, but the c a n d o u r of his answer was unforgettable: ' O h , the same t h i n g we always

Classes i n

enthusiasm! N o t just classes at the j o b , it m i g h t be a d d e d : the classes in school do the same, as do the churches a n d , of course, the television a n d m o v i e screens. In the speeding up of buying and selling, this leading to the reduced utilization time of commodities, or, to put a more ecologically evocative term to it, the systemic production of waste, that is, the throw-away society. A m o n g those wasted, we w o u l d have to give first place to h u m a n beings. W h e r e a s in t r a d i t i o n a l society virtue is a c c o r d e d to all phases of the lifecycle, a n d includes the w i s d o m of the o l d ,

62

The Culprit u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m , speed-up affects not o n l y lives, but life itself. In this respect, a recent article in New York m a g a z i n e , titled ' W a s h e d up at 35', was revealing. T h e article went on to ask: ' H a v e n ' t m a d e it yet? Feeling p a r a n o i d about the h y p e r a m b i t i o u s 23-year-old p l a n n i n g his I P O in the next office?' ... ' T h e y ' r e a l l w o r r i e d about g r o w i n g o l d , ' says an 'anti-aging specialist' p h y s i c i a n about his c o r p o r a t e clientele. ' T h e y say that c o m p a n i e s n o w d e m a n d a very y o u t h f u l image, a n d if they can't ht i n , they're not g o i n g to get the p r o m o t i o n . T h e y m i g h t not even keep their j o b . We're t a l k i n g about people in their late twenties.' In s u m , ' y o u t h has b e c o m e an increasingly valuable c o m m o d i t y ' . N o w of course, this has l o n g been the case for capitali s m , w i t h its cult of the n e w a n d its d e n i a l of a g i n g a n d death. B u t it is i m p o r t a n t to note that the t r e n d accelerates, a l o n g w i t h c a p i t a l itself. As a 31-year-old t y c o o n puts it: 'I o n l y have three years left ... three years before I b u r n out ... It's a race; things are m o v i n g five, ten times faster t h a n they used to ... y o u have this very short w i n d o w , if y o u are g o i n g to b r a n d y o u r s e l f the assumption b e i n g that b e c o m i n g a ' b r a n d ' is what life s h o u l d be a l l a b o u t .
18

Capitalism b e c o m i n g increasingly obsessed w i t h money, a n d slaves to the system. T h u s the v a u n t e d capitalist economy, w i t h its endless opportunity, becomes a limitless sink for a b s o r b i n g life-worlds into itself. N o t surprisingly, this c o n d i t i o n is celebrated by the p r o p a g a n d a apparatus: h o w else c o u l d people be m a d e to bear it? H e r e is a somewhat extended a n d delirious, but nonetheless p a r a d i g m a t i c specimen taken f r o m the advertising pages of the m a j o r m e d i a , a full page ad in the New York Times of 2 6 J u n e 1996 (A20), taken out by the A m e r i c a n Express C o m p a n y . T h e ad is entirely given over to the f o l l o w i n g text, w h i c h sprawls over the page: Whoever you are, whatever you're doing, we're here to help you p l a n your children's education. A n d show you how you can still afford to retire when they get into college. We're here to help you negotiate a second mortgage, afford a second car or go on a second honeymoon. We're here to help you choose a mutual fund, a pension plan and a savings scheme. We're here to help you prepare your taxes. We're here to help you turn your idea into a business. We're here to help you turn your business tip into a vacation. We're here to help you with a few suggestions on where to go. We're here to help you with lawyers, accountants, doctors and bankers. We're here to help you with travel agents, theatrical agents and car rental agents. We're here to help you if you smash your rental car or if you smash someone else's. We're here to help you arrange a weekend in Paris for an anniversary. We're here to help you find the most romantic bistro, the most comfortable hotel. We're here to help you change your dollars into francs, your francs into sterling, your sterling into l i r a and your lira into any currency in the w o r l d and back again. We're here to help you climb the Odessa Steppes [sic] and look out from the L e a n i n g Tower of Pisa. We're here to help you with visas, passports and other local customs. We're here to help you if your husband, your wife or your partner falls i l l while abroad. We're here to help you cut your costs when you need to fill up on gas. We're here to help you splurge when you want to. We're here to help you save when you don't. We're here to help you ease your workload when it all gets too m u c h . We're here to help you see the world. A n d we're here to help you pay for a change of clothes if an airline loses your baggage. We're here to help you buy a M e x i c a n sombrero, an Indian topi or one of those Australian hats with all the corks on it. We're here to help you if someone steals your Travelers Cheques. We're here to

63

Associated with the compression of time, we see a homogenization and compression of space; and with time and space so prepared, capital's penetration of all aspects of the life-world of individuals and communities accelerates. ^ T h i s is not merely a function
1

of p o p u l a t i o n pressure, as its most remarkable feature is the g r o w t h of surveillance a n d b e h a v i o u r c o n t r o l . T h e totally a d m i n i s t e r e d society is the telos of c a p i t a l , a n d i n g r a i n e d in its acceleration. With the relentless speed-up afforded by advances in information technology, the boundary between work and domesticity is fast disappearing, along with that between body and machine. In this Brave N e w W o r l d , m i c r o c o m p u t e r s a n d cell phones become bodily appendages forging semi-permanent linkages between workers a n d the productive system. It used to be that h o m e was the 'haven in a heartless w o r l d ' ; n o w that p o l a r i t y is, if not reversed, largely erased: the archetypal person of the near future is entirely absorbed, day a n d night, into a s p a c e - t i m e c o n t i n u u m for the r e p r o d u c t i o n of c a p i t a l . The relentlessly increasing rate of capital turnover devolves into an ever more harried, crowded, andfrantic pace of existence. C o m b i n e d w i t h the financial pressures of l i v i n g the consumerist life, o r d i n a r y people have to w o r k m o r e a n d m o r e to stay afloat. T h e spectre of p e r s o n a l indebtedness becomes the fifth H o r s e m a n of the A p o c a l y p s e - it b e i n g said that the average w o r k e r is o n l y two paychecks away f r o m losing h o m e a n d car. M o r e a n d more, people scramble,

64 The Culprit help you see the stars in H o l l y w o o d and the moonlight over San Francisco Bay. We're here to help you see Shakespeare in the park, M o z a r t in the open air and basketball at the G a r d e n . We're here to help you get seats for football, for baseball, or for the charity ball. We're here to help you help the homeless. We're here to help you settle the b i l l on a credit card, a charge card or a combination of them both. We're here to help you spread your payments over time or clear a b i l l all at once. We're even here to help you pay from cyberspace. We're here to help you see your favorite rock group. A n d go again the next night. A n d the next. A n d the next. We're here to help you take up a new hobby or take out an old flame. We're here to help you save for a deposit on a new house. We're here to help you renovate an old one. We're here to help you understand your $40ik and perhaps show you ways to save $40 i K . We're here to help you plan your future. We're here to help you arrange a trip down m e m o r y lane. We're here to help you say, ' W h a t the heck!' We're here to help you when you want to say, 'Enough's enough.' We're here to help you play more golf, more tennis, more of what you like. We're here to help you do less paperwork, less work and just p l a i n less. We're here to help you spend more time away w i t h your kids. We're here to help you spend more time away from everyone else's. We're here to recognize a foreign street sign, speak a foreign language and understand a foreign currency. We're here to help you out of a little local difficulty. We're here to help you whether you want to study Pavlov's dog or Schrdinger's cat. We're here to help you retire in some comfort. We're here to help you with cash at over 118,000 A T M s worldwide if you're caught short. We're here to help you at over 1700 Travel Service Offices worldwide. We're here to help you settle the b i l l at millions of restaurants, stores and hotels. We're here to help you 24 hours a day, seven days a week, 365 days a year. We're here to help you in every town, in every city, in every country all over the world. We're here to help you take advantage of the moment and help you p l a n for the next. We're here to help you do what you like, wherever you like, whenever you like. We're here to help you see more, escape more, learn more, find more and save more. We're here to help you do more.

Capitalism65 c a p i t a l itself) m a g i c a l l y provide a l l in i n t e r m i n a b l e profusion. T h a t such a b i z a r r e i d e a s h o u l d arise is a manifestation of the real yet spectral p o w e r o f f i n a n c e . W i t h literally trillions o f dollars f l i t t i n g electronically each day t h r o u g h capital markets, w i t h great fortunes m a d e t h r o u g h the m a n i p u l a t i o n o f n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n n u m b e r s , w i t h b i l l i o n s m o v i n g each day t h r o u g h g a m b l i n g operations, i n c l u d i n g the supreme gamble of the stock markets, the whole w o r l d of c a p i t a l takes on the character of a casino, in w h i c h the linkage between effort a n d o u t c o m e is r u p t u r e d , to be r e p l a c e d by what is readily e x p e r i e n c e d as m e r e chance. It is a w o r l d in w h i c h the very m a t e r i ality of existence c a n seem an i n c o n v e n i e n t afterthought. T h e h a n d m a i d e n s o f chance are i l l u s i o n a n d m a g i c . T h a t i s w h y L a s Vegas, r i s i n g i n o r g a n i c a l l y f r o m the desert in a j u m b l e d mass of s i m u l a c r a , becomes the city o f o u r time. O n c e the province o f the M o b , Vegas i n creasingly becomes D i s n e y f i e d into a spectacular site of fun for the whole family. T h e r e is the S p h i n x a n d the T e m p l e of L u x o r , there is a b u i l d i n g shaped like a bottle of C o c a - C o l a , here is M a n h a t t a n Island, w i t h the Stock E x c h a n g e , the E m p i r e State B u i l d i n g , the B r o o k l y n B r i d g e , even the repl i c a t i o n o f the great r e a d i n g r o o m o f the P u b l i c L i b r a r y . A l l i s sign, representation, flows of value l i g h t i n g up one f o r m , n o w another, a city like a p i n b a l l m a c h i n e . In casino c a p i t a l i s m the operative w o r d is ' m o r e ' , a n d a u g m e n t a t i o n expresses the a c c u m u l a t i o n process in its subjective as w e l l as objective aspect. T h i s signifier is n i c e l y accentuated by A m e r i c a n Express in its a d . T h e o n l y t h i n g left off its list of goodies is restraint. To be m o r e exact, restraint is another i t e m for w h i c h the omnipresent c o r p o r a t i o n c a n be of help: restraint itself is a c o m m o d i t y . T i m e a n d space are n o w c o r p o r a t e servants. C a p i t a l covers a l l ; even 'escape' is p e r m i t t e d so l o n g as A m e r i c a n Express sets the terms of escape. T h u s less a n d m o r e are integrated u n d e r the sign of finance. B u t in this calculus, less a n d m o r e are n o t equivalent. T h e former, b e i n g i n c o r p o r a t e d u n d e r the sign of the d o l l a r (for A m e r i c a n Express - surprise! w i l l not do this for n o t h i n g , a n d if y o u do not p a y y o u r b i l l on time, they harass a n d fine y o u , then d r o p y o u like a leper a n d t u r n y o u over to the credit police), is s u b o r d i n a t e d to the latter, whose value consists of increasing. Less is therefore another k i n d of m o r e : A m e r i c a n Express w i l l b r i n g y o u m o r e of less, not less of m o r e . B u t m o r e leads to still m o r e . T h u s it defines no e n d , o n l y a self-reproducing e x p a n s i o n , the eternal g r o w t h of the c a p i t a l system. A pure logic of power, insensate quantity a n d

T h e ad exhales the seemingly effortless, m a g i c a l a c c u m u l a t i o n of the recent g i d d y e p o c h of speculative i n t o x i c a t i o n , a n d it does so by i n t r o d u c i n g a newdemiurge: the o m n i p o t e n t , omniscient f i n a n c i a l c o r p o r a t i o n . T h e c o n s u m e r just sits back a n d lets A m e r i c a n Express (= m o n e y = finance c a p i t a l =

66 The Culprit e x p a n s i o n is offered to the sufficiently well-off. T h e affluent get their m u n i f i cent rewards, so great that the t y p i c a l m e m b e r of the wealthier classes lives better t h a n any potentate in history. A n d the others get the debris. T h e culture o f a d v a n c e d c a p i t a l aims t o t u r n society into addicts o f c o m m o d i t y c o n s u m p t i o n , a state ' g o o d for business', a n d , pan'passu, b a d for ecologies. T h e evil is d o u b l e d , w i t h reckless c o n s u m p t i o n l e a d i n g to p o l l u t i o n a n d waste, a n d the a d d i c t i o n to c o m m o d i t i e s creating a society unable to c o m p r e h e n d , m u c h less resist, the ecological crisis. O n c e time is b o u n d in capitalist p r o d u c t i o n , the subtle attunement to n a t u r a l rhythms r e q u i r e d for a n ecological sensibility becomes t h w a r t e d . T h i s allows a c c u m u l a t i o n itself to a p p e a r as n a t u r a l . People w i t h mentalities w a r p e d by the casino c o m p l e x are s i m p l y not g o i n g to t h i n k in terms of limits a n d balances, or of the m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n of all beings. T h i s helps a c c o u n t for the chorus of hosannas f r o m p r e s u m a b l y intelligent authorities at the n i g h t m a r i s h prospect of a d o u b l i n g of e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t in the next 20 years. T h u s c a p i t a l produces w e a l t h w i t h o u t e n d , but also poverty, insecurity a n d waste, as part of its disintegration of ecosystems. As there is no single c o m m o d i t y (really, a vast system of commodities) m o r e i m p l i c a t e d in this t h a n the a u t o m o b i l e , we m i g h t r o u n d out this section w i t h some thoughts about ' a u t o m o b i l i a ' a n d its related syndromes, i n c l u d i n g the n e w l y discovered disease of R o a d R a g e . A u t o m o b i l i a
2 0

Capitalism67 A n d i t i s repeated i n thousands a n d thousands o f places, every d a y a n d night - c a r b o n d i o x i d e g o i n g into the a i r for g l o b a l w a r m i n g ; other substances e n t e r i n g the chains that l e a d to p h o t o c h e m i c a l s m o g or destruction of the ozone layer; fine particulate matter (think of the hundreds of m i l l i o n s of tyres g r i n d i n g d o w n against concrete) e n t e r i n g lungs to help create a p l a n e t a r y e p i d e m i c of asthma; the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d noise a d d i n g another d i m e n s i o n o f p o l l u t i o n ; landscapes t o r n u p a n d p a v e d over, historically b r e a k i n g d o w n the b o u n d a r y between city a n d c o u n t r y while b l i g h t i n g b o t h w i t h strip malls, thickets of garish signs (for h o w else c a n people in constant m o t i o n see where to shop?) a n d great s w o o p i n g freeways on w h i c h we hurtle like so m a n y corpuscles in the c i r c u l a t i o n of c a p i t a l - the ensemble disintegrating, as has n o t h i n g else, the fabric of h u m a n ecology. T h e ruinousness o f a u t o m o b i l i a i s b o u n d u p w i t h its absolutely c r u c i a l role in the g l o b a l e c o n o m y - c o m b i n e d , to be sure, w i t h the ensemble of densely associated industries s u c h as o i l , rubber, cement, c o n s t r u c t i o n , repairs, etc., etc.; a n d equally, f r o m its embeddedness in the entire landscape of l i v e d life, i n d e e d , the very c o n s t r u c t i o n of the self. D e e p changes in needs a c c o m p a n y the g r o w t h of a u t o m o b i l i a . If one is t r a p p e d w i t h i n a stifling existence, then d r i v i n g away f r o m it, even if this is just to go r o u n d a n d r o u n d in traffic-clogged circles (contributing, of course, to the clogging), is experienced as a release. T h i s is one reason it is easy for the a u t o m o b i l i o u s giants to spin forth their greenwashed ads that show people blithely m o v i n g , no other c a r in sight, across the very landscapes they are actually w r e c k i n g , or to depict ecological advances in the p r o d u c t i o n of cars that are, however r a t i o n a l in the p a r t i c u l a r instance, s i m p l y o v e r w h e l m e d by the sheer q u a n tity of cars p r o d u c e d . L o o m i n g overcapacity hangs over the a u t o m o b i l e industries, as it does for capitalist p r o d u c t i o n in general, w i t h the ability to m a k e some 80 m i l l i o n cars a year, a n d but 55 m i l l i o n or so able to be sold. T h o s e u n r e a l i z e d 25 m i l l i o n vehicles are a giant splinter in the soul of c a p i t a l i s m , a n d the g o a d to endless p r o m o t i o n of a u t o m o b i l i o u s values. Since 1970 the p o p u l a t i o n of the U S A has g r o w n by some 30 p e r cent - while the n u m b e r of licensed drivers has g r o w n m o r e t h a n 60 p e r cent, the n u m b e r of registered vehicles has n e a r l y d o u b l e d a n d the total vehicle-miles d r i v e n has m o r e t h a n doubled.
21

is a p r i m e example of h o w

rationality at the level of the part becomes i r r a t i o n a l i t y at the level of the whole. Individually, cars are far better t h a n they were a generation ago: they are safer, m o r e reliable, m o r e fuel-efficient, longer-lasting a n d m o r e comfortable to drive. In the i n t e r i o r of a reasonably a d v a n c e d c a r one encounters ' a l l the comforts of h o m e ' : l u x u r i o u s adjustable seats, cell phone, s p l e n d i d s o u n d system, carefully c o n t r o l l e d air - the whole package, as the salesman says. T h e i n t e r i o r of a car projects an image of a t e c h n o l o g i c a l U t o p i a , w h i c h is convenient, since so m a n y people spend so m u c h time inside t h e m . Step outside the car, t h o u g h , say on a busy r o a d to fill up w i t h p e t r o l , a n d the e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n of a disorder that m o r e t h a n compensates for the i n t e r n a l i z e d o r d e r becomes clear. A h o r r e n d o u s c a c o p h o n y assaults b o d y a n d soul. U n l i k e a waterfall, even a t r a i n that organizes the h u m a n landscape, the cars just r o a r o n ; there is no p a t t e r n , no p a r t i c u l a r i z e d , differentiated tale to be t o l d . T h e r e is no integral ecology to it; it is just endless, c o n s u m i n g traffic - aeons of stored sunlight converted into i n e r t i a l m o m e n t u m so that i n d i v i d u a l s c a n go their o w n w a y in capitalist f r e e d o m .

N o t a b l y , the miles of r o a d a d d e d d u r i n g this p e r i o d has gone up

o n l y 6 p e r cent. T h i s figure is p r o d u c t of a set of hopeless choices: either perish in n i g h t m a r i s h traffic, or further destroy l i v e d space w i t h g a r g a n t u a n

68

The Culprit roads (and eventually p e r i s h u n d e r even m o r e traffic, w h i c h fills n e w l y created highways like gas a v a c u u m ) . E v e n the relatively l o w figure of 6 p e r cent translates into m a j o r changes in c e r t a i n strategic locations. O n e is c o n t i n u a l l y astounded, for example, by the n u m b e r s of lanes a d d e d to L o s Angeles freeways (at some points, eight in either d i r e c t i o n by my recent estimate, w i t h a d d i t i o n a l ones n o w b e i n g a d d e d above the r o a d w a y ) .
22

Capitalism p h y s i c a l connotations. H e r e the usage is narrower, a n d remains y o k e d to c a p i t a l , i n its ever-present i m p e r i a l a m b i t i o n . A t one level, t h e n , g l o b a l i z a t i o n expresses n o t h i n g new, since c a p i t a l has always been a w o r l d system. B u t at another it is necessary to take i n t o account that the process has in fact r e a c h e d a n e w level, w i t h n e w institutional forms, a n d , of course, n e w ecological as w e l l as p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . L o g i c a l l y c a p i t a l c a n never rest, but must continue t a k i n g over h u m a n i t y a n d nature endlessly, albeit unevenly a n d w i t h constant struggle. T h i s i m plies an eternally restless d y n a m i s m , w h i c h is b o u n d to reach novel levels as b o u n d a r i e s are surpassed a n d r e c o m b i n e . T h e e p o c h of g l o b a l i z a t i o n reflects, t h e n , the r e a c h i n g of a c e r t a i n w o r l d w i d e stage on w h i c h the struggle is to be enacted, a n d the b u i l d i n g of n e w instruments to operate on it. It is w o r t h o b s e r v i n g that for a l l its power, the t r i u m p h of c a p i t a l still has a w a y to go, w i t h considerable swathes of the w o r l d , for e x a m p l e peasantries, still in the g r i p of t r a d i t i o n a l , pre-capitalist ways of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d others engaged in the so-called ' i n f o r m a l ' economy, where the acc u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l c a n o n l y p a r t i a l l y take h o l d . T h e basic mission o f the g l o b a l i z e d system is to convert that r o u g h h a l f of the world's e c o n o m y that still r e m a i n s relatively outside the engine of a c c u m u l a t i o n i n t o f u l l , subaltern, p a r t i c i p a t i o n : to achieve new, ' l e a n ' ways of p r o d u c t i o n u t i l i z i n g dispersed locations, to take over the n a t u r a l resources, to consume the l a b o u r p o w e r cheaply, a n d to keep c o m m o d i t i e s r o l l i n g so that the values e m b e d d e d i n t h e m m a y b e realized. T h e phase of g l o b a l i z a t i o n raises i m p o r t a n t questions as to just where the centre of p o w e r resides. A c o m m o n view, for e x a m p l e , holds that corporations n o w rule the w o r l d , h a v i n g supplanted nation-states. B u t while this v i e w calls attention to some h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t issues (it helps focus the m i n d , for example, to realize that G e n e r a l M o t o r s holds assets w o r t h twice those of the P h i l i p p i n e s ) , the c o n c l u s i o n does not stand up very w e l l to e x a m i n a t i o n . F o r one t h i n g , c o r p o r a t i o n s are as m u c h the object of g l o b a l i z a t i o n as its subject. As we have seen in the instance of B h o p a l , the c o r p o r a t i o n is itself m o v e d by the gigantic force field of c a p i t a l in w h i c h it is suspended, a n d is given life to the extent that it fosters a c c u m u l a t i o n . A n d for another, states play a role in the a c c u m u l a t i o n of capital just as f u n d a m e n t a l as that of the c o r p o r a t i o n - o n l y i m a g i n e what w o u l d h a p p e n if the process were entirely t u r n e d over to the latter, w i t h no g o v e r n m e n t a l presence to regulate a n d enforce.

69

As the logic of a u t o m o b i l i a unfolds, new levels of dis-integration appear, a n d even people deeply acculturated into the ways of motorcars crack u n d e r the strain of c o n t e m p o r a r y vehicular life. R o a d R a g e , a new ' m e n t a l illness', is one outcome, resulting direcdy or i n d i r e c d y in some 28,000 traffic deaths a year caused by 'aggressive behaviour like tailgating, w e a v i n g t h r o u g h busy lanes, h o n k i n g or s c r e a m i n g at other drivers, exchanges of insults a n d even gunfire'. T h i s figure, t h o u g h p r o v i d e d by c h i e f federal h i g h w a y safety official R i c a r d o M a r t i n e z , m a y be speculative; another m o r e recent survey, however, describes 1,500 homicides a year whose instigation is directly traffic-related. A c c o r d i n g t o L e o n J a m e s , a psychologist f r o m H a w a i i , ' D r i v i n g a n d h a b i t u a l r o a d rage have b e c o m e v i r t u a l l y inseparable. T h i s is the age of rage m e n t a l i t y ' J a m e s cites as c o n t r i b u t i n g factors, a 'tightly w o u n d " c o n t r o l l e d " personality type' for w h o m d r i v i n g provides a release f r o m ' n o r m a l , frustrat i o n filled existences' a n d gives rise to 'fantasies of o m n i p o t e n c e ' . O b s e r v e that the personality type in question is itself an adaptation to the capitalist marketplace, while the second factor, the o m n i p o t e n t release f r o m frustration p r o v i d e d by d r i v i n g , is a basic c o m p o n e n t of the use-value of automobiles, h a m m e r e d h o m e by car chases in movies, a n d the r o m a n t i c i z a t i o n of auto advertisements. In short, a m e n t a l illness R o a d R a g e m a y be, but one completely w i t h i n the universe of capitalism's a u t o m o b i l i a .
23

Globalization, or the Establishment of a Planetary Regime to Supervise the Expansionary Process If p e n e t r a t i o n , b r o a d l y speaking, expresses the e x p a n s i o n of c a p i t a l c u l turally, a n d speed-up its c o l o n i z a t i o n of time, space a n d p e r s o n a l life, the g l o b a l i z a t i o n process reflects the p o l i t i c a l / e c o n o m i c arrangements t h r o u g h w h i c h this occurs. It is the m a t e r i a l regime whose social a n d ecological effects we have been d o c u m e n t i n g - a n d the r e m o v a l of w h i c h w i l l have to be achieved if the crisis is to be overcome. In recent years, the t e r m has b e c o m e s o m e t h i n g of a b u z z w o r d , w i t h t e c h n i c a l , c u l t u r a l a n d even m e t a -

70 The Culprit So the questions really are about the c h a n g i n g forms of c a p i t a l itself, a l o n g w i t h the c h a n g i n g configurations of state power. As to the former, the e p o c h of g l o b a l i z a t i o n is in part a f u n c t i o n of the g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e of finance c a p i t a l , that is c a p i t a l in its m o n e y - f o r m . M o n e y was always closer to the heart of what c a p i t a l is t h a n a n y t h i n g else, a n d u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m the role of m o n e y always tends to g r o w m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n that of things o r h u m a n beings. B r o a d l y speaking, t h e n , g l o b a l i z a t i o n manifests the b o u n d a r y - b r e a k i n g effects of a surplus of capital-as-money c o n f r o n t i n g sluggish h u m a n a n d m e c h a n i c a l materials a n d striving to set t h e m into m o t i o n on an e v e r - w i d e n i n g scale. In consequence, m o r e pressure is felt t h r o u g h o u t the e c o n o m y a n d society, a n d is translated into eco-destabilizat i o n a l o n g the axes o u t l i n e d above. F i n a n c e c a p i t a l i s b o t h m o r e l i q u i d a n d m o r e h u n g r y for i m m e d i a t e r e w a r d t h a n any other k i n d , such a s c a p i t a l e m b o d i e d i n l a n d , machines o r people. T h i s is a p r o p e r t y of exchangeability a n d reflects the fact that in its financial f o r m , c a p i t a l is m u c h p u r e r a n d closer to its essential b e i n g t h a n in any other shape. To repeat, c a p i t a l is no t h i n g , but a relation that embeds ('invests') itself in things of one k i n d or another. As it achieves its m o n e y f o r m , t h e n , c a p i t a l comes closest to b e i n g pure relationship: it is c o m i n g into itself ... but not yet there: never there, yet always m o v i n g a n d d r a g g i n g the w o r l d a l o n g w i t h it. F o r even m o n e y has i n e r t i a , m o r e in the early years w h e n it was tied to m a t e r i a l things such as shells or g o l d , less a n d less as it becomes d e m a t e r i a l i z e d a n d m o v e d about by electronic means. C a p i t a l is eternally seeking to shed this b u r d e n ; yet as it does so, b e c o m i n g , in effect, less m a t e r i a l , its effect on the m a t e r i a l earth becomes greater. It spreads faster, farther, draws m o r e of the w o r l d into itself, restructuring p r o d u c t i o n , c i r c u l a t i o n , exchange a n d c o n s u m p t i o n to a c c o m m o d a t e its ever-growing pressure, in a logic that drives t o w a r d b r i n g i n g the entire earth w i t h i n the o r b i t of the d o m i n a n t e c o n o m i c order. T h i s induces n e w modes of o r g a n i z a t i o n a m o n g existing states. It generates great r e g i o n a l blocks across E u r o p e , A s i a a n d the W e s t e r n H e m i sphere, a n d creates, so to speak, an office of H e g e m o n , presently o c c u p i e d by the U S A as that state strong e n o u g h to c l a i m the role of global gendarme. B u t it also brings into existence n e w trans-statal formations to regulate the n o w e x p a n d e d ecumene, i n particular, t h r o u g h the supervision o f trade. A threefold trans-statal structure ensues. First, trade itself achieves a scale r e q u i r i n g direct supervision. S e c o n d , l e n d i n g institutions are needed

Capitalism71 to inject requisite funds into the dependent ' p e r i p h e r y ' so that trade a n d other instruments o f c a p i t a l c a n b e c o m e stimulated a n d circulate properly. Finally, an agency is needed to p o l i c e the debts a n d other financial i r r e g u larities that inevitably arise u n d e r this a r r a n g e m e n t , a n d to keep all the parts of the gigantic m a c h i n e in g o o d w o r k i n g o r d e r - a financial cop to go out in advance of the flesh-and-blood, bullet-dealing police a n d armies. In s u m : a trade o r g a n i z a t i o n , a g l o b a l b a n k a n d a financial enforcer - a W o r l d Trade Organization, a W o r l d Bank and an International M o n e t a r y F u n d - fused i n t o a n i r o n triangle o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l a c c u m u l a t i o n , a n d serving the transnational b o u r g e o i s i e .
24

T h e r e are, o f course, i m p o r t a n t distinctions w i t h i n this apparatus, a n d between different elements of the state system, just as there always are w i t h a n y r u l i n g class. T h e U S A has largely c a l l e d the shots (in the C l i n t o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , f r o m the D e p a r t m e n t of the Treasury, a l o n g w i t h the Federal Reserve B a n k ) , a n d has been in essential charge since the ' A m e r i c a n C e n tury' began w i t h the close o f the S e c o n d W o r l d War. I t was R i c h a r d N i x o n w h o u n i l a t e r a l l y took the w o r l d off the g o l d s t a n d a r d in 1971 a n d a l l o w e d exchange rates to float, w h i c h is to say, kept t h e m pegged to the value of the dollar, the strongest currency. In this w a y the U S A , w h i c h h a d b e c o m e a debtor society thanks to i m p e r i a l exertions in V i e t n a m , was a l l o w e d to r e m a i n so w i t h o u t penalty, i n d e e d , b e c a m e enabled to finance its e x p a n s i o n as the debtor in charge of the show. N o t for it the 'structural adjustment p r o g r a m m e s ' a p p l i e d to lesser debtor nations by the I M F , that h a m m e r that breaks d o w n c i v i l society a n d the l o c a l e c o n o m y by selling off p u b l i c assets, c u t t i n g back g o v e r n m e n t a l expenditures a n d , by o r i e n t i n g the e c o n o m y towards export, s u b m i t t i n g p e r i p h e r a l societies to the W T O - s p o n s o r e d regime of trade. O n e l a w for the l i o n a n d another for the ox remains in effect. So m u c h for the s i m p l e - m i n d e d n o t i o n that g l o b a l i z a t i o n signifies the decline of the nation-state. Which nation-state, it has to be asked: the boss a n d enforcer, or the subaltern a n d provider? In a n y case, trade, b e i n g a direct expression of capital's logic, conquers a l l . Before the a b a n d o n m e n t of the B r e t t o n W o o d s regime of fixed exchange rates in 1971, cross-border financial flows were some $70 b i l l i o n a day. T h i r t y years later, the figure has g r o w n m o r e t h a n twentyfold, to some $1.5 t r i l l i o n ; while i n the U S A , trade has d o u b l e d its share o f G D P , s p u r r e d b y absolute b i p a r t i s a n s h i p o f D e m o c r a t i c a n d R e p u b l i c a n leadership. Q u a r r e l the parties m i g h t about a b o r t i o n a n d school vouchers, but where

72 The Culprit the free flow of c a p i t a l is c o n c e r n e d , there is never any d o u b t as to what comes first. A s g l o b a l i z a t i o n propagates the m e c h a n i s m s o f a c c u m u l a t i o n a r o u n d the globe, society after society is swept into the vortex of eco-destruction. D e p e n d e n t a n d u n e q u a l development a c c o m p a n i e d by massive debt becomes the m i d w i f e of this process. W h e r e v e r a debt is i n c u r r e d , there w i l l be pressure to discharge it by sacrificing ecological integrity. I n d o n e s i a n President S u h a r t o , a great friend of g l o b a l i z a t i o n , put this clearly after the i m p o s i t i o n of a structural adjustment p r o g r a m m e . No need to worry, said the a m i a b l e leader of the world's fourth largest n a t i o n , I n d o n e s i a c o u l d always exchange its forests for the m o n e y o w e d to the banks. T h e devastating effects of g l o b a l debt on nations of the S o u t h
2 3

Capitalism73 1997-99, Stiglitz leaves no d o u b t that the p l a c i n g of 'profits over people', as the saying has it, has caused calamities of H o l o c a u s t proportions t h r o u g h out m u c h of the w o r l d . However, he has no i n t e n t i o n of c a l l i n g into question the capitalist system as a whole, but w o u l d have us believe that this disaster was the fault of bad capitalists at the I M F a n d the T r e a s u r y D e p a r t m e n t , a n d that their sin lay in not t a k i n g the advice of the W o r l d B a n k , w i t h its superior economists a n d g o o d capitalists.
28

T h e fantasy is widespread that somewhere a virtuous a n d a l l - k n o w i n g capitalist c a n be f o u n d , a fairy p r i n c e w h o w i l l rescue the m i s m a n a g e d g l o b a l economy. As the W o r l d B a n k plays ' g o o d c o p ' in this scheme of things, a n d no doubt has some well-intentioned i n d i v i d u a l s w o r k i n g for it (just like any bank, o r i n d e e d , M o n s a n t o , C h e v r o n , etc., etc., even the I M F , m a n y are disposed to believe that the Stiglitzs of the w o r l d c a n rescue us w i t h their superior technical w i s d o m . W h e n p l a i n people g o t o L o u r d e s i n search o f m i r a c l e cures, the intelligentsia p r o c l a i m t h e m superstitious. Yet m a n y are w i l l i n g to trust a p r o f i t - m a k i n g B a n k that puts technical intelligence in the service of a c c u m u l a t i o n , a bank that h e l p e d finance enterprises such as U n i o n C a r b i d e ' s plant i n B h o p a l , a n d put into place the ecodestructive G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n for w h i c h B h o p a l was built, a n d was a great supporter of S u h a r t o , a n d has built huge fossil-fuel-consuming projects throughout the S o u t h while p r a t i n g of the need to c o n t r o l g l o b a l w a r m i n g . T h o s e p e r s u a d e d by recent p r o p a g a n d a to t h i n k that this l e o p a r d has c h a n g e d its spots m i g h t p o n d e r the case of B o l i v i a , the poorest c o u n t r y in S o u t h A m e r i c a . H a v i n g been pressured by the B a n k to sell off its airline, electric utilities a n d n a t i o n a l t r a i n service to private interests, the desperate n a t i o n was at l e n g t h coerced into selling chunks of its water system to a c o n s o r t i u m h e a d e d b y the U S c o n s t r u c t i o n giant, the B e c h t e l c o r p o r a t i o n , a l o n g w i t h partners f r o m Italy, S p a i n a n d four B o l i v i a n c o m p a n i e s - a n authentic spectacle of g l o b a l i z a t i o n at w o r k , c o m m o d i f y i n g an essential substratum of life. T h a n k s to the B a n k , the investors o n l y h a d to put up less t h a n $20,000 i n i t i a l c a p i t a l for a water system w o r t h m i l l i o n s . W i t h B a n k loans, the c o n s o r t i u m set about d i v e r t i n g various rivers - no d o u b t w i t h the ecological care that usually attends enterprises of this sort - a n d t h e n , to cover the costs, attempted, again w i t h the B a n k ' s blessing, to force t h r o u g h price increases of as m u c h as $20 a m o n t h - this in a c o u n t r y where the m e d i a n w o r k i n g f a m i l y i n c o m e is $100 a m o n t h . M a j o r protests were the result, c a t a p a u l t i n g n e w layers of indigenous

are d i s c o m f i t i n g to g l o b a l

c a p i t a l - i n d e e d , Jesse H e l m s , like the W a l r u s a n d the C a r p e n t e r , was r e d u c e d to tears by testimony to this effect. T h e scandal has l e d to a flurry of efforts to b r i n g the l o a d d o w n , w i t h some $50 b i l l i o n in debts b e i n g retired in 2000. A l a s , the S o u t h o w e d at the time about $2.3 t r i l l i o n twenty-six times as m u c h - n o r do the terms of forgiveness free it f r o m the wheel o f a c c u m u l a t i o n . A s a recent a c c o u n t r e p o r t e d , ' T h e I M F , the W o r l d B a n k , the U n i t e d States a n d others say that A f r i c a n countries must o p e n up to the g l o b a l e c o n o m y - a n d c o n t r o l wasteful i n t e r n a l spending a n d inflation if debt relief is to be put to lasting use.' can't p a y u n d e r any circumstances. Because of debt's injustice, the I M F is usually considered the heavy v i l l a i n in the regime of g l o b a l i z a t i o n . ' D o c t o r D e a t h ' , Time m a g a z i n e called it recently, in an impressive sign that elite o p i n i o n is f r a c t u r i n g . ' T h i s is a
2 26

In other words: give us y o u r forests

a n d cheap l a b o u r by other means, a n d we w i l l forgive the debt that y o u

reasonable assessment of the o r g a n i z a t i o n that has b r o u g h t at least 90 p o o r nations u n d e r its spell. B u t the I M F , o r ' b a d c o p ' o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n , s h o u l d not be singled out as the source of the p r o b l e m , an i m p r e s s i o n fostered in a recent essay by J o s e p h Stiglitz, c h i e f economist of the W o r l d B a n k from 1996 to N o v e m b e r 1999. We met Stiglitz, y o u m a y r e c a l l , in the last chapter, j o i n i n g the chorus o f w o r l d e c o n o m i c leaders e x t o l l i n g the w o n d e r s o f u n l i m i t e d g r o w t h . N o w , however, he has b e c o m e s o m e t h i n g of a whistleblower, a n d caused s o m e t h i n g of a sensation by an article in the New Republic that c o n f i r m e d all the worst suspicions as to h o w utterly secretive, a n t i d e m o c r a t i c a n d ruthlessly attentive to s h o r t - t e r m profitability is the I M F . U s i n g as examples the h a n d l i n g of the A s i a n a n d R u s s i a n fiscal crises of

74 The Culprit resistance into p r o m i n e n c e , a n d f o r c i n g the B a n k a n d B e c h t e l to back off. T h e y also l e d to m i l i t a r y responses that k i l l e d eight people, p r o m p t i n g W o r l d B a n k D i r e c t o r J a m e s W o l f e n s o h n t o say that g i v i n g away p u b l i c services inevitably leads to waste a n d that countries such as B o l i v i a need to have ' a p r o p e r system o f c h a r g i n g ' . T h e h i g h l y c u l t u r e d f o r m e r W a l l Street financier c l a i m e d that the p r i v a t i z a t i o n of the water supply was by no means d i r e c t e d against the poor, even t h o u g h the B a n k h a d stated in J u l y 1999 that ' n o subsidies s h o u l d be given to ameliorate the increase in water tariffs' a n d that a l l users, i n c l u d i n g the very poor, s h o u l d have bills that reflect the full cost of the e x p a n s i o n of the l o c a l water system. No further c o m m e n t s h o u l d be r e q u i r e d , but this a d d e n d u m is necessary: that B e c h t e l was once the province of G e o r g e S h u l t z , secretary of state u n d e r R o n a l d R e a g a n , a n d that one of the soldiers f i r i n g into the protestors was identified as a m a n t r a i n e d at the US A r m y ' s S c h o o l of the A m e r i c a s , a n institution located i n G e o r g i a a n d designed t o keep the W e s t e r n H e m i sphere i n g o o d w o r k i n g order. T h i s p u t h i m i n t o the c o m p a n y o f the President of B o l i v i a , the g o v e r n o r of the p r o v i n c e , a n d the m a y o r of the city - C o c h a b a m b a - where the a c t i o n was centred, a l l of w h o m shared the same alma mater. W h e r e , t h e n , is the l i m i t of the apparatus of g l o b a l ization?
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Capitalism75 the use of offshore subsidiaries and shell companies to avoid and evade tax, embezzlement of p u b l i c funds, bogus contracts, c o r r u p t i o n a n d backhanders, unjust enrichment and abuse of corporate assets, surveillance a n d spying, blackmail and betrayal, disregard for regulations on employment rights and trade u n i o n freedoms, health and safety, social security, pollution and the environment. N o t to mention what goes on in the world's growing number of free zones, i n c l u d i n g those in Europe and in France, where the ordinary rule of law does not apply, especially in social, tax and financial matters. ' A n i n c r e d i b l e plunder, the full extent of w h i c h w i l l never be k n o w n ' arises, c o n d i t i o n e d on one side by state c o n n i v a n c e , a n d on the other by seepage into the u n d e r w o r l d . T h r o u g h o u t the-planet, but especially in the S o u t h , 'workers have to c o n t e n d w i t h thugs h i r e d by the bosses, blackleg trade unions, strike-breakers, private police a n d death squads'. T h e r e is a h i d d e n synergy, in s u m , between the shady practices of c o r p o r a t e c a p i t a l a n d the o r g a n i z e d c r i m i n a l i t y o f gangsterdom: banks a n d big business are keen to get their hands on the proceeds laundered - of organised crime. A p a r t from the traditional activities of drugs, racketeering, kidnappings, gambling, procuring (women and children), smuggling (alcohol, tobacco, medicines), a r m e d robbery, counterfeiting and bogus invoicing, tax evasion and misappropriation of public funds, new markets are also flourishing. These include smuggling illegal labour and refugees, c o m puter piracy, trafficking in works of art and antiquities, in stolen cars and parts, in protected species and h u m a n organs, forgery, trafficking in arms, toxic waste and nuclear products, etc. O c c a s i o n a l l y a sign of this appears in some scandal over c a m p a i g n c o n t r i b u tions, in the w a s h i n g ashore of illegal i m m i g r a n t s f r o m C h i n a , or of a s u b m a r i n e p u r c h a s e d by the R u s s i a n m a f i a f r o m disaffected naval officers. T h e r e w i l l never be a complete r e c k o n i n g of the iceberg beneath this tip, a l t h o u g h its m a g n i t u d e c a n be estimated as an a n n u a l 'gross c r i m i n a l p r o d u c t ' o f one t r i l l i o n d o l l a r s .
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G l o b a l c a p i t a l i s m exists a l o n g a c o n t i n u u m e x t e n d i n g f r o m the g o o d grey A l a n G r e e n s p a n a n d his F e d e r a l Reserve B a n k to the most vicious R u s s i a n mobster a n d C o l o m b i a n d r u g l o r d . A l l are m a n d a t e d b y the great force field a n d u n d e r its spell. In a recent s t u n n i n g article, the F r e n c h c o m m e n t a t o r C h r i s t i a n de B r i e describes 'a coherent system closely l i n k e d t o the e x p a n s i o n o f m o d e r n c a p i t a l i s m a n d based o n a n association o f three partners: governments, transnational c o r p o r a t i o n s a n d mafias ... . [in w h i c h ] financial c r i m e is first a n d foremost a m a r k e t , t h r i v i n g a n d structured, r u l e d by supply a n d d e m a n d ' . E a c h p a r t n e r needs the other, even if the n e e d must be vigorously d e n i e d . In short, an honest look at the system takes us light years f r o m the g l o w i n g promises of n e o l i b e r a l i s m . C o n t r a r y to the official imagery, the actual c o r p o r a t e culture breeds a s w a r m of pathogens: restrictive practices, cartels, abuse of dominant position, dumping, forced sales, insider dealing and speculation, takeovers and dismembering of c o m petitors, fraudulent balance sheets, rigging of accounts and transfer prices,

Setting aside the m o r a l implications, the presence of this vast s h a d o w l a n d signifies capitalism's f u n d a m e n t a l u n c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y a n d therefore its inability to overcome its crises of ecology a n d democracy. F r o m this standpoint, the ecological crisis is the effect of g l o b a l i z a t i o n v i e w e d f r o m the standpoint of

76 The Culprit ecosystems, as great waves of c a p i t a l batter against a n d erode ecological defences. S i m i l a r l y democracy, a n d not g o v e r n m e n t , is the great v i c t i m of g l o b a l i z a t i o n . As g l o b a l c a p i t a l works its way, the p o p u l a r w i l l is increasingly disregarded in the effort to squeeze ever m o r e c a p i t a l out of the system. In the process, the instruments of g l o b a l c a p i t a l b e g i n to take on p o l i t i c a l functions, b r e a k i n g d o w n l o c a l j u r i s d i c t i o n s a n d constituting themselves as a k i n d of w o r l d g o v e r n i n g body. B u t the regime lacks what n o r m a l states, even despotic ones, require, namely, some means of l e g i t i m a t i o n . In the post-aristocratic, post-theocratic w o r l d o f m o d e r n i t y , d e m o c r a t i c advances, even the p s e u d o - d e m o c r a c y that passes for n o r m a l these days, are the necessary glue that holds societies together. C a p i t a l ' s i n a b i l i t y to f u r n i s h this as it moves t o w a r d its r e a l i z a t i o n in the g l o b a l society has m a d e its o p e r a t i o n increasingly l o o k like a g l o b a l coup d'tat. T h i s is the great p o l i t i c a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n of o u r time, a n d drives the present surge of resistance.

Capitalism77 w i t h nature. E v e r y o n e appreciates h o w fabulously adaptable c a p i t a l has been. It has e l u d e d destruction time a n d a g a i n , so m u c h so that its capacity to adapt to ecological b r e a k d o w n is pretty w e l l taken for g r a n t e d . M a r k e t society has been fabulously successful i n p r o d u c i n g wealth. W h y not, so the s t a n d a r d a r g u m e n t runs, w i l l it not be just as successful in p r o d u c i n g ecological integrity? B u t where this line of r e a s o n i n g goes astray is in not r e a l i z i n g that this time, the lesion arises f r o m capitalist p r o d u c t i o n as such. T h e p r o b l e m afflicting previous crises was h o w to resume a p a t t e r n of g r o w t h i n t e r r u p t e d by one stress or another. N o w , however, it is precisely the p a t t e r n of growth that causes the p r o b l e m . Yes, c a p i t a l c a n p r o d u c e 'green c o m m o d i t i e s ' or a n t i - p o l l u t i o n devices; it c a n even recycle a n d c o n serve resources as w e l l as energy. B u t because it does so as c a p i t a l , it does so by p r o d u c i n g itself before a n y t h i n g else, a n d this g a t h e r i n g sea of capital w i l l have the effects d o c u m e n t e d above, essentially w a s h i n g out the m a r g i n a l gains a c h i e v e d by efforts at r e c u p e r a t i o n . T h i s p r o p o s i t i o n is no m o r e The Men in Charge provable t h a n its converse, the p o p u l a r l y assumed idea that c a p i t a l w i l l w o r k its w a y out of the ecological crisis. T h e question is, rather, whether it is m o r e plausible, a n d for this p u r p o s e we m a y i n t r o d u c e yet another line o f reasoning. C a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n includes a l l those forces that enter i n t o the generali z e d p r o d u c t i o n o f c o m m o d i t i e s . B u t these i n c l u d e the prevalent h u m a n dispositions that enter into p r o d u c t i o n . If it is true that c a p i t a l i s m induces a k i n d of m e n t a l i t y t u r n e d away f r o m r e c o g n i z i n g nature, we m e a n for this to be u n d e r s t o o d as one of the elements (in M a r x i s t terms, a 'force of production') m a k i n g the ecological crisis m o r e intractable. In p l a i n language, one of the biggest e c o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s w i t h c a p i t a l i s m is the capitalist. If the r u l i n g class - those persons w h o t h r o u g h ownership a n d / o r control h o l d the reins of the system in their hands - were to prove capable of a p p r e c i a t i n g just h o w m u c h trouble w e are a l l i n , then just m a y b e they c o u l d install necessary changes in time. If, however, they are structurally incapable of d e a l i n g w i t h the crisis, then this greatly reinforces the i n d i c t m e n t m a d e here. I say structural, because the b e h a v i o u r of elites c a n n o t be r e d u c e d to o r d i n a r y motivations like greed or d o m i n a t i o n , as greedy or d o m i n e e r i n g as they m a y in fact be. W h e n we are t a l k i n g of class interest a n d of h o w individuals become personifications of great institutional forces, a l l the i n n u m e r a b l e variations that make the h u m a n psyche interesting are subjected to a few basic rules, a n d a remarkable u n i f o r m i t y of b e h a v i o u r

Just between you and me, shouldn't the W o r l d Bank be encouraging more migration of the dirty industries to the L D C s [less developed countries]? I think the economic logic b e h i n d d u m p i n g a load of toxic waste in the lowest wage country is impeccable and we should face up to that . . . . I've always thought that underpopulated countries in A f r i c a are vastly underpolluted: their air quality is vastly inefficiently low [sic] compared to Los Angeles or M e x i c o City. (Lawrence Summers, while at the W o r l d Bank) Y o u know, there are some people who are just losers. T h e r e are some countries that are just losers. A n d if you forgive them the debt, it doesn't make a lot of difference. (James Wolfensohn, President, W o r l d Bank) Y o u must cut costs ruthlessly by 50 to 60 percent. Depopulate. Get r i d of people. T h e y g u m up the works. (Jeffrey Skilling, President, E n r o n C o r poration )
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To d r a w out the b r o a d ecological outlines of capitalist society is one t h i n g ; to prove that this w i l l i n e x o r a b l y lead to ecocatastrophe unless c a p i t a l is o v e r t h r o w n is another. H e r e the question becomes not what c a p i t a l is d o i n g to ecosystems, h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l , but whether it c a n adapt a n d change its ways, given the gathering b r e a k d o w n of its n a t u r a l g r o u n d - or to be m o r e exact, w h e t h e r it c a n do so in time to p e r m i t a m e n d i n g of its relations

78 The Culprit prevails. O f course, a n i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r o f the elite c a n rebel a n d step aside. B u t what does it matter that a few capitalists think differently f r o m their fellows if their ideas are d r o w n e d out by the p r e p o n d e r a n t force of class o p i n i o n ? In actuality, a m e m b e r of the elite w h o starts seeing things r a d i c a l l y differently either gets b a c k i n t o line or is e x c l u d e d f r o m p o w e r ; he s i m p l y ceases b e i n g a m e m b e r of the elite, a n d gets replaced by someone m o r e in a c c o r d w i t h the needs of c a p i t a l . F o r the remainder, the system imposes a p o w e r f u l a n d u n i f o r m set of constraints, as the d o m i n a n t social forces i n d u c e some p s y c h o l o g i c a l elements a n d i n h i b i t others, while p r o v i d i n g ideals, r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s a n d n o r m s o f c o n d u c t - i n short, a k i n d o f m o r a l universe w i t h i n w h i c h b e h a v i o u r is shaped a n d given structure. E a c h society selects for the psychological types that serve its needs. It is quite possible in this w a y to m o l d a great range of characters t o w a r d a u n i f i e d , class purpose. To succeed in the capitalist marketplace a n d rise to the top, one needs a h a r d , c o l d , c a l c u l a t i n g mentality, the a b i l i t y to sell oneself, a n d a hefty dose of the w i l l to power. N o n e of these traits is at all correlated w i t h ecological sensibility or c a r i n g , a n d they are a l l i n d u c e d by the same force field that shapes investment decisions. T h e three statements by elite figures given above are of course not representative of the p u b l i c face put to the w o r l d by the r u l i n g classes. In fact, S u m m e r s has c l a i m e d that his remarks were m e a n t to be ' i r o n i c ' . If so, however, it is the i r o n y that states a factual t r u t h w i t h a face-saving twist, for the substance of the r e m a r k , a l o n g w i t h those by W o l f e n s o h n a n d S k i l l i n g , h o l d a m i r r o r to the actual trajectory of c a p i t a l . C a p i t a l speaks t h r o u g h these p o w e r f u l figures, in all its ruthless calculatedness, its w i l l i n g ness to jettison the unprofitable, a n d its r e d u c t i o n of nature to resources a n d sinks. W h a t they are saying, t h e n , is authentic even if it m a y be d e n i e d . P u t t i n g the m a t t e r this w a y removes us f r o m t h i n k i n g of the capitalist elites as b e i n g m o t i v a t e d by 'greed' or some i n t e r n a l l y d r i v e n psychological state. O f course greed plays a role. H o w c o u l d i t not w h e n stupendous fortunes c a n be h a d for c o m p l i a n c e w i t h the rules of the game? B u t the question is h o w greed, or the drive for power, or c o l d a n d c a l c u l a t i n g ways of thought, l e a d to blindness a n d rigidity. T h e s e are the salient traits, a n d they arise f r o m the intersection of psychological tendencies w i t h the concrete lifew o r l d o f the capitalist. C o n s i d e r some o f the ways i n w h i c h this works itself out anti-ecologically. First, the bigger the system gets - w h i c h is to say, the m o r e it fulfills its

Capitalism79 destiny of e x p a n s i o n - the m o r e grandiose becomes the capitalist w a y of thought. A n d the m o r e grandiose, the m o r e r e m o v e d . I f y o u sit a t the heart of the world's financial centres, fly in private jets, m a n i p u l a t e billions of dollars w i t h the tap of a k e y p a d a n d c o n t r o l a p r o d u c t i v e apparatus capable of d i v e r t i n g rivers a n d sending missions to M a r s , y o u are not likely to experience the h u m i l i t y of a St F r a n c i s or the patient tenacity of a R a c h e l C a r s o n . A n d l a c k i n g this, y o u are n o m o r e likely t o experience fellow-feeling for the web of life t h a n for the p o o r people of A f r i c a . In short, ecological consciousness is b l o c k e d by the r u l i n g class p o s i t i o n . T h i s g r a n d i o s i t y is greatly r e i n f o r c e d by a sense of p e r s o n a l invulnerability, w h i c h insulates capitalists f r o m the consequences of their actions except as these affect the b o t t o m line of profit. O r d i n a r y people are not so protected. T h e reason that so m a n y people of colour, for example, have toxic waste d u m p s in their n e i g h b o r h o o d s (estimates have r u n as h i g h as 60 p e r cent) is t r a n s p a r e n t l y that such p e o p l e do not sit at the c o m m a n d structures of the c o r p o r a t i o n s that pollute. T h o s e w h o do, by contrast, see to it that the poisons they m a k e stay out of their o w n n e i g h b o u r h o o d s . T h i s keeps the elites away f r o m direct evidence of the d e s t a b i l i z i n g effects o f capitalist p r o d u c t i o n . A n d i t feeds the fantasy that they c a n always s u r r o u n d themselves w i t h p r o t e c t i o n against a nature out of balance. E v e n if the elites screw up, their r e w a r d is ensured. I n d e e d , consolation prizes are given to executives w h o fail, a story w h i c h caught the attention of the press in 1997. As the New York Times p u t it: ' F o r top executives, failure - once a w r e t c h e d embarrassment disguised in c o r p o r a t e spin language or h u s h e d up completely - n o w pays. E s p e c i a l l y if they fail quickly.' F a i l e d top executives a t A T & T , Disney, A p p l e C o m p u t e r a n d S m i t h B a r n e y were sent p a c k i n g w i t h , respectively, $26 m i l l i o n , $90 m i l l i o n , $7 m i l l i o n a n d $22 m i l l i o n d o l l a r payoffs - scarcely an incentive to w o r r y greatly about w h a t they are doing. T h e structural reason for this lies in the increasing turnover at the top - itself a f u n c t i o n of the acceleration of c a p i t a l - that leads executives to d e m a n d safety nets a n d , i n t e r c u r r e n t l y undercuts loyalty, coherence a n d larger v i s i o n a t the u p p e r level o f c o r p o r a t i o n s .
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A l o n g w i t h this, the ever-growing size of capitalist c o r p o r a t i o n s removes t h e m f r o m contact w i t h nature as an object of care. Insulated by dense a n d seemingly endless webs of bureaucracy, a n d p r e s i d i n g over enterprises that t y p i c a l l y m a k e a n y t h i n g a n d everything a n d t h r o w off subsidiaries like I m e l d a M a r c o s c h a n g e d her shoes, the capitalist bosses have every reason

80 The Culprit to neglect the i m m e d i a c y a n d m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n essential for ecological ways of being. T h e i r o r d e r of i n t e r r e l a t i o n is d o m i n a t e d by the entirely anti-ecological p r i n c i p l e : the law o f exchange. T h e m o r e m o n e y - c a p i t a l rules, the m o r e is nature r e d u c e d to mere abstraction, a n d the m o r e r a t i o n a l i z e d are the r u m i n a t i o n s of a L a w r e n c e S u m m e r s . A c c o r d i n g to the regime of finance, the e c o n o m i c logic is in fact ' i m p e c c a b l e ' to d u m p m o r e toxic waste in p o o r e r countries. T h a t ' s s i m p l y h o w one makes m o r e money, w h i c h is all that 'counts'. A n o t h e r core trait of the capitalist is the fetish of technology. Since technology raises the rate of surplus value e x t r a c t i o n , it is a key to profitability, a n d so becomes invested w i t h the godlike p o w e r of c a p i t a l . T h e capitalist therefore not o n l y overestimates the t e c h n o l o g i c a l , he h i m s e l f becomes like a m a c h i n e . In his h a r d , c o l d calculatedness, he thinks ' i n s t r u m e n t a l l y ' , that is, reductively a n d in terms of parts rather t h a n wholes. T h i s is d o u b l y useful in that it p e r m i t s ready-made rationalizations of one's behaviour, a n d the isolation a n d separation of such traits as c o u l d stir forth some ecological awareness. Of course the capitalist does not o n l y t h i n k ; he is also a passionate, desiring creature. T h e p r o b l e m is that c a p i t a l selects for such passions as are recklessly ecodestructive, p a r t i c u l a r l y the desire to w i n at all cost. T h e m a i n m e c h a n i s m of this is the relentless c o m p e t i t i o n built i n t o the heart of the system, w h i c h assures that o n l y the r a b i d l y self-seeking a n d ruthless are elected to p a t r o l the h i g h e r reaches of c a p i t a l . T h e r e is n o t h i n g mysterious about this, but its significance is easily o v e r l o o k e d in the m a c h o w o r l d of capitalist culture. T h i s is a m u c h m o r e cogent factor in capital's a n t i e c o l o g i c a l regime t h a n simple greed. T h e attitude was s u m m e d u p b y r e c e n d y deposed C o c a - C o l a president a n d C E O D o u g l a s Ivester. F r i e n d ship, a d m i r a t i o n a n d respect, said Ivester, are not 'really my p r i o r i t y T h i s is what I really want. I w a n t y o u r customers, I w a n t y o u r space on the shelves, I w a n t y o u r space of the consumer's s t o m a c h . A n d I w a n t every single bit of beverage g r o w t h p o t e n t i a l that is out t h e r e . ' Just as c a p i t a l
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Capitalism81 sooner. T h i s is a m a i n reason w h y n o t h i n g substantial w i l l be done about g l o b a l w a r m i n g u n d e r the present regime. Sure, all sorts of constructive measures are on the d r a w i n g b o a r d . B u t to take t h e m seriously involves the u n t h i n k a b l e measure o f c u t t i n g i n t o i m m e d i a t e profits. I f capitalists c o u l d all p l a n together, this m i g h t be possible. B u t that in t u r n runs against the law o f c o m p e t i t i o n . O n e last tendency that keeps capitalists f r o m d e a l i n g adequately w i t h the ecological crisis deserves m e n t i o n . A s i d e f r o m l o g i c a l styles or p e r s o n a l passions, we m a y assess the capacities for j u d g e m e n t of this r u l i n g class. Needless to say, this has to be fairly s o u n d in certain respects if an i n d i v i d u a l is to ascend the capitalist hierarchy. T h a t is, the tycoon needs to be able to distinguish between his grandiose a n d aggressive desires a n d what the real situation w i l l bear. H o w e v e r , this p r i n c i p l e applies o n l y to those areas in w h i c h profitability is the c r i t e r i o n . H e r e the capitalist's powers are b r o u g h t to bear a n d the results are usually impressive. B u t where, as w i t h the ecological crisis, the capitalist is s i m p l y in over his h e a d a n d his instrumental k i n d o f t h i n k i n g a n d m e c h a n i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m necessarily misconstrue the real situation, then he is p r o n e to especially great distortions. T h i s is because of his grandiosity, his i m m e r s i o n in the discourse of ' s p i n c o n t r o l ' , p u b l i c relations a n d other kinds o f m a n i p u l a t i o n , a n d also f r o m a n i n d u c e d character trait quite c o m m o n a m o n g those w h o live by the market, namely, a k i n d of 'optimistic d e n i a l ' . T h e capitalist has to be t h o r o u g h l y realistic on one level, but insofar as he is i m m e r s e d in c o m m o d i t y exchange, he is also subject to a h i g h degree of wishful t h i n k i n g . Success in the i m p o n d e r a b l e m a r k e t depends a great deal u p o n i n s t i l l i n g confidence a n d assurance that such a n d such w i l l really sell, for w h e t h e r such a n d such actually sells depends in part u p o n whether people believe in it. T h i s attitude, so essential to huckstering a n d 'hustling customers', is n o r m a l l y b a l a n c e d by shrewdness of one k i n d or another. H o w e v e r , where, as w i t h the ecological crisis, the shrewdness is m i s p l a c e d because the situation is i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , then the a l l - t o o - h u m a n traits of d e n y i n g reality a n d resorting to wishful t h i n k i n g c o m e to the fore. Since no one in fact c a n p r e d i c t the o u t c o m e of the ecological crisis, or any of its constituent ecosystemic threads, the way is left o p e n for o p t i m i s t i c d e n i a l , i n short, m i n i m i z a t i o n o f the dangers, a n d inadequate responses taken for o p p o r t u n i s t i c motives rather t h a n f r o m a real a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the p r o b l e m .

c a n never stop e x p a n d i n g , therefore, so c a n its personifications never have e n o u g h . H o w c a n people of this sort ever be expected to wake up to the ecological crisis? T h e effect is accentuated i n a s m u c h as the regime of finance c a p i t a l places an emphasis on s h o r t - t e r m profitability. T h e very fluidity sought by c a p i t a l imposes ever greater d e m a n d s that profits be realized right away or

82

The Culprit

Capitalism possibility that the system w i l l m u d d l e t h r o u g h . It is p r e d i c a t e d rather on d e m o n s t r a t i n g the utter unworthiness of c a p i t a l i s m to shepherd c i v i l i z a t i o n t h r o u g h the crisis it has engendered t h r o u g h cancerous expansion. T h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d contingent disasters m a y h a p p e n one w a y or another, or some or all of t h e m m a y not h a p p e n at all - but we must be perfectly clear that they are p r i m e d to h a p p e n , a n d that c a p i t a l i s m , far f r o m p r o v i d i n g remedies, makes t h e m m o r e likely the m o r e it fulfils itself. T h a t is why, in this e x c u r s i o n t h r o u g h the peculiarities of c a p i t a l a n d c a p i t a l i s m , I have e m p h a s i z e d the a n t i - e c o l o g i c a l features of capitalist p r o d u c t i o n rather t h a n the particulars of its relation to the crisis. O n l y the barest suggestion has been given of the i n n u m e r a b l e instances of e n v i r o n m e n t a l assault: of the great p r o p a g a n d a system a n d its g r e e n w a s h i n g c a m p a i g n ; of the betrayal of ecological responsibility by the established m e d i a ; o f the perfidy o f i n d i v i d u a l politicians a n d parties; o f the c o - o p t i o n of e n v i r o n m e n t a l groups; of the c o m p l i c i t y of the scientific establishment; of the tangled legal system; a n d of the efforts to suppress a n d i n t i m i d a t e environmentalists. G o o d books have been w r i t t e n a b o u t a l l of these things - a n d in C h a p t e r 7 I r e t u r n to some of t h e m in assaying the a d e q u a c y of c u r r e n t ecological p o l i t i c s .
34

83

The Indictment C a p i t a l i s m bestrides the w o r l d because of its fantastic a b i l i t y to p r o d u c e w e a l t h - a n d to i n d u c e the w e a l t h - p r o d u c i n g side of h u m a n nature. T h e result is the most p o w e r f u l f o r m of h u m a n o r g a n i z a t i o n ever devised, a n d also the most destructive. C a p i t a l ' s advocates c l a i m that its destructivity c a n be c o n t a i n e d a n d that c a p i t a l , as it matures, w i l l peacefully overcome the rapacity s h o w n in its phases of p r i m i t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n , the w a y S w e d e n a d v a n c e d f r o m its V i k i n g past. G i v e us a little m o r e time, they argue, a n d g l o b a l i z a t i o n w i l l t r u l y b e c o m e the tide that raises all boats a n d not just the yachts of the wealthy, while the general increase in w e a l t h w i l l enable the earth that is h a r b o u r for these boats to be m a d e snug a n d bright. An opposite c o n c l u s i o n is a r g u e d here. I h o l d instead that w i t h the p r o d u c t i o n of capitalist wealth, a n d as an integral part of it, poverty, eternal strife, insecurity, eco-destruction a n d , finally, n i h i l i s m are also p r o d u c e d . T h e s e concomitants m a y be externalized a n d exported, so l o n g as p r o d u c t i o n is l o c a l a n d restricted. B u t as capital matures a n d becomes global, the escape routes are sealed a n d its cancerous c h a r a c t e r is revealed penetrating a l l spheres of h u m a n existence, destabilizing the ecologies of space a n d time a n d subjecting the earth to an increasingly a u t h o r i t a r i a n a n d c o r r u p t regime. N o w everything is sacrificed to a c c u m u l a t i o n , a n d w i t h the closure of the circle of g l o b a l i z a t i o n , there is no further r o o m to externalize. T h e ecological crisis is the n a m e for the g l o b a l ecodestabilization a c c o m p a n y i n g g l o b a l a c c u m u l a t i o n . C a p i t a l has s h o w n a p h e n o m e n a l resilience a n d ability to absorb all c o n t r a d i c t i o n in its logic of exchange - this is a m a i n reason w h y various modes of revolt have c o m e a n d gone, leaving o n l y bitter m e m o r i a l s b e h i n d , as C h e G u e v a r a has b e c o m e the n a m e for a b r a n d of beer. In the ecological crisis, however, the logic of exchange itself becomes the source of destabilization, a n d the m o r e it is d r a w n into the picture, the m o r e c o r r u p t a n d unstable becomes the relation to nature. C a p i t a l c a n n o t recuperate the ecological crisis because its essential being, manifest in the 'grow or d i e ' syndrome, is to p r o d u c e such a crisis, a n d the o n l y t h i n g it really knows h o w to do, w h i c h is to p r o d u c e a c c o r d i n g to exchange-value, is exactly the source of the crisis. T h e logic of this argument is not y o k e d to the appearance of some sudden o v e r w h e l m i n g calamity, or to the m o r e likely c o n c u r r e n c e of a great n u m b e r of smaller w e a k e n i n g blows l e a d i n g to collapse, or even to the

B u t we s h o u l d n o t lose sight of the whole p i c t u r e in attending to particulars: there is a single w o r l d - d o m i n a t i n g order, a n d even t h o u g h it still has not reached everywhere, it c a n n o t be r e f o r m e d , cannot be satisfied w i t h less t h a n everything, a n d has the institutions in place for its purpose. No set of i n d i v i d u a l reforms c a n encompass what c a p i t a l means, or drive it out by the root. T h e r e f o r e , no matter h o w m e r i t o r i o u s or necessary any p a r t i c u l a r r e f o r m m a y be, the fact remains that it is c a p i t a l as a whole that has to be c o n f r o n t e d a n d b r o u g h t d o w n , as d a u n t i n g as the prospect m a y be.

Notes
1. Slatella 2 0 0 0 : D 4 . 2 . T h e t e r m derives f r o m the p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l philosopher E d m u n d Husserl. 3. T h e elective was u n d e r the auspices of the T r o p i c a l M e d i c i n e Faculty at C o l u m b i a University's m e d i c a l school, w h i c h h a d f o r m e d a liaison w i t h the A l u m i n u m C o m p a n y of A m e r i c a , proprietors of a large bauxite m i n e in the small town of M o e n g o . S u r i n a m e lies roughly 5 n o r t h of the Equator, a n d presents an essentially A m a z o n i a n ecology, w i t h rivers discharging into the C a r i b b e a n sea. In the remoter jungles lived a d w i n d l i n g g r o u p of C a r i b e Indians, while closer to the sea, t h o u g h still in dense
0

84

The C u l p r i t
rainforest, dwelt the 'Bush-Negroes,' descendants of escaped A f r i c a n slaves. It is to these latter that the observations apply. 4. See K o v e l 1997a. M c D o n a l d ' s has f o r m e d marketing linkages w i t h C o c a - C o l a , as well as other icons of globalized capitalist culture, such as the O l y m p i c games. 5. Watson 1997; Jenkins 1997; Fiddes 1991. 6. Crossette 2000a; G a r d n e r a n d H a l w e i l 2000. A c c o r d i n g to W o r l d w a t c h , 1.2 b i l l i o n are n o w overweight, m a t c h i n g the n u m b e r of starving people. A n o t h e r 2 b i l l i o n c o m prise the ' h i d d e n h u n g r y ' , w i t h b a d diets. In 1999, 400,000 liposuctions were p e r f o r m e d in the U S A , a n d 80 per cent of m a l n o u r i s h e d c h i l d r e n l i v e d in countries that reported food surpluses. 7. Crossette 2000b. T h e U N I C E F report is the first comprehensive survey of the p h e n o m e n o n , a n d details violence, worst for the poorest, at every aspect of the life cycle, f r o m aborted female foetuses, the k i l l i n g of female babies, underfeeding of girl c h i l d r e n , lack of m e d i c a l care, sexual abuse, a n d fatal beatings of g r o w n w o m e n . T h i s pervasive violence, w h i c h b e y o n d doubt represents a major increase f r o m the level of traditional society, comes f r o m those closest to w o m e n a n d reflects the general breakup of intimate life in a w o r l d whose c o m m u n a l structure is destabilized by capital's penetration, a l o n g w i t h closely related manifestations like massive m i g r a t i o n . By c o n trast, in traditional societies, for example those of the N o r t h A m e r i c a n Indians, rape a n d the abuse of w o m e n were a m o n g the most severely p u n i s h e d a n d rarest of crimes. T h i s was one reason why m a n y settler w o m e n in the A m e r i c a n colonies 'defected' to the Indians. 8. P u b l i c C i t i z e n 1996. 9. Engels 1987; B o w d e n 1996. T h i s extraordinary account focuses on the subculture o f photographers a n d T V journalists w h o document the madness. 10. N a t h a n 1997. 11. O r d o n e z 2000. 12. ' N a n o ' refers to the contraction of machines to the level of i n d i v i d u a l molecules, the w o r d referring to one-thousandth of a ' m i c r o n ' , i.e., a m i l l i o n t h of a millimetre, the scale of molecular processes. See D r e x l e r 1986. A l t h o u g h the later phase of a technology m a y replace an earlier one, as the electronic calculator makes the m e c h a n i c a l slide-rule obsolete, the overall effect is additive a n d combinative. T h u s gigantic jet planes i n corporate electronic technology without ceasing to be huge; or computers guide the development of molecular-scale technologies, then become i n c o r p o r a t e d into such technologies. 13. D e B o r d 1992. 14. 15. T h o m p s o n 1967; W h i t e 1967. M a r x 1963: 41.

Capitalism
17. Bass 2000. T h e only level of conflict reported in the article, based u p o n research done at P e n n State University, was that the behaviour stimulated sexual harassment by male customers, w h o mistook the robotic friendliness for a come-on. Otherwise internali z a t i o n was quite successful. N o t e the m u t i l a t i o n of the G o l d e n R u l e : the worker wants to treat everybody as she herself is treated. So she treats t h e m as means to the e n d of a c c u m u l a t i o n , just as she is treated. B u t the o n l y coherent interpretation of the m o r a l law, as K a n t realized, is to treat persons as ends in themselves, not as means, or things. 18. 19. 21. W i l l i a m s 2000. H a r v e y 1993. P u r d o m 2000.

85

20. T h e t e r m is f r o m F r e u n d a n d M a r t i n 1993, a valuable study. 22. As b a d as the situation in the U S A m a y be, it is dwarfed by the traffic-generated nightmares of cities in the 'newly industrializing countries'. In N I C s , an even more unregulated capital induces scenarios such as that in Sao Paulo, B r a z i l , where the r i c h have taken to using helicopters to avoid roads 'hopelessly clogged w i t h traffic' a n d subject to the 'carjackings, kidnappings of executives a n d roadside robberies [that] have become part of the risks of everyday life for anyone perceived to have money'. H o w e v e r h a r d it m a y be to enter the K i n g d o m of H e a v e n , it is easier for a r i c h m a n to buy a helicopter than for a p o o r m a n to buy a car in Sao Paulo - n o r is p a r k i n g m u c h of a p r o b l e m , as the gated communities where m a n y r i c h people reside offer ideal setting for l a n d i n g pads. T h e noisy monsters have predictably become status symbols ('Why settle for an a r m o r e d B M W w h e n y o u can afford a helicopter?' goes one slogan), as some 400 flit through the air a n d create an even more n i g h t m a r i s h environment for the average citizen (Romero 2000). G a t e d communities, w i t h private police forces a n d the like, are a major a c c o m p a n i m e n t of the ecological crisis as it affects u r b a n space in the age of automobilia. I recall reading that in the U S A , nearly 30 per cent live in such fragmenting enclaves. 23. W a l d 1997; T u r n e r 2000. 24. T h e W o r l d B a n k , set up along w i t h the I M F at the 1944 B r e t t o n Woods c o n ference, was originally designed to help w i t h post-war E u r o p e a n reconstruction. It then shifted to the T h i r d W o r l d , made major infrastructural loans (which i n c l u d e d financing the plant at Bhopal) a n d became increasingly involved w i t h 'adjustment' of peripheral economies in order to integrate t h e m better w i t h the needs of global capital. T h e I M F , by contrast, was originally set up to m a i n t a i n the standard of fixed interest rates established after the war. After 1971, w h e n these rates began to float, it t u r n e d to m a k i n g loans to troubled economies a n d clearing t h e m for further capital investment by the B a n k , hence its involvement w i t h the notorious structural adjustment programmes. As for the W T O , it emerged finally f r o m its chrysalis in 1995 after its predecessor, the G e n e r a l A g r e e m e n t on Tariffs a n d T r a d e , finished its p r e l i m i n a r y organizing. 25. George 1992. 26. M u r p h y 2000. 27. Pooley 2000, an article focusing on the case of T a n z a n i a . 28. Stiglitz 2000, in w h i c h we find: ' T h e I M F staff ... frequently consists of t h i r d rank students f r o m first-rate universities. (Trust me: I've taught at O x f o r d University, M I T , Stanford University, Yale University, a n d Princeton University, a n d the I M F almost never succeeded in recruiting any of the best students.)' So that's what we need - as they put it in the V i e t n a m era, the 'best a n d the brightest.'

16. K a n t e r 1997: A 2 2 . T h e author, a professor of m a n a g m e n t at H a r v a r d Business S c h o o l , accurately observes that despite the then success of the economy, an 'undercurrent of c y n i c i s m (along w i t h fatigue f r o m increased workloads)' was rife - in fact, 46 per cent of employees of 1,000 large corporations feared layoffs in 1997 as c o m p a r e d w i t h 31 per cent in 1992. M e a n w h i l e the r e m a i n i n g workers suffer f r o m yet another m e n t a l illness, 'layoff survivor sickness', characterized by anger, depression, fear, guilt, risk aversion, distrust, vulnerability, powerlessness a n d loss of motivation - a c c o m p a n i e d by an increase in stress-related claims. T h i s o c c u r r e d in an economy that was widely deemed to be 'as g o o d as it gets'.

86 The Culprit
29. B a r l o w 2000; also http://www.brain.net.pk/diama; a n d egroups.com/groups/ waterline. 30. De B r i e estimates about one-third to one-half of this in drugs, the rest d i v i d e d between c o m p u t e r piracy, counterfeiting, budgetary fraud, a n i m a l smuggling, white slaving, a n d so o n . In other words, a g o o d estimate of simply the transborder crime amounts to some 20 per cent of w o r l d trade. A l l o w i n g that only one-half of that ends up as profit, a n d that one-third of this is lost in m o n e y - l a u n d e r i n g operations, the net realized a n n u a l profit f r o m international crime stands at some $350 b i l l i o n . De B r i e 2000; see also B e r g m a n 2000. 31. Multinational Monitor, J u n e 1997, p. 6. S u m m e r s ' n o w infamous remarks were made in an i n t e r n a l W o r l d B a n k m e m o in 1991, w h e n he was an u n d e r l i n g economist for that institution. T h e outrage was such that he went on to become secretary of the treasury a n d president of H a r v a r d . Wolfensohn was responding to suggestions that the W o r l d B a n k write off the debts owed to it by developing countries. 32. D o b r z y n s k i 1997. 33. D e o g u n 1997. Alas, p o o r Ivester, his dreams came to nought, a n d he was eventually sacked for not delivering on them. 34. Some works I have f o u n d valuable in tracking the various concrete forms taken by the crisis are: A t h a n a s i o u 1996; K a r l i n e r 1997; Beder 1997; T o k a r 1997; Steingraber 1997; F a g i n a n d Lavelle 1996; C o l b u r n et al. 1996; P r i n g a n d C a n a n 1996; R a m p t o n a n d Stauber 1997; L a p p et al. 1998; S h i v a 1991; G e l b s p a n 1998; G i b b s , 1995; Ho 1998; T h o r n t o n 2000.

P a r t II

T h e D o m i n a t i o n of Nature

5 On E c o l o g i e s

To say that c a p i t a l is ecodestructive is to c l a i m that u n d e r its regime, large swathes o f the n a t u r a l w o r l d are b e c o m i n g u n d o n e . H o w e v e r t r o u b l i n g , this is straightforward e n o u g h . B u t we have also said in a n u m b e r of places that it is 'anti-ecological', w h i c h is not quite the same thing. T h e latter t e r m introduces a n e w n o t i o n , that the w o r d 'ecology' signifies s o m e t h i n g to be v a l u e d in o u r relationship w i t h i n nature, a n d that capital does not s i m p l y degrade one p o r t i o n of nature or another, but violates the whole sense of the universe. O b v i o u s l y , this obliges us to say a t h i n g or two about what that sense m i g h t be, a n d , in a m o r e general way, what it means to talk about nature. T h e n o t i o n of nature is as elusive as any in the repertoire of thought. N a t u r e p a l p a b l y exists irrespective of what we say about it. A n d yet nature o n l y exists for us insofar as we say a n y t h i n g about it. A l l propositions about nature, f r o m the most esoteric investigations into cosmology, to the regulations for d u m p i n g wastes, to the writings of ideologues left, right a n d centre - i n c l u d i n g , to be sure, the thoughts w r i t t e n d o w n here - are m e d i a t e d by language, w h i c h , besides b e i n g an imperfect m i r r o r of reality, is densely social a n d h i s t o r i c a l . P r a c t i c a l l y speaking, then, there are two layers of o u r i m p r i n t u p o n nature: first, the n a t u r a l w o r l d has been substantively rea r r a n g e d by h u m a n influence, to the extent that one w o u l d be hard-pressed to find any configuration of matter on the surface of the earth a n d a g o o d ways above a n d b e l o w it that has not b e e n altered by o u r species-activity;
1

a n d second, that all propositions about the n a t u r a l w o r l d are, first of a l l , social utterances. W h e n we speak, or b e c o m e aware, of s o m e t h i n g c a l l e d 'nature', we are a p p r e h e n d i n g s o m e t h i n g that also has a history, at the least, because the ways of speaking about it are social practices, a n d also, in the great majority of instances of interest to us, because the ' n a t u r a l ' entity has itself received a h u m a n , historical i m p r i n t .

90 The Domination of Nature T h e t e r m 'ecology' a n d its various meanings also has a history, in this case c o n d i t i o n e d by the g a t h e r i n g crisis that bears its n a m e . It stands to
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OnEcologies91 a n d history. T h e s e attributes give us o u r identity as a n a t u r a l species. O n c e we begin l o o k i n g at things this way, moreover, there is no reason not to talk of the ecology of cities, of n e i g h b o u r h o o d s , of families, or, indeed, of minds.
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reason that w h e n the integrity of the n a t u r a l w o r l d is u n d e r ever-growing threat, the notions used to account for that integrity a n d its disintegration w i l l c o m e into p r o m i n e n c e . In the century-and-a-quarter since it a p p e a r e d on the intellectual landscape, ecology has m a n a g e d to acquire a great deal of significance. As used here, the t e r m has a fourfold m e a n i n g : A t e c h n i c a l discipline w i t h i n the n a t u r a l science of b i o l o g y devoted to the study of the interrelationships between l i v i n g creatures a n d their e n v i r o n m e n t . H e r e the c r u c i a l variables are usually the populations of diverse life-forms as they interact w i t h the rest of nature. An object singled out for ecological study, that is, not populations as such but locations w i t h i n the totality of the earth. We c a n talk of this as a m o r e or less definite place, as, for example, the ecology of a l o c a l p o n d or of the A m a z o n basin - w h i c h at a c e r t a i n scale m a y take the n a m e of a ' b i o r e g i o n ' . Or we m a y t h i n k of it as a sub-set of the n a t u r a l w o r l d w i t h c e r t a i n i n t e r n a l relations, such as the atmosphere, or the e n d o c r i n e system of h i g h e r animals. H e r e the object in question has systemic properties, that is, it is a structure of i n t e r r e l a t i n g elements defined b o t h spatially a n d t e m p o r a l l y ; hence the n a m e ecosystem to define a p r i n c i p l e object of o u r study. Ecosystems are b o u n d e d but also interrelated (for example, the e n d o c r i n e system is related to the c i r c u l a t o r y system, or the oceans to the atmosphere). In fact, there is no such t h i n g as an ecosystem-in-itself; a l l are i n t e r c o n n e c t e d , in ways that c o n c e r n us greatly. We use the t e r m ecosphere to refer to the w o r l d regarded a c c o r d i n g to the p r i n c i p l e s of ecology, in other words, it is the earth as seen 'ecosystemically'. A n d f r o m a still higher level of abstraction, we c a n t h i n k of nature itself as the integral of all ecosystems. T h i s n o t i o n , of an integral, means also that we t h i n k of 'wholes' c o m p o s e d of parts but distinct f r o m the s u m of those parts. In p h i l o s o p h i c a l language, we are developi n g not a h i e r a r c h i c a l systems-theory but a dialectic of emergence. A d i m e n s i o n of the h u m a n w o r l d . T h i s is essential, unless we take the nonsensical p o s i t i o n that h u m a n i t y is outside nature. Needless to say, developing a social view of ecology m a y not be to every n a t u r a l scientist's taste. A n d in any case it requires us to extend o u r m e t h o d by i n t r o d u c i n g dimensions p e c u l i a r to the h u m a n w o r l d , such as language, m e a n i n g

Since values are u n i q u e l y h u m a n p h e n o m e n a , we l o g i c a l l y extend the scope by t a k i n g into account ethical positions w i t h ecological content; a n d since an ethical p o s i t i o n is a g u i d i n g aspect for a c t i o n in the w o r l d , we talk of ecological politics as w e l l . It is in this latter sense that we i n d i c t c a p i t a l as 'anti-ecological', just as the i n d i c t m e n t of its 'ecodestructiveness' refers to the second, ecosystemic, sense of the t e r m . W h a t it m a y m e a n to act ecologically, or to h o l d 'ecocentric' values, is a p r o b l e m i n t e g r a t i n g a l l dimensions of ecology, a n d the solution of w h i c h , to be t e r m e d 'ecosocialism', is the a i m of this study. E c o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g concerns relationships, a n d the structures a n d f l o w s

between t h e m . At one level, this is mere c o m m o n sense; at another, it turns the w o r l d upside d o w n a n d c o m m i t s us to a w o r l d - v i e w a n d p h i l o s o p h y of nature very m u c h at odds w i t h the d o m i n a n t system. N a t u r e as such vastly exceeds the p h e n o m e n a of life, yet life m a y be justly regarded as b e i n g at the same time b o t h a special case of nature, a n d , in a w a y we o n l y d i m l y perceive, as a potential of nature - s o m e t h i n g that nature generates u n d e r specific circumstances. L i f e is unitary, in the sense that the basic m o l e c u l a r
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architectures of h u m a n s , redwoods a n d slime m o u l d s all indicate a c o m m o n ancestor. Yet life is also i n c o n c e i v a b l y - to o u r d i m awareness - m u l t i f o r m , in a p r o f u s i o n that has arisen over 3.5 b i l l i o n years t h r o u g h ceaseless interactions between l i v i n g creatures, a n d w i t h their n o n - l i v i n g s u r r o u n d . It follows that a l l ecosystems that c o n t a i n l i v i n g beings also relate to the rest of nature, whether this be other creatures, the i m m e d i a t e s u r r o u n d of the earth's m a c r o - p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t : i.e., the ' e n v i r o n m e n t ' , or the molecular, atomic or sub-atomic realms, or the extension of nature into the cosmos. A slender, filamentous c o n n e c t i o n throughout the great reaches of nature, to be sure, a n d scarcely likely ever to be fully p l u m b e d by o u r science, but existent so l o n g as we take the relatedness of elements w i t h i n nature w i t h full seriousness. F r o m this standpoint we think of nature as the integral of all ecosystems, e x t e n d i n g in every d i r e c t i o n a n d b e y o n d the limits o f the planet. T a l k i n g o f integrals means t a l k i n g i n terms o f o r g a n isms, a n d of wholes - in other words, the systematic i n t r o d u c t i o n of an

The Domination of Nature ecological v i s i o n c o m m i t s us to p o s i t i n g reality as an i n t e r c o n n e c t e d web whose numberless nodes are integrated into holistic beings of ever exfoliating w o n d e r - or w o u l d be so, u n t i l c a p i t a l got h o l d of t h e m .
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OnEcologies93 a n d an e n d - u n i m a g i n a b l y distant - at w h i c h all beings cease to exist because differentiation itself has ended. T h e passage of this great l o o p is registered in the famous laws of t h e r m o d y n a m i c s , t h o u g h not a c c o u n t e d for b y t h e m . T h e First L a w expresses the insight o f ancient n a t u r a l philosophy, What is Life? as in the E p i c u r e a n doctrine that ' n o t h i n g comes of n o t h i n g ' ; it holds that matter a n d energy are conserved i n physical systems. T h e S e c o n d L a w surpasses this by i n t r o d u c i n g the n o t i o n of f o r m a n d the dissipation of f o r m . If 'entropy' is a l o g a r i t h m i c measure of the probabilistic disorder of a given p h y s i c a l system, the S e c o n d L a w states that for such a system, whether it be the air in a r o o m , a l i v i n g body, or the earth as a whole, so l o n g as neither energy n o r matter is a d d e d to said system - that is, so l o n g as the system is 'closed' - then its entropy w i l l rise w i t h time. An increase in the randomness of its elements, or, f r o m the other side, a loss of f o r m , w i l l therefore emerge absent the i n p u t of energy. M o r e , the d i r e c t i o n of this change defines 'time's a r r o w ' . T h u s an ice cube melts, ' w i t h t i m e ' , in a glass of water, r e p l a c i n g a relatively i m p r o b a b l e state w i t h a m o r e probable one - that is, one c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a greater n u m b e r of system possibilities in w h a t physicists c a l l phase-space.
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T h e b o u n d a r y between the l i v i n g a n d the n o n - l i v i n g is not sharp, w h i c h is to be expected if life is a p o t e n t i a l f o r m of b e i n g h a t c h e d by nature. N a t u r e is formative, that is, it has the d y n a m i c p o t e n t i a l to generate p a r t i c u l a r nodes of existence; a n d life represents a way-station of its formativeness. W e r e nature a diffuse c o n t i n u u m w i t h no differentiation a m o n g its parameters, such as p e r t a i n e d at the m o m e n t of the ' B i g B a n g ' , a n d w i l l r e t u r n at the extended m o m e n t of its 'heat death', then there w o u l d be n o - t h i n g at a l l , n o p a r t i c u l a r i z e d aggregation, n o a l l o c a t i n g o f time a n d space, o f dust, o f nergie differentials, of galaxies, stars, planets a r o u n d stars, seas a n d l a n d on the planet, rocks on the l a n d , pools of water, concatenations of chemicals in the air a n d in the waters, cycles of temperature a n d light - in short, none of the differentiation that is the lot of the cosmos in the aeons between its a l p h a a n d o m e g a points. So the category of existence is o c c u p i e d by the 'some-things' that exist. T h e s e c o m p r i s e beings insofar as they internalize their existence, that is, m a k e their 'is-ness' part of themselves. In this way, every-thing has b e i n g insofar as it is not other-things. T h i s ' b e i n g of beings' relates to a n d to a degree i n c o r p o r a t e s the other-things, m a k i n g t h e m i n t e r n a l to itself even as they b e c o m e objects. Beings are t e m p o r a l : they evolve as they c o m e in a n d out of existence, a n d w i t h their e v o l u t i o n comes a fuller i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n . In other words, a m o t i o n of inwardness t o w a r d subjectivity a c c o m p a n i e s a m o r e h i g h l y differentiated objective existence. In one line of development, this eventually results in the emergence of consciousness a n d m i n d . W h a t we call 'development' takes place on a terrain of b e i n g , a n d t h r o u g h greater subject-object differentiation - w h e t h e r expressed in terms of the m a t u r a t i o n of a c h i l d or as the e v o l u t i o n of life. L i f e manifests a k i n d of b e i n g that self-sustains a n d replicates - that propagates its o w n f o r m , t h r o u g h the presencing of definite i n d i v i d u a l s a l o n g w i t h the capacity of said i n d i v i d u a l s to reproduce. B u t nature is not o n l y formative: it is also dissipative of f o r m - i n d e e d , were it not, f o r m itself c o u l d not exist. T h u s it is that for o u r universe, there is a trajectory between a l p h a a n d o m e g a points, between a n undifferentiated m o m e n t o f o r i g i n

S i m i l a r l y , w h e n we die, the exquisite

c o m b i n a t i o n of molecules that has existed in this l i v i n g f o r m is r e t u r n e d to the great flux of the universe. It is l i v i n g f o r m that m a i n t a i n s that exquisiteness - to w h i c h we, as self-reflective l i v i n g creatures, respond aesthetically. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of themes here that need a bit of u n p a c k i n g . First, we u n d e r s t a n d life to stand in a degree of tension w i t h the universe that gave it existence. T h e universe, or nature, has w i t h i n itself to give b i r t h to life, as a ' n a t u r a l ' potential of the cosmos. B u t at the same time, a n d t h r o u g h the workings of the same nature in its S e c o n d L a w , life stands against certain laws of the universe. L i f e must be ... a n d life cannot r e m a i n . Poised between these poles, life must c o n t i n u a l l y struggle for its existence; if it does not, it passes into death. In the current o r t h o d o x y the t e r m 'struggle' is e n d o w e d w i t h H o b b e s i a n a n d S o c i a l - D a r w i n i a n meanings: struggle is the w a r of all against a l l , a n d the survival of the fittest in a regime of c o n t i n u a l m u t u a l aggression. T h i s n o t i o n was not D a r w i n ' s , a n d it is not o n l y ideologically distorted, but factually w r o n g . By no means do a l l creatures behave in this way. In fact, no creature, not even the ' k i n g of the j u n g l e ' , endures w h o l l y t h r o u g h prdation; while for the simplest creatures, those m i c r o s c o p i c cellular beings on w h i c h the entire biosphere rests, the S o c i a l - D a r w i n i a n n o t i o n is w i t h o u t

94 The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature m e a n i n g . As the B r i t i s h palaeontologist R i c h a r d Fortey points out, the first 'sustainable' systems, the m a t creatures or 'stromatolites' whose lineage goes 3 b i l l i o n years back to the P r e c a m b r i a n (roughly 2.4 b i l l i o n years before the emergence of m o r e c o m p l e x m u l t i c e l l u l a r organisms), a n d that still endure in certain protected locales, are c o m p o s e d of layers of p r o k a r y o t i c bacteria, the topmost, ' t h i n as a sheet of p a p e r ' , d o i n g photosynthesis, the lower layers b r e a k i n g d o w n the waste products of the u p p e r by f e r m e n t a t i o n , the whole given structure a n d nutrient by t r a p p e d grains of minerals. It was a sustainable system, an ecosystem in miniature. If this truly reflected the state of the nascent biological w o r l d it is clear that cooperation and coexistence were a part of life close to its inception. Existence at base can be thought of as reciprocal rather than competitive ... These humble structures are the birth of ecology.
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OnEcologies95 means that each creature is insufficient in-itself, for insofar as it individuates, it also separates, a n d that f r o m w h i c h it is separated is therefore related to it, c o n n e c t e d yet different. T h o s e w h o do not c o m e together in this w a y are the non-existent. A l l l i v i n g beings have i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l relations o f parts t o wholes. T h i s quality, that life must exist in relation to other life a n d to nature as a whole if it is to c o n t e n d w i t h the S e c o n d L a w , defines the n o t i o n of ecosystem, a n d on a far deeper level t h a n that of a mere c o l l e c t i o n of bodies. Ecosystems constitute places of ' p u t t i n g together'. T h e y are the sites where creatures interact in ways potentially c o n d u c i v e to their emergence a n d sustenance. Ecosystems are the l o c i of nature's formativity, active ensembles where b e i n g comes i n t o existence. E c o l o g y in the larger sense is the discourse of such ensembles, a n d is built into the fabric of terrestrial life, f r o m the infinitesimal m i c r o - o r g a n i s m to the ecosystems n o w b e i n g destabilized.
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G i v e n that for the considerable majority of the time life has been on earth it has existed as static mats of micro-organisms u n d e r g o i n g b i o c h e m i c a l exchange w i t h the rest of nature, the m e a n i n g of 'struggle' includes forms of c o o p e r a t i o n as well as c o m p e t i t i o n a n d prdation; i n d e e d , the f o r m e r w o u l d be m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l t h a n the latter. T h e stromatolites h a d no organs, they gathered not, n o r d i d they hunt, n o r were they h u n t e d , a n d for a p e r i o d longer t h a n so-called higher life has existed. Yet they l i v e d a n d h a d 'ecologies'. For the stromatolites - a n d , at b o t t o m , ourselves - to struggle means therefore to engage in transfers of matter a n d energy r e q u i r e d to sustain a certain f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n in relation to the S e c o n d Law. D e a d , the numberless atoms of o u r substance are essentially u n c h a n g e d ; their m u t u a l p o s i t i o n i n g (including the p o s i t i o n i n g into m o r e c o m p l e x molecules), however, is drastically rearranged. T h e absence of life signals a reorganizat i o n i n the d i r e c t i o n o f randomness a n d disorganization, m a i n l y c a r r i e d out in this e p o c h t h r o u g h the agency of other l i v i n g beings w h o r e b u i l d their substance f r o m the elements of the o l d . L i f e , t h e n , is what sustains o r g a n i z a t i o n - to be exact, o r g a n i z a t i o n at l o w entropy. T h e ensemble of nergie a n d f o r m a l processes r e q u i r e d for this constitutes the specific life activity of a given creature or species. T h e h u n t i n g , gathering, a n d so on of ' h i g h e r ' organisms is a m o r e elaborate way of p r o c e e d i n g d o w n the p a t h , g r o u n d e d in the necessities of a m o r e elaborate f o r m a l structure. E a c h creature must extract energy in order to struggle, so as to m a i n t a i n its f o r m , w h i c h is to say, to endure. A n d this

L i f e emerges on this planet - we m a y set aside the question of life on other planets - o w i n g to a fortuitous set of circumstances w i t h i n the range o f c o s m i c possibility. H e r e nature originates life, w h i c h t h e n , t h r o u g h struggle a n d in its ecosystemic places, proceeds to evolve. B u t e v o l u t i o n is c o n d i t i o n e d at every step by the flux of ecosystems. Life's o w n activity, p l a y e d out in ecosystems (along w i t h other n a t u r a l influences, such as meteorites or solar flares) is what prods l i v i n g beings along, c h a n g i n g the terms of the struggle for existence a n d l e a d i n g to evolutionary development. E c o l o g y is therefore integrally tied to evolution - one m a y say that any given ecosystem is a synchronic slice t h r o u g h e v o l u t i o n a r y time. L i f e is defined anti-entropically, insofar as its c h i e f feature is the sustenance a n d creation o f f o r m . L i v i n g systems display degrees o f order i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e to the crude m i n d . W h e t h e r we look at the obvious p r o p o r t i o n s a n d symmetries of organisms or, m o r e impressively still, the fine m o l e c u l a r structure w h e r e i n each a t o m seems to be p o s i t i o n e d as in a tiny workshop, it w o u l d seem that life not o n l y disobeys but positively flouts the S e c o n d Law. T h i s is exactly what the struggle for existence is about. D e a d , the corpse of a once-alive creature very q u i c k l y falls into line w i t h the p r i n c i p l e of r i s i n g entropy. T h e w o r k o f life, a n d the intricate dance o f energy a n d f o r m that goes into it, are essentially enterprises to stave off a n d reverse the S e c o n d L a w . F a r f r o m refuting the S e c o n d L a w , then, life affirms its p o w e r by struggling against i t .
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T h e struggle of life against entropy does not a b o l i s h the S e c o n d L a w ,

96 The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature because l i v i n g creatures are a n y t h i n g but closed systems. W h e t h e r they convert a m b i e n t sunlight into usable f o r m t h r o u g h photosynthesis in the p l a n t k i n g d o m , or eat the products of this activity in the substance of animals, life is constantly t a k i n g in low-entropy energy to sustain its f o r m . A considerable degree of evolved b i o c h e m i c a l activity consists of the capacity of l i v i n g beings to capture energy in s m a l l packets, p r i n c i p a l l y of high-energy phosphate bonds, so that the fine structure of life's w o r k s h o p c a n p r o c e e d . H e r e , in the a s t o u n d i n g nano-factories of the cell, the p r i n ciple p e r m i t t i n g the emergence of life in the first place is institutionalized: reactants are h e l d together, energy is t r a n s f o r m e d into s m a l l a n d usable amounts, a n d the w h o l e tiny architecture is repeated trillions of times over, as life builds a n d propagates itself. T h r o u g h it a l l , the net entropie p a t t e r n remains very m u c h in line w i t h the S e c o n d L a w : insofar as life c a n be put in the p o s i t i o n of a (relatively) closed system, it w i l l increase the entropy of the totality c o m p r i s i n g itself a n d its s u r r o u n d . For the earth as a whole, it is not so clear. It is very likely to be the case that life's capacity to d r a w d o w n the energy of the sun (and to a lesser extent, that of m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y gravitational sources like tides a n d g e o t h e r m a l hot spots) has so overriden the constraints of closed systems as to have p r o d u c e d , at least u n t i l quite recently, w h e n the ecological crisis has reversed the p a t t e r n , an actual decrease of entropy on the planet. At least, that is the way I w o u l d r e g a r d the ' G a i a ' p r i n c i p l e , a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the earth itself is a super-organism, w i t h the capacity to self-regulate a n d even to exhibit signs of a k i n d of consciousness.
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OnEcologies97 u n d e r s t o o d sense, that e v o l u t i o n awaits its fulfilment in an e q u i l i b r i u m u n d e r the guidance of the c u r r e n t r u l i n g class or master race. T h e n o t i o n of formativeness in nature requires, rather, a m o r e d y n a m i c reading. F o r if ecology were ever in a steady state, then there w o u l d be no pressure to evolve, a n d n o t h i n g of the beauty a n d i n t r i c a c y of l i v i n g f o r m . It is lack, a n d conflict, a n d the ceaseless i n t e r a c t i o n between l i v i n g beings a n d their s u r r o u n d , that c o n d i t i o n the e v o l u t i o n of life. E q u i l i b r i u m as such is not a p r o p e r t y of life, w h i l e , generally speaking, those functions w i t h i n w h i c h a k i n d of balance obtains are better thought of as a metastable equipoising: the ' h o l d i n g together' of elements in creative f o r m a t i o n . H e r a c l i t u s seized the root of things w h e n he posited ceaseless m o t i o n , w i t h its absencing a n d presencing, as the w a y of the u n i v e r s e . " T h e r e f o r e w h e n we talk of the 'stability' of ecosystems, we do not i m p l y a static c o n d i t i o n , or even one of simple e q u i l i b r i u m . We m e a n , rather, a state o f b e i n g w i t h a n i r r e d u c i b l e indeterminacy, w i t h i n w h i c h one m i g h t say, 'life goes f o r w a r d ' : e v o l v i n g n e w (though not 'higher') species, a n d i n t r o d u c i n g those f o r m a l shapes a n d d y n a m i c processes into the ecosphere that c o m p r i s e its w o r k on earth. Since it is in the nature of ecosystems to move a n d evolve, we do better to evoke their integrity t h a n their stability. T h e n o t i o n of integrity includes stability as a rate of change a n d emergence c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the w o r k i n g of any ecosystem. E v e n at its ' c l i m a x ' the forest continues to evolve. At the p h y s i o l o g i c a l level, the i m m u n e system is stable if it is capable of c h a n g i n g by i n t r o d u c i n g n e w antibodies to meet n e w contingencies. D i t t o for the c i r c u l a t o r y system, w h i c h has to keep m a i n t a i n i n g its existent vessels, a n d e x t e n d i n g n e w ones into t r a u m a t i z e d areas. To speak of the integrity of s o m e t h i n g means r e c o g n i z i n g that it exists as the integral of its parts. In a w o r d , it is a W h o l e . Preserving ecological integrity is a matter, therefore, of preserving W h o l e s , a n d fostering their emergence a n d development. I say 'fostering' m e a n i n g that we have a choice as to whether to do this or not - a choice that depends in part on whether we value the integrity of ecosystems. As to why we s h o u l d do so, one m i g h t say that o u r o w n survival depends on it, but also a n d necessarily because to value this way means to fulfil o u r o w n nature, to find its integrity as w e l l . T h e o r d e r i n g effects of life on earth are not m e r e l y a matter of o v e r c o m i n g entropy. T h e y also result in those entities a n d patterns that we find beautiful - a n d this sense of beauty is no indulgence, but the p a r t i c i p a t i o n in that

It w o u l d seem the case that whatever G a i a n tendencies are evinced by the g l o b a l ecosystem are manifestations of the cumulative effects of evolution u p o n the planet, m a d e possible by the genius of life to subject the globe to its o r d e r i n g effects. In this scheme, the 'closed' system is the earth + space, w i t h respect to w h i c h the overall increase in entropy is a c c o u n t e d for by harmless re-radiation of degraded solar energy into the latter. M e a n w h i l e , organic evolution achieved for the earth as a whole what the life process does for i n d i v i d u a l beings, namely, an increase in order a n d d y n a m i c f o r m . If ecology is the readout of life's f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n at any p o i n t in time, then evolution is its f o r w a r d t e m p o r a l m o t i o n . T h e r e f o r e the ecol o g i c a l state of things at any m o m e n t is like a snapshot of evolution about to h a p p e n . T h i s s h o u l d not be i n t e r p r e t e d , however, as a teleologically o r d e r e d process, p u l l e d f r o m b e y o n d b y G o d - o r i n the m o r e ideologically

98 The Domination of Nature nature f r o m w h i c h b e i n g arises. If we w o n d e r at the beauty a n d elegance of nature, t h e n , we are nature a p p r e c i a t i n g itself, a n d o u r w o n d e r m e n t is p a r t of the f o r m of nature itself. We have the choice as to whether to try to foster the c o n t i n u a n c e of life. By c h o o s i n g ' n o ' , that is, c h o o s i n g to c o n t i n u e on w i t h the w a y of life that leads to ecological d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , we are also c h o o s i n g against ourselves. A n d this leads us to ask just w h o we are.

OnEcologies99 the blame for essentialism on the idea of nature. T h e categories of nature need not inherently l i m i t h u m a n freedom a n d potential, although they c a n be used in this w a y - a n d always w i l l be d r a w n u p o n as such by ideologues o f authority a n d repression. T h e y need not, i n other words, conflate h u m a n s w i t h other creatures, any m o r e t h a n they reduce elephants to h u m m i n g b i r d s . T h e idea of social or c u l t u r a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n is often opposed to determ i n a t i o n by nature, as t h o u g h the f o r m e r h a d a b u i l t - i n reassurance of On Human Being freedom. B u t there is no reason w h y this need be so. Essentialist views, say of blacks a n d L a t i n o s , c a n just as well be expressed in culturalist as in racist terms. Classically, r a c i s m is a b i o l o g i c a l essentialism, the object b e i n g c o n sidered an (inferior) sub-species of the h u m a n type. B u t this essence c a n just as w e l l be transferred to ethnicities or other c u l t u r a l structures, where it becomes the 'culture of poverty', or the 'black f a m i l y ' , or, as the latest w r i n k l e has it, the culture of b e l i e v i n g one's g r o u p to be r a c i a l l y oppressed, a l l of w h i c h allegedly traps the groups in question into a universe of selfdefeating social a s s u m p t i o n s .
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A natural creature, b e y o n d doubt, the same basic set of molecules, i n c l u d i n g D N A , the same submission to the entropy p r i n c i p l e , the same f u n d a m e n t a l g r o u n d p l a n , caught u p i n e v o l u t i o n a r y time a n d dependence u p o n ecosystems. L i k e a l l n a t u r a l creatures, the h u m a n one has a n i m p r i n t . T h e bat has sonar, the whale special capacities for d i v i n g (and its o w n k i n d of sonar), the bee its q u a n t u m dance, the venus flytrap its signature f o r m of carnivorousness. E a c h creature in nature has its 'nature', its w a y of being, its p o i n t o f i n s e r t i o n i n t o the ecosystemic m a n i f o l d , its p e c u l i a r m o d e o f struggling. W e r e g a r d ' h u m a n nature', o r ' h u m m i n g b i r d nature', o r 'bee nature', or ' m a p l e tree nature' in this light - b o t h h o l i s t i c a l l y as the speciesspecific w a y of struggle in an ecosystemic w o r l d c o n d i t i o n e d by the entropy p r i n c i p l e , a n d also at a m o r e concrete level, as the ensemble of powers, potentials a n d capacities that enable this w a y to be expressed. T h e r e is n o t h i n g mystical about the fact of p a r t i c u l a r species-nature: it is simple logic. To be is to struggle, a n d each p o i n t of difference in b e i n g is a different m o d e of struggling. In this way, l i v i n g forms arise a n d take their place in eocsystemic manifolds, each, in their way, better, each as their way. T h e n o t i o n of h u m a n nature is often u n p o p u l a r w i t h people of progressive persuasion, w h o see in it a system of essentialist chains: m e n are in essence like this (from M a r s ) ; w o m e n are like that (from Venus); blacks are this way; C h i c a n o s that way, a n d so on - always w i t h the m o r e or less unstated proviso that in a stable social order they w i l l r e m a i n that way, generally at a subaltern rank. N a t u r e - a n d h u m a n nature - in this view are essences, false reductions of what h u m a n i t y is, a n d therefore a fetter on what it c a n be. B u t this p o i n t of view, however well-intentioned, is mistaken. Essentialism is u n d o u b t e d l y w r o n g , b o t h m o r a l l y a n d philosophically, because it imputes to the object a thing-like inertia that violates its range of potential being; it is, we m i g h t say, a k i n d of reification. B u t there is no a priori reason to place

In any case, the n o t i o n of h u m a n nature is necessary for any i n - d e p t h a p p r e c i a t i o n of the ecological crisis, a n d its lack is a sign of the crisis itself. W i t h o u t such a view, h u m a n i t y is severed f r o m the r e m a i n d e r of nature, a n d a genuinely ecological v i e w is r e p l a c e d by m e r e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m . If we have no nature, t h e n nature is always outside us, a mere g r a b - b a g of resources a n d i n s t r u m e n t a l possibilities. N o r c a n the ties l i n k i n g h u m a n i t y a n d nature be given as a set of physical transfers between people a n d their ' e n v i r o n m e n t ' . Creatures struggle as o r g a n i s m i c totalities, that is, full beings w h o act in the ecosystemic w o r l d a n d are acted u p o n by the w o r l d , not as leaky bags of d u l l matter. A l l creatures co-evolve w i t h their s u r r o u n d , i n the course o f w h i c h they actively t r a n s f o r m their s u r r o u n d . N a t u r e gives rise to f o r m , a n d l i v i n g creatures are t r a n s - f o r m i n g forms. T h a t is w h y to talk of e n v i r o n m e n t instead of ecologies violates the nature of things. Life actively changes the w o r l d , f r o m other creatures to the very c o n f i g u r a t i o n of the rocks a n d the c o m p o s i t i o n of the air. T h e atmosphere we breathe was m a d e by l i v i n g creatures, a n d so was the soil. T h e f o r m of every creature is d e t e r m i n e d by other creatures. H u m a n s are also t r a n s - f o r m i n g , but w i t h a core difference that defines h u m a n nature: we have evolved the inwardness, potentially inherent for all beings, into a subjectivity, or self, w h i c h has the capacity for an imagination

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The Domination of Nature - an i n t e r n a l l y represented w o r l d - a n d we act u p o n a n d t r a n s f o r m reality t h r o u g h this i m a g i n a t i o n . I do not m e a n that we live o n l y in the i m a g i n a t i o n , as that w o u l d m e a n not l i v i n g at a l l , n o r do I m e a n that the i m a g i n a r y w o r l d is m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n the w o r l d it represents: I argue o n l y that the capacity to represent the w o r l d internally, to w o r k it over in thought, a n d to r e m e m b e r a n d anticipate it as w e l l as to actually i n h a b i t it, is what makes us h u m a n . T h e specifically h u m a n is a w h o l e m o t i o n , e n c o m p a s s i n g i n n e r a n d outer worlds a n d m u t u a l l y t r a n s f o r m i n g b o t h . T h e signature o f h u m a n nature lies in this m o t i o n as a whole, while the various powers that compose o u r nature are the c o m p o n e n t s necessary for this m o t i o n to occur. T h e s e powers a n d their various substrata a l l evolve ecosystemically, just like the rest of nature, w i t h the h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n that a c o - e v o l v i n g h u m a n sphere, m e d i a t e d by the i m a g i n a r y w o r l d , arises alongside the sphere of n o n - h u m a n existents - alongside, then interpenetrated w i t h , c o l o n i z i n g , a n d , in the t i m e of ecological crisis, destructive of the n o n - h u m a n order. T h i s does not m e a n that we go against nature a n d do or b e c o m e just as we please - an i l l u s i o n expressing a p a t h o l o g i c a l i m a g i n a t i o n . O u r lives r e m a i n c o n d i t i o n e d by the realities of nature, f r o m q u a n t u m flows, to coarse N e w t o n i a n mechanics, to the hegemony of the entropy p r i n c i p l e . No matter h o w ingeniously we m a y fashion nature - i n c l u d i n g the m a n i p u l a t i o n of the genome a n d the creating of n e w kinds of life - we are still d o i n g no m o r e t h a n l e a r n i n g its laws so that we m a y use t h e m for h u m a n purpose. N o r , it must be e m p h a s i z e d , does this r e m a r k a b l e capacity m a k e us the h i g h p o i n t or e n d p o i n t of e v o l u t i o n , for every creature standing at the e n d of its line of evolution is, w i t h respect to the genealogy of nature, as h i g h as a n y other. H o w e v e r , it does give us a k i n d of p o w e r such as no other creature has remotely possessed, a n d , w i t h this power, various delusions a n d opportunities. Teasing apart some of the threads of h u m a n nature, we f i n d the following: An ensemble of somatic elements, r a p i d l y e v o l v i n g o w i n g to the m a r k e d selection advantage conferred by h u m a n nature: a relatively huge b r a i n , elaborate voice b o x , opposable t h u m b , u p r i g h t posture, a n d the like, p r o v i d i n g the m a t e r i a l substratum of specifically h u m a n ways of being. Of special i m p o r t a n c e was the emergence of language as the specific h u m a n m o d e o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g a n d representing the w o r l d . T h i s i n v o l v e d ' h a r d w i r i n g ' o f the evolving b r a i n , c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h the evolving

On Ecologies speech apparatus, a n d , decisively, i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h e v o l v i n g forms o f sociality, the result b e i n g that the powers of i n d i v i d u a l s c o u l d be c o m bined. H u m a n sociality i m p l i e s society, as a k i n d of s u p e r - b o d y w i t h a culture, transmissible t h r o u g h generations as a shared system of meanings. S o c i e t y a n d its culture b e c o m e the locus of that p a r a l l e l , i m a g i n e d universe that comprises the h u m a n o r d e r in its v a r y i n g relationships to nature. T h e b o u n d a r y of the super-body w i t h pre-existing nature is m a d e by means of technology. Tools are extensions of the b o d y as w e l l as transfer points of the b o d y into m a t e r i a l nature, a n d of nature i n t o the body. T e c h n o l o g y is always socially d e t e r m i n e d a n d the bearer of meanings constructed t h r o u g h language. It is not a c o l l e c t i o n of tools but a fabric of social relations, certain threads of w h i c h are nature t r a n s f o r m e d into tools. H u m a n b e i n g entails a n e w o r d e r of subjectivity. A l l beings, we have observed, possess a p o t e n t i a l i n t e r i o r i t y i m p l i e d by their difference f r o m other beings - the fact that they are some-thing a n d not others. H u m a n nature appears as that development w i t h i n w h i c h this interiority acquires i n t e r n a l structure t h r o u g h the p a r t i c u l a r forms taken by o u r consciousness u n d e r the influence of language. A l l creatures are present to each other. L a n g u a g e involves re-presentation: a sphere of i n t e r i o r i t y arises where what is presented is presented back - re-presented - o w i n g to its signification w i t h language. H e n c e the real is, so to speak, d o u b l e d . T h i s re-presenting is formative of the imaginative space of subjectivity. T h e i m a g i n e d w o r l d is just as m u c h a part of h u m a n ecology as are c h e m i c a l messengers for d o g ecology or m o t h ecology. A s this space o f interior representation attains identity, it becomes a self. Its f o r m is given by a degree of consciousness of itself, clothed by l a n guage w i t h the words T (as the subject phase) a n d ' m e ' (as the object phase). T h e r a d i c a l l y augmented p o w e r of the h u m a n species is generated here, in the space where the w o r l d is created w i t h i n the self, w h i c h then defines a social collectivity that acts u p o n the w o r l d . An ensemble of relations is involved here - not just intelligence, a n d the p r a c t i c a l skills, but desire as well, w h i c h conditions a n d drives the practical intelligence. T h i s arises f r o m the r a d i c a l formlessness of h u m a n instinctual structures, w h i c h are reshaped a c c o r d i n g to culture. C o r r e l a t e d

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The Domination of Nature w i t h this are the processes of separation a n d i n d i v i d u a t i o n that o c c u r out o f the m a t r i x o f c h i l d h o o d . C u l t u r e i m p l i e s i n t e r g e n e r a t i o n a l transm i s s i o n , w h i c h rests u p o n the facts of c h i l d h o o d , s o m e t h i n g no other species remotely undergoes.
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On Ecologies distinctive features of h u m a n i t y in the archaeological r e c o r d is f u n e r a r y evidence. E v e n the simplest trace of a b u r i a l condenses all that is specifically h u m a n : an awareness of death, that is, of the finitude of o u r self; a protest against death; care for the p e r s o n w h o d i e d , a l o n g w i t h p r e s u m e d g r i e f a n d sense of loss; signification, or representation, a l o n g w i t h technology; a n d as a c o n d i t i o n for the w h o l e ensemble, society a n d culture. N o t h i n g of the sort obtains for other creatures.
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T h e sociality of h u m a n s is u n i q u e - t h o u g h neither m o r e n o r less so t h a n that of bees, coyotes, baboons, d o l p h i n s , a n d so o n . It c a n n o t be r e d u c e d to that of any other social a n i m a l , no matter h o w m a n y a m u s i n g parallels m a y be f o u n d . T h i s is because of the centrality of the self in h u m a n existence, a n d also because this self is always a n d necessarily a social p r o d u c t , f o r m e d t h r o u g h language a n d m u t u a l recognition between the d e v e l o p i n g p e r s o n a n d others. T h i s f o u n d a t i o n gives the h u m a n self a p e r m a n e n t l y d i a l e c t i c a l q u a l i t y - that is, it is f o r m e d in a n d lives t h r o u g h a set of contradictions that arise as the self is f o r m e d in m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f others, a n d later, i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n between i n d i v i d u a l interest a n d social b o n d . T h e m a r k of the other is always u p o n the self, a n d so are its v u l n e r a b i l i t y to loss a n d fear of solitude, facts that are to l o o m large i n o u r relation t o n a t u r e .
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D e f i n i n g h u m a n nature as a tension w i t h nature enables us to avoid essentialist positions, o r c o n f i n i n g the h u m a n b e i n g i n any k i n d o f prescriptive strait-jacket. It allows for the quirkiness of h u m a n beings, a n d o u r playfulness a n d aesthetic side. It also says something about h u m a n creativity, as the restless need to remake the w o r l d a n d to m a k e other worlds, a n d about the sense of beauty that u n i q u e l y marks the species. A n d it does this w h i l e yet r o o t i n g us in nature a n d a l l o w i n g for the i m m e n s e range of ecological modes of b e i n g that characterize us, i n c l u d i n g those l e a d i n g to a n d potentially l e a d i n g out of the ecological crisis. T h e general f u n c t i o n we have been d e s c r i b i n g m a y be identified as production, as the t e r m for what h u m a n beings do, as part of nature, to express the f o r m a t i v i t y of nature by m e d i a t i n g it t h r o u g h the h u m a n w o r l d . W h e n we p r o d u c e , we trans-form nature. We use the t e r m ' l a b o u r ' to express in a general w a y the h u m a n propensity to p r o d u c e , b e i n g careful to distinguish this m e a n i n g f r o m the d e g r a d e d (or 'alienated') sense of t o i l that characterizes the products of d o m i n a t i o n , as we discuss below. Similarly, an e c o n o m y enters the picture w h e n p r o d u c t i o n is socially o r g a n i z e d , a n d there is a d i v i s i o n of labour, so that h u m a n powers are m o r e elaborately expressed. B o t h social p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n are direct extensions o f h u m a n nature, in that each transforms nature t h r o u g h an engagement w i t h the i m a g i n a t i o n a n d the ensemble of h u m a n powers. P r o d u c t i o n - a n d the h u m a n capacity of l a b o u r - are, as M a r x insisted, a matter of l o o k i n g ahead: every object w h i c h gets m a d e exists in the i m a g i n a t i o n before it does so in reality. Just so is every c o m m o d i t y defined, as we have observed, by its use-value, a n d this, too, is necessarily a f u n c t i o n of need, w h i c h in t u r n is a f u n c t i o n of w a n t , w h i c h in t u r n c a n be a f u n c t i o n of desire. No p u r e l y m e c h a n i c a l or u t i l i t a r i a n a c c o u n t i n g c a n give a sense of the use-values of c o m m o d i t i e s , a n d therefore, of the e c o n o m y itself: the i m a g i n a t i o n needs to be i n v o k e d .
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T h e uniqueness of h u m a n b e i n g a n d its r e l a t i o n to desire, a n d the dialectics of the self a n d r e c o g n i t i o n , means also that sexuality a n d gender p l a y a u n i q u e l y p o w e r f u l role in h u m a n existence c o m p a r e d w i t h a l l other creatures. T h e significance of this for the ecological crisis w i l l be e x a m i n e d in the next chapter.

A c o m m o n feature of this ensemble is a u n i q u e tension d e v e l o p i n g between h u m a n i t y a n d nature. F r o m one side, a fully e m b o d i e d creature, o b e y i n g all the laws of the universe; f r o m the other, a s t u b b o r n , p r o u d a n d w i l f u l creature w h o distinguishes the self f r o m nature a n d even chooses to protest the n a t u r a l . We c a n say it is a p o t e n t i a l , t h e n , of h u m a n nature to quarrel with nature and even to reject the purely natural given. T h i s n o t i o n , dialectical to the core, m a y serve to encapsulate a n d signify h u m a n nature as a whole. It appears in p h e n o m e n a as u b i q u i t o u s as the n e e d to cook food, a n d to a d o r n the body, a n d as f u n d a m e n t a l as technology - for each t o o l , as an extension of the body, is also a k i n d of protest against the limits of the n a t u r a l body. A n d it marks the deepest strata of o u r psyche as we relate to the ends of life. E v e r y creature fights for life, but o n l y a creature defined by selfhood w i l l p o n d e r death, fear death, deny death, or develop r e l i g i o n as a r e a c t i o n to the p e r c e i v e d l i m i t s of existence. T h u s one of the most

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The Domination of Nature B u t we are not done w i t h h u m a n nature. T h e r e are yet other, m o r e c o m p l e x qualities to be n o t e d : T h e emptiness that always shadows the self a n d the p e c u l i a r set of powers c o n f e r r e d by h u m a n nature creates for h u m a n i t y a capacity not seen elsewhere in nature, namely, a r e a c h i n g b e y o n d itself, a l o n g w i t h the p o t e n t i a l - by no means expressed in all instances - of a c h i e v i n g a universal perspective, a n d o f r e a c h i n g t o w a r d the W h o l e . B r o a d l y speaki n g , this refers to o u r s p i r i t u a l life, the forms taken by w h i c h , or lack thereof, are very m u c h p a r t of the ecological c r i s i s .
17

On Ecologies is given by the specific activity of each being, a n d is never singular. Trees in a forest are l i n k e d t h r o u g h the m y r i a d creatures w h o relate to t h e m as food, shelter or nesting place, as w e l l as t h r o u g h their access to water, air a n d sunlight; a n d also directly between each other, t h r o u g h a subterreanean network of fungi, root hairs a n d the like that effectively links all the trees i n t o a superorganism. E x i s t i n g systems theories, i n c l u d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a l theories, t e n d to posit a m e c h a n i c a l a n d c r u d e l y h i e r a r c h i c a l set of relations between ecosystemic elements. T h i s leads to hopeless contradictions in the relations between h u m a n i t y a n d nature, w h i c h have prevented the emergence of an i n t e g r a l view, a n d divide those w h o sever h u m a n i t y f r o m nature f r o m those w h o w o u l d submerge it in nature. So l o n g as mechanistic r e d u c t i o n holds sway, the set of ecosystems w i l l be put together essentially like a m o t o r car, w i t h each system b e i n g a part such as the starter or the tyres. W h a t is needed is r e c o g n i t i o n of the fact that the formativeness of life introduces a r a d i c a l l y different element, w h i c h we here s i m p l y call the W h o l e , a n d is manifest in the d y n a m i c fluidity that obtains w i t h i n a n d between ecosystems. E l e m e n t s of l i v i n g ecosystems do not exist as separable parts; they also exist in relation to the W h o l e , w h i c h is n o n - r e d u c i b l e to any of its parts, w h i c h plays a role i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m , a n d c a n n o t exist w i t h o u t t h e m . W h a t i s i n d i v i d u a l exists in relation to the W h o l e , therefore, a n d this relationship must be i n c l u d e d in any concrete a c c o u n t of things. O u r very b e i n g is given this way, a n d , for h u m a n s , e n d o w e d as we are w i t h intense interiority, it appears as spirit. T h e W h o l e is the formative n o t i o n of the ecosystem: it is a k i n d of logos that constitutes the intelligence of the ecosystem, w h i c h intelligence is d r a w n u p o n by i n d i v i d u a l beings w i t h i n the ecosystem a n d , in o u r case, eventuates in consciousness. W h e n we, or any other creature, are t r u l y t h i n k i n g , we are t h i n k i n g in respect to the W h o l e ; there is a sense in w h i c h it c a n also be said that the W h o l e is t h i n k i n g t h r o u g h us. T h e boundary-processes between elements i n a n ecosystem d e t e r m i n e its integrity. T h e s e processes are as v a r i e d as life-forms themselves, a n d c a n n o t be r e d u c e d to a n y c o m m o n p r o p e r t y b e y o n d the i n t e r p l a y between formativeness a n d the constraints of entropy a n d other fundamental physical laws. Yet we c a n say that the integrity or ' h e a l t h ' of an ecosystem is a f u n c t i o n of h o w these b o u n d a r y processes, of whatever k i n d , relate o r g a n isms to each other internally, to other ecosystems externally, a n d to the W h o l e . T h e integrity o f a n ecosystem c a n b e expressed i n relational terms;

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In a d d i t i o n , we recognize that the p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n of the self, p o i s e d as it is between the entropy p r i n c i p l e a n d the l o o k i n g - f o r w a r d of p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h desire for lost objects, projection into the future, a n d a m b i t i o n s for universality - that a l l this leads to a special, socially c o n d i t i o n e d t e m p o r a l i t y specific for each society, a n d p r o d u c e d in its m y t h a n d narrative. H u m a n nature, b y rejecting the given a n d m a k i n g its w o r l d , configures an account of itself a c c o r d i n g to time: it produces history.
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We have said s o m e t h i n g already a b o u t the special t e m p o r a l c o n d i t i o n s of c a p i t a l i s m , w i t h its speed-up a n d b i n d i n g of time; however, every society has a special temporality, w r o u g h t f r o m the a r r o w c o n f e r r e d by the entropy p r i n c i p l e , a n d manifesting the tension w i t h nature that w i l l always be an aspect of h u m a n being. A l l of the powers of h u m a n i t y , s p i r i t u a l a n d p r a c t i c a l , are available for addressing the social o r d e r a n d have the p o t e n t i a l for t r a n s f o r m i n g it, t h r o u g h a r e v o l u t i o n if necessary. If n o t h i n g in nature stands still, h o w m u c h m o r e so is this the case for h u m a n beings a n d society! A l l things pass, a n d for us, the relevant question is w h e t h e r the capitalist o r d e r w i l l pass away before it causes h u m a n i t y to pass away. B u t c a p i t a l c a n n o t pass away of itself; it has to be ushered out, t h r o u g h the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o an ecologically sane society.

E c o s y s t e m i c Integrity and Disintegration Ecosystemic b o u n d a r i e s provide structural scaffolding for what is w i t h i n an o r g a n i s m (the 'organs' a n d other i n t e r n a l ecosystems - nervous, e n d o c r i n e , i m m u n e , a n d so on), as w e l l as the p o i n t of differentiation between ecosystems. T h e nature of the ties between organisms in a p a r t i c u l a r ecosystem

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The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature we m i g h t say that it depends u p o n the degree of differentiation between its elements, where this t e r m describes a state of being that preserves both individuality and connectedness. F r o m a n o t h e r angle, to the extent that o r g a n i s m i c beings recognize one another, they are b o t h distinct a n d connected: they b e c o m e themselves t h r o u g h active r e l a t i o n to the other. In this usage, r e c o g n i t i o n n e e d not i m p l y any defined subjective element. It is rather any m u t u a l s i g n a l l i n g that preserves b o t h c o n n e c t i o n a n d individuality. N o r does differentiation always i m p l y h a r m o n y or e q u i l i b r i u m . It c a n allow for interactions between organisms that result in the death of one or m o r e of t h e m ; but a death, nevertheless, that provides for the preservation of the W h o l e .
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On Ecologies as w e l l as t h r o u g h the effects of money, to be discussed below. A l l of these m o d a l i t i e s i n t r o d u c e self-perpetuating splits i n t o ecosystems, w h i c h disintegrate t h e m . W h a t is split away leads not to a r e n e w a l of b e i n g but to emptiness a n d w i t h e r i n g , physically but also subjectively, as w h e n t r a u m a t i c m e m o r i e s are split off, or parts of the self b e c o m e a l i e n .
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T h e ecological crisis is a great a n d p r o l i f e r a t i n g set of ecosystemic splits, b o t h n a t u r a l a n d h u m a n , subjective as w e l l as objective - a f r a y i n g of the fabric of the ecosphere. B u t what was frayed c a n also be m e n d e d , the w a y a b r o k e n a r m c a n be m e n d e d . H e r e the break in the bone splits apart the f u n c t i o n a l u n i t y o f the l i m b , w h i c h the healer m e n d s b y f i g u r i n g out h o w to h o l d together the b r o k e n parts so that nature's reintegrative process c a n resume. So it is w i t h d a m a g e d ecosystems: ways must be f o u n d to restore a n d h o l d together elements to create a flourishing ecosystemic boundedness. T h e r e are i m p o r t a n t h o m o l o g i e s t o this i n the o r d i n a r y f u n c t i o n i n g o f nature, for example, the structural d y n a m i c s of the cell, where small packets of energy are deployed t h r o u g h the exquisite a r r a n g e m e n t of ribosomes in m i t o c h o n d r i a , ' h o l d i n g together' the intricate array of molecules so that the synthesis of l o w - e n t r o p y c o m p o u n d s - a n d structures c o m p o s e d of these - c a n go f o r w a r d . It is not too far-fetched to c l a i m that these c o n ditions f o r m a l l y r e p r o d u c e those a t t e n d i n g the origins of life itself. A n o t h e r example, in w h i c h I s h o u l d hope every h u m a n participates, is the h o l d i n g o f c h i l d r e n , the animate c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e m , a n d , then, necessarily, the letting go w h e n the c h i l d is capable of m o v i n g on her o w n . T h i s is the w a y i n d i v i d u a l i t y a n d connectedness b e c o m e integrated i n a h u m a n life. T h e great intricacies of r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n are variations on this simple theme; they a m o u n t to the p r o v i s i o n of safe spaces in w h i c h an entropically unlikely i n t e r a c t i o n of elements c a n take place. N o t h i n g fancy, yet m o r e t h a n three b i l l i o n years of evolution enter into it. It is i m p o r t a n t to recall in this time of despair that humanity, the greatest pest in nature, is not necessarily pestilential. A l l p r o d u c t i o n - o u r g i v i n g f o r m to nature - is an ensemble of o r d e r a n d disorder, a n d an entropie gamble. B y ' p r o d u c i n g p r o d u c t i o n ' ecologically, w e b r i n g the odds o f that p r o d u c t i o n in the d i r e c t i o n of ecosystemic integrity. T h e artist's fury to rearrange the given is a k i n to the gardener's t e a r i n g of the soil. ' T h e cut w o r m forgives the p l o u g h , ' wrote B l a k e , k n o w i n g that d e s t r u c t i o n a n d p r o d u c t i o n are c o n j o i n e d sides of a dialectic. G a r d e n i n g , taken at large, c a n v a r y f r o m a c r u d e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of

The

ecosystem consists of the c o m i n g s a n d goings of a l l its constituents; this ceaseless m o t i o n builds u p the W h o l e , w i t h i n w h i c h , therefore, the death o f i n d i v i d u a l s is just as i m p o r t a n t as their p a r t i c u l a r lives. If differentiation is the key to u n d e r s t a n d i n g ecosystemic integrity, w h a t makes for ecosystemic disintegration? H e r e we i n t r o d u c e a f o r m a l process that interrupts the dialectic of i n d i v i d u a l i t y a n d connectedness, a n d leads to the separation of elements, or, f r o m a n o t h e r angle, of their splitting. W h a t splits apart the elements of an ecosystem, either f r o m each other, or, w h a t a m o u n t s to the same t h i n g , f r o m the W h o l e , w i l l i m p e d e the d e v e l o p m e n t of that W h o l e , b l o c k the e v o l u t i o n of n e w forms, a n d eventually destroy the i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n it. S p l i t t i n g entails a b r e a k d o w n of r e c o g n i t i o n . W h a t e v e r w i l l fragment an ecosystem, separating its constituents a n d d e p r i v i n g t h e m of the range of their m u t u a l interactions, w i l l b l o c k the f o r m a t i o n of the W h o l e , a n d to that degree i m p o v e r i s h the d e v e l o p m e n t of the organisms w i t h i n that w h o l e , cause a d e t e r i o r a t i o n of their i n t e r n a l state a n d even, perhaps, l e a d to their e x t i n c t i o n . T h i s c a n be v i e w e d as a process of p h y s i c a l separation - the so-called ' i s l a n d effect' by w h i c h ecosystems sink b e l o w the size that p e r m i t s the o p t i m a l i n t e r a c t i o n of their o r g a n i s m i c elements
20

- but also as the i n t r o -

d u c t i o n of disruptive elements into the ecosystem, either n e w organisms ('pests' a n d pathogens), or n e w substances that b l o c k the life-processes a n d so a n n i h i l a t e ecosystemic existence. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of m e t h y l isocyanate into B h o p a l was an example of splitting as a n n i h i l a t i o n . A similar discussion c o u l d be r e s u m e d at a m o r e subtle level for pollutants that have b e e n inserted into the biosphere - as, for example, by organochlorines that m i m i c h o r m o n e s a n d fragment the integrity of the e n d o c r i n e ecosystem
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- and

also by capital, w h i c h separates the p r o d u c e r f r o m the means of p r o d u c t i o n ,

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The Domination of Nature capitalist c o n s u m e r i s m (pesticides, heavy e q u i p m e n t , a n d so on), to i n s p i r e d modes o f ' o r g a n i c ' i n t e r v e n t i o n , i n c l u d i n g the practice o f ' p e r m a c u l t u r e ' , w h i c h engages a conscious effort to design gardens as full ecosystems.
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On Ecologies consciously transformative activity that is the h u m a n t r a d e m a r k also be an e v o l u t i o n a r y force? C o n s i d e r the A m a z o n B a s i n , a hotly contested zone of the ecological crisis. It is r e c o g n i z e d that an i m m e n s e p r o p o r t i o n of l i v i n g species i n c l u d i n g i n n u m e r a b l e species as yet undiscovered by us, a l o n g w i t h m a n y that are extremely useful - are f o u n d in this great w o m b . W h a t accounts for this p r o d i g i o u s diversity? T h e r e is no single 'efficient cause', in the sense d e r i v e d for the ecological crisis as a whole, but there are distinct efficient causal patterns, a m a j o r one o f w h i c h involves h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n . T h e p r i n c i p a l m o d e of species diversification is k n o w n as 'allopatric speciation' - briefly, the divergent paths taken by c o m m o n gene pools as the creatures b e a r i n g those genes are separated a n d undergo different development u n d e r v a r y i n g ecosystemic conditions. T h e famous example is the v a r i e d evolution o f f i n c h e s i n the G a l a p a g o s Islands, discovered b y D a r w i n . A s different p o p u l a t i o n s f r o m the stem species m o v e d to different islands, they ceased i n t e r b r e e d i n g a n d divergences began to appear u n d e r the different i s l a n d c o n d i t i o n s - w h i c h h a d been further c h a n g e d by species activity - u n t i l eventually n e w species a p p e a r e d . In the hot a n d moist A m a z o n B a s i n , the i m m e n s e , v a r i e d yet relatively u n b r o k e n t e r r a i n , some six m i l l i o n square kilometres in area, creates an e x p o n e n t i a l l y greater gene p o o l for the purposes o f r e c o m b i n a t i o n . H o w ever, the very unbrokenness of the t e r r a i n c a n be seen to w o r k against the project of speciation. F o r despite the great range of soils a n d habitats, there are few islands, or m o u n t a i n ranges, or impassable bodies of water to provide the ecosystemic differentiation to a l l o w allopatric speciation to take its course 'naturally'. O n e w o u l d think, rather, that the oceanic scale of the rainforest w o u l d cause related gene pools to i n t e r m i x c o n s t a n d y thereby i n h i b i t i n g the p r o f u s i o n of n e w species. S u c h r e c k o n i n g omits, however, to take into account a creature able to create n e w ecosystems a n d demarcate t h e m f r o m others in a fluid a n d shifting way. M o r e , this creature, left to its o w n devices, w i l l for quite a few m i l l e n n i a live in s m a l l c o m m u n i t i e s a n d as a result b u i l d a great n u m b e r of micro-ecosystems.
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All

g o o d g a r d e n i n g consists of differentiating a pre-existent given by the h o l d i n g together of disparate elements (seeds, water, g o o d soil, compost, m u l c h , light) so that ecosystem development c a n occur. C o n s c i o u s p r e p a r a t i o n is necessary, a n d c u l t u r a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d knowledge. T h u s g a r d e n i n g is a social process, e n h a n c e d to the degree that a fully r e a l i z e d association enters the picture. In fact, a c o m m u n i t y g a r d e n is an excellent m o d e l of a p a t h w a y t o w a r d an ecological society, as we w i l l discuss later o n . T h e w h o l e of history enters into each g a r d e n plot, a n d is p e r e n n i a l l y r e o p e n e d there. T h e s e filaments extend back to the origins of h u m a n k i n d , a n d reveal the authentic core of o u r nature - w h i c h is to intervene creatively i n nature. L o n g before the N e o l i t h i c r e v o l u t i o n h a d o p e n e d a p a t h t o w a r d h i e r a r c h i c a l society, h u m a n i t y h a d l e a r n e d t o r e a d the b o o k o f nature a n d to follow its generative way. It was a h a r d l e a r n i n g , whose lesson is lost in a facile r o m a n t i c i z a t i o n of 'first peoples'. F o r the very first h u m a n s were by no means always k i n d to nature, n o r s h o u l d we expect this of t h e m . M a r a u d i n g bands of archaic peoples, for example, were quite likely the species e x t e r m i n a t o r s o f mastodons, a l o n g w i t h m a n y other species. A n d w h y not? W h y s h o u l d the powers o f collective a c t i o n a n d technology afforded b y h u m a n b e i n g not have gone h a y w i r e a g a i n a n d a g a i n u n d e r the c i r c u m stances of Palaeolithic existence, just as they have since? T h e r e is no surprise in that. T h e w o n d e r is, rather, that at least some of the same creatures l e a r n e d f r o m their mistakes, l e a r n e d to care for nature, a n d to d i v i n e the essentials of an ecocentric w a y of being. If we l o o k back to those forms of p r o d u c t i o n that are not o n l y precapitalist but essentially pre-market (in that the elements of private property, m o n e y a n d exchange are p e r i p h e r a l to life), we find h u m a n i t y capable of the whole range of ecological relations, creative as w e l l as w a n t o n . T h e latter is w r i t t e n in m a n y extinctions a n d false starts, w h i l e the f o r m e r m a y be s u m m a r i z e d as follows: that under original conditions, the human being is not merely capable of living in 'harmony with nature'; more fundamentally, an unalienated human intelligence is itself capable of fostering the evolution of nature even as it itself evolves. In this sense, what we c a l l 'nature' is to some degree a h u m a n p r o d u c t itself, so that ecology a n d history have a c o m m o n root. If e v o l u t i o n is m e d i a t e d by the activity of creatures t h r o u g h ecosystems, s h o u l d not the

T h e indigenous peoples o f the A m a z o n not o n l y created

n e w ecosystems, they deliberately m a d e these in a w a y that e n c o u r a g e d diversity of species - for instance, by p l a n t i n g different configurations of trees that w o u l d attract v a r y i n g patterns of game species. M o r e o v e r , they engaged, like m a n y Indians o f the A m e r i c a s , i n the c o n t r o l l e d b u r n i n g o f

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On Ecologies reference, de D u v e , a N o b e l Laureate, insists that because of the large n u m b e r of l i n k e d successive steps necessary for the emergence of life, this c o u l d not have been a freak or r a n d o m event, rather, 'the universe was - a n d presumably still is - pregnant w i t h life' (1995: 9). See also Fortey 1997. W h e r e de D u v e builds f r o m the atomic level to the ever-growing complexification of l i v i n g f o r m , Fortey presents a p a n o r a m i c view of the whole m a r c h of evolution. 5. A c c o r d i n g to P a u l Davies (1983), we have some i o years to wait for this, a comfortable interval. T h e relatively i m m i n e n t cosmological catastrophe, w h i c h w i l l surely wipe out the earth itself whether or not humans are still on it, is the scheduled t u r n i n g of the sun into a red-giant star, whose dimensions w i l l reach the orbit of this planet in a mere 5 b i l l i o n (5 x i o ) years - roughly the time the earth has been in existence. So we are halfway there.
1 0 0 9

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the landscape. U t t e r l y u n l i k e the mass b u r n i n g s b y a l i e n a t e d a n d desperate workers a n d peasants that have b e e n d e s t r o y i n g the rainforest for the past two generations, this k i n d o f b u r n i n g i s c o n d u c t e d i n s m a l l batches, a t carefully c o n t r o l l e d times a n d rates, a n d b y the i n d i v i d u a l s w h o d i r e c t l y i n h a b i t the l a n d . A s S u s a n n a H e c h t a n d A l e x C o c k b u r n c o m m e n t for the K a y a p (who at the h e i g h t of t h e i r society t e n d e d an area r o u g h l y the size of F r a n c e ) , the b u r n i n g 'is c o u p l e d w i t h activities that c o m p e n s a t e for its p o t e n t i a l l y destructive effects'.
25

T h e result is a c t u a l e n h a n c e m e n t of fertility

(necessary g i v e n the p e c u l i a r c o n d i t i o n s o f the rainforest) a n d the p r o v i s i o n o f micro-ecosystems for r a p i d s p e c i a t i o n . H e r e h u m a n i t y writes w i t h its l a b o u r o n the surface o f the A m a z o n b a s i n t o b r i n g f o r t h n e w a n d r i c h l y v a r y i n g life forms. F a r f r o m b e i n g a c o n g e n i t a l e n e m y o f n a t u r e , t h e n , h u m a n s c a n b e a p a r t o f n a t u r e that catalyses nature's o w n e x u b e r a n c e . T h i s e c o l o g i c a l l y creative a c t i v i t y i s

reserved, however, for those whose h u m a n e c o l o g y is closely c o n f i g u r e d to the v a r y i n g n a t u r a l ecologies w i t h w h i c h i t interacts, s o that the c o m b i n e d h u m a n - n a t u r a l ecosystem i s i n t e g r a l a n d differentiated r a t h e r t h a n disi n t e g r a t e d a n d split. It needs be r e a l i z e d that this k i n d of b e h a v i o u r requires that the e a r t h n o t be treated as p r i v a t e property, or, w h a t comes to the same t h i n g , that the l a b o u r that undertakes it is freely differentiated. It is u n d e r such ' o r i g i n a l ' c o n d i t i o n s that h u m a n intelligence a n d consciousness l e a r n e d t o take a n e c o c e n t r i c f o r m . T h i s w a y o f b e i n g creates p e o p l e w h o differentiate n a t u r e a n d k n o w the i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t species one b y o n e ,
26

w h o live i n the s m a l l , c o l l e c t i v e l y m a n a g e d c o m m u n i t i e s that p r o v i d e a n i m m e n s e range o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s for a l l o p a t r i c s p e c i a t i o n , a n d w h o develop the existentially alive c u l t u r e whose lessons are ours to l e a r n .
2 7

Notes 1. See, for example, G o u d i e 1991. Alongside the manifest a n d immediate effects are others m o r e pervasive a n d subtle, such as the spread of substances on currents of air a n d water to every spot on the earth. T h u s p o l a r bears t u r n out to have huge c o n centrations - in fact, the highest anywhere - of pesticide residues sprayed thousands of miles away. Of course, we should keep a sense of p r o p o r t i o n : only an infinitesimal p o r t i o n of the substance of the universe has been altered by h u m a n activity. It's just that this speck of dust happens to define our existence. 2. T h e best single account of the history of ecological thought is Worster 1994. 3. As in Bateson 1972. 4. See, for example, de D u v e 1995. W o r k i n g w i t h i n an entirely materialist frame of

6. As for the S e c o n d Law, the m a t h e m a t i c a l physicist R o g e r Penrose raises the question of its cosmological relationships in an extremely interesting c o n t r i b u t i o n . T h e entropy p r i n c i p l e defines time's a r r o w - i.e., it determines whether / or t' is the later for any closed system according to w h i c h one corresponds to greater entropy for that system. Penrose asks h o w this c a n be more than a circular definition, in w h i c h entropy increases w i t h time, while time's arrow is defined as that direction in w h i c h entropy increases. ' S o m e t h i n g ' , he wonders, 'forced the entropy to be l o w in the past ... [W]e should not be surprised if, given a low-entropy state, the entropy turns out to be higher at a later time. W h a t should surprise us is that entropy gets more a n d more ridiculously tiny the farther a n d farther we examine it in the past!' Penrose observes that we take in lowentropy food in order to sustain the l o w entropy necessary for life. B u t '[w]here does this supply of l o w entropy come from?' Ultimately, as we know, from photosynthesis, the foundational w a y that life on earth struggles for existence. B u t this is to say that we d r a w l o w entropy f r o m the sun (whether we eat plants that b i n d solar energy into l i v i n g f o r m or other creatures w h o eat the plants). ' C o n t r a r y to a c o m m o n i m p r e s s i o n , ' continues Penrose, 'the earth (together w i t h inhabitants) does not gain energy f r o m the sun! W h a t the earth does is to take energy in a l o w entropy f o r m a n d then spew it all back into space, but in a high-entropy f o r m [radiant heat, i.e., infra-red photons, replacing higher frequency visible photons].' T h u s there are few photons of h i g h energy c o m i n g in a n d relatively more of lower energy going out - an increase in entropy. N o w , this is because 'the sun is a hot-spot in the sky', in w h i c h energy is concentrated, a n d this in t u r n is because of the 'gravitational contraction f r o m what h a d been a previously u n i f o r m distribution of gas (mainly hydrogen)'. T h e sun, like any star, heats f r o m this contraction u n t i l t h e r m o n u c l e a r reactions set in a n d keep it f r o m contracting further a n d hence b u r n i n g itself out. It follows that gravity is the ultimate source of the sun's energy - a n d through it, life on earth (and, to be sure, fossil fuels). Indeed, gravity is the ultimate cause of nuclear energy as well, the heavier isotopes of u r a n i u m , a n d so o n , arising in the gravitation ally compressed interior of neutron stars - a n d of course it is the direct source of geothermal energy along w i t h the energy of tides, the two other energy variants of relevance to life on earth. D e e p sea hot vents are l o c i of forms of life not dependent u p o n photosynthesis, a n d , in certain views, m a y have been the cradle of life on earth. T i d e s , of course, are an active c o m p o n e n t of m a n y i m p o r t a n t ecosystems, especially c o r a l reefs. In s u m , gravitational c l u m p i n g determines the S e c o n d Law, through the i n i t i a l spreading out of matter a n d energy through all space in the ' B i g B a n g ' , a n d its secondary c o m i n g together through gravity. (In contrast to a t h e r m a l l y driven system, where u n i f o r m i t y is equivalent to higher entropy, a gravitationally driven system is at its most ordered, least probable, state w h e n u n i f o r m ; hence the appearance

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of f o r m as such m a y be m o r e properly assigned to that phase of the development of nature in w h i c h non-gravitational modes of energy engage a n d interact w i t h gravitat i o n a l modes.) At this p o i n t the argument passes into the uncertainties of q u a n t u m gravity a n d ceases to be relevant to the present work. T h e point to be emphasized is the ultimate linkage between cosmological forces a n d the great regulatory principles of life a n d terrestrial ecosystems: the fundamental unity of nature. Penrose 1990, 410-17, C h . 7 passim. Italics in original. 7. Fortey 1997: 65. Fortey points out the great variety of stromatolite forms that evolved over the next b i l l i o n years, i n c l u d i n g reefs - essentially one creature extending hundreds of miles. T h e a r r i v a l of animals destabilized the stromatolitic mats, w h i c h h a d p r e p a r e d the way for more c o m p l e x forms by creating atmospheric oxygen. N o w they endure only in special environments where n o b o d y is there to eat them. T h e evolutionary biologist L y n n M a r g u l i s follows a similar, though m u c h more daring, line of thought in her 'endosymbiosis' theory. See M a r g u l i s 1998. 8. We set aside the question of the f o r m a l organization of cosmological nature. H e r e the levels of energy a n d the f o r m taken by matter is so remote f r o m that o c c u r r i n g on earth that the n o t i o n of ecology makes little sense. T h e t e r m , after a l l , derives f r o m the G r e e k oikos, or home. Strictly speaking, we w o u l d have to substitute another t e r m for the 'ecosystemic' extension into the cosmos. 9. T h e classic text is Schrdinger 1967. First written in 1944, before the discoveries of m o l e c u l a r biology, this is one of those inspired leaps that shows the power of a g o o d theory to look ahead. 10. L o v e l o c k 1979. 11. ' O p p o s i t i o n unites. F r o m what draws apart results the most beautiful harmony. A l l things take place by strife' (Fragment 46 in N a h m 1947: 91). E d w a r d Hussey writes of H e r a c l i t u s : 'the perpetual struggle of opposites a n d the justice that balances t h e m are indistinguishable a n d b o t h equally present in every event' (Hussey 1972: 49). W i t h i n c o n t e m p o r a r y biology, there is heated debate about the question of e q u i l i b r i u m a n d struggle. C h a o s theory captures something of this flux, w i t h its doctrine of 'strange attractors', n o n - l i n e a r processes, a n d the capabilities of butterfly wings to set off typhoons. As the Oxford Dictionary puts it: 'scientifically, chaos denotes the behaviour of a system w h i c h is governed by deterministic laws but is so unpredictable as to appear r a n d o m , o w i n g to its extreme sensitivity to i n i t i a l conditions.' G l i e c k 1987 provides a p o p u l a r i n t r o d u c t i o n . B o t k i n 1990 presents the i m p a c t of this on ecology as such. M i s s i n g f r o m these theories are notions of dialectics, as developed below, in the next chapter, a n d in particular, a coherent relation to h u m a n ecologies. I am generally in support of the position argued by R i c h a r d Levins a n d R i c h a r d L e w o n t i n (Levins 1985), especially the essay ' E v o l u t i o n as theory a n d ideology', pp. 9 - 6 4 . B o t h the n o t i o n of progress a n d that of e q u i l i b r i u m are taken to task by these distinguished biologists. 12. See my White Racism (Kovel 1984) for a discussion of h o w the biologization of race-as-pseudospecies has come about, p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h regard to white-over-black racism. These days, r a c i a l essentialism is still prevalent as a discourse, only now, wellrewarded savants write long, thickly researched tomes in w h i c h the ' B l a c k P r o b l e m ' is located in a c u l t u r a l , rather t h a n a b i o l o g i c a l , framework. B u t an essence by any name remains a reification frozen out of historical time. See, for example, H e r r n s t e i n a n d M u r r a y 1996; T h e r n s t r o m a n d T h e r n s t r o m 1997. 13. To a d d a bit to this highly compressed account: the enlarged b r a i n a n d upright posture necessary for freeing the hands comprise a k i n d of evolutionary contradiction,

On Ecologies
for the latter results in a r i g i d pelvis, w h i c h has difficulty in a l l o w i n g the former to be b o r n . T h i s was 'solved' by allowing the b r a i n to be b o r n immature a n d having it undergo a considerable a m o u n t of development ex utero. T h i s plays a central role in the replacement of instinct w i t h cultural learning, a n d also in the peculiar importance of c h i l d h o o d to h u m a n beings. T h e need for protracted c h i l d care in a slowly m a t u r i n g creature w h o has to be c a r r i e d about for a l o n g time o w i n g to the loss of clinging instincts (which persist only in vestigial f o r m , as in the B a b i n s k i sign k n o w n to neonatologists) has h a d incalculable influence on our cultural inheritance. 14. H e g e l , Nietzsche, F r e u d , L a c a n a n d others - all beyond present scope - stand in the line of those w h o uncovered this relationship in Western thought; though it m a y also be said that the entirety of our spiritual traditions are built u p o n figuring it out. 15. A caveat: almost all of these points w i l l be contested by those w h o p o i n t to the care given by elephants to their dead, or to the use of language by whales, a n d so forth. Lest there be misunderstanding, let me emphasize that species c h a u v i n i s m is not my intent. To establish an ensemble of h u m a n - n a t u r a l traits is not to locate these in any particular species, but to say, rather, that any species w i t h the power to adopt t h e m c a n arrive at the ambivalent position of humans. If my M a x d o g recognizes me, that gives h i m a degree of h u m a n being, just as severely demented people have lost that attribute. B u t there is a specific p u t t i n g together of these things that is distinctively h u m a n , w h i c h other, perhaps more sensible, creatures do not share. 16. T h e architect, in contrast to the bee, 'raises his structure in i m a g i n a t i o n before he erects it in reality. At the e n d of every labour-process, we get a result that already existed in the i m a g i n a t i o n of the labourer at its c o m m e n c e m e n t ' ( M a r x 1967a: 178). 17. 18. For a discussion, see my History and Spirit ( K o v e l 1998b). ' N e i t h e r nature objectively nor nature subjectively is directly given in a f o r m

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adequate to the human being. A n d as everything natural has to have its beginning, man too has his act of coming-to-be - history ... H i s t o r y is the true natural history of m a n ' ( M a r x 1978b: 116, italics in original). 19. For h u m a n society, this has been expressed in terms of sacrifice, w i t h its m a n y ramifications. 20. Q u a m m e n 1996. 21. See C o l b u r n et al. 1996. 22. F r o m the other side, the a p p r o p r i a t i o n of split-off parts of the self, a c c o m p a n i e d by the letting go (as against the splitting off) of desires, is a sign of the development of the h u m a n being, a n d the core gesture of healing. 23. T h e b r a i n c h i l d of a T a s m a n i a n , B i l l M o l l i s o n , p e r m a c u l t u r e designs l i v i n g environments using architectural principles a n d taking into account the whole range of global to l o c a l interrelations. In certain settings, such as S o u t h I n d i a , m i c r o c l i m a t i c changes have been i n d u c e d that reverse generations of ecological degeneration. In others, substantial food p r o d u c t i o n has been achieved in u r b a n settings. See M o l l i s o n 1988. T h e website http://www.kenyon.edu/projects/permaculture/ gives an index of the impressive scope of this movement. 24. T h i s discussion is p r i n c i p a l l y d r a w n f r o m H e c h t a n d C o c k b u r n 1990. A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t factor is the frequency of flooding that divides a n d in effect shuffles the landscapes. T h u s there is no singular efficient cause here. As H e c h t a n d C o c k b u r n p o i n t out, people tended to follow the flooding a n d therefore to work synergistically w i t h nature in the p r o d u c t i o n of new areas for allopatric speciation.

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25. H e c h t a n d C o c k b u r n 1990: 44. T i m i n g is essential, as is p l a n t i n g before the blaze so that agricultural succession begins i m m e d i a t e l y after the fire, followed by crops of other cyclical variety, so that a r i c h a n d c o m p l e x ecosystem is r a p i d l y restored. P r o p e r attention is also p a i d to recycling ashes a n d so o n , as well as the technique of ' c o o l b u r n i n g ' , w h i c h controls pests but allows desired plants to flourish. 26. T h e ethnobotanist W i l l i a m Bale has shown that the K a ' a p o r Indians of n o r t h east B r a z i l were able to name a n d use 94 per cent of the plant species in a sample area of two a n d a h a l f acres. T h i s is extreme. B u t most forest populations (not just a b o r i g i n a l Indians) k n o w a n d use about 50 per cent of the plant species. C i t e d in H e c h t a n d C o c k b u r n 1990: 59. 27. T w o authors w h o b o t h explored a n d celebrated these ways are Stanley D i a m o n d ( D i a m o n d 1974) a n d Pierre Clastres (Clastres 1977).

6 Capital and the D o m i n a t i o n of Nature

The Pathology of a Cancer upon Nature W h a t is the root of capital's w a n t o n ecodestructivity? O n e w a y of seeing this is in terms of an e c o n o m y geared to r u n on the basis of unceasing a c c u m u l a t i o n . T h u s each u n i t of c a p i t a l must, as the saying goes, ' g r o w or d i e ' , a n d each capitalist must constantly search to e x p a n d markets a n d profits or lose his p o s i t i o n in the hierarchy. U n d e r such a regime the econ o m i c d i m e n s i o n consumes a l l else, nature is c o n t i n u a l l y devalued in the search for profit a l o n g an e x p a n d i n g frontier, a n d the ecological crisis follows inevitably. T h i s reasoning is, I believe, v a l i d , a n d necessary for grasping h o w capital becomes the efficient cause of the crisis. B u t it is i n c o m p l e t e , a n d fails to clear up the mystery of what c a p i t a l is, a n d consequently what is to be done about it. F o r example, it is a c o m m o n l y h e l d o p i n i o n that c a p i t a l i s m is an innate a n d therefore inevitable o u t c o m e for the h u m a n species. If this is the case, then the necessary p a t h of h u m a n e v o l u t i o n travels f r o m the O l d u v a i G o r g e t o the N e w Y o r k Stock E x c h a n g e , a n d t o t h i n k o f a w o r l d b e y o n d c a p i t a l is mere b a y i n g at the m o o n . It o n l y takes a b r i e f reflection to d e m o l i s h the received understanding. C a p i t a l is certainly a potentiality for h u m a n nature, but, despite a l l the efforts of ideologues to argue for its n a t u r a l inevitability, no m o r e t h a n this. F o r if c a p i t a l were n a t u r a l , w h y has it o n l y o c c u p i e d the last 500 years of a r e c o r d that goes back for h u n d r e d s of thousands? M o r e to the p o i n t , w h y d i d it have to be i m p o s e d t h r o u g h violence wherever it set d o w n its rule? A n d most i m p o r t a n t l y , w h y does i t have t o b e c o n t i n u a l l y m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h violence, a n d c o n t i n u o u s l y r e - i m p o s e d o n each generation t h r o u g h a n e n o r m o u s apparatus o f i n d o c t r i n a t i o n ? W h y not just let c h i l d r e n b e the w a y they w a n t to be a n d trust that they w i l l t u r n into capitalists a n d workers

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The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature for capitalists - the w a y we let baby chicks be, k n o w i n g that they w i l l reliably g r o w into chickens i f p r o v i d e d w i t h food, water a n d shelter? T h o s e w h o believe that c a p i t a l is innate s h o u l d also be w i l l i n g to do w i t h o u t police, or the industries of culture, a n d if they are not, then their arguments are hypocritical. B u t this o n l y sharpens the questions of what c a p i t a l is, w h y the p a t h to it was chosen, a n d w h y people w o u l d submit to an e c o n o m y a n d t h i n k so m u c h of wealth in the first place? T h e s e are h i g h l y p r a c t i c a l concerns. It is w i d e l y recognized, for example, that habits of c o n s u m p t i o n in the i n dustrial societies w i l l have to be drastically altered if a sustainable w o r l d is to be achieved. T h i s means, however, that the very p a t t e r n of h u m a n needs w i l l have to be c h a n g e d , w h i c h means in t u r n that the basic w a y in w h i c h we i n h a b i t nature w i l l have to be c h a n g e d . We k n o w that c a p i t a l forcibly indoctrinates people to resist these changes, but o n l y a p o o r a n d superficial analysis w o u l d stop here a n d say n o t h i n g further about h o w this works a n d h o w it came about. C a p i t a l ' s efficient causation of the ecological crisis establishes it as the enemy of nature. B u t the roots of the e n m i t y still await exploration. A great deal of i n k has been e x p e n d e d in t r y i n g to decide just what is the core of o u r estrangement f r o m nature, but little of it has a n y real e x p l a n a t o r y value. It is perfectly possible a n d quite desirable, for example, to identify, as do the D e e p Ecologists, certain c e n t r a l a n d c o n t r o l l i n g ideas that define a p a t h o l o g i c a l relation to nature, n o t a b l y the ' a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c ' delusion that sees nature, in a l l its intricate glory, existing like so m a n y planets a r o u n d the h u m a n sun. N o u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the ecological crisis w o u l d be complete w i t h o u t such a d i m e n s i o n . B u t it is a d i m e n s i o n only, that outlines the subjective shape of an ecodestructive c o m p l e x w i t h o u t c o n n e c t i o n to the objective side of things, a n d w i t h no clue as to h o w it arose - or, therefore, as to h o w it c a n be overcome. A m e n t a l attitude explains no m o r e t h a n some of the i n t e r n a l c i r c u i t r y of a p h e n o m e n o n , a n d u n t i l its origins a n d relationships w i t h the w o r l d are spelled out, is just a n e m p t y a n d vague abstraction. Similarly, m a n y authors are ready to talk of 'technology' or ' i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ' as the active elements in the crisis, since it is obvious that it is t h r o u g h such means that nature is b e i n g l a i d waste. B u t to stop at this p o i n t is not o n l y i n c o m p l e t e , but evasive a n d p o l i t i c a l l y o p p o r t u n i s t i c , since it is patently the case that the i n d u s t r y in question, a n d the tools it uses, are

Capital and the Domination of Nature instruments of capital a c c u m u l a t i o n , a n d have been so since the beginnings o f the m o d e r n w o r l d . ' N o tool, n o large-scale o r g a n i z a t i o n o f technology, c a n exist in itself: industry, a n d all the qualities i n t e r n a l to it, are products a n d expressions of a given m o d e of social o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d c a n n o t be c o n c e i v e d apart f r o m it. T h e w o r l d teems w i t h b r i l l i a n t innovations that deserve a p p l i c a t i o n as ways of c h e c k i n g the ecological crisis, but w i l l not be used because they r u n against the exigencies of a c c u m u l a t i o n . T h e same can be said for 'science', also routinely h a u l e d out as the c u l p r i t responsible for o u r estrangement f r o m nature, w h i c h is said to be r e d u c e d 'scientifically' to a mere object for dissection. W e l l , yes, this does h a p p e n , but the questions must a g a i n be posed: w h i c h science, in the service of w h i c h interests, a n d shaped by w h i c h social forces? No d o u b t an estranged science plays a tremendous role in the d o m i n a t i o n of nature. B u t estrangement of this k i n d must itself be e x p l a i n e d , a n d in the e x p l a i n i n g , we p u s h back the origins o f d o m i n a t i o n . Science, technology a n d industry are today a l l subsumed into the capitalist system. Yet c a p i t a l i s m as we k n o w it d i d not s p r i n g full-grown into the w o r l d . I t c o m b i n e d m a n y precursors, w h i c h took root i n p e c u l i a r c u l t u r a l soils. T h e economies that resulted were not the bearers of any p a r t i c u l a r essence, but reflected, like the personalities of i n d i v i d u a l s , specific integrations, some of w h i c h have been m o r e deadly to ecologies t h a n others. F o r example, o u r variety of eco-destructive capitalism was a peculiarly E u r o p e a n c o n c o c t i o n , a n d , as such, deeply influenced by the d o m i n a n t C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , s p i r i t u a l edge of an extremely p o w e r f u l a n d by no means ecol o g i c a l l y friendly world-view. T h e attitude o f C h r i s t i a n i t y t o w a r d nature
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l o n g pre-dates c a p i t a l i s m , a n d extends f r o m its J u d a i c roots, as in the passage in Genesis ( i : 26) where Y a h w e h gives A d a m ' d o m i n i o n over the fish of the sea, a n d over the fowl of the air, a n d over the cattle, a n d over a l l the earth, a n d over every c r e e p i n g t h i n g that creepeth u p o n the e a r t h ' - all of w h i c h is not o n l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h but m a n d a t e d by the belief that ' G o d created m a n i n his o w n image, i n the image o f G o d created h e h i m (27). N o other w o r l d r e l i g i o n , a n d certainly n o t r i b a l r e l i g i o n , incorporates the d o m i n a t i o n of nature so directly into its Logos. It bears emphasis that this attitude was strongly contested w i t h i n C h r i s t i a n i t y - i n d e e d , some of the greatest saints, Francis a n d Teresa of A v i l a b e i n g the most famous, are defined by r e b e l l i o n against it, just as the C h u r c h itself w o u l d strive to c o n t a i n the capitalist monster once it arose f r o m E u r o p e a n soil. Religions are

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The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature dialectical: they express d o m i n a t i o n as w e l l as the protest against d o m i n a t i o n , a n d at times the release f r o m d o m i n a t i o n . Nevertheless, there is a definite balance of forces at play, a n d for Christianity, the p r e p o n d e r a n c e of these forces was expressed in what w o u l d have to be called an anti-ecological direction. T h i s is best s h o w n by the striking hatred of the b o d y that marks the history of C h r i s t e n d o m , a l o n g w i t h its obsessive p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h feelings of guilt.
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Capital and the Domination of Nature whether w i t h i n h u m a n i t y o r between h u m a n i t y a n d nature, are i n s c r i b e d by it. T h e r e is n o t h i n g m o r e ' m a t e r i a l ' (to the c o m m o n o r i g i n of the words, material a n d mother). Sex is of the earth, a n d the p r i m a r y d i v i d i n g lines between genders were between e a r t h - t r a n s f o r m i n g labour. F r o m this m a t r i x (there is the root again) arose the beginnings of d o m i n a t i o n , a n d a l l future d o m i n a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g that effected by c a p i t a l , are shadowed by that of male over female. T h i s is not an exercise in politically correct male-bashing, but the recognit i o n that the history of d o m i n a t i o n w o u l d be r a d i c a l l y i n c o m p l e t e unless the role played in it by the construction of the masculine gender were acknowledged. T h e actual origins must r e m a i n shrouded i n a n impenetrably distant past. Nevertheless, everything that is k n o w n (though all-too-often i d e o l o g i c a l l y denied) about the h u m a n species compels the reconstruction of the following, w h i c h we state succinctly a n d a c c o r d i n g to the ideas already developed about h u m a n nature, so as to b r i n g out the essential p o i n t s :
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M a n y societies c o u l d have l e d the w a y into the capitalist era, i n c l u d i n g C h i n a a n d I n d i a , w h i c h were m o r e h i g h l y developed b y far t h a n E u r o p e i n the fifteenth century, while b e i n g m o r e at h o m e w i t h nature. It is impossible to say whether their accession to c a p i t a l i s m w o u l d have resulted in an ecologically friendlier outcome. B u t the l u c k was w i t h E u r o p e , w h i c h h a d its s h i p p i n g lanes a l o n g the trade w i n d s that l e d to the ' u n d i s c o v e r e d ' A m e r i c a s . A n d s o the c i v i l i z a t i o n whose previous development h a d p r i m e d it for the d o m i n a t i o n of nature b e c a m e capitalist in the sense that we recognize the beast, especially after emergence into h a r s h a n d life-denying Calvinism.
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In the o r i g i n a l , hunter-gatherer, phase of society, the first differentiation of l a b o u r occurs a c c o r d i n g to sex, generally speaking, w i t h males h u n t i n g a n d females gathering - along, needless to say, w i t h their w o r k of r e p r o d u c t i o n . N o t e that this l a b o u r produces the gender itself, a n d that its origins were a genuine differentiation, w i t h m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , fluid social relations a n d self-determination. S u c h c a n still be seen in the c u l t u r a l remnants we have of these peoples, a n d by the reconstruction of the quality of self-experience derived f r o m it: the ' d r e a m - t i m e ' of A u s t r a l i a n first peoples, the w a n d e r i n g of souls, the manifestations of Trickster, a n d so f o r t h .
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Yet this relationship does not entitle us to declare C h r i s t i a n i t y the v i l l a i n of the piece, either, since the crisis is quite capable of b e i n g r e p r o d u c e d w i t h o u t it; i n d e e d , in its c u r r e n t phase, v i r t u a l l y a l l traces of the religious origins of capital have b e e n effaced. In the final analysis, a r e l i g i o n is itself the a m b i v a l e n t p r o d u c t of a certain k i n d of society. T h u s the evocation of C h r i s t e n d o m again raises the question of origins a n d pushes back the quest u n t i l it disappears into the mists of h u m a n beginnings. H e r e , however, we reach a g r o u n d that can enable a reasonably coherent - if h i g h l y attenuated a n d schematic - image of h o w the d o m i n a t i o n of nature arose, a n d what led it to mutate into c a p i t a l i s m . It goes w i t h o u t saying that what follows is adapted to the purposes of this w o r k a n d does not represent a full r e n d i t i o n of the story a n d the m a n y questions attached to it. T h e reader must decide for h i m - or herself whether the light it casts w i l l compensate for the brevity o f treatment.

T h e phase encompasses the great span of h u m a n prehistory, a n d entails a great range of h u m a n - n a t u r a l transformations, i n c l u d i n g the domestication o f animals a n d the origins o f agriculture. T h o u g h without d o m i n a t i o n , the o r i g i n a l d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r set forth males as the takers of life a n d females as life's givers. M o r e o v e r , the death-dealing tools of the h u n t , a n d the fact of its often b e i n g c a r r i e d out by r o v i n g bands, p r e p a r e d a w a y for s o m e t h i n g worse.

The Gendered Bifurcation of Nature T h e f i r s t m a p o f the h u m a n species was d r a w n a c c o r d i n g t o ' h i m ' a n d 'her', in that p r o d u c e d configuration of sexuality k n o w n as gender. G e n d e r is the o r i g i n a l d i v i d i n g line w i t h i n h u m a n i t y : all constructions of h u m a n k i n d ,

H e r e a sporadically o c c u r r i n g event m a y be postulated of whose existence we m a y be certain even t h o u g h no concrete first instance c a n be b r o u g h t f o r w a r d . Its agent was masculine, not as i n d i v i d u a l hunter, but as a subset of the collective: a group, or b a n d of hunters. Its stimulus

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The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature w o u l d vary, b e i n g c o m p o s e d however of i n t e r n a l as w e l l as external forces, the latter being, say, a threat to survival, such as disease or drought, w h i c h c o m p e l l e d a search for n e w resources; while the f o r m e r was a f u n c t i o n of the p s y c h o d y n a m i c s of the male group. In any case, the event in question was a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the h u n t into a r a i d , w i t h the object b e i n g n o w not the o b t a i n i n g of f o o d a n d skins f r o m animals, but the e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i v e l a b o u r f r o m other h u m a n s , t a k i n g not the life of another creature, but the life-giving a n d b u i l d i n g p o w e r of one's o w n k i n d .
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Capital and the Domination of Nature B i g M a n , the C h i e f t a i n , the K i n g , the E m p e r o r , the Pope, the Fhrer, the G e n e r a l i s s i m o a n d the C E O . We w o u l d emphasize a g a i n that these principles w o u l d be variously a p p l i e d across a vast range of situation. T h e r e is no need, either, to i m a g i n e a single such event r a d i a t i n g o u t w a r d to encompass the rest of humanity. B u t what has to be u n d e r s c o r e d is the absolute d y n a m i s m of this event, a n d the fact that it a m o u n t e d to a real m u t a t i o n of h u m a n society as potent as a n y t h i n g f r o m the r e a l m of genetics. O u t of the nexus of o r i g i n a l male violence arose codified p r o p e r t y relations, as a w a y of h o l d i n g on to what h a d b e e n taken: hence the n o t i o n of l e g i t i m a c y follows that of violent seizure. S i m i l a r l y , the i n s t i t u t i o n of p a t r i a r c h y emerged, as a system of a p p o r t i o n i n g w o m e n a n d assuring o w n e r s h i p a n d c o n t r o l over c h i l d r e n a never e n d i n g d i l e m m a for the m a n w h o sows his seed a n d moves o n , as the B i g M a n must. P r o p e r t y in this sense is not p r i m a r i l y that w h i c h attaches to the self, like c l o t h i n g or j e w e l l e r y (although in stratified a n d wealthy societies, the c o n t r o l over personal c o n s u m p t i o n is quite significant), but rather the p o w e r of p r o d u c i n g - a n d r e - p r o d u c i n g - life a n d the means for life. T h e c o n t r o l over l a b o u r generates c i v i l i z a t i o n , a n d this originates in the forcible c o n t r o l over w o m e n . It follows that d o m i n a t i o n a n d p r o p e r t y are gendered f r o m the beginn i n g . T h i s means that a basic a l i e n a t i o n is i n t r o d u c e d at the foundations
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T h i s necessarily involved the seizure of w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n f r o m a n e i g h b o u r i n g collective. We w o u l d suppose a threefold violence: k i l l i n g or d r i v i n g off the males f r o m the attacked collective, d e n y i n g the selfd e t e r m i n a t i o n of the seized w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n , a n d the forcible sexual v i o l a t i o n of the captives.

T h i s act was a p r o f o u n d m u t a t i o n in h u m a n being. It created a w h o l e n e w conjuncture, w h i c h in time became a structure. First, the possibilities of e x p l o i t i n g another's l a b o u r are i n t r o d u c e d , always in the d i r e c t i o n of m a l e over female. S e c o n d , the potentials for e n d u r i n g social divisions are g r o u n d e d in this, a g a i n m a l e over female; these are to extend f r o m the h u n t i n g b a n d , to the w a r r i o r b a n d , a n d to the r u l i n g class, w i t h any n u m b e r of i n t e r m e d i a t e a n d m o d e r n variations, such as the V a t i c a n C u r i a , the N F L S u p e r b o w l c h a m p i o n s , corporate B o a r d s o f D i r e c t o r s , the J o i n t Chiefs of Staff, the P o l i t b u r o , secret societies such as Yale's S k u l l a n d Bones. T h e r e is a sense in w h i c h the w h o l e w o r l d has b e e n r u n by m a l e groups since the beginnings of history. T h i r d , the genders are further p r o d u c e d by this, w i t h s h a r p l y opposed identities constituted by master a n d slave. A n d f o u r t h , violence - p h y s i c a l force a l o n g w i t h the culture g l o r i f y i n g this - h a d to become i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d in o r d e r to h o l d o n t o what h a d b e e n stolen.

of society - a l i e n a t i o n b e i n g the reflex, at the level of h u m a n being, of ecosystemic splitting. T h e d o m i n a n t male identity is f o r m e d in this c a u l d r o n . F r o m the b e g i n n i n g , its reference p o i n t is the other males in the h u n t i n g / w a r r i o r group, w i t h w h o m i t associates a n d identifies; coordinatively, i t comes to s h u n a n d deny r e c o g n i t i o n to the subjected female. A p u r i f i e d m a l e - E g o comes to define the d o m i n a n t f o r m taken by the self, w h i c h enters into the exfoliating system of splits constituting the emergent c i v i l i z a t i o n . Subjectively, this a l i e n a t i o n becomes i n s c r i b e d as a progressive separation f r o m the body, a n d f r o m what the b o d y signifies, namely, nature.
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T h e structures i m p o s e d by the o r i g i n a l seizure of female l a b o u r h a d d r a m a t i c expansive possibilities. S o c i a l violence entered the lists of the dangers to w h i c h societies are exposed. T h e violence invited retaliation a n d / o r defence, a n d it came to define ever larger social aggregates w i t h expansive dynamics, as each p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p u n d e r w e n t a c o m p u l s i o n to achieve p o w e r relative to others. Internally, the drive t o w a r d power caused struggles for leadership a n d social c o n t r o l . T h e result, after i n n u m e r a b l e twists a n d turns we are unable to detail here, was the emergence of the

p o l a r i z a t i o n between the h u m a n a n d the n a t u r a l worlds ensues, w i t h masculinity o c c u p y i n g the h u m a n (= intellectual, far-seeing, spiritual, powerful a n d active) pole, a n d f e m i n i n i t y the pole of nature (= i n s t i n c t u a l , l i m i t e d a n d body-based, inconstant, weak a n d passive). T h e gendered bifurcation of nature has b e e n set going, to configure the relations between genders, a n d between h u m a n i t y a n d nature, all the w a y to the ecological crisis."!

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The D o m i n a t i o n o f N a t u r e T h e p a t h l e a d i n g f r o m the f i r s t violent e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f l a b o u r t o the heights of c a p i t a l passes t h r o u g h the solidification of p r o p e r t y a n d the appearance of class as a d e f i n i n g element of society. Class institutionalizes p r o p e r t y a n d emerges pari passu w i t h the i n t r o d u c t i o n of s p l i t t i n g i n t o h u m a n ecosystems. A l t h o u g h violent e x p r o p r i a t i o n is a necessary step in d o m i n a t i o n , it is insufficient in itself as a w a y of p r o d u c i n g a n d r e p r o d u c i n g life. S e c o n d a r y f o r m s of r e c o g n i t i o n b e c o m e essential to h o l d the social ecosystem together a n d harness its forces. Class is one such, o p e r a t i n g in the sphere of p r o d u c t i o n as p a t r i a r c h y does in that of r e p r o d u c t i o n . Class codifies the f o r m a l arrangements for the o w n e r s h i p of p r o d u c t i v e p r o p e r t y a n d the c o n t r o l over labour. T h e rule of l a w is layered over that of violence, a n d internalizes violence. L a b o u r has b e c o m e unfree. U n l i k e gender, class is g r o u n d e d not in p h y s i c a l difference or b i o l o g i c a l p l a n , but i n the f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f the p r o d u c t i v e core o f h u m a n being. Since the free exercise of transformative p o w e r expresses h u m a n nature, class is a v i o l a t i o n of h u m a n nature, a n d w i t h it, of nature itself, even if it is not g r o u n d e d in the p h y s i c a l body. B u t class relationships never a p p e a r in pure, u n a d u l t e r a t e d f o r m , however, as the splits they impose w o u l d tear society apart. T h e y occur, rather, e m b e d d e d in a further i n s t i t u t i o n a l t u r n , w h i c h emerges a n d takes the f o r m of the state. It is the class/state nexus that comprises the decisive leap between archaic society a n d what we call c i v i l i z a t i o n . W i t h this, history as such begins, a n d the c y c l i c a l , differentiated time of o r i g i n a l society is t r a n s f o r m e d a c c o r d i n g to the h i e r a r c h i c a l g r o u n d p l a n of class. N o w society has a c o n t r o l l i n g agency to tell its story to itself - a story, however, given over to conflict because of the i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n of class. States impose w r i t i n g , t h r o u g h their cadres of technicians; they impose u n i v e r s a l i z i n g religions such as C h r i s t i a n i t y t h r o u g h their cadres of priests; a n d they impose laws t h r o u g h their judges a n d courts; they impose violence a n d conquest w i t h their armies, a n d also the l e g i t i m a t i o n o f violence a n d conquest. E v e r y t h i n g thereafter is m a r k e d w i t h c o n t r a d i c t i o n , s t e m m i n g f r o m the state's o r i g i n a l d i l e m m a , that it stands over the whole of society, but is for society's r u l i n g classes. States c a r r y forth all those notions we c a l l 'progress'. T h e y also, however, i m p l e m e n t the d o m i n a t i o n of nature, in a l l the forms taken by nature w o m e n certainly, but also the other peoples c o n q u e r e d by those states w h i c h achieve i m p e r i a l status. A s enslaved a n d d o m i n a t e d peoples b e c o m e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o the d o m a i n , they a c q u i r e the status of O t h e r - b a r b a r i a n s ,

Capital and the Domination of Nature savages, h u m a n a n i m a l s , a n d eventually (with the g r o w t h o f science), ethnicities a n d races - all of w h i c h categories cluster w i t h the female at the 'nature' e n d o f the b i f u r c a t i o n w i t h i n humanity. T h i s discussion m a y help clarify a v e x i n g issue on the left as to the p r i o r i t y of different categories of what m i g h t be called 'dominative splitting' - chiefly, those of gender, class, race, ethnic a n d n a t i o n a l exclusion, a n d , w i t h the ecological crisis, species. H e r e we must ask, p r i o r i t y in relation to what? If we i n t e n d p r i o r in time, then gender holds the l a u r e l - a n d , c o n sidering h o w history always adds to the past rather t h a n r e p l a c i n g it, w o u l d appear as at least a trace in a l l further d o m i n a t i o n s . If we i n t e n d p r i o r in existential significance, then that w o u l d a p p l y to w h i c h e v e r of the categories was put f o r w a r d by i m m e d i a t e h i s t o r i c a l forces as these are l i v e d by masses of people: thus to a J e w l i v i n g in G e r m a n y in the 1930s, a n t i - S e m i t i s m w o u l d have b e e n searingly prior, just as a n t i - A r a b r a c i s m w o u l d be to a Palestinian l i v i n g u n d e r Israeli d o m i n a t i o n today, or a ruthless, aggravated sexism w o u l d b e t o w o m e n l i v i n g i n , say, A f g h a n i s t a n . A s t o w h i c h i s politically prior, in the sense of b e i n g that w h i c h whose t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is p r a c t i c a l l y m o r e urgent, that depends u p o n the p r e c e d i n g , but also u p o n the d e p l o y m e n t of a l l the forces active in a concrete situation; we shall address this in the last section of this w o r k , w h e n we deal w i t h the politics of o v e r c o m i n g the crisis. If, however, we ask the question of efficacy, that is, w h i c h split sets the others into m o t i o n , then p r i o r i t y w o u l d have to be given to class, for the p l a i n reason that class relations entail the state as an instrument of enforcem e n t a n d c o n t r o l , a n d it is the state that shapes a n d organizes the splits that appear in h u m a n ecosystems. T h u s class is b o t h logically a n d historically distinct f r o m other forms of exclusion (hence we s h o u l d not talk of 'classism' to go a l o n g w i t h 'sexism' a n d ' r a c i s m , ' a n d 'species-ism'). T h i s is, first of a l l , because class is an essentially m a n - m a d e category, w i t h o u t root in even a mystified biology. We c a n n o t i m a g i n e a h u m a n w o r l d w i t h o u t gender distinctions - a l t h o u g h we c a n i m a g i n e a w o r l d w i t h o u t d o m i n a t i o n by gender. B u t a w o r l d w i t h o u t class is e m i n e n t l y i m a g i n a b l e - i n d e e d , such was the h u m a n w o r l d for the great m a j o r i t y o f o u r species' time o n earth, d u r i n g a l l of w h i c h c o n s i d e r a b l e fuss was m a d e over gender. H i s t o r i c a l l y , the difference arises because 'class' signifies one side of a larger figure that includes a state apparatus whose conquests a n d regulations create races a n d shape gender relations. T h u s there w i l l be no true resolution of r a c i s m so

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The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature l o n g as class society stands, i n a s m u c h as a r a c i a l l y oppressed society i m p l i e s the activities of a class-defending state. e x p l o i t a t i o n o f w o m a n ' s labour. Class society c o n t i n u a l l y generates gender, r a c i a l , ethnic oppressions a n d the like, w h i c h take on a life of their o w n , as w e l l as p r o f o u n d l y affecting the concrete relations of class itself. It follows that class politics must be fought out in terms of a l l the active f o r m s of social splitting. It is the m a n a g e m e n t of these divisions that keeps state society f u n c t i o n a l . T h u s t h o u g h each person in a class society is r e d u c e d f r o m what s/he c a n become, the v a r i e d reductions c a n be c o m b i n e d into the great stratified regimes of history - this one b e c o m i n g a fierce w a r r i o r , that one a r o u t i n e - l o v i n g clerk, a n o t h e r a submissive seamstress, a n d so o n , u n t i l we reach today's p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s o f c a p i t a l a n d captains o f industry. Yet n o matter h o w f u n c t i o n a l a class society, the p r o f u n d i t y of its ecological violence ensures a basic a n t a g o n i s m w h i c h drives history o n w a r d . H i s t o r y is the history of class society - because no matter h o w m o d i f i e d , so p o w e r f u l a schism is b o u n d to w o r k itself t h r o u g h to the surface, provoke resistance ('class struggle'), a n d lead to the succession of powers. T h e r e l a t i o n of class c a n be mystified w i t h o u t e n d - o n l y consider the extent to w h i c h r e l i g i o n exists for just this p u r p o s e , or w a t c h a show g l o r i f y i n g the police on television - yet so l o n g as we have any respect for h u m a n nature, we must recognize that so f u n d a m e n t a l an a n t a g o n i s m as w o u l d steal the v i t a l force of one p e r s o n for the e n r i c h m e n t of a n o t h e r c a n n o t be c o n j u r e d away. T h e state is what steps f o r w a r d to manage this conflict so that the r u l i n g class gets its w a y w i t h o u t causing society to fly apart. It is the state's province to deal w i t h class c o n t r a d i c t i o n as it works itself out in numberless ways to b u i l d its armies a n d use t h e m in conquest (thereby r e i n f o r c i n g p a t r i a r c h a l a n d violent values), to codify property, to set forth laws to p u n i s h those w h o w o u l d trangress property relations a n d to regulate contracts between i n dividuals w h o p l a y by the rules, to institutionalize police, courts a n d prisons to back up those laws, or to certify what is p r o p e r a n d right in the education of the young, or the m a r r i a g e of the sexes, or establish the religions that justify G o d ' s ways to mere m a n , or to institutionalize science a n d e d u c a t i o n - in s u m , to regulate a n d enforce the class structure, a n d to c h a n n e l the flux of history in the d i r e c t i o n of the elites. T h e state institutionalizes patriarchy as w e l l as class, a n d hence maintains the societal g r o u n d for the gendered
10

Capital and the Domination of Nature bifurcation of nature. F u r t h e r m o r e , i n a s m u c h as the m o d e r n state is also a nation-state, it employs the attachment of a people to its l a n d as a source of l e g i t i m a t i o n , a n d thus i n c o r p o r a t e s the history of nature i n t o myths of wholeness a n d integrity. A l l aspects of the d o m i n a t i o n of nature are in fact woven into the fabric by means of w h i c h the state holds society together, f r o m w h i c h it follows that to give coherence to this narrative a n d make a difference in it, we have to attend to the state a n d its ultimate dpendance u p o n m a i n t a i n i n g the class structure. A l l of this is to play a basic role in the u n f o l d i n g of c o n t e m p o r a r y ecological struggles, as we discuss in the next section. The Rise of Capital C a p i t a l i s m only triumphed when it becomes identified w i t h the state, when it is the state. (Braudel 1977: 64) Class relationships separate people f r o m their v i t a l power. C a p i t a l goes further: it separates o u r v i t a l p o w e r f r o m itself, a n d imposes a d o u b l e estrangement. T h e a r e n a w i t h i n w h i c h this occurs is the l a b o u r market, a n d the i n s t r u m e n t of its o c c u r r e n c e is that most strange a n d interesting c o n c o c t i o n o f the h u m a n m i n d , money. As the saying goes, m o n e y makes the w o r l d go r o u n d . B u t there are three different aspects to money, w h i c h ascend in mystery, t h o u g h a l l are b o u n d together in reality." T h e first, simplest, a n d most r a t i o n a l as well as the most ancient, w o u l d be m o n e y as an instrument of exchange and trade. We say ' r a t i o n a l ' because w i t h o u t some independent element that enables goods to be c o m p a r e d to each other, e c o n o m i c activity, indeed, society itself, w o u l d r e m a i n p a l a e o l i t h i c . At this level, the m o n e y - f u n c t i o n allows r a w materials, instruments of p r o d u c t i o n a n d finished goods to be b r o u g h t together f r o m v a r i e d sources, m a k i n g a w i d e r h u m a n intercourse possible. T h e second w a y we k n o w m o n e y is as a commodity, s o m e t h i n g that c a n be a c q u i r e d , t r a d e d , a n d , crucially, a c c u m u l a t e d . T h e r e is, f r o m this angle, a history of m o n e y that passes f r o m c o m m o n concretions like shells or exchangeable possessions such as cattle,
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N o r c a n gender i n e q u a l i t y be

enacted away so l o n g as class society, w i t h its state, d e m a n d s the super-

to m e t a l l i c c o i n , to the abstraction

into p a p e r notes of one k i n d a n d another, onwards into the ever-increasing d e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n taken by the m o n e y - f o r m u n t i l today, in the d i g i t a l age, it covers the g l o b a l i z e d w o r l d w i t h a shower of bytes. To explore these aspects w o u l d distract us f r o m the task at h a n d . H o w e v e r , one of t h e m , the

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The Domination of Nature propensity for d e m a t e r i a l i z a t i o n , is of absolute i m p o r t a n c e , as it leads to the t h i r d a n d most p u z z l i n g , as w e l l as most relevant, aspect of money. W h a t installs o u r system as the enemy of nature is the p r o p e r t y of m o n e y as the repository of value. T h e n o t i o n of value, so difficult to grasp, yet so c o m p e l l i n g for c i v i l i z a t i o n , provides a w i n d o w on to the pathology of power. W h e r e m o n e y is c o n c e r n e d , value is an abstraction of the exchange funct i o n : thus f r o m the particulars of exchanging one i t e m for another, we arrive at 'exchangeability-in-general'. B u t it is also the convergence of exchangeability w i t h desire. V a l u e is the projection of h u m a n w a n t into nature i n c l u d i n g h u m a n nature a n d the qualities of the self. It is the setting up of an alternative, m o n e t i z e d w o r l d , w i t h no fixed c o n n e c t i o n to the o r i g i n a l world.
1 3

Capital and the Domination of Nature W h a t e v e r is p r o d u c e d tends to serve some purpose, a n d meets a need, even if this be frivolous, destructive or fantastic. T h u s a k i n d of value adheres to all m a d e objects a c c o r d i n g to the needs these meet, or, to choose another w o r d , their utility. For made things, use-value represents the conjugation of l a b o u r a n d nature, a n d occupies the b o u n d a r y between h u m a n nature a n d nature at large. A n d because h u m a n nature entails p a r t i c i p a t i o n of the i m a g i n a t i o n , there is no use-value that does not include some subjective a n d i m a g i n e d d i m e n s i o n - whether this be the cosiness of a g o o d blanket, the taste of wine, the a n t i c i p a t i o n of the potential life l y i n g e m b e d d e d in a seed, a n d so forth. Use-value is essentially concrete; it is a qualitative f u n c t i o n , c o m p o s e d of sensuous a n d intellectual distinctions w i t h other aspects of the w o r l d , i n c l u d i n g other use-values. B e i n g qualitative, it retains the essential feature of differentiation, that distinct elements c a n recognize one another a n d f o r m links a n d associations. Use-values c a n be d e f o r m e d w h e n they c o m e to express alienated ways of b e i n g - what else c a n be said, after a l l , about usevalues such as are expressed by a TV game show, or any of the c o m m o d i t i e s that reflect false needs - sports utility vehicles, lite beer, fashion magazines, h a n d guns, a n d so o n . B u t because they are also concrete, they c a n be restored, as a 'used' article c a n be m e n d e d or m a d e to shine. Indeed, the m e n d i n g of the ecological crisis requires precisely such a restoration. N o t all use-values are attached to c o m m o d i t i e s . H o w e v e r , all c o m m o d ities have a use-value, since no one w o u l d purchase a n y t h i n g or exchange it for s o m e t h i n g else unless it has some u t i l i t y .
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T h u s value does not exist in nature, though the creature w h o devises

i t does. A s G e o r g S i m m e l put i n i n his magisterial w o r k o n money: T h e series of natural phenomena could be described in their entirety without mentioning the value of things; and our scale of valuation remains meaningful, whether or not any of its objects appear frequeny or at all in reality ... Valuation as a real psychological occurrence is part of the natural world; but what we mean by valuation, its conceptual meaning, is something independent of this world; is not part of it, but is rather the whole w o r l d viewed from a particular vantage p o i n t .
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T h e r e are distinct universes of value, by no means all e c o n o m i c . T h e infant values the breast, the c h i l d her dolls, the B u d d h a c o n t e m p l a t i o n , the ecocentrically m i n d e d the biosphere, the fetishist a h i g h heel, a n d so forth. N o r are a l l abstractions evil, to say the least, else we w o u l d r e g a r d mathematics as a c r i m e , or the abstracting of M a r x w h e n he developed his notions of value in order to emancipate labour. Abstractions - i n c l u d i n g quantificat i o n - need not be p a t h o l o g i c a l so l o n g as there remains a differentiated p a t h back to the sensuous-concrete, such as we see in the most fruitful science; or w h e n , as in the case of ' p u r e ' mathematics, abstractions are bracketed away f r o m the external w o r l d . T h a t is, the m a t h e m a t i c i a n does not confuse his abstractions w i t h reality - unless he is psychotic, a n d even if he is psychotic, he lacks the means to b r i n g reality u n d e r the sway of his abstraction. N o t so for c a p i t a l , w h i c h converts the sensuous w o r l d into abstraction for the purpose of value. Since the sensuous w o r l d remains sensuous, that is, ecosystemic, this conversion becomes a splitting of devastating p r o p o r t i o n a n d leads to a new order of d o m i n a t i o n .

B u t they also have another

k i n d of value, arising f r o m the fact of exchangeability that attaches to a l l c o m m o d i t i e s : exchange-value. H e r e , in sharp contrast to use-values, the sensuous a n d concrete are e l i m i n a t e d by definition. A l l that is retained as the m a r k of exchangeability is quantity: this i t e m , x, is exchangeable for so m a n y of y, w h i c h in t u r n is exchangeable for so m a n y of z, a n d so forth, w i t h n o intrinsic e n d . A n y concrete quality w i l l break the c h a i n ; o n l y n u m b e r suffices, a n d m o n e y becomes the e m b o d i m e n t of that number. H e n c e m o n e y is f u n d a m e n t a l l y quantity, w h i c h becomes its use-value. S i m m e l again: ' T h e quantity of m o n e y is its quality. Since m o n e y is n o t h i n g but the indifferent means for concrete a n d infinitely v a r i e d purposes, its quantity is the o n l y i m p o r t a n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n so far as we are c o n c e r n e d . W i t h reference to money, we do not ask what a n d how, but h o w m u c h . '
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T h e r e is n o t h i n g else in the universe like it. Use-values require the

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The Domination of Nature p a r t i c i p a t i o n of nature, but exchange-values are m a d e by quantifying nature. T h e ascension of quantity over quality gives these relations the capacity for evil once the value function is a d v a n c e d to the centre of the social stage, as in capitalism. In this loss of the sensuous a n d concrete, the abstracting function is a b a n d o n e d to the delusions of power. Precisely because nature has been detached, w i t h its limits a n d interrelations, in short, its ecosystems, there is no longer any i n t e r n a l l i m i t to the value function. It can e x p a n d effortlessly. P u r e quantity c a n swell infinitely w i t h o u t any reference to the external w o r l d , even t h o u g h the quantity-using creature remains very m u c h in that w o r l d . A n d if there is some will-to-power in the creature w h o makes for h i m s e l f this value function, c a r r i e d f o r w a r d f r o m t r a d i t i o n a l modes of d o m i n a t i o n , then that, too, c a n go to infinity. A l o n g the way, possibilities for r e c o g n i t i o n are sundered. S i m m e l points out two aspects: that v a l u a t i o n takes pi ace in the h u m a n being, i.e., 'part of the n a t u r a l w o r l d ' , a n d that it is not the w o r l d in itself, but 'rather the whole w o r l d v i e w e d f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r vantage p o i n t ' . T h e abstraction i n t o m o n e y sets loose these two f o r m a l l y distinct parts of value to w a n d e r their separate ways - a n d the creature w h o subsumes b o t h those ways, Homo conomicus, or the capitalist personification - is split i n t e r n a l l y a n d f r o m the w o r l d . H e n c e the value that stalks forth in the e c o n o m y is also the route that turns o u r differentiation f r o m nature into a regime of splitting, w h i c h is to say, into one of self-perpetuating eco-disintegration. T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f c a p i t a l f r o m a n ancient part o f the e c o n o m i c system into the w o r l d - d e v o u r i n g monster r e p r o d u c e d by capitalism o c c u r r e d w h e n the value f u n c t i o n became attached to l a b o u r itself. F o r this to have taken place, an extensive series of p r i o r developments, affecting the history of m o n e y as w e l l as labour, was necessary. L o n g before c a p i t a l i s m arose as such, rulers a p p r e c i a t e d the p o w e r of m o n e y a n d foisted it u p o n the masses - w h o p r o v e d significantly reluctant to take the bait. In a far c r y f r o m A d a m Smith's i d e o l o g i c a l n o t i o n , that the species has an innate propensity to barter, truck a n d exchange (in other words, that c a p i t a l i s m is part of h u m a n nature), the use of m o n e y was distinctly a n a c q u i r e d habit, often e n o u g h r e q u i r i n g c o e r c i o n . W i t h regard to E u r o p e , w h i c h as the cradle of the c a p i t a l i s m we k n o w deserves special attention, A l e x a n d e r M u r r a y has p o i n t e d out a k i n d o f t u r n i n g p o i n t occurr i n g a r o u n d the first m i l l e n n i u m , in w h i c h a society not s i m p l y u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h m o n e y but actually resistant to it was converted into one whose wheels

Capital and the Domination of Nature were t o become increasingly l u b r i c a t e d w i t h l u c r e .

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I n C a r o l i n g e a n times,

coins were i n t r o d u c e d f r o m above into a m a t r i x that h a d no 'use' for their exchange-value, a n d where they were treated p r i m a r i l y in their second f u n c t i o n , as a c o m m o d i t y to be exchanged a l o n g w i t h others. M a n y coins were m e l t e d d o w n for b u l l i o n , others were given directly to the poor, others were converted i n t o o r n a m e n t s a n d silver chalices, while others still have b e e n f o u n d unused in various storage sites. Fines a n d penalties such as flogging h a d to be i m p o s e d to rouse the people of the ' D a r k A g e s ' into the glories of exchange. M u r r a y concludes that m o n e y was considered 'strange a n d suspect', a n d holds 'psychic i n e r t i a ' responsible. B u t I w o u l d t h i n k that the said i n e r t i a was g r o u n d e d in an i n t u i t i o n of the wreckage inherent in the strange f u n c t i o n of value, a prescience, shared for a time by the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , that the same m o n e y c o u l d b e c o m e a wedge b r e a k i n g d o w n the integrity of c o m m u n a l life-worlds. In any case, there c a n be no d o u b t that medieval m o n e t a r i s m eventually speeded up e c o n o m i c activity a n d p r e p a r e d the w a y for c a p i t a l i s m . By facilitating exchange, m o n e y increased its o w n value, fostered avarice, led to usury, a n d created d e m a n d for its o w n a c c u m u l a t i o n . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f m o n e y surged - thus E n g l a n d h a d ten mints i n 9 0 0 , a n d 70 a century later, a n d b a n k i n g , w h i c h first o c c u r r e d to people in the ancient era, c a m e into E u r o p e w i t h the f o u n d i n g o f the B a n k o f V e n i c e i n 1171. T h e expansion a n d centralization o f trade, b a n k i n g functions a n d u r b a n i s m fostered r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n a n d technological progress. As the location of Europe's first b a n k in V e n i c e suggests, this side of the process was a d v a n c e d in the M e d i t e r r a n e a n a n d mostly in the Italian city-states. V e n i c e , a l o n g w i t h G e n o a a n d Florence, became the l e a d i n g centres of the early manifestation of finance. L a t e r the L u s o - H i s p a n i c p l u n d e r of the Western H e m i s p h e r e (opened by the Genovese C o l u m b u s ) p r o v i d e d b u l l i o n for the finance capital that a l l o w e d E u r o p e , whose e c o n o m y h a d r e m a i n e d b a c k w a r d w i t h respect to A s i a n centres u n t i l the m i d - e i g h t e e n t h century, to b u y its w a y i n t o hegemony.
18

As for the l a b o u r relation, this was furthest developed in N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n d especially t h r o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l transformations i n E n g l a n d . H e r e the c r i t i c a l factor became what M a r x referred to as the separation of the w o r k e r f r o m the means of p r o d u c t i o n - w h i c h in pre-capitalist society m e a n t the l a n d , a n d , m o r e generally, nature. I n one o f M a r x ' s m a n y summaries o f this he puts it as follows:

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The Domination of Nature O n e of the prerequisites of wage labour and one of the historic conditions for capital is free labour and the exchange of free labour against money, in order to reproduce money and to convert it into values, in order to be consumed by money, not as use value for enjoyment but as use value for money. A n o t h e r prerequisite is the separation of free labour from the objective means of its realisation - from the means and materials of labour. T h i s means above all that the worker must be separated from the land, which functions as his natural laboratory ... the relationship of the worker to the objective conditions of his labour is one of ownership: this is the natural unity of labour with its material prerequisites. [Under these circumstances] the individual is related to himself as proprietor, as master of the conditions of his reality. T h e same relation holds between one individual and the rest. T h e separation r e q u i r e d violent e x p r o p r i a t i o n .
20 19

Capital and the Domination of Nature insight into the w a y v a l u e - d r i v e n p r o d u c t i o n mystifies the nature of things m a d e , so that c o m m o d i t i e s relate as persons, a n d persons as things, in a veritable frenzy of estrangement.
22

131

S e p a r a t i o n / a l i e n a t i o n / s p l i t t i n g is the f u n d a m e n t a l gesture of capital. It applies to the e x p r o p r i a t i o n of peasants, but also forcefully to the i n d u s t r i a l system, where t e c h n o l o g i c a l prowess in the service of value-expansion puts the finishing touches to the d o m i n a t i o n of nature. T h e Industrial R e v o l u t i o n b r o u g h t in its wake w o r k - d i s c i p l i n e , as i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n l a b o u r h a d to b e c o m e integrated w i t h m a c h i n e r y a n d c o o r d i n a t e d o n a n ever-expanding scale. Just as early m e d i e v a l people were coerced into accepting the logic of money, so were early m o d e r n people coerced into accepting the logic of the b o u n d time of a c c u m u l a t i o n . Wages are convertible to capital o n l y if p l a c e d in a r i g i d schema of l i n e a r temporality, i n a s m u c h as an abstract interval is the o n l y w a y o f c o m p u t i n g the exchange-value o f labour-power, o r o f m e a s u r i n g the surplus value w r u n g f r o m it. For this c o m p u t a t i o n , technology i n the f o r m o f clocks was r e q u i r e d , a l o n g w i t h n e w modes o f socialization a n d a religious a n d m o r a l culture to put it all together a n d justify the whole a r r a n g e m e n t i n the eyes o f G o d .
2 3

T h e rate o f dispossession

b e g a n accelerating after the m i d - s i x t e e n t h century, as b u l l i o n f r o m the A m e r i c a s b e g a n e n t e r i n g the E u r o p e a n economies. It took place most systematically i n E n g l a n d i n the f o r m o f the 'enclosure' o f the c o m m o n s , i.e., of c o m m o n l y o w n e d l a n d ; it took place elsewhere in E u r o p e as the p r e c o n d i t i o n for the c o m i n g of c a p i t a l i s m to that subcontinent; it took place t h r o u g h o u t the ' N e w W o r l d ' a n d A f r i c a a s m i l l i o n s u p o n m i l l i o n s became dispossessed so that the great capitalist enterprises a n d slave trades c o u l d fatten; a n d it continues to take place today, w i t h the e x p r o p r i a t i o n of c o m m u n i t y gardens i n N e w Y o r k City, o r wherever peasants stand backw a r d l y i n the w a y o f a c c u m u l a t i o n , as, for example, i n M e x i c o , where N A F T A fosters their b e i n g d r i v e n by cheap i m p o r t s of c o r n off the ejidos
21

Science, technology a n d industry, therefore, are all b u n d l e d together a n d , u n d e r the aegis of capital, come to express its powers of splitting. In capital's early phase, the i n n e r c o n n e c t i o n to the gendered b i f u r c a t i o n of nature were strikingly revealed, in the b l o o d shed in the great w i t c h crazes of early m o d e r n E u r o p e , a n d t h r o u g h ideologues of science such as Francis B a c o n . As the system m a t u r e d , its latent powers of ecodestruction w o u l d c o m e to the fore u n d e r the aegis of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n .
24

a n d into the maquiladoras or across the b o r d e r - a n d also across that h a l f of the w o r l d w h i c h lies v u l n e r a b l e to g l o b a l i z a t i o n . T h e separation of peoples f r o m the means o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d their c o m m u n a l heritage transfigures the n o t i o n of p r o p e r t y a n d creates the social f o u n d a t i o n of the capitalist m o d e of p r o d u c t i o n ; it is a gesture c o n t i n u o u s l y r e p r o d u c e d as capital penetrates life-worlds. Separation in this regard has two aspects: the physical a n d j u r i d i c a l r e m o v a l o f producers f r o m the a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f their o w n lives; a n d alongside this, the alienation or estrangement, between the worker a n d the p r o d u c t m a d e , the m e t h o d of w o r k e m p l o y e d , relations w i t h other workers (and by extension, a l l social relations), a n d finally, f r o m their o w n h u m a n nature. T h e fourfold sense o f alienated l a b o u r was d r a w n b y M a r x in his early p h i l o s o p h i c a l w r i t i n g ; later, in the mature synthesis of Capital, it became a m p l i f i e d as the famous concept of c o m m o d i t y fetishism, an

I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n is not an i n d e p e n d e n t force, then, but the h a m m e r w i t h w h i c h nature is smashed for the sake of capital. I n d u s t r i a l l o g g i n g destroys forests; i n d u s t r i a l fishing destroys fisheries; i n d u s t r i a l c h e m i s t r y makes F r a n k e n f o o d ; i n d u s t r i a l use of fossil fuels creates the greenhouse effect, a n d so forth - a l l for the sake of value-expansion. M o s t i m p o r t a n t , the technically d r i v e n p r o d u c t i o n o f the industrial o r d e r demands a n e x p a n d e d energy supply, for the purpose of w h i c h fuels such as c o a l , n a t u r a l gas a n d p e t r o l e u m are by far the most likely candidates. S u c h fuel represents past ecological activity: numberless residues of c h e m i c a l bonds developed by l i v i n g creatures i n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h sunlight over hundreds o f m i l l i o n s o f years, n o w t u r n e d to heat energy to p r o p e l the instruments of i n d u s t r i a l society. E a c h drive to the m a l l to b u y wasteful plastic j u n k m a d e f r o m fossil

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The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature fuel degrades aeons of ecological order into heat a n d noxious fumes. I have r e a d somewhere that in a single day the i n d u s t r i a l w o r l d consumes the equivalent of ten t h o u s a n d years of b i o - e c o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y a ratio, roughly, of 3 - 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 to one. W i t h this squandering, a n d the associated tossing about of materials of every sort, the entropie potentials inherent in social p r o d u c t i o n r e a c h levels of eco-destabilization on an e x p a n d i n g scale. T h e staggering pace of entropie decay has b e c o m e noticeable o n l y recently because the earth is sizeable e n o u g h to have buffered its effects u n t i l the past thirty years or so, since w h e n we have h a d a c l o g g i n g of the 'sinks' a l o n g w i t h a n ever r i s i n g level o f p r o d u c t i o n . T h e p h e n o m e n o n o f s e p a r a t i o n expresses the core gesture o f ecodisintegration, for separation in the physical a n d social sense corresponds to splitting in the ontological sense. S p l i t t i n g extends the separation of elements of ecosystems past the p o i n t where they interact to create n e w W h o l e s - or, f r o m another angle, to the p o i n t where the dialectic that constitutes ecosystems breaks d o w n . It follows that the ecological crisis is not s i m p l y a manifestation of the m a c r o - e c o n o m i c effects of c a p i t a l , but also reveals the extension of capitalist a l i e n a t i o n into the ecosphere. A n d as this a l i e n a t i o n , a n d the whole structure of the system, is g r o u n d e d in the relation between c a p i t a l a n d labour, it also follows that the ecological crisis a n d capital's exploitation of l a b o u r are two aspects of the same p h e n o m e n o n . T h e h i s t o r i c a l m a t r i x for this o c c u r r e d w h e n persons o f the nascent r u l i n g class subjugated l a b o u r into the system of exchange-value, t u r n i n g their p o w e r to t r a n s f o r m nature into a c o m m o d i t y on sale for a wage. T h e wage r e l a t i o n , in w h i c h one's capacity to w o r k is given a m o n e y equivalent a n d sold on the market, is m u c h older t h a n c a p i t a l i s m itself, n o r was it the o n l y f o r m of l a b o u r w i t h i n e m e r g i n g capitalist m a r k e t s ,
25

Capital and the Domination of Nature a c c u m u l a t i o n of value, use-values became subordinated to exchange-values, surplus-value p r o d u c t i o n became the a l p h a a n d o m e g a of the economy, a n d ecological relations were abstracted away f r o m their m u t u a l differentiation a n d fragmented. In its latest, neoliberal-globalized stage, increased gender exploitation becomes the rule for the great masses of humanity, even as upper-class w o m e n w i t h i n the metropolis achieve substantive gains w i t h i n the bourgeois order. R a c i a l a n d ethnic schisms persist alongside, a n d as a defense against, the ultimate a t o m i z a t i o n that is capital's telos. E v e r y w h e r e differences - of wealth, of status, of values - increase, layered over strata of h o m o g e n i z a t i o n . N o n - r e c o g n i t i o n of fellow creatures is built into society, w h i c h thereby undergoes a m o t i o n t o w a r d n i h i l i s m . H u m a n nature became separated f r o m itself, a n d what h a d been o n l y a logical potentiality became a historical actuality whose logical o u t c o m e is the complete submission of the globe to the regime of value.

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P h i l o s o p h i c a l Interlude No m o r e t h a n an extended set of notes, really, since to do justice to the topic requires another v o l u m e , while to ignore it completely leaves too m a n y threads of the argument dangling. In fact, we have been intervening t h r o u g h out in p h i l o s o p h i c a l debates, without explicitly saying as m u c h ; here we need o n l y say a litde further, so as to r o u n d matters out before l a u n c h i n g into the question of h o w to transform capitalism. T h e A u s t r a l i a n eco-philosopher A r r a n G a r e develops the n o t i o n o f a k i n d o f ' w r o n g t u r n ' taken b y c i v i l i z a t i o n , one manifestation o f w h i c h was the p o s t u l a t i o n of a h i g h e r r e a l m of b e i n g over the w o r l d of mere matter. We m i g h t c a l l this the p h i l o s o p h i c a l reflex of the d o m i n a t i o n of nature; that it took at first the shape of N e o P l a t o n i s m , that is, at the cradle of C h r i s t i a n i t y , is less i m p o r t a n t for us t h a n the fact that an idea of this sort keeps r e p r o d u c i n g itself a c c o r d i n g to h i s t o r i c a l specifics. T h i s was the m u t a t i o n that engendered C h r i s t i a n i t y ' s flight f r o m the body, leaving in its wake a space of abstraction f r o m w h i c h the line to c a p i t a l c a n be d r a w n . As Gare's a c c o u n t makes clear, p r o p o n e n t s of this attitude infest thought in m a n y n o n - r e l i g i o u s guises, for e x a m p l e , mechanical materialism, w h i c h installs the d e a d e n i n g of matter by neglecting nature's f o r m a t i v i t y or social Darwinism, w h i c h naturalizes capitalist c o m p e t i t i o n , seeing it as a f u n d a mental principle of life.
2 6

nor, needless to

say, is it a necessary e v i l in each a n d every instance where it appears. B u t its generalization into the means by w h i c h c a p i t a l itself is p r o d u c e d p e r m a n ently alters the landscape o f h u m a n b e i n g i n a n anti-ecological d i r e c t i o n . C a p i t a l i s m became a f u l l - b l o w n system w h e n the p o l i t i c a l , e c o n o m i c , legal a n d c u l t u r a l conditions were finally put together into a self-expanding m a c h i n e for t u r n i n g h u m a n beings into salaried workers on the fertile plains of l a b o u r markets. T h e r e were m a n y turns in this r o a d , but the definitive one came w h e n the class of capitalists took full c o n t r o l of the state d u r i n g the various bourgeois revolutions. T h e n all the state functions m e n t i o n e d above were subsumed into the purposes of capital. T h e goal of p r o d u c t i o n became

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The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature W h i l e it is nonsense to reduce ideas to m a t e r i a l interests (since m a t e r i a l interests i n c l u d e ideas a n d are shaped by ideas), it is necessary to r e g a r d a l l t h i n k i n g as c o n j u n c t u r a l , as no p h i l o s o p h e r c a n do else but try to m a k e sense of the w o r l d as he or she has been t h r o w n into it. A l l thinkers have positions, a n d take positions, of w h i c h their philosophies are necessarily expressions. Before there was N e o P l a t o n i s m there was P l a t o n i s m , w h i c h first elaborated the idea of essences; a n d we k n o w e n o u g h about Plato to recognize the impulse b e h i n d his thought to establish philosophers as rulers, in the m e a n t i m e s u b d u i n g the c o m m o n people w i t h a strong state that condensed class relations into abstract principles while mystifying t h e m w i t h p r o p a g a n d a . W h e r e v e r , t h e n , there is postulated a 'higher reality' s t a n d i n g over mere reality, we m a y expect the t h i n k e r in question to have, somewhere in m i n d , the installation of a class system w i t h , needless to say, h i m s e l f on the side of the rulers. T h i s went for Plato a n d , in recent times, for the great M a r t i n Heidegger, whose o n t o l o g y c a n n o t - a n d m o r e to the p o i n t , s h o u l d not - ever be separated f r o m his explicit N a z i s m .
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Capital and the Domination of Nature H e i d e g g e r conveys h o w a tool-using h u m a n c a n take responsibility for the ' b r i n g i n g - f o r t h ' , or poiesis, of n e w being. In his later p e r i o d (this essay was first c o m p o s e d as a lecture in the early 1950s), H e i d e g g e r saw the truth of b e i n g as a 'presencing'; hence, ' E v e r y occasion for whatever passes b e y o n d the nonpresent a n d goes forth into p r e s e n c i n g is poiesis, b r i n g i n g - f o r t h . ' F a r f r o m b e i n g anti-technological, t h e n , H e i d e g g e r sees technology as, ideally, an elementary f o r m of the ' c o m i n g into b e i n g ' that is the h u m a n c o n t r i b u t i o n to the real; it is to be set alongside nature's b r i n g i n g - f o r t h , or physis, by w h i c h is m e a n t 'the a r i s i n g of s o m e t h i n g out of i t s e l f , like the ' b u r s t i n g of a blossom into b l o o m ' . B r i n g i n g forth gathers the four modes of causality, hence revealing, or presencing, is the highest m o d e of technology. F o l l o w i n g the G r e e k sense, H e i d e g g e r locates this true m e a n i n g as techne, a n d groups the t e c h n i c a l a p p r o a c h to reality w i t h 'the arts of the m i n d a n d the fine arts'. Whoever builds a house or a ship or forges a sacrificial chalice reveals what is to be brought forth, according to the terms of the four modes of occasioning. T h i s revealing gathers together in advance the aspect and the matter of ship or house, w i t h a view to the finished thing envisioned as completed, and from this gathering determines the manner of its construction. T h u s what is decisive in techne does not lie at all in m a k i n g and manipulating nor in the using of means, but rather in the revealing mentioned before. It is as revealing, and not as manufacturing, that techne is a bringing-forth. (p. 295) U n d e r c o n d i t i o n s of o u r estrangement, things have not w o r k e d out this way: 'the revealing that holds sway t h r o u g h o u t m o d e r n technology does not u n f o l d into a b r i n g i n g - f o r t h in the sense of poeisis'. Instead, it is a 'challenging ... w h i c h puts to nature the unreasonable d e m a n d that it supply energy w h i c h can be extracted a n d stored as such'. T h e earth is n o w r e d u c e d to a repository of resources; a n d this degrades b o t h m i n e r a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l practice. It is an ' e x p e d i t i n g ' directed t o w a r d ' d r i v i n g on to the m a x i m u m y i e l d at the m i n i m u m expense'. T h e r e is a 'monstrousness that reigns here', for the d e s c r i p t i o n of w h i c h H e i d e g g e r sets out another set of o n t o l o g i c a l terms, to go a l o n g w i t h challenging: 'setting-upon', ' o r d e r i n g ' a n d 'standing reserve' (this b e i n g a k i n d of hypostasis, in w h i c h 'everything is o r d e r e d to stand by, to be i m m e d i a t e l y on h a n d , i n d e e d to stand there just so that it m a y be on c a l l for a further ordering'). H e i d e g g e r integrates this critique in the t e r m ' e n - f r a m i n g ' (Ge-stelt). T h i s

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H e i d e g g e r is of signal i m p o r t a n c e , as his t h o u g h t is r e g a r d e d v e r y seriously by deep ecologists, p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e g a r d to the critique of technology, where he even takes to task the n o t i o n of efficient cause.
28

He asks: is

not the n o t i o n of efficient cause itself a c o n c o m i t a n t of t e c h n o l o g i c a l d o m i n a t i o n ? D o e s it not therefore perpetuate the estrangement f r o m nature a n d ultimately the ecological crisis? F o r Heidegger, the efficient cause does not stand apart f r o m the i n s t r u m e n t a l cause, as we have c l a i m e d , but is essentially i n s t r u m e n t a l i t y w r i t large. W h y , he argues, seek a 'causa efficiens' that 'brings about the effect that is the finished [product],' a n d becomes 'the s t a n d a r d for all causality', but at the same time drowns out the other A r i s t o t e l i a n causes: the causa materialis, or m a t e r i a l out of w h i c h a t h i n g is m a d e ; the causa formalis, the shape or f o r m into w h i c h it enters; a n d the causafinalis, the e n d to w h i c h it is put? T h e authentic t e c h n o l o g i c a l attitude does not privilege any aspect of causality, but rather sees a l l four as 'the ways, all b e l o n g i n g at once to each other, of b e i n g responsible for s o m e t h i n g else'. F r o m another angle, H e i d e g g e r posits a m u c h m o r e intimate a n d n o n l i n e a r relation between cause a n d effect t h a n conveyed in the n o t i o n of efficient cause, seen as a k i n d of demiurge standing b e h i n d the w o r l d a n d m o v i n g it. T h e n o t i o n is developed in relation to a silver chalice made as a sacrificial vessel. U s i n g terms such as 'indebtedness', ' c o n s i d e r i n g ' a n d 'gathering',

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The Domination of Nature accounts for the d p e n d a n c e of m o d e r n technology on p h y s i c a l science; m o r e deeply, it suggests the w a y in w h i c h b e i n g is frozen a n d c o n s t r a i n e d u n d e r the s p i r i t u a l l y desolate c o n d i t i o n o f m o d e r n i t y . F r o m this p o i n t , H e i d e g g e r derives m a n y of the p h e n o m e n a inherent to this w a y of techn i c a l being, f r o m the r e d u c t i o n of G o d to a mere causa efficiens, to the selfestrangement of ' m a n ' . ' W h e r e this o r d e r i n g holds sway, it drives out every other possibility o f revealing.' T h u s e n f r a m i n g technology becomes hegem o n i c , a n d the very possibility o f t r u t h withers. B u t H e i d e g g e r concludes his essay optimistically: there is a 'saving p o w e r ' g r o w i n g in the midst of the danger posed by enframing. F o r there is a ' g r a n t i n g ' , too, in the midst of technology, a n d this c a n be gathered as a saving power. H o w ? I f w e ' p o n d e r this arising,' a n d , i n recollection, 'watch over it'. In this w a y we c a n get b e y o n d the n o t i o n of technology as an instrument, not t h r o u g h ' h u m a n activity', but by 'reflection': we c a n ' p o n d e r the fact that a l l saving p o w e r must be of a h i g h e r essence t h a n what is e n d a n g e r e d , t h o u g h at the same time k i n d r e d to it'. Specifically, H e i d e g g e r calls for the e n h a n c e m e n t of an artistic d i m e n s i o n , not for aesthetic p u r poses alone, but as his Greeks d i d , for the p u r p o s e of revealing: ' T h e closer we c o m e to the danger, the m o r e b r i g h t l y do the ways into the saving p o w e r begin to shine a n d the m o r e q u e s t i o n i n g we become. F o r questioning is the piety of thought' (p. 317). T a k i n g his cue, let us question Heidegger, t h o u g h perhaps not w i t h piety. B e g i n w i t h the question of universality. A t h i n k e r of Heidegger's m a g n i tude, one of the p h i l o s o p h i c a l l u m i n a r i e s of the twentieth century, must, one s h o u l d think, stand for the whole of h u m a n k i n d if he is to c o m m a n d respect. A n d i n d e e d he claims to do just this, if o n l y t h r o u g h his c o n t i n u a l reference to ' m a n ' as the subject a n d object of his discourse, viz: ' W h o accomplishes the c h a l l e n g i n g setting-upon t h r o u g h w h i c h what we c a l l the real is revealed as standing-reserve? O b v i o u s l y , m a n . To what extent is m a n capable of such a revealing?' (p. 299). We m a y translate this: w h o is the agent of the p a t h o l o g i c a l relation to technology that is causing the ecol o g i c a l crisis? T h e answer to this is, self-evidently ... m a n . At this p o i n t , however, the q u e s t i o n i n g of H e i d e g g e r m a y c o m m e n c e . F o r the usage of an undifferentiated ' m a n ' as the agent of t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n is a h i g h l y d u b i o u s w a y to confront the ecological crisis. W h o is this ' m a n ? ' L o g i c a l l y , it is either s o m e b o d y or everybody, a n d if the latter, it is either a l l of us as an undifferentiated mass, or a l l of us in

Capital and the Domination of Nature some k i n d of i n t e r n a l relation - a h i e r a r c h y such as p a t r i a r c h y or class, as we have discussed: in other words, some a r t i c u l a t i o n of the social w o r l d . T h e articulated v i e w opens onto an effective u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the crisis. B u t it is not the one chosen by Heidegger, w h o , instead of a r t i c u l a t i n g the real character of humanity, splits it into two equally unsatisfactory moieties. Manifestly, he speaks for an undifferentiated n o t i o n of ' m a n ' ; concretely a n d practically, however, he speaks o n l y for the N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n elites. H e i d e g g e r really speaks just for some people, but as this w o u l d absolutely violate the spirit of his discourse a n d the supreme abstraction of his l a n guage he ascends into the fuzzy r e a l m of a falsely universalized subject. H o w do we k n o w that H e i d e g g e r speaks just for the d o m i n a n t classes of N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n s ? T h e r e is the matter of his p e r s o n a l history, w h i c h was o n l y evaded a n d never r e p u d i a t e d d u r i n g the years w h e n this essay was gestated. T h e y o u n g e r H e i d e g g e r was acutely aware that p h i l o s o p h i c a l syntheses are reflective of real struggles a n d cannot be fulfilled unless the p h i l o s o p h e r intervenes in these struggles. In this spirit he c o n n e c t e d his p h i l o s o p h i c a l project o f c u r i n g the malaise o f m o d e r n society t o N a t i o n a l S o c i a l i s m , as the p a r t y capable of h e a l i n g this lesion by t a k i n g state p o w e r in Germany.
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T h e N a z i career o f H e i d e g g e r was one o f the great i n t e l -

lectual scandals of the twentieth century, a n d the shame of it u n d o u b t e d l y c o n t r i b u t e d to a certain g n o m i c tendency in his later thought, such as we see in essays of this k i n d , where elliptical phrases, neologisms a n d s c u r r y i n g t h r o u g h the language of a n t i q u i t y for authenticity m a i n t a i n the i l l u s i o n that no specific p r o g r a m m e for t r a n s f o r m a t i o n need be enunciated. B u t N a z i s m was n o t h i n g if not a specific project. W h a t e v e r else c a n be said about the T h i r d R e i c h , there c a n be no d o u b t that whoever signed up to its p r i n c i p l e s (and H e i d e g g e r was a party member) affirmed a r a d i c a l l y racist v i e w o f the w o r l d , w i t h i n w h i c h , o f course, the N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n elites o c c u p i e d the master role. We c a n see directly w i t h i n the present text h o w H e i d e g g e r refuses to define a specific agent for the crisis, however m u c h its logic m a y d e m a n d this - a n d also w h y the question of efficient cause is distasteful to h i m , as this methodology, used faithfully, w o u l d disclose his dreadful partiality. A n d so H e i d e g g e r talks m o v i n g l y of the revealing expressed in the m a k i n g of a silver chalice, but glosses over the history that has d e g r a d e d craftmanship - or its s p i r i t u a l associations as described. For w h o makes chalices any m o r e ? W h y not address the people w h o m a k e B a r b i e dolls, o r m e t h y l

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The Domination of Nature isocyanate, or o v e r p r i c e d sneakers, or cluster b o m b s - a n d w h o c a n stop d o i n g so if they are w i l l i n g to starve, or lose their health insurance, or not m a k e the mortgage payments on the house? A r e not the real c o n d i t i o n s of their l a b o u r the causal elements in the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of their techne? H e i d e g g e r talks elsewhere of the 'forester' w h o no longer 'walks the forest p a t h in the same way his grandfather d i d ' because he is 'today ordered by the i n d u s t r y that produces c o m m e r c i a l w o o d s ' thus m a k i n g h i m 'subordinate to the o r d e r a b i l i t y of cellulose'. Yes, yes, excellent to talk of this, but w h y not go on to the ' i n d u s t r y ' as a causal m o v e r - not because of the essence of ' i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n ' that it bears, but because it is set g o i n g to serve the l o r d of c a p i t a l that reduces trees to cellulose? N o r s h o u l d this be talked of o n l y in m e t a p h o r i c a l terms: w h o is this industry? T h e r e are real people i n v o l v e d , w h o personify the great forces of the c a p i t a l system yet must also be h e l d morally, p o l i t i c a l l y a n d legally responsible, as the managem e n t o f U n i o n C a r b i d e s h o u l d have b e e n h e l d responsible for B h o p a l . S i m i l a r reflections are in order for the peasants whose downfall H e i d e g g e r laments - a n d w h o fell, a n d continue to fall all over the w o r l d , because of the e n c r o a c h m e n t of the same profit motive. A n d of course, the same goes for one of his most i m p o r t a n t insights, that there is s o m e t h i n g active at w o r k in the w o r l d that 'puts to nature the unreasonable d e m a n d that it supply energy w h i c h c a n be extracted a n d stored as such'. D o e s this somet h i n g s i m p l y arrive, like A t h e n e , f r o m the h e a d of its father? Or is it the p r o d u c t of a vast t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o n l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e in terms of the inexorable force of capital? Is it the self-caused exfoliation of an o r i g i n a l estrangement, c a r r i e d out w i t h o u t any mediations i n the real w o r l d ? W e l l , t h e n , one still has to e x p l a i n the m a n y s i m u l a c r a of said mediations, such as stock exchanges, o i l pipelines, credit cards, p o l i c e a n d armies. If one draws a l l the appropriate inferences that p o i n t to such a c o n c l u s i o n , but refuses to n a m e it as such, then one is mystifiying, a n d as w i t h all mystifications, s u p p o r t i n g the status q u o . It is s t r i k i n g h o w closely Heidegger's critique of technology c a n be a p p l i e d to the capital system, yet never bridges across to this most obvious p o i n t . T h i s is not to deny that his critique runs far b e y o n d the o r d i n a r y insights derived f r o m p o l i t i c a l economy. Heidegger's insights are, as he intended, p r o f o u n d : they advance o u r v i e w of what is w r o n g a n d what has to be done to right it in a way that no p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m i c analysis of the ecological crisis possibly c a n . B u t what is merely p r o f o u n d swims at an inaccessible a n d meaningless depth. M o r e , it c a n be

Capital and the Domination of Nature used for m a l i g n a n t purposes. We d w e l l on H e i d e g g e r not just because of his p h i l o s o p h i c a l eminence, but essentially because reasoning of this sort has b e e n repeatedly used for m a l i g n a n t purposes. B e h i n d the discourse o f 'ecology' c a n lurk, therefore, a spectre of fascism. We r e t u r n to the theme i n Part III. P h i l o s o p h y c a n a n d s h o u l d be an active force e x t e n d i n g the reach of p o l i t i c a l economy. In this r e g a r d , it seems to me necessary to postulate a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e that embodies the p a r a m o u n t g o a l of reintegrat i n g ecosystems. We have seen h o w the w o r l d of c a p i t a l is r i d d l e d w i t h the sequelae of splitting, a n d h o w ecosystemic integrity is c r i t i c a l l y dependent u p o n differentiation. It follows that we n e e d to overcome splitting w i t h differentiation, in thought as w e l l as practice. We need, therefore, a m e t h o d i n c o r p o r a t i n g the n o t i o n o f differentiation. L e t us recall some c o n d i t i o n s for this. A differentiated relationship is one in w h i c h elements of an ecosystem are b r o u g h t together in a process of m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n that respects their wholeness a n d integrity. T h e r e are three terms here, each n e e d i n g e x p l i c a t i o n . T h e elements are p r e s u m e d different, yet capable of e n t e r i n g into a relationship; the e n t e r i n g u p o n this relationship requires the specific activity of an agent; a n d , finally, the m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n i m p l i e s identity-in-difference: entities are what their b e i n g is, yet this b e i n g is defined in the relationship to the other. In this case, we are speaking of b r i n g i n g different ideas together, a n d , as we have seen for other aspects of differentiated p r o d u c t i o n such as g a r d e n i n g , h o l d i n g t h e m so that the life w i t h i n t h e m c a n be expressed as the f o r m a t i o n of an integral whole. A m o m e n t ' s reflection w i l l tell us that we have b e e n speaking here of a process b r o a d l y defined as dialectical. A n d since we m a y c l a i m some lineage f r o m the ancient Greeks too, we m a y r e c a l l that for these progenitors of philosophy, dialectic m e a n t the b r i n g i n g together of different points of v i e w for the purposes of argument, a n d in the interests of a r r i v i n g at t r u t h .
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D i a l e c t i c was not a m e r e p l u r a l i s m but a consciousness of the r a d i c a l unfulfilment o f the m e r e l y i n d i v i d u a l m i n d o r ego, a n d o f the h i d d e n relationships of differing points of view. Dialectics recognizes b o t h the limits a n d powers of the m i n d : that we are l i m i t e d in o u r k n o w i n g , o w i n g to the u n f a t h o m a b l e reaches of nature w h i c h c a n be grasped intuitively at best, a n d o w i n g , also, to the peculiarities of h u m a n selfhood, w i t h its 'dialectic' of separation a n d attachment ... but that we are also p o w e r f u l because of

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The Domination of Nature the capacity of the i m a g i n a t i o n to b e c o m e visionary, seeing b e y o n d the given a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g the real. H e n c e dialectics as practice is the b r i n g i n g together of m i n d s in a d i a l o g i c a l spirit of o p e n discourse - a process the fulfilment of w h i c h requires a free society of associated producers, that is, a society b e y o n d a l l forms of splitting, in p a r t i c u l a r those i m p o s e d by class a n d gender or r a c i a l d o m i n a t i o n . W i t h o u t this, the genius of those forced into the subaltern p o s i t i o n w i l l wither, while the logic of the masters w i l l be fatally c o r r u p t e d by power. T h e r e is, in a d d i t i o n to dialectics as practice, the question of dialectics as logic, or theory, w h i c h we c a n o n l y barely pursue here, to say that it must be an abstraction f r o m practice that remains in contact w i t h practice - that is, differentiated a n d not split off f r o m it. H e r e the p r i m e dialectical category is negation, as that w h i c h b o t h is a n d is not itself. In line w i t h this, dialectic must be capable of g u i d i n g practice as w e l l , so that for dialectical r e a l i z a t i o n , theory is p r a c t i c a l , a n d practice is theoretical - a c o n d i t i o n k n o w n generally as praxis. 'dialectics of n a t u r e ' .
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On the Reformability of Capitalism T h e monster that n o w bestrides the w o r l d was b o r n o f the conjugation o f value a n d d o m i n a t e d labour. F r o m the f o r m e r arose the q u a n t i f i c a t i o n of reality, a n d , w i t h this, the loss of the differentiated r e c o g n i t i o n essential for ecosystemic integrity; f r o m the latter emerged a k i n d of selfhood that c o u l d s w i m in these icy waters. F r o m this standpoint one m i g h t c a l l c a p i t a l i s m a 'regime of the ego', m e a n i n g that u n d e r its auspices a k i n d of estranged self emerges as the m o d e of capital's r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s self is not merely p r i d c f u l - the o r d i n a r y c o n n o t a t i o n of 'egotistical' - m o r e fully, it is the ensemble of those relations that e m b o d y the d o m i n a t i o n of nature f r o m one side, a n d , f r o m the other, ensure the r e p r o d u c t i o n of capital. T h i s ego is the latest version of the p u r i f i e d male p r i n c i p l e , e m e r g i n g aeons after the i n i t i a l gendered d o m i n a t i o n became absorbed a n d r a t i o n a l i z e d as profita b i l i t y a n d s e l f - m a x i m i z a t i o n (allowing suitable ' p o w e r - w o m e n ' to j o i n the dance). It is a pure culture of splitting a n d n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n : of itself, of the otherness of nature a n d of the nature of others. In terms of the p r e c e d i n g discussion, it is the elevation of the m e r e l y i n d i v i d u a l a n d isolated m i n d - a s ego into a r e i g n i n g p r i n c i p l e .
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Finally, in this h i g h l y compressed account, we need to enquire as to the

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It is p l a i n , first, that any such n o t i o n cannot privilege

the 'higher reality' over mere being, as this aggrandizes ecosystemic splitting into a metaphysic. T h e n o t i o n of dialectic is g r o u n d e d in the formativeness of nature - it is, one m i g h t say, nature's f o r m a t i v i t y refracted t h r o u g h the h u m a n m i n d , the flux o f nature, its absencing a n d presencing, m a d e w o r d . As differentiated ecosystems w i l l t e n d to b r i n g forth life, so is dialectic the l o c a t i o n of h u m a n creativity. B u t we do not project the laws of dialectical logic i n t o nature, for the t w o f o l d reason that these laws are abstracted f r o m h u m a n practice, a n d that h u m a n p r a c t i c a l activity, i n c l u d i n g the workings of thought, is c o n d u c t e d at a great remove f r o m the ultimate workings of the universe. N o matter h o w science m a y a p p r o x i m a t e the k n o w i n g o f these, there is no w a y that h u m a n practice c a n be usefully affected by the great reaches of the cosmos or the u n f a t h o m a b l e fine g r a i n of matter a n d energy - except to be in awe of their splendour. T h e p r e c o n d i t i o n o f a n ecologically r a t i o n a l attitude t o w a r d nature i s the r e c o g n i t i o n that nature far surpasses us a n d has its o w n intrinsic value, i r r e d u c i b l e to o u r practice. T h u s we achieve differentiation f r o m nature. It is in this light that we w o u l d a p p r o a c h the question of t r a n s f o r m i n g practice ecologically - or, as we n o w recognize to be the same t h i n g , dialectically.

C a p i t a l produces egoic relations, w h i c h r e p r o d u c e capital. T h e isolated selves of the capitalist o r d e r c a n choose to b e c o m e personifications of c a p i t a l , or m a y have the role thrust u p o n t h e m . In either case, they e m b a r k u p o n a p a t t e r n of n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n m a n d a t e d by the fact that the a l m i g h t y d o l l a r interposes itself between a l l elements of experience: a l l things in the w o r l d , all other persons, a n d between the self a n d its w o r l d : n o t h i n g really exists except in a n d t h r o u g h m o n e t i z a t i o n . T h i s set-up provides an ideal culture medium for the bacillus of competition and ruthless selfm a x i m i z a t i o n . Because m o n e y is all that 'counts', a p e c u l i a r heartlessness characterizes capitalists, a t o u g h - m i n d e d a n d c o l d abstraction that w i l l sacrifice species, w h o l e continents (viz. Africa) or inconvenient sub-sets of the p o p u l a t i o n (viz. black u r b a n males) w h o a d d too little to the great m a r c h of surplus value or m a y be seen as s t a n d i n g in its way. T h e presence of value screens out genuine fellow-feeling or c o m p a s s i o n , r e p l a c i n g it w i t h the calculus of profit-expansion. N e v e r has a holocaust been c a r r i e d out so impersonally. W h e n the N a z i s k i l l e d their v i c t i m s , the crimes were a c c o m p a n i e d by a racist d r u m b e a t ; for g l o b a l c a p i t a l , the losses are regrettable necessities.

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The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature T h e v a l u e - t e r m that subsumes everything into the spell of c a p i t a l sets g o i n g a k i n d o f wheel o f a c c u m u l a t i o n , f r o m p r o d u c t i o n t o c o n s u m p t i o n a n d back, s p i n n i n g ever m o r e r a p i d l y as the i n e r t i a l mass of c a p i t a l grows, a n d generating its force field as a s p i n n i n g magnet generates an electrical field. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n has i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s for the r e f o r m a b i l i t y of the system. Because c a p i t a l is so spectral, a n d succeeds so w e l l in ideol o g i c a l l y mystifying its real nature, attention is constantly deflected f r o m the actual source of eco-destabilization to the instruments by w h i c h that source acts. T h e real p r o b l e m , however, is the whole mass of g l o b a l l y a c c u m u l a t e d c a p i t a l , a l o n g w i t h the speed of its c i r c u l a t i o n a n d the class structures sustaining this. T h a t is what generates the force field, in p r o p o r t i o n to its o w n scale; a n d it is this force field, a c t i n g across the numberless points of insertion that constitute the ecosphere, that creates ever larger a g g l o m e r a tions of c a p i t a l , sets the ecological crisis going, a n d keeps it f r o m b e i n g resolved. F o r one fact m a y be taken as certain - that to resolve the ecological crisis as a whole, as against t i d y i n g up one c o r n e r or another, is radicallyi n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the existence of gigantic pools of c a p i t a l , the force field these i n d u c e , the c r i m i n a l u n d e r w o r l d w i t h w h i c h they connect, a n d , b y extension, the elites w h o c o m p r i s e the t r a n s n a t i o n a l bourgeoisie. A n d by not resolving the crisis as a whole, we o p e n ourselves to the spectre of another m y t h i c a l creature, the m a n y - h e a d e d h y d r a , that regenerated itself the m o r e its i n d i v i d u a l tentacles were c h o p p e d away. To realize this is to recognize that there is no c o m p r o m i s i n g w i t h capital, no schema of r e f o r m i s m that w i l l clean up its act by m a k i n g it act m o r e greenly or efficiently. We shall explore the p r a c t i c a l implications of this thesis in Part III, a n d here need s i m p l y to restate the c o n c l u s i o n in b l u n t terms: green c a p i t a l , or n o n - p o l l u t i n g c a p i t a l , is preferable to the i m m e d i a t e l y ecodestructive b r e e d on its i m m e d i a t e terms. B u t this is the lesser p o i n t , a n d diminishes w i t h its very success. For green capital (or 'socially/ecologically responsible investing') exists, by its very capital-nature, essentially to create m o r e value, a n d this leaches away f r o m the concretely green location to j o i n the great p o o l , a n d follows its force field into zones of greater c o n c e n t r a t i o n , e x p a n d e d profitability - a n d greater ecodestruction. T h e r e are crises w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s m , w h i c h b o t h generates t h e m a n d is dependent u p o n t h e m . Crises are ruptures in the a c c u m u l a t i o n process, causing the wheel to slow, but also s t i m u l a t i n g n e w turns; they take m a n y shapes a n d have l o n g o r short cycles, a n d m a n y intricate effects u p o n

Capital and the Domination of Nature ecologies. A recession m a y reduce d e m a n d a n d so take some of the l o a d off resources; recovery m a y increase this d e m a n d , but also o c c u r w i t h greater efficiency, hence also reduce the l o a d . T h u s e c o n o m i c crises c o n d i t i o n the ecological crisis, but have no necessary effect on it. T h e r e is no singular generalization that covers a l l cases. J a m e s O ' C o n n o r s u m m a r i z e s the c o m p l e x i t y : Capitalist accumulation n o r m a l l y causes ecological crisis of certain types; economic crisis is associated with partly different and partly similar ecological problems of different severity; external barriers to capital in the form of scarce resources, urban space, healthy and disciplined wage labour, and other conditions of production may have the effect of raising costs and threatening profits; and finally, environmental and other social movements defending conditions of life, forests, soil quality, amenities, health conditions, urban space, and so o n , may also raise costs and make capital less flexible.
34

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B u t c a p i t a l gets nature whether o n its w a y u p o r its w a y d o w n . I n the U S A , the b o o m - b o o m C l i n t o n years witnessed grotesque increases in matters such as the s o w i n g of the ecosphere w i t h toxic c h e m i c a l s ,
35

w h i l e the sharp

d o w n t u r n that a c c o m p a n i e d the G e o r g e W . B u s h presidency was i m m e d i ately met b y rejection o f the K y o t o protocols. F r o m the s t a n d p o i n t o f ecosystems, the phase of the business cycle is considerably less relevant, t h e n , t h a n the fact of the business cycle, a n d the w a n t o n e c o n o m i c system it expresses. E c o n o m i c p r o b l e m s interact w i t h ecological problems, while ecological p r o b l e m s ( i n c l u d i n g the effects of e c o l o g i c a l movements) interact w i t h e c o n o m i c problems. T h i s is a l l at the level of the trees. F o r the forest, m e a n w h i l e , we see the effects on the planetary ecology caused by the g r o w t h of the system as a whole. H e r e the dark angel is the t h e r m o d y n a m i c law, where m o u n t i n g entropy appears as ecosystemic decay.
36

T h e immediate

impacts of this on life are what energize the resistance e m b o d i e d in the e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d ecological movements. M e a n w h i l e , the e c o n o m y goes on a l o n g its g r o w t h - i n t o x i c a t e d way, i m m u n e to the effects of ecosystem b r e a k d o w n o n a c c u m u l a t i o n , a n d b l i n d l y c a r e e n i n g t o w a r d the abyss. T h e c o n c l u s i o n must be that irrespective of the particulars of one econ o m i c i n t e r a c t i o n or another, the system as a whole is causing i r r e p a r a b l e damage to its ecological foundations, a n d that it does so precisely as it grows. A n d since the one u n d e r l y i n g feature of a l l aspects of c a p i t a l is the

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The D o m i n a t i o n of Nature relentless pressure to grow, we are o b l i g e d to b r i n g d o w n the capitalist system as a whole, a n d replace it w i t h an ecologically viable alternative, if we w a n t to save o u r species a l o n g w i t h numberless others.

C a p i t a l and t h e D o m i n a t i o n o f N a t u r e
f r o m a core c o n t r a d i c t i o n in m a l e - d o m i n a t e d societies, viz. that the female d o m i n a t e d by the g r o w n male was once represented by his m o t h e r at an infantile m o m e n t in the lifecycle w h e n he was utterly dependent a n d lacked all of those powers that came to be his stock in trade. It m a y be presumed in what follows that this nexus reverberates throughout the history of h u m a n k i n d , inscribed in the dialectics of desire. See C h o d orow 1978; K o v e l 1981; B e n j a m i n 1988. 10. For a discussion, see K o v e l 1984. 11. For a g o o d discussion of M a r x ' s development of these ideas, see Rosdolsky 1977: 109-66. 12. F r o m pecus, the L a t i n w o r d for cattle, comes 'pecuniary'.

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Notes
1. In Capital M a r x (1967a) makes clear h o w technology a n d the industrial m o d e of organization are necessities for m a x i m i z i n g surplus-value extraction, the sine qua non of the p r o d u c t i o n of capital. At this p o i n t we need also to anticipate the c o m m o n l y made p o i n t in support of the thesis that industrialization is to blame, namely, that it was d u r i n g the regime of the U S S R , hell-bent on industrialization presumably in opposition to capitalism, that an immense a m o u n t of ecological havoc was wrought. I deal w i t h this question in C h a p t e r 8. 2. T h i s is not to assert the doctrine of E u r o p e a n exceptionalism, w h i c h has been thoroughly debunked by scholars such as James B l a u t a n d A n d r e G u n d e r Frank (Blaut 1993; F r a n k 1998), w h o have decisively shown that there was no innate E u r o p e a n genius that gave c o m m a n d over the capitalist w o r l d . However, there were c u l t u r a l differences between E u r o p e a n d other, more advanced nations, such as C h i n a a n d I n d i a , at the d a w n of the m o d e r n era, a n d it is a fair question to ask whether those differences, w h i c h p r o m i n e n t l y i n c l u d e d Christianity, played a role, not in the superior virtue of the West, but in the development of its pathology, a n d w i t h it, the pathology of capital. 3. D e L u m e a u 1990 documents b o d i l y estrangement in c o m p e l l i n g detail. For a view of C h r i s t i a n i t y that parallels m a n y of the arguments taken here, see Ruether 1992. 4. In N e e d h a m 1954, J o s e p h N e e d h a m summarizes his magisterial study of Chinese science. As for C a l v i n i s m a n d capitalism, we cannot take up this famous debate here. See, of course, W e b e r 1976 a n d T a w n e y 1998, as well as Leiss 1972; G l a c k e n 1973. 5. T h e most c o m p e l l i n g exposition of this theme so far as I know, a n d the one to w h i c h this account is the most indebted, is M i e s 1998. See also Salleh 1997; O ' B r i e n 1981. 6. My best guide to this m o d e of being was Stanley D i a m o n d ( D i a m o n d 1974). 7. At present, r o u g h l y two-thirds of actual social p r o d u c t i o n is c a r r i e d out by females. T h i s figure is p r o b a b l y the best estimate for the actual productive efforts of w o m e n in archaic hunter-gatherer societies (Mies 1998). 8. As M i e s (1998) emphasizes, this account is w i t h i n the frame of classical M a r x i s m , w i t h its central role given to the exploitation of productive labour. At the same time it challenges Engels' understanding of the p r i m a c y of cause. In Engels' c a n o n i c a l view, social p r o d u c t i o n develops, so to speak, in a gender-neutral w a y u n t i l a surplus is gathered, w h i c h then becomes expropriated t h r o u g h violence, l e a d i n g to class a n d gender d o m i n a t i o n . However, it is more cogent to invoke the violent control of female productive l a b o u r as the o r i g i n a l lesion. For Engels (1972), the seizure of property appears the result of innate aggression instead of an event that became historically generalized into d o m i n a t i o n through the development of systems of force. T h e i m plication is important, for if innate aggression is the m o t o r b e h i n d the seizure of surplus, then the entire M a r x i s t project is brought d o w n , a n d o n e m i g h t as well adhere to Freud's account in Civilization and its Discontents (Freud 1931). 9. T h e account given here condenses a wealth of psychoanalytic knowledge deriving

13. T h a t is, I m a y value air because I need it to live, or I m a y not. W h e r e air is c o n c e r n e d the b r a i n stem disregards what the T, or self, demands, a n d goes on breathing. However, there are i n n u m e r a b l e instances wherein we live in refusal. K i e r k e g a a r d , N i e t z s c h e a n d Dostoevsky were m u c h p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h this conjuncture, w h i c h represents a b r e a k d o w n of H e g e l i a n rationalism as the nineteenth century increasingly exposed a c i v i l i z a t i o n in crisis. 14. S i m m e l 1978: 60.

15. D a y d r e a m s have utility, w h i c h can be private or shared, as between friends. B u t they cannot j o i n the economy u n t i l e m b e d d e d in a material object. E v e n as such, they need not have exchange-value - as, for instance, in a gift economy, or where they are bartered for another concrete item, or where they are dreamt for personal satisfaction. 16. S i m m e l 1978: 259. 17. M u r r a y 1978. Islamic society, by contrast (along w i t h C h i n a , I n d i a a n d others) was well acquainted w i t h the use of money, a n d was not overtaken by E u r o p e in this respect u n t i l the Crusades. T h i s striking backwardness of that area of the w o r l d that w o u l d come to dominate capitalism centuries later is a remarkable fact. O n e w o u l d speculate that m o n e y represented a k i n d of taboo, or forbidden desire. 18. A r r i g h i 1994; F r a n k 1998. 19. M a r x 1964: 67. 20. See especially P o l a n y i 1957. 21. A restoration of the c o m m o n s gained as a result of the R e v o l u t i o n f r o m 1911 to 1920, a n d under savage attack u n d e r N A F T A . 22. M a r x 1978b; Sheasby 1997. 23. T h o m p s o n 1967. 24. T h e w i t c h craze was an assault on the female gender u n m a t c h e d in the history of any other civilization. It was part of the suppression of 'pagan', that is, earth- a n d female-centred religions that stood in the way of C h r i s t i a n patriarchy; a n d specifically the d r i v i n g out of female a n d naturopathic healers on behalf of an e m b r y o n i c maled o m i n a t e d m e d i c a l establishment. See E h r e n r e i c h a n d E n g l i s h 1974. As for B a c o n , his r e n d e r i n g of science as an exercise of the phallus - indeed, as a k i n d of rape of M o t h e r N a t u r e - is explored in C a r o l y n M e r c h a n t ' s pathbreaking The Death of Nature ( M e r c h a n t 1980). It is equally necessary to p o i n t out Bacon's p a r a m o u n t role in defining scientific progress as integral to capitalism - a n d also, because the two developments are but sides of the same c o i n , that he was, in M e r c h a n t ' s words, the 'inspiration b e h i n d the R o y a l Society' of 1660, the first state-sponsored research institute (p. 160). It was the state, then, that organized the scientific revolutions that gave b i r t h to industrial capitalism, a n d d i d so profoundly w i t h i n the terms of the gendered bifurcation of nature.

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The Domination of Nature

25. Slavery b e i n g an infamous feature of early capitalist development, c o n t i n u i n g today, a n d in fact on the rise. B u t slavery fails to provide flexible l a b o u r markets a n d restricts the m o m e n t of c o n s u m p t i o n . T h u s it cannot be generalized w i t h i n capitalism, as is the case for wage labour. 26. G a r e 1996a. 27. For a discussion of the relations between s p i r i t u a l / p h i l o s o p h i c a l systems a n d historical structures, see K o v e l 1998b. 28. Heidegger 1977. A l l quotes in this section are f r o m this text. See also Z i m m e r m a n !99429. Farias 1989. 30. K o v e l 1998a. 31. Of m o d e r n M a r x i s t s , R a y a Dunayevskaya was most faithful to the need for a p h i l o s o p h i c a l m o m e n t in order to unify theory a n d praxis. H e r great achievement was to reconnect M a r x to Hegel's Science of Logic (Hegel 1969). See Dunayevskaya 1973, 2000. 32. D e r i v e d f r o m the famous work of Engels; see Engels 1940. 33. T h e t e r m , of course, has m a n y psychological implications, most famously Freud's tripartite version of the psyche, in w h i c h the ego's non-recognition of the ' i d ' , or the 'itness' of the w o r l d , that is, nature, was given the status of n o r m a l i t y instead of b e i n g seen as a psychological reflex of capital. H e r e we see the ego ontologically, f r o m the standpoint of b e i n g a n d not the psyche. For discussion see K o v e l 1981; 1998b; also L i c h t m a n 1982; Wolfenstein 1993. 34. O ' C o n n o r 1998a: 183. 35. For example, in 1999, a fine year for capital, the a m o u n t of the 644 toxic c h e m icals tracked by the E P A rose 5 per cent over 1998, to 7.8 b i l l i o n pounds. 36. T h i s line of thought was developed by the R o m a n i a n - A m e r i c a n economist N i c h o l a s Georgescu-Roegen, w h o h a d the insight that 'our whole economic life feeds on low entropf (Georgescu-Roegen 1971: 277; italics in original). It follows, although GeorgescuR o e g e n does not emphasize the point, that an out-of-control, e x p a n d i n g e c o n o m y w i l l hasten entropie decay.

P a r t III

Towards Ecosocialism

Introduction

L e t me s u m m a r i z e where the a r g u m e n t stands: T h e ecological crisis puts the future at grave risk. C a p i t a l is the r e i g n i n g m o d e of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d capitalist society exists to reproduce, secure a n d e x p a n d c a p i t a l . C a p i t a l is the efficient cause of the ecological crisis. C a p i t a l , u n d e r the charge of the present t r a n s n a t i o n a l bourgeoisie a n d h e a d q u a r t e r e d chiefly but not exclusively in the U S A , c a n n o t be ref o r m e d . It c a n o n l y g r o w or die, a n d hence reacts to any c o n t r a c t i o n or s l o w i n g as to a m o r t a l threat. As c a p i t a l keeps g r o w i n g , the crisis grows, too: c i v i l i z a t i o n a n d m u c h of nature is d o o m e d . I n d e e d , it is not u n w a r r a n t e d to ask whether this w i l l prove to be the w a y of o u r e x t i n c t i o n as a species. T h e r e f o r e , it is either c a p i t a l or o u r future. If we value the latter, capitali s m must b e b r o u g h t d o w n a n d r e p l a c e d w i t h a n ecologically w o r t h y society. L e t me a d d two c o n d i t i o n s to this assessment, the first very w e l l - k n o w n but n u m b i n g to contemplate; the second scarcely appreciated but p r o f o u n d l y important: C a p i t a l rules the w o r l d as never before; no alternative to it n o w c o m m a n d s the interest, m u c h less the loyalty, of any substantial b o d y of people. C a p i t a l is not w h a t most people take it to be. It is not a r a t i o n a l system of markets in w h i c h freely constituted individuals create wealth in healthy c o m p e t i t i o n . It is, rather, a spectral apparatus that integrates earlier modes of d o m i n a t i o n , especially that by gender, a n d generates a gigantic force field of profit-seeking that polarizes a l l h u m a n activity a n d sucks it into itself. C a p i t a l is spectral because its profit is the r e a l i z a t i o n of a

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Towards Ecosocialism " v a l u e " d e r i v i n g f r o m estranged h u m a n power. T h i s has been instituted in private o w n e r s h i p of the means of p r o d u c t i o n , a l o n g w i t h a p e c u l i a r system of d o m i n a t i o n - e x p l o i t e d wage l a b o u r - in w h i c h persons are split i n t e r n a l l y a n d between each other a n d nature. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n i s b r u t a l l y simple. In order to overcome c a p i t a l , two m i n i m a l c o n d i t i o n s n e e d to be met: first, there must be basic changes in o w n e r s h i p of p r o d u c t i v e resources so that, ultimately, the earth is no longer privately o w n e d ; a n d second, o u r productive powers, the core o f h u m a n nature, have to be liberated, so that people self-determine their productive power. T h e s e two conditions go together: capital's p o w e r is so uncontested because the c o n d i t i o n s for seriously c h a n g i n g it are far too r a d i c a l for the great m a j o r i t y of people to contemplate, m u c h less support. We s h o u l d be u n d e r no i l l u s i o n whatsoever: the scale of the envisioned changes, a n d the gap between even a d a w n i n g awareness of what w o u l d be entailed a n d the presently p r e v a i l i n g p o l i t i c a l consciousness is so e n o r m o u s as to m a k e a p e r s o n want to forget the whole thing. W h y , it w o u l d be reasonable to ask, bother to b u r d e n us w i t h ideas so off the scale of what society n o w proposes that to raise t h e m w o u l d seem the w o r k of a lunatic? I am not insensible to this line of reasoning. T h e fantastic unlikeliness of an ecological t r a n s f o r m a t i o n has often o c c u r r e d to me - say, d u r i n g a w a l k t h r o u g h m i d t o w n M a n h a t t a n , l o o m e d over b y the ' c l o u d c a p p ' d ' towers of corporate capital, the m i g h t y banks, the whole gigantic s y m p h o n y in stone, steel a n d glass consecrated to the g o d of profit - or w h e n I find myself s u r r o u n d e d there by the h u n d r e d s of thousands of s c u r r y i n g people set into m o t i o n by that great force field like so m a n y w i n d - u p toys in the game o f a c c u m u l a t i o n , a n d a m l e d t o w o n d e r whether any o f t h e m i s ready to t h i n k in the terms d r a w n here. F a c e d w i t h the a p p a l l i n g evidence of just h o w far we have to go not just the direct strength of the system but its indirect strength d e r i v i n g f r o m the weakness of its adversaries, a n d the w a y the crisis sinks the m i n d a n d drains the w i l l - the i d e a of d r o p p i n g the w h o l e affair a n d settling back i n t o creature comforts has often come. But then one thinks of the stakes, a n d the c o m p e l l i n g a r g u m e n t that leads to capital's i n d i c t m e n t as nature's enemy, a n d there is no question of whether to continue. N o r c a n we allow the current i m b a l a n c e of forces to sow d o u b t , or to confuse or vitiate the issues. W h e n a p h y s i c i a n deals w i t h a grave illness, s/he must not waste effort in b r o o d i n g about h o w difficult

Introduction the case is, but w o r k instead to see as clearly as possible what is the p r o b l e m a n d what c a n be done. In a w o r d , one does what one c a n . It is time to concentrate on m a k i n g changes, first on the w i d e range of what already exists, a n d then on possibilities for r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e r e is no p o i n t in w r i n g i n g o u r hands a n d b a c k i n g away f r o m this task, a n d everything to be gained, literally a w o r l d to be w o n , by p u r s u i n g it conscientiously. M o r e o v e r , the time is b e c o m i n g auspicious. T h e spirit of struggle arises, chiefly against g l o b a l i z a t i o n . Signs of a r a d i c a l l y n e w p o l i t i c a l d i r e c t i o n a b o u n d , c o m b i n i n g d e c e n t r a l i z e d spontaneity w i t h the g r o w i n g awareness that c a p i t a l i s m itself is the p r o b l e m . A n e w generation is emerging, to engage the crisis of the times creatively. T h e n a m e given in what follows to the n o t i o n of a necessary a n d sufficient t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of capitalist society for the o v e r c o m i n g of the ecological crisis is ecosocialism.

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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics It is unnecessary to detail once m o r e h o w c o r p o r a t i o n s a n d politicians are in b e d w i t h each other, a n d just h o w inadequately the state takes care of ecosystems.' B u t these facts say n o t h i n g a b o u t w h e t h e r or not it is desirable to w o r k w i t h i n t h e m to m a k e a change. A f t e r a l l , everything in capitalist society is c o n d i t i o n e d by c a p i t a l , f r o m the raising of c h i l d r e n to the w r i t i n g of this book. Similarly, degrees of resistance to c a p i t a l can be f o u n d in the strangest places. W h i l e it m a y be a safe bet to c o n c l u d e that the legal system is stacked to benefit the r i c h a n d p o w e r f u l , it is not true that the l a w is reducible to e c o n o m i c interest, n o r that it is impossible to In this chapter we consider approaches to the ecological crisis that, while w o r k i n g to m e n d the relationship w i t h nature, for one reason or another do n o t c a l l for the r e p l a c e m e n t of c a p i t a l i s m by a system g r o u n d e d in the restoration of the means of p r o d u c t i o n to freely associated p r o d u c e r s . I n a s m u c h as the p e r m a n e n c e of c a p i t a l i s m is w i d e l y a c k n o w l e d g e d , while its essential ecodestructivity a n d i n a b i l i t y to correct itself are almost as w i d e l y not a c k n o w l e d g e d , what w i l l be discussed comprises pretty m u c h the whole of present-day ecopolitics, a n d , therefore, the starting place of any future ecopolitics. T h i s s h o u l d b e b o r n e i n m i n d d u r i n g what follows, the occasionally sharp tone of w h i c h is s o u n d e d in o r d e r to radicalize the c u r r e n t discourse. It goes w i t h o u t saying that the existing approaches are i n m a n y cases a d m i r a b l e , a n d c o m p r i s e real points o f attack. B u t i f c a p i t a l is the core p r o b l e m , we urgently need a n e w strategy that sees b e y o n d present lines of activity. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of ways of t h i n k i n g a b o u t the m a n y sides of ecopolitics. B e a r i n g in m i n d that we are d e a l i n g w i t h different levels of abstraction, m u c h overlapping, it is useful to consider the subject f r o m four angles: logics of change, e c o n o m i c models, ecophilosophics a n d patterns of m o v e m e n t , a l o n g w i t h a few generalizations p o i n t i n g the w a y t o w a r d the c o n c e p t i o n of ecosocialism as such. Logics of change Working within the system T h e 'system' here means various arms o f secure real gains t h r o u g h the courts. By the same reasoning, corporate executives a n d other personifications of capital are o n l y relatively c o n s u m e d by it. In each of t h e m , therefore, there m a y be g l i m m e r s of conscience, or i f n o t that, a t least c o m m o n sense. T h e n there was A l G o r e , the f i r s t h i g h U S g o v e r n m e n t official i n w h o m the g e r m o f a n ecocentric p h i l o s o p h y m a y be said to have l o d g e d . G o r e ' s sensitivity to the matter of g l o b a l w a r m i n g led h i m t o a n i m p o r t a n t role i n passage o f the K y o t o Protocols i n D e c e m b e r 1997; thus if K y o t o , however l i m i t e d , is on the whole a g o o d
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7 Critique of A c t u a l l y Existing Ecopolitics

thing, then G o r e , a n d by definition, 'the system', are capable of some degree of ecological sanity, hence c a n n o t be dismissed tout court. It is significant to see an ecocentric awareness appear in someone so h i g h l y p l a c e d . B u t mere awareness is a m b i v a l e n t , a n d c a n be used for d e c e p t i o n as w e l l as constructive a c t i o n . T h i s certainly p r o v e d the case for G o r e , C l i n t o n , a n d , b y extension, the D e m o c r a t i c Party, w h i c h h a d effectively betrayed its working-class constituencies for some time before their a d m i n s t r a t i o n . C l i n t o n ' s redefinition of h i m s e l f as a ' N e w D e m o c r a t ' in
3

1984 solidified the development, w h i c h h a d b e e n b u i l d i n g for decades, since a n t i - c o m m u n i s m c r i p p l e d the left a n d l a b o u r entered its l o n g decline. T h e centrist m o t i o n of the D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y went i n t o h i g h gear after the a c c u m u l a t i o n crisis of the 1970s j o l t e d c a p i t a l out of its 'Fordist' phase of a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h labour, a n d reset it on the p a t h of accelerated a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d g l o b a l i z a t i o n k n o w n as n e o l i b e r a l i s m . R e a g a n was the bearer of this i n the U S p o l i t i c a l landscape, while C l i n t o n c a r r i e d i t t h r o u g h a t the social d e m o c r a t i c e n d o f the established s p e c t r u m , T h a t c h e r a n d B l a i r p e r f o r m i n g the same functions for B r i t a i n . N e o l i b e r a l i s m ' s passion for unrestricted m a r k e t forces is expressed in the fancy for p o l l u t i o n credits, a p p l i e d first to toxic i n d u s t r i a l emissions by B u s h I in 1989, a n d n o w p r o p o s e d w i t h respect to greenhouse gas emissions.

the state, i n c l u d i n g regulatory agencies a n d the j u d i c i a r y , as w e l l as the extensive a n d v a r i e d set of established n o n - g o v e r n m e n t a l organizations, a n d elements of c a p i t a l itself. O b v i o u s l y , it is a life's w o r k to keep track of so large a n d c o m p l i c a t e d an apparatus, a n d we c a n do no m o r e t h a n set forth c e r t a i n u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s i n discussing it.

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Towards Ecosocialism C l i n t o n / G o r e were ardent proponents of this scheme, as are those 'responsible' i n d u s t r i a l democracies w h o c o n t i n u e to u p h o l d the virtues of K y o t o in the wake of B u s h IPs rejection. Yet the t r a d i n g of credits is essentially a capitalist shell game. It not o n l y frees c o r p o r a t e hands but, by creating a n e w c o m m o d i t y tradable i n places such a s the C h i c a g o B o a r d o f T r a d e , enables yet m o r e value to be a c c u m u l a t e d . T h e idea of tradable credits owes a great deal to Stephen Breyer, r e w a r d e d by C l i n t o n w i t h a S u p r e m e C o u r t seat, as w e l l as to m a j o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l N G O s , most n o t a b l y the
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics m u c h better w o r l d , a n d even one c o n s i d e r a b l y closer t o a n e c o l o g i c a l society. Just so d i d the C o n s t i t u t i o n of the U S S R u n d e r S t a l i n guarantee full d e m o c r a t i c rights to the R u s s i a n people. T h e r e is, in s u m , no reason to believe that the system c a n change itself f r o m w i t h i n . T h i s is no blanket dismissal, but a r e m i n d e r that r a d i c a l change requires a c o o r d i n a t i o n of forces f r o m w i t h i n a n d w i t h o u t the system - a n d that those in the f o r m e r p o s i t i o n w i l l have to adopt a d i v i d e d consciousness, d o i n g the world's w o r k , but in a spirit of p r e p a r i n g g r o u n d for its transf o r m a t i o n . T h e struggle for an ecologically r a t i o n a l w o r l d must i n c l u d e a struggle for the state, a n d since the state is the repository of m a n y d e m o cratic hopes, it is a struggle for the democratization of the state - just as it w o u l d be a struggle for the fulfilment of the rule of law over the p r i n c i p l e of egoism, or for universities to express their universality, or, in general, to r e m i n d the system of its b r o k e n promises, a n d to insist that they be kept. T h i s potential is perhaps best realized t h r o u g h the w o r k of r a d i c a l lawyers, w h o c a n effectively exploit the c o n t r a d i c t i o n between p r o m i s e a n d reality. B u t it applies as w e l l to electoral politics - of w h i c h m o r e below. V o l u n t a r i s m A voluntaristic act is one that arises f r o m g o o d i n t e n t i o n , say, the desire to recycle waste, or w o r k in a c o m m u n i t y g a r d e n , a n d m o r e or less stays there, w i t h o u t special c o n n e c t i o n to social movements c o n sciously directed towards the ecological crisis. T h u s it is an a c t i o n taken towards a n i n d i v i d u a l manifestation o f the crisis, a n d taken p r i m a r i l y o n m o r a l or aesthetic grounds. S u c h actions, lists o f w h i c h c a n b e f o u n d i n mass-marketed literature o f the ' x x things y o u c a n do to save the planet' type, stand as m u c h chance of o v e r c o m i n g the ecological crisis as h a n d i n g out spare change on the subway does of o v e r c o m i n g poverty. I put this bluntly, not to question the virtue of v o l u n t a r i s m , but as a challenge for it to go further a n d b u i l d those linkages necessary for effective a c t i o n . A voluntaristic act is a p o i n t of p o t e n t i a l , s o m e t h i n g available for c o n n e c t i o n to other acts, a n d other frames of reference. If it stays in itself, it w i l l t e n d to be d r a w n off into i n d i v i d u a l i s m , w h i c h is to say, to r e m a i n split off, isolated a n d transient. If, on the other h a n d , it connects itself to a larger project, then it c a n enter into a process of differentiation, a b r i n g i n g together that is the heart of ecosystem f o r m a t i o n a n d integrity. W h i l e there is n o t h i n g w r o n g w i t h any ecologically voluntarist act so

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E n v i r o n m e n t a l Defense F u n d , w h i c h see n o c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n r a t i o n a l i z i n g p o l l u t i o n a n d t u r n i n g it into a fresh source of profit.

5

T h e story offers useful lessons in the c o - o p t i o n of the m a i n s t r e a m e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o v e m e n t as this passes f r o m citizen-based a c t i v i s m to p o n derous bureaucracies scuffling for 'a seat at the table'. C a p i t a l is m o r e t h a n h a p p y to enlist the m a i n s t r e a m m o v e m e n t as a p a r t n e r in the m a n a g e m e n t of nature. B i g e n v i r o n m e n t a l groups offer c a p i t a l a threefold convenience: as l e g i t i m a t i o n , r e m i n d i n g the w o r l d that the system works; as c o n t r o l over p o p u l a r dissent, a k i n d of sponge that sucks up a n d contains the ecological anxiety in the general p o p u l a t i o n ; a n d as r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n , a useful g o v e r n o r to i n t r o d u c e some c o n t r o l a n d protect the system f r o m its o w n worst tendencies, while e n s u r i n g the o r d e r l y flow of profits. Foundations tend to be created by r i c h people to soften the contradictions of that w h i c h e n a b l e d the r i c h to b e c o m e so in the first place, a n d are basically no further f r o m c a p i t a l t h a n the state. L i k e the state, the f o u n d a t i o n is relatively free to express a m o r e universal interest - a n d some of t h e m are, like r e l i g i o n in M a r x ' s view, the 'heart of a heartless w o r l d ' , a n d able to support m a r g i n a l or even r a d i c a l projects. H o w e v e r , taken all in a l l , the foundation's basic f u n c t i o n is to rationalize the given society a n d not to o v e r t u r n it. T h e same c a n be said for the 'think-tanks' lavishly f u n d e d by c a p i t a l to generate ideas for its r e p r o d u c t i o n ; a n d , u n h a p p i l y as w e l l , the universities, those putative centres of free i n q u i r y where a g r o w i n g n u m b e r of e n v i r o n m e n t a l studies p r o g r a m m e s t r a i n people to m a n a g e nature. T h e 'system', t h e n , is what is on the g r o u n d , of this time a n d place, w h i c h is that of capital's b r e a k t h r o u g h into reckless g l o b a l i z a t i o n . Yes, 'the system w o r k s ' - for the r u l i n g interests that b r i n g about the ecological crisis; a n d its e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y conscientious w i n g is structurally b o u n d to r e p r o duce the status quo, no matter h o w m a n y virtuous acts it performs in d o i n g so. No d o u b t the laws c u r r e n t l y on the books p r o v i d e in p r i n c i p l e for a

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Towards Ecosocialism l o n g as it is done w i t h a g o o d heart a n d a m i n d towards restoring the earth, there is n o t h i n g inherent to it, either, that leads anywhere. M o r a l exhortations m a y jeelzs, t h o u g h they generate larger purposes, but this is an i l l u s i o n . T h e r e is no solidarity inherent in the m o r a l impulse, a n d unless that w h i c h makes for s o l i d a r i t y is a d d e d , v o l u n t a r i s m w i l l stop at its o w n border. C e r t a i n l y the w o r l d is better off because of recycling, but it is not that m u c h better off, n o r does the range of i m p r o v e m e n t m u c h exceed the localities in w h i c h these acts are taken. T h i s raises questions c o n c e r n i n g l o c a l i s m itself, so w i d e l y h e l d as a value by the green movements. Yes, l o c a l movements are capable of r e p r o d u c i n g themselves a n d spreading to e n c o m pass the whole ecosphere. B u t that s i m p l y leads to the question of what w i l l suffice to m a k e this u n i v e r s a l i z a t i o n h a p p e n , w h i c h in any case is not voluntaristic a c t i o n . To the contrary, market forces have been a p p l i e d to configure voluntari s m a c c o r d i n g to the d e m a n d s of capital. T h u s r e c y c l i n g is reinforced by various sanctions a n d rewards, for example, laws i n places like N e w Y o r k C i t y , or incentives to a v o i d dumping-costs in smaller localities. In this way, citizens are i n d u c e d to provide free l a b o u r to the huge a n d g r o w i n g i n dustries that profit f r o m 'waste m a n a g e m e n t ' , a n d v o l u n t a r i s m becomes a n c i l l a r y to the c a p i t a l i z a t i o n of nature.
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics of the genome, w i t h a s t o u n d i n g feats of i n f o r m a t i o n technology a n d telec o m m u n i c a t i o n s , w i t h the emergence o f extremely l o w - p o l l u t i n g energy devices such as fuel cells (the p r o d u c t of whose c o m b u s t i o n is water vapour), w i t h the whole b r o a d advance of science - a n d w i t h a nice boost f r o m the p r o p a g a n d a m a c h i n e - the conflict between h u m a n i t y a n d nature c a n be m a d e to seem e m i n e n t l y resolvable. In an i m p o r t a n t sense, this is, if not absolutely true, at least o p e r a t i o n a l l y plausible - for if the technology d i d not, or c o u l d not, exist, then it w o u l d make no sense at all to agitate for an ecologically r a t i o n a l w o r l d . B u t this is o n l y a t r u i s m . T h o s e of us o l d e n o u g h to recall the l a u n c h i n g of the a t o m i c age w i l l recall h o w n u c l e a r energy was g o i n g to be 'too cheap to meter', just as the discoveries of antibiotics were supposed to h e r a l d the e r a d i c a t i o n of infectious disease. If we k n o w better now, it is a sign of g r o w i n g ecological consciousness that events in nature are r e c i p r o c a l a n d m u l t i - d e t e r m i n e d , a n d , across such a b r o a d scale, never neatly predictable. W h a t remains m u c h less appreciated is that technology c a n never be appreciated outside of its social relations. Ross Perot's c a m p a i g n d i c t u m , ' I f it's broke, fix it', was a sign of the c r u d i t y that regards social problems as essentially m e c h a n i c a l a n d susceptible to t i n k e r i n g , that is, to m a n i p u l a t i o n f r o m the outside by a disinterested expert, as a m e c h a n i c w o u l d fix the transmission on a car. T h i s is m e c h a n i c a l m a t e r i a l i s m of a v u l g a r sort, w h i c h sees technology as s o m e t h i n g a d d e d on to society a n d not an integral part of society. In the specific case of c a p i t a l i s m , t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n has been the sine qua non of g r o w t h , a n d , because it cheapens the cost of labour, i n d i s p e n sable to surplus value extraction. T h e m o r e technology, r o u g h l y speaking, the m o r e g r o w t h u n d e r a capitalist regime - a n d since g r o w t h , capitaliststyle, is the efficient cause of the ecological crisis, it shouldn't take a genius to sense the a m b i v a l e n c e of t e c h n o l o g i c a l solutions to the crisis. If, for instance, energy were suddenly m a d e free a n d u n l i m i t e d a n d inserted into the capitalist system as it n o w exists, the results c o u l d be as catastrophic as g i v i n g an a l c o h o l i c u n l i m i t e d d r i n k . Free energy w o u l d , for example, so lower the costs of p r o d u c i n g a n d o p e r a t i n g m o t o r vehicles that the w o r l d w o u l d r a p i d l y fill up w i t h as m a n y cars as L o s Angeles, c o l l a p s i n g i n f r a structure, t r e m e n d o u s l y i n c r e a s i n g resource d e p l e t i o n , p a v i n g over the r e m a i n d e r of nature, a n d leaving h u m a n i t y to k i l l itself off in a spasm of r o a d rage. L i m i t s of energy a n d materials are, in this sense, brakes on

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H o w e v e r a d m i r a b l e i n d i v i d u a l acts of charity or ecological sanity m a y be, they tend either to be co-opted, or to r e m a i n merely local a n d lose the t h r e a d of effective collective a c t i o n . A lovely g a r d e n is a w o n d r o u s thing, a n d indicates the species potential for fostering ecosystem development a n d even for b r i n g i n g n e w life into the w o r l d . B u t given the current p r e d i c a m e n t , it is a signpost a n d not an end. Voltaire's advice, ' I l faut cultiver nos j a r d i n s ' - in other words, let us tend i n d i v i d u a l l y to i m m e d i a t e a n d concrete satisfactions a n d ignore large-scale projects of social t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a d e sense in a w o r l d whose d o m i n a n t forces were religious absolutism a n d fanaticism. In a w o r l d o r g a n i z e d by global capital's force field, it rings w i t h defeatism. U l t i m a t e l y , the touchstone of v o l u n t a r i s m is this: that it is an ecopolitics w i t h o u t struggle, struggle against the i n e r t i a a n d fear w i t h i n , a n d the great weight of capitalist r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n a n d repression w i t h o u t . It is the easy p a t h at a time w h e n sacrifice a n d h e r o i s m are c a l l e d for. T e c h n o l o g i c a l a n s w e r s It is a widely h e l d assumption that technological means of o v e r c o m i n g the ecological crisis are at h a n d . W i t h the c r a c k i n g

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Towards Ecosocialism r a m p a n t g r o w t h , but c a p i t a l , nature's cancer, tolerates neither l i m i t n o r boundary. It goes where the profit is, a n d the m o r e cars, the m o r e profit. T h e above e x a m p l e is revealing but also conceals the fact that, b a r r i n g some k i n d of B u c k Rogers b r e a k t h r o u g h , the prospective energy r e c k o n i n g
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics life's gift of l o w entropy that is essential to the i n d u s t r i a l system a n d that cannot be replaced except at ruinously h i g h expenditures of energy. E l e c t r i c cars m a y be n o n - p o l l u t i n g , but the generation of electricity is not - n o r s h o u l d we forget that even before the vast increase in electrical generation r e q u i r e d to p r o p e l o u r m o t o r vehicle fleet, there is tremendous pressure to e x p a n d the electrical generation g r i d , n o w b r e a k i n g d o w n in places such as C a l i f o r n i a . A g a i n , h y d r o g e n fuel cells offer a n o n - p o l l u t i n g energy supply of great promise - but h o w are we to o b t a i n the hydrogen except by splitting m e t h n a e o r water molecules, once m o r e r e q u i r i n g p r o d i g i o u s a m o u n t s o f electricity?
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is not a h a p p y one, a n d moots all fanciful predictions. In short, 'limits to g r o w t h ' exist, n o matter w h a t the director o f the I M F thinks, a n d the c u r r e n t energy b r o u h a h a is a sign of their d r a w i n g near. As a result of this, c e r t a i n g o o d things are b e i n g stirred up, such as the search for m o r e fuelefficient cars, even if this has for its c h i e f motive the p u t t i n g of m o r e cars on the r o a d . A l o n g the same lines, resource substitution is always on the agenda, but this, too, requires great inputs of energy, a n d , in the case of plastics a n d other synthetics, the direct t r a n s f o r m i n g of p e t r o l e u m a n d c o a l . It is a p l a i n i l l u s i o n that the i n f o r m a t i o n a l c o m m o d i t i e s on w h i c h m o d e r n , ' p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l ' c a p i t a l i s m has l e a r n e d to thrive sit m o r e l i g h t l y on the e a r t h . T h e infrastructure for the i n f o r m a t i o n age is as impressive in its
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In their haste to excoriate the a d m i t t e d l y gruesome energy

schemes of the B u s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , e n v i r o n m e n t a l liberals often overlook the fact that the president is s i m p l y b e i n g c a n d i d in stating that what he asks for is what c a p i t a l i s m demands. It scarcely bears saying that all measures of increasing the r e n e w a b i l i t y a n d efficiency a n d decreasing the p o l l u t i o n of energy sources - that is, a l l 'soft-energy p a t h s '
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w a y as the railroads, a n d m u c h less likely to be recyclable - for the simple reason that i n f o r m a t i o n a l c o m m o d i t i e s r e q u i r e the m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n o f h i g h l y c o m p l e x assemblies i n v o l v i n g m a n y substances, in contrast to the relatively h o m o g e n e o u s bases of o l d e r i n d u s t r i a l processes. H o w are we to r e c l a i m e c o n o m i c a l l y the m a n y rare metals j o i n e d together i n even modest p e r s o n a l c o m p u t e r s , as these b e c o m e obsolete the d a y before they are made? Do we b u r n t h e m in huge n u m b e r s - as I have been t o l d takes place in C h i n a - a n d thereby release yet m o r e d i o x i n into the ecosphere?
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- are to be endorsed, a n d for the same reason one

endorses recycling. W h a t c a n n o t be s u p p o r t e d is the i l l u s i o n that these measures of themselves c a n do m o r e t h a n r e t a r d the slide t o w a r d ecocatastrophe - a fall that m a y b e c o m e precipitous once the inevitable occurs a n d fossil fuels b e c o m e u n e c o n o m i c a l to extract, that is effectively r u n out, as expected w i t h i n the next half-century.
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O n l y a basic change in patterns of p r o d u c t i o n a n d use c a n a l l o w ecologically appropriate technologies to have their beneficial effect. B u t this means a basic change in need patterns a n d in the w h o l e w a y life is l i v e d , w h i c h means an entirely different f o u n d a t i o n for society. To the extent to w h i c h expectation of t e c h n o l o g i c a l fixes blinds us to this, technology m a y be said to stand in the way of resolving the ecological crisis. B u t in t r u t h , technology does not stand in the way: it is part of the way. T e c h n o l o g y is not a c o l l e c t i o n of techniques a n d tools but a p a t t e r n of social relationships c e n t r i n g on the extension of the b o d y as an i n s t r u m e n t for t r a n s f o r m i n g nature. T h i s c a n be seen by c o m p a r i n g patterns of p r o d u c i n g foodstuffs - the prevalent capital-intensive i n d u s t r i a l f a r m , a n d the so-called ' o r g a n i c ' alternative. An organic f a r m is no more ' n a t u r a l ' t h a n agribusiness, but it is predicated on certain kinds of relationships that are distinctly foreign to capital as well as resonant w i t h the ways of spontaneously evolving ecosystems. For example, instead of using c h e m i c a l inputs to c o n t r o l pests or accelerate

So l o n g , therefore, as g r o w t h is the a l p h a a n d o m e g a of the economy, we w i l l be eternally chasing o u r tails in an e v e r - w i d e n i n g circle of a c c u m u l a t i o n . M e a n w h i l e , the i n d u s t r i a l system remains utterly dependent on fossil fuels inputs that are r a d i c a l l y non-renewable. I say ' r a d i c a l l y ' to underscore the fact that the w h o l e of capitalist society runs on high-energy c h e m i c a l b o n d s l a i d d o w n b y l i v i n g beings a n d c o n c e n t r a t e d over h u n d r e d s o f m i l l i o n s of years. T h u s we r o b the past. T h e o n l y substitute for this needed c o n c e n t r a t i o n is the utterly unacceptable alternative of nuclear power, w i t h its indisposable wastes. O t h e r m o d a l i t i e s , p r i n c i p a l l y the v a u n t e d solar alternative, are s i m p l y too diffuse a n d too expensive to concentrate to serve the needs of c o n t e m p o r a r y society, m u c h less one that continues to g r o w a c c o r d i n g to the p l a n of the capitalist elites. It is too easily forgotten that i n u s i n g solar power, one i s starting w i t h w h a t nature h a d l o n g ago concentrated into the low-entropy fuels we get at the p e t r o l station. It is

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Towards Ecosocialism growth, other organisms are i n t r o d u c e d or c o m p o s t i n g is e m p l o y e d - in each instance, a conscious e n h a n c e m e n t of an o r i g i n a l process is chosen instead of a substitution for it. F r o m another angle, this introduces a certain i n d e t e r m i n a c y a n d c o m p l e x i t y into the practice of agriculture. S m a l l e r a n d m o r e intricately put-together systems, configured to the concrete contours of the l a n d , replace the monocultures that h o m o g e n i z e landscapes. T h u s the specificities of sites are developed rather t h a n w r i t t e n over, as u n d e r capital. Finally, there is a great deal of intense personal engagement, w i t h strong aesthetic a n d even spiritual potentials. T h i s results f r o m organic agriculture's surpassing of the h o m o g e n i z e d a n d quantified monocultures of agribusiness, w i t h its reliance on h i g h inputs f r o m fossil fuel a n d alienated l a b o u r .
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics is not really outside the system, either. Its proponents want, rather, to stretch a n d reorganize the system to realize ecocentric potentials, a n d they believe that the means are at h a n d for d o i n g so, so l o n g as one thinks ' s m a l l ' a n d in a c o m m u n i t a r i a n way. We c a n identify four strands woven into this tendency. T h e first, ecological e c o n o m i c s , represents the ecological w i n g of m a i n s t r e a m economics: it speaks w i t h an authoritative a n d t e c h n i c a l voice to the entirety of e c o n o m i c relations w i t h nature. E c o l o g i c a l economics comes p a c k a g e d as a professional association w i t h a refereed j o u r n a l . As a recent quasi-official v o l u m e asks: C a n we ... reorganize our society rapidly enough to avoid a catastrophic overshoot? C a n we be humble enough to acknowledge the huge uncertainties involved and protect ourselves from their most dire consequences? C a n we effectively develop policies to deal w i t h the tricky issues of wealth distribution, population prudence, international trade, and energy supply in a w o r l d where the simple palliative of 'more growth' is no longer an option? C a n we modify our systems of governance at international, national, and local levels to be better adapted to these and new and more difficult challenges?
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Or ganic agriculture also greatly surpasses v o l u n t a r i s m i n a s m u c h as it reflects a deep a n d sustained c o m m i t m e n t - or, what comes to the same t h i n g , as it manifests h i g h l y developed social p r o d u c t i o n . B u t this same fact also points towards the great v u l n e r a b i l i t y of o r g a n i c f a r m i n g to the vicissitudes of capital. S u b m i s s i o n to the terms of markets, where p r i c e structures, interest rates, a n d so on are set by the benchmarks of b i g business, greatly hems in the o r g a n i c farmer, a n d w i l l continue to do so as l o n g as he or she repeats the error of v o l u n t a r i s m by not c h a l l e n g i n g the m a r k e t a n d struggling to t r a n s f o r m it. A n d of course this c a n n o t be done in isolation f r o m other struggles. A l l of w h i c h leads to a look at non-socialist efforts to r e f o r m the econ o m i c system.

Clearly, ecological economics is uninterested in social transformation, a n d accepts the potentials of the present system to absorb the crisis, that is, to 'adapt'. To this means, w h i c h has in effect b e c o m e an e n d , e c o l o g i c a l economists e m p l o y a great variety of instrumental measures, f r o m 'incentiveGreen Economics based' regulations (such as the above-discussed tradable emission credits) to various ecological tariffs a n d ' n a t u r a l c a p i t a l ' depletion taxes, as well as m a n d a t o r y penalties against polluters. M a i n s t r e a m ecological economists are relatively u n c o n c e r n e d w i t h the size of e c o n o m i c units. H o w e v e r , there others, clustering about a second strand of green economics, w h o r e g a r d this question as p r i m a r y . T h e s e m a y r o u g h l y be described as n e o - S m i t h i a n , the S m i t h in question b e i n g the great A d a m , father o f m o d e r n p o l i t i c a l economy. A d a m Smith's a d v o c a c y of free markets was in the interest of an e n d distinctly different f r o m that of today's neo-liberalism. Smith's v i s i o n - w h i c h in g o o d measure also b e c a m e T h o m a s Jefferson's - was of a c a p i t a l i s m of s m a l l producers, freely e x c h a n g i n g w i t h each other. H e feared a n d loathed m o n o p o l i e s , a n d felt that the competitive m a r k e t of s m a l l buyers a n d sellers (where no single

In the wake of the collapse of twentieth-century socialism, an influential a n d diverse b o d y of o p i n i o n has arisen c l a i m i n g that a p a t h c a n be f o u n d out of the ecological crisis that does not require the overthrow a n d supercession of capital. T h i s 'green economics' echoes a n u m b e r of the e c o n o m i c points m a d e here - that o u r system suffers f r o m a k i n d of gigantism, that its values, in p a r t i c u l a r the espousal of quantity over quality, are severely flawed, that it misallocates resources, promotes i n e q u i t y a n d generally has m a d e a b o t c h of the g l o b a l ecology. B u t green e c o n o m i c s does so on the premise that the system has recuperative powers. It w o u l d not be fair to say that the people w h o espouse it are part of the s y s t e m ,
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for their critique is

severe a n d they often suffer one sanction or another. B u t green e c o n o m i c s

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Towards Ecosocialism i n d i v i d u a l c o u l d by h i m s e l f d e t e r m i n e prices) w o u l d self-regulate to keep these at bay. S m i t h argued that state i n t e r v e n t i o n , the bte noire of neol i b e r a l i s m , leads t o m o n o p o l y a n d e c o n o m i c g i g a n t i s m . N e o l i b e r a l i s m , needless to say, has no difficulty at a l l w i t h these latter ends. T h e a m b i t i o n o f n e o - S m i t h i a n t h i n k i n g i s t o restore s m a l l , i n d e p e n d e n t capitals to pre-eminence. F o r this purpose, as D a v i d K o r t e n , one of the l e a d i n g exponents of the view, puts it, Smith's a s s u m p t i o n , 'that capital would be rooted in a particular place: must be m e t .
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics introduce the latter as a t h i r d strand of ecological economics is serviceable as a w a y of i n d i c a t i n g the b r e a d t h of the c o m m u n i t y economics movement, w h i c h includes, alongside neo-Smithians, followers of E. F. Schumacher, w h o c a l l e d for a ' B u d d h i s t e c o n o m i c s ' ,
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or defenders of the ' C o m m o n s ' ,

g r o u p e d a b o u t The Ecologist m a g a z i n e , where the emphasis is on small producers f r o m the S o u t h or indigenous c o m m u n i t i e s ; or major portions of the G r e e n movements, a l o n g w i t h social ecologists (see below). T h e entire c o m m u n i t y economics tendency has its roots in the anarchist t r a d i t i o n of P r o u d h o n a n d K r o p o t k i n , w h o e m p h a s i z e d m u t u a l i s m as a defence against the forces o f m o d e r n i t y a n d g i g a n t i s m .
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K o r t e n ' s ecological society, the

essence of w h i c h he describes as ' d e m o c r a t i c p l u r a l i s m ' , is based u p o n 'regulated markets', in w h i c h government a n d c i v i l society c o m b i n e to offset the tendencies of capitalist firms to e x p a n d a n d concentrate, even as these same capitalist firms, n o w r e d u c e d , continue to p r o v i d e the m a i n s p r i n g of the economy. K o r t e n has achieved considerable p r o m i n e n c e in presenting these views, a n u m b e r of w h i c h p a r a l l e l those a r g u e d here. H o w e v e r , he does so w i t h o u t any c o n c e n t r a t e d critique of c a p i t a l itself, nor, significandy, of questions of class, gender or any other category of d o m i n a t i o n . He w o u l d see the p r i m a r y lesion in p h i l o s o p h i c a l or religious terms, as a suddenly a p p e a r i n g colossal k i n d of mistake identifiable as the 'Scientific R e v o l u t i o n ' , whose ' m a t e r i a l i s m ' stripped life o f ' m e a n i n g ' a n d c r u s h e d the spirit o f 'generosity a n d c a r i n g ' . K o r t e n regards this grandly: Failing to recognize and embrace their responsibility to the whole [human beings] turned their extraordinary abilities to ends ultimately destructive of the whole of life, destroying in a mere i o o years m u c h of the living natural capital it had taken billions of years of evolution to create.
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A s proponents o f this p o i n t o f

v i e w are usually hostile to socialism, they oppose p u b l i c o w n e r s h i p of the means of p r o d u c t i o n a n d espouse a diverse m i x t u r e of e c o n o m i c forms. C o o p e r a t i v e s are frequently m e n t i o n e d a m o n g the elements of c o m m u n i t y economics. B u t the cooperative m o v e m e n t , whether of consumers or, m o r e signficantly, producers, deserves m e n t i o n as a separate, fourth strand of green e c o n o m i c s because of its i m p l i c a t i o n s for the o r g a n i z a t i o n of l a b o u r a n d the advance of democracy. Because its essence is o w n e r s h i p by producers, the very n o t i o n of c o o p e r a t i o n cuts into the core of capitalist social relations, r e p l a c i n g h i e r a r c h y a n d c o n t r o l f r o m above w i t h freely associated labour. A s R o y M o r r i s o n has w r i t t e n : C o o p e r a t i o n ... is both social creativity - the growth of new lifeways, of neighborhoods and communities - and economic creativity - the ways of making a living through the growth of community-based business enterprises ... Such cooperation is a matter of necessity. It is a key response to the crises of modernity. In this sense, the industrial state becomes the catalyst for the creation of its antipode, the dynamic cooperative c o m m o n w e a l t h . M a r x at first thought w e l l of cooperatives, speaking of t h e m as: a greater victory [for workers, compared to achieving the ten hour workday] of the political economy of labour over the political economy of property ... T h e value of these great social experiments cannot be over-rated ... they have shown that production on a large scale, and in accord w i t h the behests of m o d e r n science, may be carried on without the existence of a class of masters employing a class of hands ...
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N o t e the reference to ' n a t u r a l c a p i t a l ' , as t h o u g h nature h a d t o i l e d to put the gift of c a p i t a l into h u m a n hands, w h o then abused their legacy t h r o u g h false science a n d m a t e r i a l i s m . S i n c e c a p i t a l - or class, or the capitalist state - are no b i g deal, a n d even, w h e n nature produces t h e m , are g o o d things, K o r t e n has no difficulty in seeing t h e m checked by ' g l o b a l i z i n g c i v i l society', w h i c h w i l l restrain a n d effectively domesticate the a n i m a l , l e a d i n g to the n e o - S m i t h i a n P r o m i s e d L a n d . T h i s is essentially an upbeat fairy-tale standi n g in for history, a n d if it were true, the w o r l d w o u l d be a m u c h easier place to change. It is so short a step f r o m n e o - S m i t h i a n i s m to c o m m u n i t y - b a s e d economics as to m a k e one i n c l i n e d to i n c l u d e t h e m u n d e r a single r u b r i c . B u t to

C o o p e r a t i v e s are p r o p e r l y d e e m e d private, in that they are o w n e d by their workers a n d not society as a whole. B u t this m e a n i n g needs to be configured

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Towards Ecosocialism against the b a c k d r o p of a system that constructs the rules of property. It is here that the limits of green economics c o m e into view. T h e fact of the matter is that cooperatives are b o t h attractive a n d , so far as the transf o r m a t i o n of society in an ecological d i r e c t i o n goes, no m o r e t h a n a very h a l t i n g a n d isolated first step. P i c k i n g up on M o r r i s o n ' s p o i n t , above, we c o u l d say that the principle of c o o p e r a t i o n is o n l y p a r t i a l l y realizable w i t h i n the institutions of cooperatives in capitalist society. A c t u a l l y , a significant p o r t i o n of the economy, f r o m f a r m e r cooperatives, to credit unions, a n d even some H M O s , is already in cooperative hands. B u t this has not stopped the ecological crisis f r o m m a t u r i n g , just as it matures w i t h u n l e a d e d gasoline, recycled newspaper a n d other w o r t h y palliatives. N o d o u b t , were the entire e c o n o m y in cooperative hands, matters w o u l d be different - but for that to h a p p e n , c a p i t a l itself w o u l d have to be shoved aside a n d r e p l a c e d , a n d that is quite another, a n d revolutionary, matter, w h i c h w i l l not c o m e f r o m the existing cooperative m o v e m e n t . T h e e r r o r of a s s u m i n g that cooperatives - or c o m m u n i t y economics, or green c a p i t a l i s m , or any of the reforms in themselves - w i l l stem the crisis arises f r o m confusion about their relation to c a p i t a l . C a p i t a l w i l l tolerate a n y n u m b e r of i m p r o v e m e n t s a n d r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s so l o n g as its basic e x p a n s i o n is secured - a n d i n d e e d , m a n y of the reforms succeed in d o i n g just that, a n d are e n c o u r a g e d by the state or progressive elements of the bourgeoisie on that account, even if r e a c t i o n a r y elements of the class m a y resist. T h u s some cooperatives a n d green c a p i t a l i s m are a l l o w e d or even e n c o u r a g e d to j o i n the c l u b so l o n g as they a d d modestly to a c c u m u l a t i o n , or at least keep out of its way. H o w e v e r , it is this e x p a n s i o n , in the f o r m of the 'gigantic force field', that tears up ecologies - a n d at the same time, oppresses cooperatives a n d other forms of green c a p i t a l . If we e x a m i n e this 'force field' m o r e closely, we see it as a d e m a n d for the g r o w t h of profits extended across the entire surface of society. T h i s pressure at first seems transparently obvious, yet on inspection c e r t a i n p u z z l i n g features appear. Profit is obviously a f u n c t i o n of price, but prices are fickle a n d variable, w h i l e profits n e e d to be m u c h m o r e structured. H o w , for example, are the great variety of e c o n o m i c p r i c e signals - stock quotes, interest rates, exchange rates, c o m m o d i t y prices a n d so on - i n t e r p r e t e d by e c o n o m i c agents in the capitalist m a r k e t p l a c e ? T h r o u g h their m o n e t a r y amounts, to be sure. B u t what f u n c t i o n of m o n e y is i n v o l v e d - m o n e y as p u r e exchangeability, as a c o m m o d i t y itself to be

Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics t r a d e d , or as the e m b o d i m e n t of value? C l e a r l y , the t h i r d : it is value that stalks forth i n e c o n o m i c considerations o f profitability. M o n e y - a s exchangeability has no substantial existence - it is like w r i t i n g on water, w h i l e m o n e y - a s - c o m m o d i t y is itself to be t r a d e d a n d c a n n o t stand for a n y t h i n g b e y o n d that. V a l u e , on the other h a n d , is the active relationship that pervades a l l transactions of c a p i t a l i s m . If the force field is extended across the surface of society, then value is, so to speak, i m p l a n t e d throughout that surface to attract the force field; wherever exchange-value is inserted, there arises a c o m m o d i t y . C a p i t a l i s m is generalized c o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n , a n d value is the a l l - p e r v a d i n g vector, the installation a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of w h i c h is the actual f u n c t i o n of capitali s m as such. Profits are the increasing of values (as manifested in money), a n d values l i n k all elements of c a p i t a l i s m a c c o r d i n g to profitability; that is, after a l l , what is meant by the great temple of c a p i t a l i s m k n o w n as the M a r k e t . As every cooperative m a n a g e r knows, the internal c o o p e r a t i o n of freely associated l a b o u r is forever h e m m e d in a n d c o m p r o m i s e d by the force field of value e x p a n s i o n e m b o d i e d in the M a r k e t , whether this be expressed i n dealings w i t h banks o r a n u n e n d i n g pressure t o exploit l a b o u r i n order to stay afloat, or t h r o u g h hierarchies or bureaucracies, or any of hundreds of mediations. In M a r x ' s words (written at a later occasion w h e n the limits of cooperatives h a d b e c o m e clearer), however well-intentioned they m a y be, cooperatives w i t h i n c a p i t a l i s m necessarily reproduce 'the shortcomings of the p r e v a i l i n g system' in f o r c i n g workers to b e c o m e 'their o w n capitalist ... by e n a b l i n g t h e m to use the means of p r o d u c t i o n for the e m p l o y m e n t of their o w n l a b o u r ' , the standards of w h i c h are then set by the capitalist M a r k e t . Therefore, whether cooperatives like it or not, capital, w i t h all its a t o m i z a t i o n a n d competitive pressure, hems t h e m i n , a n d forces t h e m to b e c o m e like the other capitalist enterprises - as, in the most egregious cases, happens w i t h H M O s o r U n i t e d A i r l i n e s , the largest f i r m w i t h substantial employee o w n e r s h i p .
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In every case, the pressure of value must be c o n t e n d e d w i t h , a n d the ecological success of a cooperative, or i n d e e d any e c o n o m i c f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n capitalist society, m a y be j u d g e d strictly by the degree to w h i c h this force is n e u t r a l i z e d or overcome. B u t what is the real force of value w i t h i n capitalism? To r e t u r n to the previous discussion, it o n l y arises as the w o r l d destroying monstrous f o r m of c a p i t a l w h e n human labour - the p r o d u c t i v e p o w e r essential to a l l e c o n o m i c activity - is c o m m o d i f i e d in the wage

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Towards Ecosocialism relationship t h r o u g h the separation, or splitting, of producers f r o m the means o f their p r o d u c t i o n . T h i s becomes generalized, hence u n d e r capitali s m exploitable l a b o u r is a g r o u n d for a l l e c o n o m i c activity, green or otherwise, since it determines the general market regulation to w h i c h green economics must c o n f o r m . So l o n g as the m a i n institutions of capital endure to set the basic terms of the market, they c o n t i n u a l l y force the separation o f p r o d u c e r s , i.e., h u m a n i t y , f r o m the means o f p r o d u c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g nature, a n d force l a b o u r to be exploited. V i e w e d against the reality of c a p i t a l , c o m m u n i t y e c o n o m i c s seen as an e n d in itself becomes incoherent. In fact, it does so on l o g i c a l grounds. F o r all e c o n o m i c activity is l o c a l - in that it involves s o m e b o d y d o i n g s o m e t h i n g somewhere - a n d it is g l o b a l as w e l l . E v e n in the most l o c a l i z e d instance, say, some youngsters in S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a p i c k i n g lemons f r o m the tree in their b a c k y a r d a n d m a k i n g l e m o n a d e for sale in front of their house, the f i n a l , l o c a l act rests u p o n a deep a n d w i d e s p r e a d f o u n d a t i o n . D i d l e m o n trees g r o w i m m e m o r i a l l y i n what i s n o w S a n D i e g o ? A r e l e m o n trees, o r any f o o d - p r o d u c i n g entity, just f o u n d in nature, or were they developed over centuries by past l a b o u r ? W h e r e d i d the water c o m e f r o m to g r o w the tree a n d m i x w i t h the l e m o n j u i c e , a n d what struggles took place so that it c o u l d be delivered so cheaply? A n d the sugar, what is its h i s t o r y ?
23

Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics neither c a n it be a n e o - S m i t h i a n system of s m a l l capitalists. F o r Smith's reasoning - like that of Jefferson - was strictly contextualized by its gestation i n a t r a n s i t i o n a l f o r m o f c a p i t a l i s m , p r i m a r i l y a g r a r i a n a n d based o n h a n d m a d e c o m m o d i t i e s , before i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n rewrote the m a p of society a n d tore great masses of people away f r o m the earth a n d f r o m c o n t r o l over their productive activity.
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167

Smith's agents of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n were m e m b e r s

of a class of enlightened s m a l l landowners, whose f r e e d o m of f u n c t i o n was given by their c o n t r o l over their l a n d . O n l y u n d e r such circumstances does it m a k e sense even to d r e a m , as D a v i d K o r t e n does, 'that c a p i t a l w o u l d be rooted in a p a r t i c u l a r place'. T h a t was a d r e a m u n r e a l i z e d , as n e w class f o r m a t i o n s m a d e a c c u m u l a t i o n possible o n a n e x p a n d i n g scale. Today, w h e n to root c a p i t a l is t a n t a m o u n t to r o o t i n g mercury, it is a nostalgic fantasy. A n d just as Smith's p o l i t i c a l e c o n o m y needs to be h i s t o r i c i z e d , so are his basic categories ahistorical a n d essentialized. Yes, if people have Smith's famous innate propensity to trade a n d barter, then they s h o u l d be given capitalist firms to realize this. B u t since w h e n are the impulses of c a p i t a l i s m directly derived f r o m the innate repertoire o f h u m a n nature? Since the c o m i n g to p o w e r of c a p i t a l , that is a l l . W h y s h o u l d we s u b m i t today to the m o d e l of s m a l l c a p i t a l , w h i c h , however less m u r d e r o u s t h a n large c a p i t a l , is still based on the e x p l o i t a t i o n of labour, that most c r u c i a l ot ecological insults, a n d is therefore infected w i t h the virus of capital's cancerous growth? D o w e c a l l , t h e n , for the i m m e d i a t e a b o l i t i o n o f money, wage l a b o u r a n d c o m m o d i t y exchanges, a l o n g w i t h a l l m a r k e t relations a n d businesses? A b s o l u t e l y not: measures of this sort recapitulate the P o l Pot or Stalinist solution, a n d they ride as heavily over h u m a n i t y a n d nature as d i d slavery. T h e y are forms o f violence that tear apart ecosystems h u m a n a n d n a t u r a l alike. A n ecocentric people w i l l not n e e d t o repress the a c c u m u l a t i o n o f c a p i t a l because such a people w i l l be free f r o m e x p l o i t a t i o n , a n d the drive to a c c u m u l a t e w i l l not arise f r o m the g r o u n d of freely associated labour. T h e p r o b l e m is to get to that g r o u n d , in the course of w h i c h present ways of p r o d u c t i o n need to be traversed a n d t r a n s f o r m e d a n d not k n o c k e d over. B u t first it must be envisioned. To create that v i s i o n , a r a d i c a l rejection of capitalist ways is necessary. We s h o u l d reject, therefore, the p h o n e y tolerance espoused by green e c o n o m i c s t o w a r d preserving a 'diversity' that gives a substantial role to capitalist firms. O n e m i g h t as w e l l try to raise weasels a n d chickens i n the same p e n . I n this real w o r l d , a l l forms o f c a p i t a l ,

W a s it

h o m e - g r o w n , or, m o r e likely, p u r c h a s e d w i t h money, f r o m what source? A n d the house that becomes the marketplace, h o w is this o w n e d a n d built? F r o m l o c a l materials? A pure c o m m u n i t y , or even 'bioregionaF (see below) e c o n o m y is a fantasy. Strict l o c a l i s m belongs to the a b o r i g i n a l stages of society: it c a n n o t be r e p r o d u c e d today, a n d even if it c o u l d , it w o u l d be an ecological nightmare at present p o p u l a t i o n levels. I m a g i n e the heat losses f r o m a multitude of dispersed sites, the squandering of scarce resources, the needless r e p r o d u c t i o n of effort, a n d the c u l t u r a l impoverishment. T h i s is by no means to be interpreted as a d e n i a l of the great value of small-scale a n d l o c a l endeavours: any flourishing ecosystem, after a l l , functions by differentiated, w h i c h is to say particular, activity. It is, rather, an insistence that the l o c a l a n d p a r t i c u l a r exists in a n d t h r o u g h the g l o b a l w h o l e ; that there needs to be, in any economy, an interdependence whose walls are not confinable to any t o w n ship or b i o r e g i o n ; a n d that, fundamentally, the issue is the relationship of parts to the whole. T h e r e f o r e the v i s i o n of an ecological society c a n n o t be p u r e l y l o c a l , a n d

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Towards Ecosocialism i n c l u d i n g the o x y m o r o n i c ' n a t u r a l c a p i t a l ' that is supposed to rescue us, are swiftly caught up in the flood-tide of a c c u m u l a t i o n . My i n t e n t i o n is not at a l l to disparage the virtue of a small e c o n o m i c or c o m m u n i t y unit. Q u i t e the c o n t r a r y : as we shall explore in the last chapter, small-size enterprises are an essential part of the p a t h towards an ecological society, as w e l l as the b u i l d i n g blocks of that society. T h e r e is a question, rather, about perspective: whether the s m a l l units are to be capitalist or socialist in o r i e n t a t i o n , a n d whether they are seen as ends in themselves or integrated w i t h a m o r e universal v i s i o n . F o r b o t h of these sets of choices, I w o u l d argue for the latter p o s i t i o n : the units need to be consistently a n t i capitalist, a n d they n e e d to exist in a dialectic w i t h the whole of things. For h u m a n beings are not rodents, w h o live in burrows. N o r are we insects, creatures w h o thrive at a s m a l l scale, because of w h i c h they c a n n o t use skeletons or lungs, or any of the organs necessary for larger organisms. H u m a n s are, by nature, large, expansive, u n i v e r s a l i z i n g creatures. We n e e d different degrees of r e a l i z a t i o n to express o u r being, g r a n d e u r as w e l l as intimacy, the large g r a i n as w e l l as the fine. We n e e d the equivalent of skeletons to support us, a n d specialized organs to meet o u r species' needs. T h u s I s h o u l d t h i n k that in an ecologically realized w o r l d there w o u l d exist significant sectors of large-scale activity, for example, r a i l a n d c o m m u n i c a tions systems a n d p o w e r grids, just as w o r l d cities w o u l d flourish as sites of universality. I h o p e I m a y be forgiven for insisting that N e w Y o r k , Paris, L o n d o n a n d T o k y o n o t b e taken d o w n i n a n ecological society, but m o r e fully r e a l i z e d ; a n d that the n i g h t m a r e cities of g l o b a l c a p i t a l - the Jakartas a n d M e x i c o C i t y s - w i l l be restored to s i m i l a r states of being. T h i s restoration in its m a n y forms comes b a c k to the question of the e m a n c i p a t i o n o f labour, a n d not just w a g e d labour, but a l l compulsive forms of o u r creativity, i n c l u d i n g most definitely the a l i e n a t i o n of women's househ o l d w o r k , a n d the stifling of c h i l d r e n in schools. T h e fact is that the great b u l k of h u m a n k i n d are throttled in their h u m a n i t y , a n d o v e r c o m i n g this is far m o r e significant t h a n any t i n k e r i n g f r o m above w i t h a c o r r u p t economy. T h i s t r u t h is either lost on the ecological economists or mystified out of existence. A n y sense of real people, a n d real p o p u l a r struggle, are abstracted f r o m m a n d a r i n texts such as An Introduction to Ecological Economics. Yes, the authors do c a l l for a ' l i v i n g d e m o c r a c y ' , w h i c h is c e r t a i n l y a g o o d thing. B u t life is struggle, especially in a class society where antagonisms are built into the social process. Yet for Ecological Economics, l i v i n g d e m o c r a c y is 'a b r o a d

Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics ... process to discuss a n d achieve consensus on these i m p o r t a n t issues. T h i s is distinct f r o m the p o l e m i c a n d divisive p o l i t i c a l process that seems to h o l d sway i n m a n y countries t o d a y ' T h u s w e n e e d 'to engage a l l m e m b e r s o f society in a substantive dialogue about the future they desire a n d the policies a n d instruments necessary to b r i n g it a b o u t ' .
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T h e image evoked is like one

of the official m u r a l s that decorate post offices in w h i c h the E u r o p e a n settlers/invaders are s o l e m n l y greeted by the I n d i a n s to deliberate on matters of m u t u a l c o n c e r n . W h e r e sweatshops re-impose slavery w i t h i n the capitalist system while u n t o l d m i l l i o n s of people in the m i d d l e are consigned to m a l l culture a n d the rat race, consensus is not exactly an i l l u m i n a t i n g t e r m , a n d some divisive p o l e m i c s , well-chosen a n d c o u p l e d w i t h p r o p e r a c t i o n , c a n do a great deal of g o o d . False r e c o n c i l i a t i o n is not the p a t h out of a w o r l d as unjust as this. T h e d e m a n d for justice is the p i v o t about w h i c h l a b o u r w i l l be e m a n c i p a t e d ; it must also be a f o u n d a t i o n of o v e r c o m i n g the ecological crisis. In b r i n g i n g this section to a close a few words m a y be a d d e d about H e r m a n Daly, i n m y v i e w the best o f the m a i n s t r e a m ecological e c o n o m ists. D a l y , f o r m e r l y w i t h the W o r l d B a n k a n d a student of G e o r g e s c u R o e g e n , has done m o r e t h a n anyone to question the p a t h o l o g i c a l g r o w t h inherent in the system. He has h e l d firmly, in the teeth of elite o p i n i o n to the contrary, to the thesis of limits to g r o w t h a n d attempted to redefine e c o n o m i c s accordingly. N o r has D a l y hesitated t o c a l l for f u n d a m e n t a l change, or to use strong, n o n - t e c h n o c r a t i c language in d o i n g so.
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I would

see D a l y as a b r i d g e - b u i l d e r between the established thought, the folly of w h i c h he appreciates keenly, a n d the m o r e r a d i c a l a p p r o a c h chosen here. To this e n d , D a l y has gone a considerable w a y (beyond, say, D a v i d K o r t e n ) t o w a r d a basic critique of capital. He was not afraid to advocate a m a x i m u m wage, a n d caught the expectable a m o u n t of s c o r n for his troubles.
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He is w i l l i n g to use M a r x ' s f r a m e w o r k for use- a n d exchange28

value a n d the c i r c u l a t i o n process u n d e r l y i n g c a p i t a l f o r m a t i o n .

A n d he

has a keen awareness of the d e h u m a n i z a t i o n of l a b o u r e n d e m i c to the capitalist system, a n d calls for w i d e s p r e a d w o r k e r o w n e r s h i p as a remedy. He has even s h o w n flexibility on the question of socialism, b e i n g an a d m i r e r o f K a r l P o l a n y i a n d M i c h a e l H a r r i n g t o n , w h o o p e n e d his eyes t o the d e m o c r a t i c potentials w i t h i n socialism. B u t these insights do n o t translate i n t o p r a x i s , especially on the a l l i m p o r t a n t subject of labour. Yes, D a l y w o u l d have w o r k e r ownership, but

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Towards Ecosocialism kept firmly w i t h i n a capitalist market. H i s sensitivity to the p r e d i c a m e n t of l a b o u r i s vitiated b y a n o d d r e a d i n g o f h i s t o r y i n w h i c h the o p p o s i t i o n between c a p i t a l a n d l a b o u r is seen as the ' d o m i n a n t situation of the past... [when it] was supposed that the interests of l a b o r a n d m a n a g e m e n t were i n conflict m o r e t h a n they were i n h a r m o n y . T h i s was true w h e n c a p i t a l treated l a b o r as a c o m m o d i t y ... It is m u c h less true today' - a startling insight. As a result, 'the goal s h o u l d be to increase c o m m u n i c a t i o n s between l a b o r a n d m a n a g e m e n t so that the situation w o u l d be i m p r o v e d for b o t h ' . D a l y here repeats the ideology of F o r d i s m , w h i c h has been scrapped since the crises of the 1970s, a n d was basically a mystification to begin w i t h . M o r e pointedly, D a l y does not believe in it, either. For example, he a n d C o b b - w o u l d 'insist that [trade policy] be a c c o m p a n i e d by greatly increased competitiveness a m o n g A m e r i c a n p r o d u c e r s ' . For the purposes of competitiveness, of course, c a p i t a l has to treat l a b o u r just as it always has, namely, as a c o m m o d i t y whose cost is to be ruthlessly d r i v e n d o w n or shifted to the dirt-cheap overseas sources p r o v i d e d by g l o b a l i z a t i o n . In any case, the d a y w h e n c a p i t a l ceases treating l a b o u r as a c o m m o d i t y w i l l be the d a w n i n g of a new, socialist era. In the m e a n w h i l e , D a l y stays w i t h the ancien rgime, u n a b l e to cross the bridge he is b u i l d i n g . He does 'not w a n t to see the r e n e w a l of l a b o u r m i l i t a n c y d i r e c t e d t o w a r d increasing its share of the pie over against c a p i t a l a n d the general p u b l i c ' (as t h o u g h the workforce were not the general public). O n the other h a n d , neither w o u l d h e a n d C o b b 'encourage c o n t i n u e d interest i n g l o b a l d o m i n a t i o n ' , for w h i c h we m a y a l l offer a modest r o u n d of g r a t i t u d e .
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics

171

Deep Ecology Since c a p i t a l i s m is the regime of the ego, a n d holds ' M a n ' over a l l things, i n c l u d i n g , certainly, nature, the deep-ecological p r i n c i p l e o f d e c e n t r i n g h u m a n i t y w o u l d seem to possess an innate resonance w i t h the anti-capitalist project. B u t n o t h i n g of the sort transpires. T h e s e two sides are the furthest r e m o v e d of a l l those to be considered: between actually existing socialism a n d actually existing deep ecology there is a r a d i c a l barrier. T h e r e is c o n siderable responsibility for this f r o m the socialist side, w h i c h we w i l l examine in the next chapter, but there is also considerable responsibility f r o m the deep ecological side. A c t u a l l y , there is one deep ecologist, the most famous a n d influential of a l l , w h o has r e c o g n i z e d the p o t e n t i a l r a p p r o c h e m e n t w i t h socialism. A r n e Naess, the N o r w e g i a n p h i l o s o p h e r w h o m o r e or less sired the project, writes that 'it is still clear that some of the most valuable workers for ecological goals c o m e f r o m the socialist c a m p s ' .
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B u t Naess is clearly an e x c e p t i o n a l

figure - e x c e p t i o n a l in his range of interests, sense of justice a n d openness, a n d also i n b e i n g f r o m a E u r o p e a n n a t i o n where a n t i - c o m m u n i s m a n d n e o l i b e r a l ideology have not stifled the p o l i t i c a l intelligence w i t h h a t r e d of socialism. I n the U S A , very few people influenced b y deep ecology b o t h e r to r e a d Naess, or w o u l d attend to statements such as the above. T h e deep ecological p o s i t i o n , rather, has been assumed by the p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y a n d / or spiritually m i n d e d , w h o tend to keep a measured distance f r o m the messy w o r l d o f struggle,
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a l o n g w i t h defenders o f wilderness a n d u n t r a m m e l l e d

nature. M a n y v i r t u o u s souls here, but n o i n t e r n a l c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the Ecophilosophies A n ' e c o p h i l o s o p h y ' represents a c o m p r e h e n s i v e o r i e n t i n g statement that c o m b i n e s the u n d e r s t a n d i n g of o u r r e l a t i o n to nature, the d y n a m i c s of the ecological crisis, a n d the guidelines for r e b u i l d i n g society in an ecological d i r e c t i o n . T h e s e positions are not s i m p l y c o n t a i n e d in texts, but i n f o r m social movements a s w e l l . T h e y have p r a c t i c a l a n d p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s w h i c h n e e d to be c u r s o r i l y addressed here. I w i l l try to a v o i d needless repetition of points already m a d e , a n d focus instead on ecophilosophies as p r i n c i p l e s of social t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , that is, w h a t society are they envisioning? c r i t i q u e o f c a p i t a l i s m o r the e m a n c i p a t i o n o f labour. T h e s e are the k i n d o f folks w h o tend to fall in line b e h i n d the fatuous p r o n o u n c e m e n t that green politics is 'neither left n o r right, but a h e a d ' - a mere slogan that leads to the question of what b e i n g ' a h e a d ' constitutes (see below), w h i l e forgetting that in the real w o r l d , that w h i c h does not confront the system becomes its instrument. In any case, the deep ecology e c o p h i l o s o p h y is far too loose to f o r m itself into a coherent m o v e m e n t , a n d almost by definition excludes the f o r m a t i o n of parties or any o r g a n i z e d assertion of power. I n d e e d , what k i n d of a society c a n be f o r m u l a t e d out of so flaccid a doctrine as w o u l d h o l d that: O u r first principle [with respect to resource conservation] is to encourage

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Towards Ecosocialism agencies, legislators, property owners and managers to consider flowing with rather than forcing natural process. Second, in facing practical situations we favor working within the minority tradition, in the local community, especially the b i o r e g i o n .
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics m o v e m e n t at large, w h i c h has not covered itself w i t h g l o r y on questions such as i m m i g r a t i o n , often a l l y i n g w i t h reactionaries in a d e l u d e d a n d c r y p t i c a l l y racist quest to keep o u r borders 'clean'. C e r t a i n exponents of deep ecology have disgraced themselves a n d the m o v e m e n t yet further by suggesting that p a n d e m i c s such as A I D S are nature's, that is, ' G a i a ' s ' , way of r i d d i n g itself of the pestilential species Homo sapiens. So far as I know, they never a p p l y the same reasoning to themselves or f a m i l y m e m b e r s w h e n they get sick. We shall p i c k up this t h r e a d in the final section of the present chapter.
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T h e r e are also certain less t h a n virtuous souls attracted to deep ecology. T h e flaw in deep ecology derives f r o m its effort to dcentre h u m a n i t y w i t h i n nature, a measure that c a n easily go too far a n d split us away f r o m w i l d nature, a l l o w i n g us to forget that 'nature', as we e m p l o y the concept, is a social c o n s t r u c t i o n before it is a n y t h i n g else. T h i s passes very easily into the splitting away o f u n w a n t e d people. O n e of the m o r e disgraceful impacts of the deep ecological perspective on p o l i c y is the habit, in preserving 'wilderness', of erasing the people w h o l i v e d there f r o m time i m m e m o r i a l , so m u c h a p a r t of nature that they h a d n o separate w o r d for it, a n d certainly n o w o r d for wilderness. N o w comes an estranged creature w h o sees wilderness a l l a r o u n d , whose p o w e r derives f r o m his estrangement, w h o forgets that h u m a n beings are n a t u r a l creatures, a n d w h o , i n preserving wilderness, expels lesser h u m a n s . I n the turbulent climate of c o n t e m p o r a r y ecopolitics, this is c o m p l i c a t e d by the needs of the U S State D e p a r t m e n t a n d the W o r l d B a n k t o shore u p their shaky legitimacy. In o r d e r to c o u n t e r criticisms of their role in the ecological crisis, these institutions often m a k e a i d packages c o n d i t i o n a l on preserving w i l d areas - w h i c h then have a d d e d value as sites for ecotourism, a favoured w a y of r e c y c l i n g the e c o n o m i c surplus. So deep ecology comes h o m e as the strategy of a d v a n c e d capitalist elites, for w h o m nature is what looks g o o d o n calendars. In the m e a n w h i l e , in the decade 1986-96, m o r e t h a n three m i l l i o n people were d i s p l a c e d b y d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n projects. T h i s p o l i c y b e g a n not w i t h deep ecology, but w i t h the nineteenth-century conservation m o v e m e n t . I n the U S A , this was very m u c h tied u p w i t h getting r i d o f Indians. O u r enjoyment of the great n a t i o n a l p a r k system, for instance, needs to be t e m p e r e d w i t h the recollection that 300 Shoshones were k i l l e d in the development of Yosemite, by no means an isolated case. D e e p ecology, b o r d e r politics, the genocide of indigenous peoples a n d e c o t o u r i s m are a l l , t h e n , part of the same package. T h i s trap is l o a d e d because of the pressing p o p u l a t i o n crisis, w h i c h makes it easy to rationalize exclusion. T h e trait is by no means c o n f i n e d to deep ecology, but haunts the e n v i r o n m e n t a l

Bioregionalism T h e a p p e a l o f this doctrine, w h i c h connects some o f the p r i n c i p l e s o f c o m m u n i t y e c o n o m i c s w i t h the back-to-the-land m o v e m e n t , is obvious. B i o r e g i o n a l i s m represents a specifically ecological r e n d i t i o n of the c o n t e m p o r a r y m o v e m e n t t o w a r d the break-up of nation-states. W h e r e separatists t y p i c a l l y define themselves in terms of distinct nations s u b s u m e d w i t h i n the larger p o l i t i c a l entity, bioregionalists take this a step further, g r o u n d i n g - literally - themselves in the ecological p r e c o n d i t i o n s of n a t i o n h o o d , that of the place shared by a people. T h i s , however, is not merely l o c a t i o n , but the concrete e c o l o g i c a l w o r k i n g s of a part of the e a r t h : the flows of watersheds, the lie of the hills, the kinds of soils, the b i o t a that i n h a b i t a b i o r e g i o n , r e g a r d e d as the o r g a n i c substrate of a revealed c o m m u n i t y , h u m a n - s c a l e a n d dedicated to l i v i n g gently on the earth a n d not over it. F r o m this perspective, the b i o r e g i o n is the essential g r o u n d w i t h i n w h i c h the p r i n c i p l e s of sustainability a n d its reliance on ecological technology and economics may be applied. C e r t a i n l y , an emphasis on place in any realized ecophilosophy is essential. It w o u l d be impossible to construct any adequate n o t i o n of an integral ecosystem w i t h o u t such a g r o u n d . It m i g h t be a d d e d that as someone w h o has chosen t o live i n the C a t s k i l l M o u n t a i n s a n d H u d s o n V a l l e y o f N e w Y o r k State, a n d w h o has h a d g o o d relationships w i t h people i n the back-tot h e - l a n d m o v e m e n t , I p e r s o n a l l y speak w i t h a great deal of affection for this p o i n t of view. Nevertheless, the attempt to extend it to b i o r e g i o n a l i s m as an ecophilosophy is to be challenged a n d rejected, because the idea is incapable o f g u i d i n g social t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . S o m e of these difficulties m a y be seen in an essay by the bioregionalist

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Towards Ecosocialism K i r k p a t r i c k Sale, w h o is l e d to posit a regime of self-sufficiency for the b i o region. A consistent bioregionalist has to do so in o r d e r to establish his v i e w as an ecophilosophy. W h a t comes, however, w i t h the ' t e r r i t o r y ' is the need to define boundaries. Of this, Sale has the f o l l o w i n g to say: Ultimately, the task of determining the appropriate bioregional boundaries - and how seriously to take them - w i l l always be left up to the inhabitants of the area. O n e can see this fairly clearly in the case of the Indian peoples who first settled the N o r t h A m e r i c a n continent. Because they lived off the land, they distributed themselves to a remarkable degree along the lines of what we now recognize as bioregions.
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics aware of the p l i g h t of the Indians, but ignores the i m p l i c a t i o n s of transf o r m i n g c a p i t a l i s m . H e writes that b i o r e g i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n - b u i l d i n g ' c a n b e safely left to people w h o live there, p r o v i d i n g o n l y that they have u n d e r t a k e n the j o b o f h o n i n g their b i o r e g i o n a l sensibilities a n d m a k i n g acute their b i o r e g i o n a l consciousness' (p. 476) - a pretty gross understatement of what history shows to be the need to t r a n s f o r m society in a ' c o m m u n i s t ' d i r e c t i o n , w i t h o u t w h i c h a people s i m p l y c a n n o t d e m o c r a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l their b i o r e g i o n . A n d i f they rose u p t o take such c o n t r o l , h o w m u c h i m a g i n a t i o n does it take to see what w o u l d be the response of the capitalist state? E v e n if these problems c o u l d m i r a c u l o u s l y be i r o n e d out, retaining Sale's autarkic concept of a b i o r e g i o n w o u l d be impossible. He calls for selfsufficient regions, each developing the energy of its p e c u l i a r ecology - ' w i n d i n the G r e a t P l a i n s ; water i n N e w E n g l a n d ; w o o d i n the N o r t h w e s t ' (p. 482). B u t h o w on earth are these resources to be m a d e sufficient? I w o u l d b e surprised t o l e a r n that the rivers o f N e w E n g l a n d c o u l d supply m o r e t h a n a tenth of its energy needs, a n d as for w o o d in the N o r t h w e s t (where there is m o r e hydropower, t h o u g h again not enough), h o w w i l l Sale answer to the environmentalists - or the economists, or any sane p e r s o n - if, say, Seattle is converted to forest-destroying a n d smoke-spewing w o o d - b u r n i n g stoves? Of course, an ecological society w o u l d have greatly e n h a n c e d energy efficiency a n d r e d u c e d needs, but there is s o m e t h i n g slapdash in these prescriptions, w h i c h seem d e d u c e d f r o m a n a t u r a l i z e d ideology rather t h a n g r o u n d e d in reality. 'Self-sufficiency,' adds Sale, 'before I am b a d l y m i s u n d e r s t o o d , is not the same t h i n g as isolation, n o r does it preclude a l l kinds of trade at a l l times. It does not require connections w i t h the outside, but w i t h i n strict limits the connections must be n o n d e p e n d e n t , n o n m o n e t a r y a n d n o n i n j u r i o u s it allows t h e m ' (p. 483). We s h o u l d not m i s u n d e r s t a n d badly, or at a l l , but the u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s h a r d . N o r e q u i r e d connections between bioregions? Suppose y o u r daughter lives in the next one (or worse, the one b e y o n d that) a n d y o u w a n t t o visit. C a n y o u p h o n e her, a n d w h o m d o you p a y for the purpose? A r e there to be no roads, or r a i l systems, or aeroplane travel for the purpose? A r e people o n l y to w a l k between bioregions on trails t h r o u g h the b r u s h , as the other means w o u l d require some m o n e t a r y intercourse? We need take this no further. A strict b i o r e g i o n a l i s m dissolves in a flood of c o n t r a d i c t i o n , because in it, nature is abstracted f r o m history. In itself

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T h e r e are three m a j o r p r o b l e m s w i t h this statement. First, what is an 'area'? T h e t e r m is vague in itself, but c a n n o t r e m a i n that w a y if b o u n d a r i e s of the b i o r e g i o n need to be d e c i d e d , as must be the case if there is to be a ' s e l f to be self-sufficent about. B u t w h o is to decide w h o lives where? C a n this c o n c e i v a b l y be done w i t h o u t conflict, given the differential suitability of different regions for productive development? A n d w h o is to resolve the anticipated conflicts, w h i c h w i l l involve major e x p r o p r i ation? T h e l a n d where I live is p a r t of the watershed for N e w Y o r k City. A r e the m e m b e r s of the C a t s k i l l M o u n t a i n B i o r e g i o n to declare that the city c a n go dry, a n d are they p r e p a r e d to go to w a r to preserve the integrity of the bioregion? S e c o n d , the I n d i a n peoples l i v e d b i o r e g i o n a l l y because o n l y about 6-10 m i l l i o n of t h e m i n h a b i t e d the n o w U n i t e d States at the time of the E u r o p e a n invasion. Today's vastly greater p o p u l a t i o n exists not in simple relation to place but in an interdependent g r i d . R e m e m b e r , too, that the Indians fell into bitter warfare as their territory became destabilized by the E u r o p e a n intrusion. T h i r d , a n d most i m p o r t a n t by far, the Indian's b i o r e g i o n a l life-world was p r e d i c a t e d on h o l d i n g l a n d in c o m m o n - in other words, it was a p r i m i t i v e c o m m u n i s m . T h e g e n o c i d a l wars w i t h the invaders h a d a great deal to do w i t h the latter's capitalism, w h i c h r e q u i r e d the alienation of l a n d as property, s o m e t h i n g the Indians w o u l d rather die t h a n submit to (which is pretty m u c h what happened). C a p i t a l i s m has definitely not c h a n g e d in this respect, a n d n o coherent project o f b i o r e g i o n a l i s m c a n survive i f p r o d u c t i v e l a n d remains a c o m m o d i t y , to be o w n e d by absentees, h o a r d e d , rented out, concentrated in fewer a n d fewer hands a n d generally exploited. Sale is fully

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Towards Ecosocialism it c a n n o t arrive at the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the whole of society needed to resolve the crisis.

Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics cannot be recovered for the transformation of c a p i t a l i s t / p a t r i a r c h a l society. Essentialist feminisms, whether eco- or not, r e m a i n therefore essentially bourgeois i n o r i e n t a t i o n . T h e i r place i s i n the comforts o f the N e w A g e Ecofeminism G r o w t h C e n t r e , r a t h e r t h a n o n the b a r r i c a d e s o f struggle. A n d the prevalence of this p o i n t of v i e w keeps e c o f e m i n i s m f r o m b e c o m i n g a coherent social movement.

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E c o f e m i n i s m is a powerful ecophilosophy g r o u n d e d in the two great struggles of women's liberation a n d ecological justice. However, it is u n c e r t a i n as a social movement. As an ecophilosophy it theorizes the thematic we have d r a w n as the gendered bifurcation of nature. T h i s began w i t h the c o n t r o l over women's bodies a n d labour, a n d is at the root of patriarchy a n d class. T h e splits between classes, between genders, a n d between ' M a n ' a n d nature are to undergo distinct paths of development a n d intertwine into c o m p l e x patterns. T h e y enter the history of capitalism at its foundations - in the r e d u c t i o n of nature to inert resources; in the v a l o r i z a t i o n of c o l d abstraction a n d the identification of this masculine trait w i t h what is truly h u m a n ; a n d i n the super-exploitation o f w o m e n , b e g i n n i n g w i t h u n w a g e d domestic l a b o u r a n d extending to cheapened wage l a b o u r in the p e r i p h e r y a n d fodder for the sex industries. In the strange b r e w that is capitalist culture, m o n e y becomes the h i e r o g l y p h for the phallus, the signifier of p o w e r a n d the laurel of c o m p e t i t i o n - a n d the race is o n . It follows that capitalist d o m i n a t i o n always entails gender d o m i n a t i o n , a n d that the e n m i t y to nature we are t r a c k i n g is integrally related to its gendered b i f u r c a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e any p a t h out of c a p i t a l i s m must also be ecofeminist. Logically, e c o f e m i n i s m s h o u l d also be anti-capitalist, as capital a n d its state h o l d the reins o f p o w e r b y means o f w h i c h w o m e n a n d ecologies are d e g r a d e d . Indeed, a substantial b o d y of ecofeminist theory a n d practice meets this c o n d i t i o n .
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Social

Ecology

T h i s doctrine, the last ecophilosophy to be considered, builds on the central insight that ecological p r o b l e m s have to be seen as social problems, a n d specifically as the o u t c o m e of hierarchies. In contrast to deep ecology, b i o r e g i o n a l i s m a n d essentialist e c o f e m i n i s m , social ecology is intrinsically r a d i c a l : it begins w i t h social critique, a n d follows this t h r o u g h to the env i s i o n i n g of a p o l i t i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . W h y , then, is this not a b o o k w i t h i n the social ecology tradition? T h e reason, as I see it, is partly theoretical, p a r t l y a f u n c t i o n of h o w p o l i t i c a l movements have played themselves out. T h e theoretical d i s t i n c t i o n has to do w i t h the fact that social ecology has tended to regard h i e r a r c h y in-itself b o t h as a k i n d of o r i g i n a l sin a n d as the efficient cause of the ecological crisis. T h e p a r t i c u l a r p a t h traced i n the present w o r k , w h i c h begins w i t h gender d o m i n a t i o n a n d moves to class, a n d then, eventually, to c a p i t a l , is eschewed in favour of a blanket c o n d e m n a t i o n of any h u m a n relationship in w h i c h p e r s o n a has authority over p e r s o n b. T h i s forgets that there are r a t i o n a l forms of authority such as the teacher-student relationship, w h i c h are g r o u n d e d in the very h u m a n - n a t u r a l fact that o u r y o u n g are b o r n helpless into the w o r l d , a n d need the transmission of culture if they are to become h u m a n . W h a t makes a hierarchy w o r t h o v e r t h r o w i n g is its character of domination, where this signifies an e x p r o p r i a t i o n of h u m a n p o w e r for the purposes of self-aggrandizement. D o m i n a t i v e relationships n e e d to be c o n trasted to those relationships of differential authority that are r e c i p r o c a l a n d m u t u a l (so that the student c a n l o o k f o r w a r d to b e c o m i n g a teacher herself some day). W h a t this means in practice is that hierarchies a n d authorities have to be concretely e x a m i n e d to see whether they are just or not; a n d this in t u r n requires that they be assessed in terms of the specific alienations of h u m a n creative p o w e r that o c c u r in different historical settings. For this purpose the notions of gender a n d class, w h i c h connect real

B u t e c o f e m i n i s m , like f e m i n i s m proper,

need not be anti-capitalist. O t h e r ecofeminists take a k i n d of refuge in an u n m e d i a t e d relationship to nature, that is, they c a n essentialize women's closeness to nature a n d b u i l d f r o m there, s u b m e r g i n g history into nature in the process. T h e 'eternal f e m i n i n e ' results: archetypally m a t e r n a l , close to the earth, a n d , in its further reaches, the source of Goddess-based spiritualities.
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T h i s variant of e c o f e m i n i s m is closer to the category of feminist separati s m . Because essentialism takes its object outside history, there c a n at best be a weak, imitative r e c o n n e c t i o n of what h a d been split off. T h e h o l d i n g a n d p r o v i s i o n i n g functions assigned to a historically d e g r a d e d f e m i n i n i t y

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Towards Ecosocialism i n d i v i d u a l s to history a n d nature, are very apt, as is the i d e a of p r o d u c t i o n as the d e f i n i n g characteristic of h u m a n nature. T h e s e rather abstract points are given substance in terms of the actual p o l i t i c a l contours of an ecophilosophy such as social ecology. S o c i a l ecology continues the anarchist project, a t r a d i t i o n w i t h quite a few noble souls on its roster, a n d also some scoundrels, whose p r i n c i p a l p o i n t of a c t i o n has b e e n the defence of c o m m u n i t y a n d the attack on state p o w e r .
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics H a v i n g said this m u c h , it remains to be e m p h a s i z e d that these difficulties d o not i n m y v i e w a m o u n t t o a n antagonistic c o n t r a d i c t i o n between the positions of social ecology, or i n d e e d , of any anarchist f o r m a t i o n , a n d those a r g u e d here. W h a t e v e r begins w i t h r a d i c a l rejection of the given o r d e r c o m b i n e s it w i t h the affirmation of freedom for a l l creatures,
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a n d takes

u p o n itself a h u m i l i t y that recognizes the shortcomings of all movements in relation to the task before us, a n d is p o s i t i o n e d to c o n t e n d w i t h the ecological crisis. W i t h i n these b o u n d a r i e s the active contestation of ideas goes f o r w a r d . In t r u t h , we are a l l g r o p i n g t o w a r d a transformative v i s i o n deeper a n d w i d e r t h a n any yet s u b s u m e d u n d e r the labels of past struggles. T h e r e f o r e , one e n e m y we s h o u l d all be able to agree u p o n is sectarianism. T o some degree these p r o b l e m s were e m b o d i e d b y M u r r a y B o o k c h i n , w h o conjugated a n a r c h i s m w i t h ecological awareness in the 1960s, a n d e m e r g e d f r o m that fruitful decade w i t h social ecology i n h a n d . C h a r i s m a t i c as w e l l as b r i l l i a n t , but also unrelentingly d o g m a t i c a n d sectarian, B o o k c h i n b o t h created social ecology a n d l e d it into a cul-de-sac. T h e r e were struct u r a l reasons for this that extended far b e y o n d any i n d i v i d u a l failing. W h e n B o o k c h i n first a n n o u n c e d social ecology - i n d e e d , w h e n the e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o v e m e n t s b o t h r a d i c a l a n d l i b e r a l got g o i n g - we were on the cusp between the affluent, expansive a n d Fordist c a p i t a l i s m of 1945-70, a n d the n e o l i b e r a l e r a that rages today. B o o k c h i n l a u n c h e d social ecology w i t h PostScarcity Anarchism in 1970, a n d b o t h the title a n d the date of that w o r k are revealing. T h e extent o f the e c o l o g i c a l crisis h a d not b e e n felt, w h i c h enabled a relatively easy sense of U t o p i a n i s m . N e i t h e r the collapse of Soviet c o m m u n i s m n o r globalization h a d set capital so firmly as the b r u t a l overlord of the w o r l d . T o d a y things are dreadfully clearer, a n d it has m o v e d social ecology i n a n i n c r e a s i n g l y anti-capitalist d i r e c t i o n , w h i l e the e m e r g i n g d i r e c t i o n of 'what has to be d o n e ' is sweeping a l l the ecophilosophies towards a n e w r a d i c a l synthesis.
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Anarchism

i n c o r p o r a t e s spontaneity a n d d i r e c t a c t i o n a l o n g w i t h c o m m u n i t a r i a n values, a n d d e v e l o p e d in the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y as an alternative to M a r x i a n socialism, w h i c h it continues to oppose. Since the revelations of t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y socialism's p o t e n t i a l for c e n t r a l i s m , b u r e a u c r a c y a n d a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , a n d its subsequent collapse (to be discussed in the next chapter), a n a r c h i s m has g a i n e d a r e n e w e d h o l d on the left. An influential strand has been evident in the post-Seattle emergence of n e w movements against g l o b a l i z a t i o n , in whose demonstrations it has taken a l e a d i n g role. T h i s c u r r e n t emphasizes direct a c t i o n , w h i c h is a necessary c o m p o n e n t to a n y r a d i c a l ecopolitics, but n o t a sufficient one, as it leaves u n s p o k e n the question o f b u i l d i n g a n ecological society b e y o n d c a p i t a l . S o c i a l ecology is less c o n c e r n e d as a m o v e m e n t w i t h direct a c t i o n t h a n w i t h a n a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f the c o m m u n i t a r i a n values inherent i n a n a r c h i s m . T h e s e have also b e c o m e integral to the various green movements, w i t h i n w h i c h a n a r c h i s m , a n d specifically its social ecological f o r m , have p l a y e d a vital role. B u t the rejection of socialist a n d M a r x i a n ways of a p p r o a c h i n g the ecological crisis sacrifices too m u c h . In its formative p e r i o d , social ecology tended to p l a y d o w n the goal of taking on the capitalist w o r l d system, in all its massive obdurateness a n d penetration of life-worlds. Anarchists a n d social ecologists generally profess to be anti-capitalist, but they do not analyse capitalism to its root in the d o m i n a t i o n of labour. Similarly, they correctly emphasize the need to overcome the d o m i n a t i o n sedimented into the state, but they overlook the fact (chiefly f r o m hostility to M a r x i s m , I fear) that the p r i m e function of the state is to secure the class system, indeed, that the two structures, class a n d state, are each absolutely dependent on the other, so that we cannot address the one w i t h o u t the other. T h u s if the state is a p r i m a r y p r o b l e m , so is the class system, a n d a v o i d i n g confrontation w i t h this latter w h i c h means, in practice, a v o i d i n g g i v i n g c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e to the e m a n c i p a t i o n of l a b o u r - tends to vitiate the anarchist r e a d i n g of things a n d to lose concreteness.

Democracy,

Populism and

Fascism

' D e m o c r a c y ' is the favourite w a y of o r g a n i z i n g h u m a n k i n d for everyone to the left o f G e n e r a l P i n o c h e t a n d the O l y m p i c O r g a n i z i n g C o m m i t t e e . N o w o r d is dearer to the ideologues of the regime, w h o were given to h a i l o u r side as the democracies in the h o l y w a r against c o m m u n i s m , a n d set up institutions such as the N a t i o n a l E n d o w m e n t for D e m o c r a c y to superintend

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Towards Ecosocialism the transition of developing countries into the c a m p of the West. C o u n t r i e s such as Indonesia a n d G u a t e m a l a in the time of the G e n e r a l s were h a i l e d as democracies (sometimes qualified as 'fledgling'), as has been N i c a r a g u a in the p o s t - S a n d i n i s t a years, despite an a p p a l l i n g loss of f r e e d o m a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n . A n d today, the latest spasm of capital's g l o b a l reach, the Free T r a d e A g r e e m e n t of the A m e r i c a s , is legitimated w i t h the p r o m i s e that it w i l l cement the rule of d e m o c r a c y in the W e s t e r n h e m i s p h e r e . D e m o c r a c y as p r e a c h e d by the establishment is a regime where elites rule on b e h a l f of capital using an electoral m e c h a n i s m that affords some legitimacy, while p e r m i t t i n g a l i m i t e d degree of lower-class p a r t i c i p a t i o n a l o n g w i t h a check o n r a m p a n t c o r r u p t i o n . T h e m o d e l derives f r o m deep w i t h i n the history of c a p i t a l i s m , i n a s m u c h as freed citizens were necessary to sell their l a b o u r p o w e r on its markets. T h e f r e e d o m , as we have seen, has h a d to be always c o n t a i n e d , whence d e m o c r a c y in its bourgeois f o r m has been intrinsically constrictive on the lower classes while offering a means to power o p e n to m e n of property. If we r e g a r d the ideology of d e m o c r a c y w i t h m o r e t h a n a little sceptici s m , however, it is o n l y to fight for the true m e a n i n g of the n o t i o n , since the p e r p e t u a l struggle for f r e e d o m that it encapsulates is n o t h i n g less t h a n o u r c o m i n g into full species-powers - w h i c h is to say, the p o w e r of m e n a n d w o m e n beyond the bourgeois n o t i o n of property. T h e struggle for substantive as against ideological d e m o c r a c y is therefore the necessary p r e c o n d i t i o n for o v e r c o m i n g the ecological crisis, s i m p l y because this requires a c h i e v i n g a just society. I n his 2000 G r e e n P a r t y c a m p a i g n for the presidency, R a l p h N a d e r cited the C i c e r o n i a n statement that 'freedom is p a r t i c i p a t i o n in p o w e r ' as the most f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e of politics. I w o u l d agree, w i t h this qualification: that we be clear that p o w e r here means the restoration of o u r speciespotential for creative t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . A n d because this is u n i v e r s a l i z i n g , d e m o c r a c y is the exercising of p o w e r in a u n i v e r s a l i z i n g d i r e c t i o n - a n d the b u i l d i n g of those i n s t i t u t i o n a l forms that enable this to h a p p e n . D e m o c r a c y is to be built by the people themselves, a n d it is always a w o r k in progress. It points b e y o n d where we are, a n d never settles for the given. T h e fulfilment of d e m o c r a c y is not getting m o r e people to vote, although such an o u t c o m e w o u l d be m o r e d e m o c r a t i c t h a n what we have today insofar as it signifies r i s i n g hopes of p a r t i c i p a t i o n . N o r is it g i v i n g voters better parties to vote for. A l t h o u g h , this, too, is a t u r n on the r o a d , it is

Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics l i m i t e d by the fact that w i t h i n the confinements of the given state, the p o w e r expressed in the p o l l i n g booths is by definition stunted. If p o p u l a r agitation built a m o r e p o w e r f u l electoral f o u n d a t i o n , say, by a c h i e v i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l representation so that smaller parties c o u l d m e a n i n g f u l l y participate, then we c o u l d say that d e m o c r a t i c p o w e r h a d been a d v a n c e d , because p o w e r h a d to some further extent built its o w n base - but we w o u l d not rest at that level, either. By the same reasoning, w o r k e r ownership of c o r p o r a t i o n s w o u l d be a relative d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n , yet so l o n g as the firm has to p l a y by the rules of the capitalist market, this remains selfdefeating. Because the compass of d e m o c r a c y points to the m o b i l i z a t i o n of o u r species power, full d e m o c r a c y w i l l not h a p p e n w i t h o u t the o v e r c o m i n g of c a p i t a l i s m . Yet such a d e m a n d scarcely appears on today's p a r c h e d p o l i t i c a l landscape. W h a t we generally see are stunted derivatives, as in the vague i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of people of g o o d w i l l as 'progressive'. T h e q u e s t i o n is: progressing towards what? T o w a r d s a virtuous c i t i z e n r y p l a c i n g checks on c o r p o r a t e power, w h o then stand about u n t i l startled by the next h e a d of the hydra? T o w a r d s the gratification of an alternative 'lifestyle' caught up in capital's consumerist regime? Or does it progress b e y o n d the limits of the given? O u r progressivism fails not because of its i n a b i l i t y to spell out what the ' b e y o n d ' m a y be, but t h r o u g h its indifference to the question, because of w h i c h it settles into the ecodestructive system on the g r o u n d . Progressivism today is largely defined as populism. As the w o r d suggests, for p o p u l i s m , the p o l i t i c a l agent is the 'People', considered as one gigantic p e r s o n r i s i n g up a n d b e c o m i n g the subject of its o w n history. P o p u l i s m is a c o m p e l l i n g p o l i t i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , w i t h an i m m e d i a t e appeal. It fills each i n d i v i d u a l w h o accepts its terms w i t h the p o w e r of h i s t o r i c a l agency, a n d because it personalizes history, it offers a cogent a n d instantly graspable narrative. If the People is afflicted, then another k i n d of p e r s o n , the personification of arbitrary a n d c o r r u p t power, is d o i n g the afflicting. A m o r a l i t y p l a y is i n v o k e d . T h e r e is an injustice, a v i l l a i n , a n d a h e r o - i n - w a i t i n g : the People, set to rise up a n d smite its oppressor, or at the very least to d e m a n d fairness. T h e m o d e l resonates across a great range of circumstances a n d historical m o m e n t s . It a n i m a t e d peasant rebellions in the M i d d l e Ages, the sans-culottes in the F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n , L u d d i t e s a n d Chartists in nineteenthcentury E n g l a n d , a n d i n the later nineteenth century, i n A m e r i c a , took the n a m e of p o p u l i s m itself a n d became a substantial force. Populist movements

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Towards Ecosocialism i n A m e r i c a have m a d e notable c o n t r i b u t i o n s wherever c o r r u p t a n d alienat i n g e c o n o m i c p o w e r has oppressed large blocs of people - farmers in the Plains a n d the S o u t h , small businessmen v i c t i m i z e d by banks, u r b a n workers afflicted by layoffs. Populist movements were b e h i n d W i l l i a m J e n n i n g s B r y a n a n d his 'Cross o f G o l d ' agitation, a n d they have p e r i o d i c a l l y resurfaced u n t i l the present, w h e n the evils of g l o b a l i z a t i o n , s t r i k i n g h o m e across a great variety of settings, have p r o v o k e d resistance. T h e G r e e n s are p r o u d to be progressive populists, a n d the heterogeneous character of their dem a n d s , r a n g i n g f r o m e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n t o p r i s o n r e f o r m , changes in d r u g policy, a n d c o m m u n i t y economics, are r e a d i l y assimilable to the p o p u l i s t narrative. I n R a l p h N a d e r they g a i n e d a r e c o g n i z e d c h a m p i o n o f p o p u l i s m , a m a n w h o has fought to redress the grievances of o r d i n a r y citizens a n d consumers v i c t i m i z e d b y c o r p o r a t e greed. B u t populism's 'People' does not exist except as a r a l l y i n g p o i n t , b e y o n d w h i c h it tends to fragment. After a l l , not a l l people are oppressed, for the oppressors are h u m a n beings, too. N o r do the oppressed exist as a h o m o geneous mass, for oppression has constructed significant lines of d i v i s i o n . W o u l d that these c o u l d be erased w i t h a slogan! Yes, workers a n d s m a l l businessmen c a n go to a r a l l y a n d feel u n i t e d ; even, let us i m a g i n e , blacks a n d whites, a n d L a t i n o s a n d A s i a n s c a n do so - or, t a k i n g it to another level o f particularity, blacks o f A f r i c a n - A m e r i c a n extraction a n d o f C a r i b b e a n extraction, or farmers a n d consumers, or wherever the fault lines have been l a i d d o w n . B u t this does not m a k e t h e m a 'People' once the event is over, n o r w i l l they b e c o m e so u n t i l the h a r d a n d patient w o r k has been done to find the lines of d i v i s i o n a n d b u i l d counter-institutions to overcome the class a n d state structures that institutionalize oppression. P o p u l i s m c a n itself be no m o r e t h a n a p o i n t of entry into the b u i l d i n g of movements that address the structures that fragment a people. Unless it is surpassed, everyone w i l l go h o m e to his or her p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m a n d things w i l l go no further. O r they m a y g o badly. P o p u l i s m , b y p e r s o n a l i z i n g oppression, becomes a m y t h o l o g y whose evocative p o w e r welds together a d i v i d e d people into a u n i f i e d body: such is p o p u l i s m ' s evocative power. B u t there are serious pitfalls. For one, the populist m y t h encourages the idea that there was a k i n d of 'golden age' before the B a d O p p r e s s o r entered the scene a n d m a d e life miserable for the People. T h e s e days the c o r p o r a t i o n , especially because it achieved spurious p e r s o n h o o d thanks to a nineteenth-century interpretation of the 14th A m e n d m e n t , is exceptionally w e l l situated for the role of v i l l a i n .

Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics It is an easy matter to p r o c e e d f r o m this to construct the m y t h that somehow we were in g o o d hands before 1865, w h e n corporate greed entered the w o r l d - a n d that this blissful c o n d i t i o n w i l l be restored if o n l y corporate p o w e r c a n be checked. No matter that the n o t i o n of a golden pre-corporate age is not true: the idea is convenient to the legend of a h a p p y era of s m a l l capitals sought by the n e o - S m i t h i a n s , a n d so a wishful illusion is p e r p e t r a t e d .
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T h e r e is a m o r e o m i n o u s flaw to p o p u l i s m ' s mythos. P o p u l i s m that remains m e r e l y itself is b o u n d to fail because it c a n n o t address the realities of power. W h a t happens t h e n to the myth? T h e answer, u n h a p p i l y too often, is that its p e r s o n a l i z a t i o n turns m a l i g n a n t a n d persecutory. Sinister conspiracies are alleged to e x p l a i n the persistence of corporate a n d financial power; or, in a n o t h e r t u r n of the screw, the b l a m e is shifted on to a l i e n others, of different c o l o u r or ethnicity. T h i s is the stuff of r a c i s m , w h i c h in a c t u a l h i s t o r y has b e e n i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h p o p u l i s m s gone b a d . R u r a l p o p u l i s m of the t u r n of the twentieth century failed w h e n i t : m i l i t a n c y lost the t h r e a d of socialism; w i t h this, it became v i r u l e n t l y racist against blacks.
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Progressive populists are reluctant to associate t h e i r cause w i t h F a t h e r C o u g h l i n , but the demagogic priest w h o d o m i n a t e d the airwaves of the 1930s was an authentic populist w h o took h o l d of massive rage against c a p i t a l i s m , t u r n e d it into a m y t h o l o g i z e d crusade against banks a n d t h e n , w h e n he lost the contest for power, t u r n e d r i g h t w a r d into a n t i - S e m i t i s m a n d fascism. Europe. T h e result reawakens the great n i g h t m a r e of the last century: fascism, most o f all i n its N a z i f o r m . T h e special relevance o f this p a i n f u l associa t i o n arises f r o m the fact that N a z i s m was b o t h a p o p u l i s m a n d a selfprofessedly ecological m o v e m e n t .
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Today, these kinds of racist exclusion b e c o m e especially likely

i n the context o f conflicts over i m m i g r a t i o n afflicting b o t h the U S A a n d

It goes w i t h o u t saying that the N a z i s

were never a 'progressive' m o v e m e n t , quite the contrary. E m e r g i n g in the wake of a ferocious crisis of a c c u m u l a t i o n , they d i d criticize b i g business a n d c a l l themselves N a t i o n a l Socialists, because socialism h a d prestige i n those days. B u t the N a z i project was a k i n d of p o p u l i s m precisely directed against actual socialism, w h i c h was c o u n t e r e d w i t h a n o r g a n i c ideology that sought a m y t h i c i z e d u n i o n of the G e r m a n i c people, workers i n c l u d e d , w i t h the soil. It was an ecology of m e r g i n g , w h i c h became an ecology of splitting. T h i s k i n d o f u n i f i c a t i o n i s a l l too r e m i n i s c e n t o f the nature m y s t i c i s m still fashionable in certain ecological circles, especially the deep

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Towards Ecosocialism ecological r e d u c t i o n of h u m a n beings to the status of just another species in the 'web of life'. B i o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n fosters racist thought, w h i c h is, i n t e l l e c t u a l l y speaking, a d e m e n t e d effort to f i n d sub-speciation w i t h i n h u m a n k i n d . E v e r y o n e serious about matters ecological s h o u l d f a m i l i a r i z e themselves w i t h the sayings o f H i t l e r , o r o f H e i n r i c h H i m m l e r , leader o f the S S , about the 'decent' attitude of G e r m a n s towards animals, whence the master race s h o u l d be trusted w i t h the ' h u m a n a n i m a l s ' u n d e r its care, such as Slavs - trusted, too, to remove the v e r m i n o u s a n i m a l s such as Jews, Gypsies a n d h o m o s e x u a l s .
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Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics tuals, just as street-fighting fascists are c o n f i n e d to s m a l l groups of r a d i c a l l y disaffected y o u t h . B u t there s h o u l d be no u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n of the potential of these movements. Fascism is an inherent b r e a k d o w n pattern of capitalism. To say, 'it can't h a p p e n here', is to m i s r e a d the explosive tensions built into the capitalist system. A l l it takes is a certain degree of crisis, a n d fascism m a y be i m p o s e d as a r e v o l u t i o n f r o m above to install an a u t h o r i t a r i a n regime in order to preserve the m a i n workings of the system. Regressive ideologies a n d r a c i s m are then i n t r o d u c e d as ways of re-establishing legitimacy a n d displacing conflict. So m u c h was l e a r n e d in the last century; what we are poised to l e a r n in this one are the fascist potentials in a capitalist system facing crisis of a n e c o l o g i c a l k i n d . W e m a y i m a g i n e this i n the context o f p a n d e m i c s , or terrorist-induced b r e a k d o w n , or famine, or global w a r m i n g , or ozone d e p l e t i o n , of the inevitable r e c k o n i n g as s h r i n k i n g p e t r o l e u m supplies b e c o m e u n e c o n o m i c a l to extract a n d replacements r e m a i n insufficient, or as any consequence of n o n - l i n e a r ecosystemic b r e a k d o w n on a w o r l d scale consider o n l y the gruesome prospect of bovine s p o n g i f o r m encephalopathy a n d its possible sequelae.
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T h i s is a degenerate ecophilosophy, b e y o n d

d o u b t , but an ecophilosophy nonetheless, a n d calls attention to the fact that the degeneration is inherent in whatever denies the value of the specifically h u m a n w i t h i n (and not over) the m a n i f o l d of nature. No one s h o u l d be so naive as to believe that this w a y of t h i n k i n g is a matter o n l y for historians to study. It is most d o u b t f u l that progressive p o p u l i s m w i l l t u r n r i g h t w a r d ; its fate lies m o r e in a b s o r p t i o n back i n t o the capitalist m a i n s t r e a m . B u t there are other sources of a m a l i g n a n t ecofascism. A g r i m far-right presence often recurs w i t h i n green movements u n d e r the u m b r e l l a o f falsely u n i f i e d ecological thought. C o n s i d e r a b l e evidence o f this has already a p p e a r e d i n E n g l a n d a n d N o r t h e r n E u r o p e , even i n the great Seattle protests of 1999, w h e n contingents of a n t i - S e m i t i c skinheads m a d e an appearance. We s h o u l d recall, too, that organicist thinkers such as R u d o l f B a h r o , f o l l o w i n g Heidegger, betrayed a n affinity for N a z i ideology, a n d that a f o u n d i n g G e r m a n G r e e n a n d a u t h o r of the best-selling 1975 w o r k , A Planet is Plundered, H e r b e r t G r u h l , d i d likewise. I n d e e d , G r u h l left the p a r t y to f o u n d an alternative because it h a d 'given up its c o n c e r n for ecology in favour of a leftist ideology of e m a n c i p a t i o n ' . G r u h l , it is w e l l to recall, was the originator of the phrase, noted above, that Greens are 'neither left n o r right, but a h e a d ' .
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T h e actual p a t h of the u n f o l d i n g crisis is not a matter of c o l l a p s i n g ecosystems, but w i l l be d r a w n as the o n g o i n g i n t e r a c t i o n of this w i t h p o l i t i c a l responses. T h e possibilities are n u m e r o u s , a n d need not be speculated u p o n here. W h a t we s h o u l d bear in m i n d , however, is that a l t h o u g h fascism m a y be i n t r o d u c e d violently f r o m above to save the system of a c c u m u l a t i o n , it necessarily introduces m o r e p r o b l e m s t h a n it solves. A fascist order w i l l be m o r e ecodestructive t h a n the l i b e r a l one it replaces - because it is further f r o m the d e m o c r a t i c r e a l i z a t i o n of h u m a n p o w e r that is the essential c o n d i t i o n for ecological rationality, a n d because, as a manifestation of this, it builds u n b e a r a b l e a n d explosive tensions into society. T h e installation of ecofascism on a n a t i o n a l , a n d eventually g l o b a l , scale m a y in fact be the trigger that sets into m o t i o n the cascading avalanche that w i l l b r i n g an e n d to nature's p e c u l i a r e x p e r i m e n t w i t h a species on w h o m was bestowed the p o w e r to direct evolution. It is a fate we c a n choose to defy, for the sake of this very power. B u t if we succeed in d o i n g so, it c a n o n l y be t h r o u g h a creative t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of o u r existence. P o p u l i s m a n d social ecology, green politics, c o m m u n i t y e c o n o m i c s , e c o f e m i n i s m , b i o r e g i o n a l i s m , cooperatives - the entire mass o f ideologies a n d m o v e m e n t s , c o m i n g f r o m below, o v e r l a p p i n g , inter-

Neo-fascist ecological thought comes i n m a n y varieties, the c o m m o n feature of w h i c h is to take some aspect of the ecological crisis a n d , u n d e r the guise of b e i n g 'neither left n o r right, but ahead', move in fact r i g h t w a r d . T h e instigation is usually p o p u l a t i o n pressure a n d conflicts over i m m i g r a t i o n , the context of w h i c h are persistently u n e v e n stretches of prosperity (as between the f o r m e r East G e r m a n y a n d the r e m a i n d e r , or between S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a a n d B a j a , M e x i c o ) , a n d m o r e basically, the s h o c k i n g b r e a k d o w n of large swathes of the w o r l d u n d e r the chaotic conditions of capital. Presently, ecofascism is l i m i t e d to a small n u m b e r of elite intellec-

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Towards Ecosocialism p e n e t r a t i n g a n d set g o i n g as progressive responses to the crisis - have been tried. T h e y have discovered m u c h , a n d taught us m u c h , but n o t h i n g so m u c h as the n e e d to go further. Today, the streets are full of a n e w generation of activists, r a g i n g against g l o b a l i z a t i o n r u n a m o k . T h e y have discovered what they are against. B u t what are they to be for? It is time to see if this c a n be given the n a m e of ecosocialism. Notes
1. For good surveys, see T o k a r 1997; K a r l i n e r 1997; A t h a n a s i o u 1996. 2. A n d to the c o m p o s i t i o n of a book on the ecological crisis w h i c h combines N e w A g e insight w i t h faith in capitalism: G o r e 2000. 3. In the dismay over B u s h IPs b a r b a r i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , nostalgia for C l i n t o n - G o r e is understandable. Yet the Justice D e p a r t m e n t under C l i n t o n / G o r e reduced by some 30 per cent effective prosecution of e n v i r o n m e n t a l crime c o m p a r e d to that of the first B u s h administration. D r Sidney Wolfe, perhaps the most knowledgeable i n d i v i d u a l o n the subject, reports (personal communication) that the F o o d a n d D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d O c c u p a t i o n a l Safety a n d H e a l t h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , chief watchdogs protecting the health of the A m e r i c a n citizenry, sank u n d e r C l i n t o n to the lowest level of m o r a l e a n d competency that he h a d witnessed in his 29 years of studying these agencies. See also C o c k b u r n a n d St C l a i r 2000. Is it better to have fakers a n d c o n m e n in office, or a frank reactionary w h o at least strips away the veil of illusion about capital? 4. Breyer 1979. T h i s was published under the title of A n a l y z i n g regulatory failure, mismatches, less restrictive alternatives a n d r e f o r m ' , in the Harvard Law Review. For a discussion, see T o k a r 1997: 35-45. 5. T h a t anyone w o u l d believe this scheme capable of c o n t a i n i n g global w a r m i n g is testimony to the intense b r a i n w a s h i n g that goes on these days. Of course the j a r g o n of tradable permits uses all the latest buzzwords of the rationality that w o u l d allow business to have its cake a n d eat it as well. A n d it is a fine idea, except for two problems: that it cannot work, especially for global w a r m i n g ; a n d that if it d i d work, it only perpetuates the k i n d of w o r l d that gives us the ecological crisis in the first place. As for the first, the n o t i o n presupposes a rational marketplace of nations in w h i c h r i c h developed ones pay p o o r developing ones for the right to emit greenhouse gases. B u t this k i n d of market requires an orderly w o r l d society of cooperating nations - exactly what globalization has made impossible. M o r e , the fact that the t r a d i n g of emission credits keeps the 'developing' nations f r o m in fact developing has not been lost on countries such as I n d i a a n d C h i n a . As for the second point, the scheme cements the existing system in place, further strengthening irresponsible finance capital, m a k i n g the r i c h richer, a n d , as B r i a n T o k a r has written, g i v i n g the 'largest "players" ... substantial c o n t r o l over the whole " g a m e " ' (1997: 41). T h e m a r k e t i n g of p o l l u t i o n w i l l drive d o w n the cost of the credits a n d give incentive to cheating rather than r e d u c i n g emissions. ' T h e r e is little doubt', T o k a r continues, 'that an international market in " p o l l u t i o n rights" w o u l d w i d e n existing inequalities a m o n g nations a n d increase the d o m i n a n c e of those best able to shift their assets f r o m c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y based on the daily fluctuation of financial markets ... the potential for unaccountable m a n i p u l a t i o n of industrial p o l i c y w o u l d easily c o m p o u n d the disruptions already caused by often reckless international traders in stocks, bonds a n d currencies' (ibid.: 42) See also B a d e r 1997: 102-5.

Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics

6. A w o r d about solid waste. T h e r e is no doubt that the crisis w o u l d be worse if we d i d n o t h i n g about garbage, just as it w o u l d be worse if lead were still in gasoline. B u t the crisis already factors in these palliations, w h i c h set certain rates of ecosystem decay, slowing it to the extent we n o w see without altering the dynamics an iota. In the case of waste management, the large corporations that r u n the show provide another source of a c c u m u l a t i o n , exploitation of labour, c r i m i n a l i t y a n d concentration - a n d another k i n d of industrial setting, the recycling plant. ' [ M ] o s t of the recycling plants [that do N e w Y o r k City's work] are o w n e d by b i g waste companies, a n d the few that are not w i l l p r o b a b l y w i n d up b e i n g absorbed,' reports the New York Times (Stewart 2000: B i ) . T h e workers are 'a legion of l o w - p a i d workers, i n c l u d i n g a h i g h percentage of i m m i g r a n t s ' , w h o do work that is 'sometimes b o r i n g a n d sometimes dangerous', as a m a n f r o m Senegal, w h o works endless hours so he c a n send m o n e y back to his family, put it. In fact, the plant seems a regular Satanic m i l l , as the fantastic detritus of consumer society is m o v e d on conveyer belts past the workers, w h o have to concentrate intently, a n d 'all day ... grab a n d flip. T h e stuff is t h r o w n into holes, where it falls into heaps', to be collected a n d resold on a very volatile market. B u t what good does it really do, besides m a k i n g more m o n e y f r o m exploited labour? ' T h e dirty secret of recycling is the waste. A t h i r d of the trash d u m p e d at the plant is not salvageable, a n d is hauled to private landfills' where the environment is subjected to the unsavoury m i x . N e w Y o r k is, as c a n be i m a g i n e d , the worst case, where only 2,400 tonnes of the 13,000 generated each a n d every day are recycled, 800 tonnes of w h i c h ends up in landfills anyway. B u t even the m o r e ecologically sane cities only a p p r o a c h 50 per cent recyclability scarcely reassuring w h e n one looks at the W a l - M a r t s , etc., springing up all over the landscape, spewing forth garbage-to-be. 7. M a n n i n g 1996 offers a paean to the N e w E n e r g y movement. I w o u l d not want to rule out all the energy fixes discussed w i t h breathless enthusiasm by M a n n i n g , but I w o u l d not bet the future of c i v i l i z a t i o n on t h e m , either. O n e matter persistently raised by this k i n d of reasoning is the economics of gathering, storing a n d distributing the energy Yes, there m a y be 'space energy', but h o w is one to collect it? No doubt the energy of even a small black hole w o u l d suffice to keep us g o i n g to eternity, but that a n d a dollar w i l l buy a copy of the New York Times. 8. A recent, horrific finding: the Associated Press reported on 10 J u l y 2000, that the US F i s h a n d W i l d l i f e Service estimated that 4 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 birds a year are k i l l e d by c r a s h i n g into the 77,000 microwave transmission towers that dotted the A m e r i c a n landscape at that time, w i t h more on the way every day. So m u c h for this 'ecologically benign' technology (not to m e n t i o n the effects of electromagnetic fields f r o m transformers, cell phones, a n d so on). 9. For an excellent discussion of the environmental l o a d of the i n f o r m a t i o n economy, see H u w s 1999. 10. See Sarkar 1999: 93-139 for a t h o r o u g h discussion of the m a t e r i a l limits to growth. Sarkar m a y be overly pessimistic, but his reasoning remains fundamentally sound. 11. L o v i n s 1977. 12. For a recent survey of the overall fossil fuel picture, w i t h an emphasis on b u i l d i n g a hydrogen-based e c o n o m y (viz. note 10, above), see D u n n 2001. 13. Lapp et al. 1998. As organic produce grows in popularity, capital tries to take it over, w i t h deleterious consequences. 14. T h o u g h they often have secure a n d desirable jobs, as in academia. B u t then, so does the author of this work.

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15. C o s t a n z a et al. 1997: 5. Of the book's five authors, R o b e r t C o s t a n z a a n d J o h n C u m b e r l a n d are associated w i t h the U n i v e r s i t y of M a r y l a n d ; H e r m a n D a l y (see below) a n d R o b e r t G o o d l a n d have been connected w i t h the W o r l d B a n k ; while the f i f t h , R i c h a r d N o r g a a r d , is at UC Berkeley, a n d the author of Development Betrayed ( N o r g a a r d 1994), a w o r k that approaches the crisis f r o m the standpoint of a R e v o l u t i o n a r y ' p a r a d i g m . A related a p p r o a c h w i t h considerable historical depth, a n d closer to the perspective offered here, m a y be f o u n d in M a r t i n e z - A l i e r 1987. 16. 17. K o r t e n 1996: 187. A n o t h e r n e o - S m i t h i a n is P a u l H a w k e n , author of The Ecology K o r t e n 2000. of Commerce ( H a w k e n 1993). For my thoughts about H a w k e n , see K o v e l 1999. 18. Schumacher's B u d d h i s t view of l a b o u r includes that it must 'give a m a n a chance to utilise a n d develop his faculties', also that w o r k not be separated f r o m leisure, as the two are b o t h sides of the l i v i n g process. T h e emphasis is on w o r k as an expression of life a n d the purification of character - actually rather close to M a r x ' s views, especially in the early p h i l o s o p h i c a l writings a n d the theory of alienation. However, S c h u m a c h e r gives no concrete understanding of class struggle, n o r of agency in general, n o r does he have a theory of capital as such, nor, it follows, of what it w o u l d take to get beyond capital. S c h u m a c h e r 1973: 5 0 - 9 . 19. The Ecologist 1993; P r o u d h o n 1969; K r o p o t k i n 1975.

Critique of Actually Existing Ecopolitics

29. D a l y a n d C o b b 1994: 299, 370. Italics added. 30. Naess 1989: 157. 31. For a comprehensive survey, see Z i m m e r m a n 1994, a work u n c o n t a m i n a t e d by the actual w o r l d . 32. D e v a l l a n d Sessions 1985: 145. 33. Stille 2000. See also C r o n o n 1996; H e c h t a n d C o c k b u r n 1990: 269-76 has a discussion of the expulsions f r o m Yosemite. 34. Sale 1996: 477. 35. As in M i e s 1998; S h i v a 1988; Salleh 1997. 36. C o m p a r e for example, the arguments of Eisler 1988, w h i c h make an effort to b r i n g historical understanding to bear, but e n d by substituting N e w A g e slogans a n d postulating the existence of a 'Goddess', a n o t i o n that replaces male d o m i n a t i o n w i t h a female-centred hierarchy. 37. For a history, see W o o d c o c k 1962. 38. H u m a n s cannot be free unless they affirm the self-determination of all creatures. T h i s essentially B u d d h i s t insight is the g r o u n d of the a n i m a l rights movement, w h i c h must be integral to any fully thought through ecopolitics a n d p h i l o s o p h y Needless to say, the p r o b l e m is greatly c o m p l i c a t e d by the fact that one creature's 'nature' w i l l often consist of eating another creature. 39. B o o k c h i n 1970. Bookchin's chef d'oeuvre is The Ecology of Freedom (Bookchin 1982). I have discussed this c o m p l i c a t e d figure in some detail in K o v e l 1997b. See also L i g h t 1998 (in w h i c h my essay is reprinted), as well as Watson 1996. An i n k l i n g of the problems w i t h Bookchin's a p p r o a c h , w h i c h , aside f r o m b e i n g rigidly a n t i - M a r x i s t , is also rigidly anti-spiritual a n d highly E u r o c e n t r i c , m a y be sensed by the fact that the only p o l i t i c a l path he c a n envision is that of 'libertarian m u n i c i p a l i s m ' , a confederation of socialecologic small cities that is supposed to revolutionize society f r o m b e l o w Individuals greatly influenced by B o o k c h i n , yet w h o have proven capable of m o v i n g social ecology along an anti-capitalist r o a d , include J o h n C l a r k a n d B r i a n Tokar. See C l a r k 1984, 1997; see also the S y m p o s i u m on the latter, w i t h comments by myself, K a t e Soper a n d M a r y M e l l o r , a n d Clark's reply in K o v e l et al. 1998; T o k a r 1992. 40. T h e first volume of M a r x ' s Capital appeared in 1867, before the appearance of large corporations a n d the 14th A m e n d m e n t ; what on earth c o u l d he have been w r i t i n g about? 41. Sheasby 2000. We should not forget that the origins of the Ku K l u x K l a n lay similarly i n r u r a l discontent. 42. For a s u m m a r y of C o u g h l i n a n d further references, see K o v e l 1997a. 43. B r a m w e l l 1989 offers an overview of N a z i - G r e e n connections. 44. H i m m l e r , addressing Einsatzgruppen, or m o b i l e k i l l i n g teams, in P o l a n d , 1943: 'We G e r m a n s , w h o are the only people in the w o r l d w h o have a decent attitude to animals, w i l l also adopt a decent attitude to these h u m a n animals, but it is a crime against our o w n b l o o d to w o r r y about t h e m a n d to b r i n g t h e m ideals.' Q u o t e d in Fest 1970: 115. 45. B i e h l a n d S t a u d e n m a i e r 1995. See also the excellent website h t t p : / / w w w . savanne.ch/right-left.html. 46. R a m p t o n a n d Stauber 1997.

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20. M o r r i s o n 1995: 151. Italics in o r i g i n a l . 21. K a r l M a r x , 'Inaugural Address o f the W o r k i n g M e n ' s International Association' ( M a r x i 9 7 8 d [1864]). It is w o r t h n o t i n g that M a r x wrote in a letter to Engels at the time that the speech was difficult to 'frame ... so that our view should appear in a f o r m acceptable f r o m the present standpoint of the workers' movement . . . ' (p. 512), an acknowledgement that revolutionary hopes h a d w a n e d f r o m 1848, w h e n the m o r e m i l i t a n t Communist Manifesto was written. 22. M a r x 1967b: 440. T h e closest exception is the M o n d r a g o n system of cooperatives of n o r t h e r n S p a i n , perhaps the greatest success of the movement - although it is fair to say that, given the system constraints to w h i c h it is exposed, M o n d r a g o n has p r o b a b l y reached its limits, without in any w a y threatening the overall capitalist regime. M o r r i s o n
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I i

23.

Mintz

1995.

24. 'Smith's solution c o u l d not survive the changed circumstances of the transition to industrial capitalism' ( M c N a l l y 1993: 46). 25. C o s t a n z a et al. 1997: 177, 180. T h e authors also mangle their representation of M a r x , l i m i t i n g his c o n t r i b u t i o n to the ownership a n d allocation of physical resources, a n d b l a m i n g the ' l a b o u r theory of value that neglected nature's contributions' for the ecological devastation wrought by c o m m u n i s t societies. It is h a r d to imagine a grosser distortion. 26. In D a l y a n d C o b b 1994: 21, the following appears, after a statement of respect for academic standards: ' B u t at a deeper level of our b e i n g we find it h a r d to suppress the cry of anguish, the scream of h o r r o r - the w i l d words r e q u i r e d to express w i l d realities. We h u m a n beings are b e i n g l e d to a dead e n d - all too literally. We are l i v i n g by an ideology of death a n d accordingly we are destroying our o w n h u m a n i t y a n d k i l l i n g the planet.' 27. D a l y 1991. 28. D a l y 1996: 39.

Prefiguration T h e r e are a considerable n u m b e r of interesting things to be said about the B r u d e r h o f - w h o m , it s h o u l d be a d d e d , I have visited on a n u m b e r of occasions, a n d w o r k e d w i t h o n several projects. First, the B r u d e r h o f thrive i n the capitalist market. T h e y make f i n e a n d useful objects, using sophisticated machinery, computers a n d a f u n c t i o n i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d sales network, i n c l u d i n g catalogues, trucks, a n d so o n . In short, they are successfully integrated into the economy. S e c o n d , B r u d e r h o f are r a d i c a l l y non-capitalist. T h e 'value' a d d e d o n t o The Bruderhof a n d extracted f r o m their l e a r n i n g aids derives f r o m the capitalist market at large. S u r p l u s value f r o m the p o i n t of p r o d u c t i o n does not figure in this picture. No value is a d d e d f r o m their o w n labour, for the p l a i n reason that the B r u d e r h o f are communists. In the enterprises f r o m w h i c h their m o n e y is m a d e , they are a l l p a i d the same a m o u n t : nothing. N o r is there any h i e r a r c h y w i t h i n the factory; there is d i v i s i o n of labour, of course, but no boss. T h e p l a n t managers have no p a r t i c u l a r a u t h o r i t y b e y o n d their differentiated task. A vistor to the p l a n t is greeted w i t h a starkly different scene f r o m what obtains in the standard capitalist workplace. W o r k e r s self-direct, c o m e a n d go at different hours, p u n c h no time-clocks. T i m e is not b o u n d , n o r is w o r k d o m i n a t e d by considerations of productivity. O c t o g e n a r i a n s a n d seven-year-old c h i l d r e n w o r k side by side as they please, s h a r i n g in the labour. T h e r e is no c o n t r a d i c t i o n between this relatively indifferent p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d the profitability of their factories, because the B r u d e r h o f are not d r i v e n to accumulate a n d increase m a r k e t share, but are content w i t h sufficient i n c r e m e n t a l profit to meet their needs, w h i c h is m a d e possible by the technology at their disposal. W o r k is d r i v e n by the desire to make fine objects a n d the larger ends to w h i c h it is put. T h i r d , b e i n g communists, the B r u d e r h o f h o l d ' a l l things i n c o m m o n ' . B e y o n d a few m i n o r personal possessions, they have no i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t y no cars, no D V D players, no designer jeans, no subscriptions to Self a n d Connoisseur magazines. T h e c o m m u n i t y takes care of a l l their needs w i t h its collective profits: c o m m u n a l meals, e d u c a t i o n a n d h e a l t h care, for there are schools on the premises for the y o u n g , a n d B r u d e r h o f physicians to care for most problems. W h a t has to be done outside, such as t u i t i o n for a d v a n c e d study - say, of their doctors - is likewise p a i d for by the revenues
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8 Prefiguration

T h e r e are, in the eastern U S A as w e l l as the D a k o t a s , adjacent C a n a d a a n d E n g l a n d , c o m m u n i t i e s o f C h r i s t i a n followers o f J a k o b H u t t e r (d. 1536), founder of the pacifist b r a n c h of the Anabaptists. T h i s offshoot of the R a d i c a l R e f o r m a t i o n , h a v i n g endured the persecutions attendant u p o n their k i n d , f o u n d its w a y to the N e w W o r l d , where it built a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m u n e s a n d prospered. In the twentieth century, a similar b r a n c h arose in G e r m a n y u n d e r the leadership o f E b e r h a r d a n d E m m y A r n o l d , f i r s t a s a C h r i s t i a n pacifist collective, then as a H u t t e r i t e i n t e n t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y . Persecuted by the N a z i s , they fled to Paraguay a n d built an a g r i c u l t u r a l c o m m u n e . In the 1950s they came to the U S A , where, u n d e r the n a m e of ' B r u d e r h o f , they settled i n R i f t o n , a t o w n i n N e w York's H u d s o n R i v e r Valley. B y now, the B r u d e r h o f (a H u t t e r i t e t e r m for ' c o m m u n i t y of brethren') h a d separated f r o m the o r i g i n a l H u t t e r i t e s , w h o f o u n d t h e m too m u c h i n the w o r l d . T h e worldlincss of the B r u d e r h o f i n c l u d e d a shift f r o m a g r i c u l t u r a l to i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h a n associated e m b r a c e o f technology. T h e y entered the business o f m a k i n g high-value l e a r n i n g aids for schools a n d d i s a b i l i t y centres. W h i l e the c o m m o d i t i e s so p r o d u c e d never c a p t u r e d m o r e t h a n a small share of this market, the realized profit was considerable a n d enabled the c o m m u n i t y to grow. O n c e a B r u d e r h o f c o m m u n i t y reaches a c e r t a i n size, say 300400, it 'hives', d i v i d i n g a n d f o r m i n g a n e w u n i t elsewhere. In this way, there have n o w arisen six B r u d e r h o f s i n the U S A a n d two m o r e in E n g l a n d , l i n k e d by dedicated p h o n e lines, so that a l l eight c o m m u n i t i e s c a n be p l a c e d in instant contact w i t h each other s i m p l y by p i c k i n g up a receiver a n d pressing a b u t t o n . T h e y have their o w n p u b l i s h i n g house as w e l l , P l o u g h Books, t h r o u g h w h i c h their ideas c a n be disseminated, a n d I am also t o l d that they possess a s m a l l fleet of aircraft, b o u g h t w i t h the profits f r o m their business.
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of their factories. By the same token, the m a t e r i a l needs of the B r u d e r h o f are considerably lighter t h a n the t y p i c a l A m e r i c a n , b o t h because they share in most things - i n c l u d i n g the o w n e r s h i p of a few m o t o r vehicles for g o i n g

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Towards Ecosocialism here a n d there - a n d because everything about their w o r l d r a d i c a l l y denies the culture o f c o n s u m e r i s m . T h u s the e c o l o g i c a l l o a d i m p o s e d b y the B r u d e r h o f is substantially less t h a n that of the p o p u l a t i o n at large, a n d if we c o u l d s o m e h o w figure out a way to get a l l the people of the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d nations to live so lightly on the earth, there w o u l d be no crisis of anywhere near the present scale to w o r r y about. If the B r u d e r h o f are any example, we c a n affirm that neither i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n n o r technology c a n be the efficient causes of the ecological crisis. T h e y are i m m e r s e d i n b o t h a n d consume lightly, s h o w i n g n o c o m p u l s i o n to grow. T h e reason is the social o r g a n i z a t i o n of labour, w h i c h u n d e r these c o m m u n i s t i c conditions causes the w i t h e r i n g of capital's rage to accumulate. B u t these findings o p e n up new questions. W h a t are the conditions, b o t h i n n e r a n d outer, that enable so r a d i c a l a shift to occur? W h a t does this i m p l y for markets in an ecologically sane society? A n d what does this say about socialism? C a n we in fact get a l l the people to live this way? S h o u l d we? As for the first question, there is no mystery. T h e B r u d e r h o f are deeply C h r i s t i a n , w h i c h they interpret a s C h r i s t i a n - c o m m u n i s t . T h e ' h o l d i n g a l l things i n c o m m o n ' derives not f r o m K a r l M a r x , but f r o m the B i b l i c a l r e c o r d of the first C h r i s t i a n s , A c t s 2: 4 4 - 4 5 : ' A n d a l l that believed were together, a n d h a d a l l things c o m m o n ; A n d sold their possessions a n d goods, a n d p a r t e d t h e m t o a l l m e n , a s every m a n h a d need.' N o matter that i t has been p e r e n n i a l l y betrayed, the n o t i o n of c o m m u n i s m remains f o u n d a t i o n a l for C h r i s t i a n i t y . It has a l o n g a n d intricate history, w i t h i n w h i c h M a r x h i m s e l f (who i n c l u d e d in his best-known definition of c o m m u n i s m , the phrase 'to each a c c o r d i n g to need') belongs. T h e B r u d e r h o f are s i m p l y
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Prfiguration is not an e c o n o m i c or a p o l i t i c a l doctrine but one aspect of a u n i v e r s a l i z i n g s p i r i t u a l force. T h e c o m m u n i t y does not tell others to be c o m m u n i s t s because they believe in its e c o n o m i c or even social superiority, but because b e i n g c o m m u n i s t is part of the ' g o o d news' they w i s h to spread as Christians. It is an i n t e g r a l element of a s p i r i t u a l totality. T h e y do not w a n t people to be c o m m u n i s t s for the sake of c o m m u n i s m ; they w a n t t h e m to be as Jesus, for w h i c h e n d c o m m u n i s m is an essential practice. We w o u l d say, t h e n , that the B r u d e r h o f have f o u n d a way to offset the capitalist market by inserting a spiritual m o m e n t into their w o r l d l y practice. M a r k e t s , the economists tell us, are p o w e r f u l signalling systems, generating the prices that serve to tie together a l l e c o n o m i c agents. B u t this assumes that a l l agents are equivalently t u n e d to prices a n d m o n e t a r y values a n d that they all obey the same logic a n d reason - or in terms of o u r discussion, that they are not B r u d e r h o f . F o r w h e n the m a r k e t into w h i c h a l l e c o n o m i c actors are inserted issues the signal ' m a x i m i z e profit a n d m a r k e t share!' these e c o n o m i c actors do not hear the c o m m a n d , as they are m a r c h i n g to a different d r u m , a n d their p r a c t i c a l faculties no longer resonate to the force field of c a p i t a l . T h e y s i m p l y do not 'value' their business that m u c h . I have been t o l d by B r u d e r h o f that if it ever came d o w n to a choice - if, for example, their p o l i t i c a l activity r e q u i r e d that they a l l go to j a i l , or if the pursuit of their enterprise became too c o n t r a d i c t o r y for whatever reason then they w o u l d give up the business gladly. I am sure this is true. F o r B r u d e r h o f , the m e a n i n g o f p r o d u c t i v i t y , a n d the l a b o u r a r r a n g e m e n t s necessary for this to be m a x i m i z e d , are o n l y d i m l y lit points on the screen of a w o r l d - v i e w where faith shines m o r e brightly. T h e B r u d e r h o f are an intentional c o m m u n i t y , a n d intentions, p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d , c a n be m a t e r i a l forces. It must be that an i m p o r t a n t reason cooperatives, o r g a n i c farms, a n d so on s u c c u m b to capital's force field is the lack of an offsetting belief-system that enables t h e m to renounce profitability. B u t this needs to be taken to another plane, if o n l y to a v o i d the c o n c l u s i o n that o u r cooperatives need to convert to r a d i c a l C h r i s t i a n i t y in o r d e r to enter the p r o m i s e d l a n d of ecosocialism. S u c h is clearly not the case: first, because an ecosocialist society must be fully d e m o c r a t i c , a n d not the province of any religious interpretation; a n d m o r e specifically, because the B r u d e r h o f are not actually ecological i n their o r i e n t a t i o n . T h e y neither espouse p a r t i c u l a r l y ecological concerns, n o r is their practice c o m p a t i b l e w i t h ecocentrism, especially in

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b e i n g o r t h o d o x w h e n they affirm c o m m u n i s m . H o w e v e r , it needs to be a d d e d that they take this quite a distance. F o r they not o n l y practise C h r i s tian c o m m u n i s m , but p r e a c h it w i t h a vengeance, a n d this makes t h e m of special interest to us. T h e r e is p r o b a b l y no m o r e m i l i t a n t g r o u p on the left today t h a n these descendants o f the R a d i c a l R e f o r m a t i o n . T h e y have gone o n pilgrimages against the death penalty, have sent their c h i l d r e n in solidarity to b l o c k a d e d C u b a a n d I r a q , a n d have b e c o m e s p i r i t u a l counsellors t o M u m i a A b u J a m a l . T h e theme of these activisms is always to counter a persecution, as Jesus was persecuted, a n d as they themselves have been. T h a t is the C h r i s t i a n logos p l a y i n g itself out in h i s t o r i c a l actuality, creating a new history to w h i c h their c o m m u n i s m integrally belongs. C o m m u n i s m for the B r u d e r h o f

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Towards Ecosocialism the sphere of gender, where a h i g h l y p a t r i a r c h a l structure clashes w i t h the values o f ecological t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . A l t h o u g h the spiritual d i m e n s i o n o f
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Prfiguration i n c l u d i n g , of course, the m a k i n g of money. Intrinsic values a p p l y to the s p i r i t u a l side of things, a n d also to what is p l a y f u l , a n d are manifestations of an attitude we m i g h t c a l l an 'active receptivity' towards nature. Use-values represent the f o r m of value relevant to the a p p l i c a t i o n of l a b o u r to nature, or p r o d u c t i o n , whether this be done for pure utility or as an exchangeable c o m m o d i t y . Use-values signify a m o r e 'transformatively active' relation to nature, the k i n d of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n b e i n g different in the case of utility a n d exchange. Clearly, use-value is necessary for h u m a n life; a n d one m i g h t venture to say that a realized, ecologically integral life c a n be c a r r i e d out t h r o u g h a r i c h i n t e r p l a y of use-value-as-utility w i t h intrinsic value, in other words, t h r o u g h a c o m b i n e d receptive a n d transformative relation to nature. C o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n expands h u m a n c a p a b i l i t y but, b y i n t r o d u c i n g the g e r m of exchange, also becomes that serpent in the edenic a r r a n g e m e n t n o t e d above. W i t h this shift, nature shifts f r o m b e i n g 'for-itself ' (which
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things is to p l a y a very f u n d a m e n t a l role in the process, ecosocialism cannot be religious, not the least because r e l i g i o n is a k i n d of b i n d i n g of spirit that tends to foreclose the o p e n i n g to ecological t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . B u t that is not the m a i n p o i n t here, w h i c h is that the B r u d e r h o f go further t h a n the o r d i n a r y cooperative in resisting the force field of the capitalist m a r k e t bcause they are an ' i n t e n t i o n a l ' c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e f o r e the generation of some k i n d of collective ' i n t e n t i o n ' that c a n w i t h s t a n d the p o w e r of capital's force field w i l l be necessary for creating an ecosocialist society, a n d it must be the ' m o r a l e q u i v a l e n t ' of the B r u d e r h o f ' s a l l e n c o m p a s s i n g belief. W h e n the B r u d e r h o f resisted the blandishments of the market, they were saying that the c o m m o d i t i e s they m a d e m e a n t somet h i n g r a d i c a l l y different f r o m what bourgeois society w o u l d impose. Instead of the set of signals generated by the market, B r u d e r h o f r e s p o n d to a w h o l e set of qualitative relations inserted into the m e a n i n g of the c o m modity. Further, these meanings were part of a reconfiguration of their needs. T h i s is another w a y of stating what the use-value of the c o m m o d i t y became to t h e m , for use-value is a universe of meanings p e r t a i n i n g to the satisfaction of needs a n d the wants that manifest needs. T h i s applies not just to the c o m m o d i t i e s the B r u d e r h o f make, but also to the p r o d u c t i v e relations in w h i c h they engage in o r d e r to m a k e t h e m - i n a s m u c h as costs of p r o d u c t i o n are themselves prices of c o m m o d i t i e s : the machines, the energy to r u n the machines, the inputs of materials, a n d , most i m p o r t a n t , the l a b o u r expended in m a k i n g their 'goods'. For the B r u d e r h o f , the entirety of their p r o d u c t i o n is subsumed into a schema of use-value directed t o w a r d p r o v i d i n g the means of g o i n g forth as C h r i s t . T h a t , in a w o r d , is their 'intention'. Intentions are deployments of values, about w h i c h a b r i e f a m p l i f i c a t i o n w o u l d be in order. Use-values stand at the j u n c t u r e of a m o r e o r i g i n a l f o r m o f value a n d the kinds o f value inherent i n a n economy. T h i s o r i g i n a l , o r intrinsic value, m a y be thought of as the p r i m a r y a p p r o p r i a t i o n of the w o r l d for each p e r s o n , in two senses: it is the w a y we first c o m e to appreciate things a n d relationships in c h i l d h o o d ; a n d it is, t h r o u g h o u t life, the value given to reality irrespective of what we do to reality. It is the sense of the w o r l d conveyed in words like 'wonder', 'awe' or simply the quiet appreciation of everyday reality w i t h o u t r e g a r d for w h a t c a n be m a d e out of it -

implies b e i n g for us insofar as we are part of nature) to a state of objectification w i t h i n the f r a m e w o r k of an economy. T h e matter does n o t stop here, but depends u p o n the w a y that the e c o n o m y a n d the society w i t h i n w h i c h it is e m b e d d e d deploys the different kinds of value. Since use-value n o w implies the presence of an exchange-value, it w i l l be in a relationship w i t h that exchange-value. E x c h a n g e - v a l u e , like use-value, entails a m e n t a l registration. A l t h o u g h it does not exist as such in nature, it exists in the m i n d of a natural creature, where, like any idea, it can have various valencies a n d intensities. T h u s some people are very attached to exchange-value, so that one c o u l d say that they 'value exchange-value'. Indeed, exchange-value c a n have use-value - for what else is m o n e y but the usefulness of exchange? Use-values also stand between i n t r i n s i c values a n d exchange-value, a n d express v a r y i n g degrees of estrangement f r o m nature. C e r t a i n use-values are in a p o s i t i o n of differentiation, where they are close to, a n d seek to restore, intrinsic values, w h i l e others are a l i e n , or as we say, split f r o m intrinsic value, as in the use-value of money. E c o l o g i c a l politics c a n be translated into a f r a m e w o r k of values. T h e B r u d e r h o f care very little for exchange-value, o p t i n g instead for a r a d i c a l l y C h r i s t i a n intrinsic value. T h e e c o n o m y has its laws; but whether those laws are obeyed depends on the subjective balance w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s , w h i c h in t u r n depends u p o n their social relations. T h i s c a n be sketched as a k i n d of coefficient between the two kinds of e c o n o m i c value. If we call use-value

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Towards Ecosocialism uv, a n d exchange-value xv, then the coefficient, uv/xv, expresses in a r o u g h sort of way the balance of forces disposing t o w a r d acceptance a n d rejection of the capitalist force field. I say ' r o u g h ' not because these elements are i n d e t e r m i n a t e , but because they are qualitative a n d p r o f o u n d l y p o l i t i c a l . T h e y exist not as s o m e t h i n g we c a n measure a n d p u t on a g r a p h , but as collective practices a n d sets of meanings, w h i c h have been struggled over a n d c o m m a n d i n v a r y i n g degrees the loyalties o f people. W h e n w e say m o r e , or less, w i t h respect to use - a n d exchange - values, we m e a n it in the sense of ' m o r e fully realized'. F r o m this angle, c a p i t a l i s m comprises that society that sees to it that xv>>uv, so that people internalize the signals of the m a r k e t a n d obey t h e m as gospel; a n d f u r t h e r m o r e , that the usevalues of c o m m o d i t i e s are c o n f i g u r e d to the needs of exchange- a n d surplus-value, a n d not to those of nature's intrinsic value, n o r to that of a fulfilled h u m a n nature, whence we get sports utility vehicles, caffeinated soft drinks, R o u n d u p R e a d y soy beans, H u e y helicopters, submission to g l o b a l i z a t i o n - a n d c o o r d i n a t i v e l y the loss of contact w i t h nature a n d its r e d u c t i o n to mere matter a n d energy. T h e 'usefulness' of this k i n d of f o r m u l a t i o n derives f r o m its p o t e n t i a l to p r y off the heavy stone l a i d over the possibilities of t r a n s f o r m i n g c a p i t a l , thereby o p e n i n g the field to a w i d e r a n d m o r e differentiated range of a c t i o n . U n d e r n o r m a l capitalist c o n d i t i o n s , exchange-value prevails a n d use-values are s u b o r d i n a t e d a n d d e g r a d e d , b o t h as they stand a n d as they are c o n stantly m u l t i p l i e d to subserve endless, wasteful a n d destructive c o m m o d i t i e s . O n l y consider, for example, the indifference w i t h w h i c h people t h r o w things out once they are 'used': the spectre of S t y r o f o a m cups (even at gatherings o f ecologically active groups); the shelves o f Toys ' R U s g r o a n i n g w i t h plastic items a w a i t i n g their batteries a n d the swift transfer to the d u m p . L i k e the passage f r o m the straight r a z o r endlessly s h a r p e n e d to the b a g full o f t h r o w a w a y razors, life itself has b e c o m e disposable. M y grandfather r e p a i r e d watches, one o f hundreds, perhaps thousands, o f his k i n d i n N e w Y o r k City. N o w his successors are as rare as snow leopards, a n d they w o r k on items of conspicuous c o n s u m p t i o n while I w o n d e r whether to t h r o w away the C a s i o a n d b u y another because the strap has b r o k e n . W h a t is cost effective? T h i s has b e c o m e the 'to be or not to be' question of c a p i t a l i s m , a n d in the search for surplus value it drives sensuously creative l a b o u r out of the m a r k e t a n d replaces hand-craft w i t h a u t o m a t e d t e c h n i c a l prowess. In a liberated a n d ecologically sane w o r l d , use-values w o u l d take on a

Prfiguration character i n d e p e n d e n t of exchange-value, not to rule but to serve the needs o f h u m a n nature a n d nature. T h e y w o u l d , i n other words, b e shifted i n the d i r e c t i o n of intrinsic value. T h e r e is no necessary reason w h y this c o u l d not h a p p e n - a l t h o u g h it c a n n o t h a p p e n w i t h o u t a social t r a n s f o r m a t i o n that expands democracy, allows the great range of h u m a n powers to be expressed a n d c o n s o l i d a t e d , a n d i n c o r p o r a t e s the great, c o u n t e r v a i l i n g intentions necessary to nullify capital's force field. W e r e there e n o u g h ecol o g i c a l militants about, o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g to coherent praxes that were not mere voluntarisms, but l i n k e d across a great i n t e r n a t i o n a l theatre of a c t i o n , w e l l then, the capitalist order c o u l d be surpassed. It w o u l d not stand one day i f e n o u g h o f the people said n o ! i n t h u n d e r t o it. O f course there is a b i g hedge here: if enough people decide, i n c l u d i n g soldiers a n d police, w h o are people, too. E c o s o c i a l i s m n o w reveals itself as a struggle for use-value - a n d t h r o u g h a realized use-value, for intrinsic value. T h i s means it is a struggle for the qualitative side of things: not just the hours w o r k e d a n d the p a y p e r h o u r a n d benefits, but the c o n t r o l over w o r k a n d its p r o d u c t , a n d of what is b e y o n d mere necessity - a c o n t r o l that eventuates in the c r e a t i o n a n d integration of n e w ecosystems, a n d also incorporates subjectivity, beauty, pleasure a n d the spiritual. T h e s e demands were part of the l a b o u r t r a d i t i o n , as workers asked for not just b r e a d but roses, too. We w o u l d take it to the l i m i t of its i m p l i c a t i o n s : the ecosocialist d e m a n d is not just for the m a t e r i a l things - b r e a d - on one side, a n d the aesthetic things - roses - on the other. It regards b o t h b r e a d a n d roses f r o m the same perspective of enh a n c e d a n d realized use-values - or better yet, as p o s t - e c o n o m i c intrinsic values: b r e a d a n d the m a k i n g of b r e a d to b e c o m e aspects of a singular ecosystemic process i n t o w h i c h a universe of m e a n i n g is c o n d e n s e d - for what has m o r e resonance t h a n the 'staff of life'? A n d roses are not external pretty things; they, too, have to be g r o w n by labour. They, too, have a universe of m e a n i n g , closed to the eye d u l l e d by exchange, a universe of terror a n d beauty to the eye opened: Oh Rose thou art sick. T h e invisible w o r m , T h a t flies in the night In the howling storm: Has found out thy bed

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Towards Ecosocialism O f crimson joy: A n d his dark secret love Does thy life destroy.
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Prfiguration needs to be c o n f r o n t e d , a n d first of a l l , the taboo that has descended u p o n its n a m e , at least in the U S A . I t h i n k I s h o u l d be a r i c h m a n if given a d o l l a r for every time someone has helpfully p o i n t e d out that it's not g o o d f o r m to use the w o r d socialism Socialism in p o l i t i c a l discourse, unless, of course, one wants to rouse the audience against an enemy. People, I have been t o l d on countless occasions, t u r n off at the s o u n d of that w o r d , w i t h its triple association of e c o n o m i c failure, p o l i t i c a l repression a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l blight. E c o s o c i a l i s m , it is said, w i l l never get to first base so l o n g as it remains associated w i t h the disgraced socialist t r a d i t i o n . It is i m p o r t a n t to deal w i t h these objections h e a d - o n , a n d neither finesse t h e m by t r y i n g to t h i n k of a n o t h e r w o r d for the same t h i n g , n o r dismiss
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If we w i s h to restore the i n t r i n s i c value of nature in this sad w o r l d , we have to break d o w n c a p i t a l a n d the p o w e r of its exchange-value, thereby freeing use-values a n d o p e n i n g up the differentiation w i t h intrinsic value. B u t the consistent d e m a n d for the l i b e r a t i o n of use-value f r o m the clutches of exchange leads i n e x o r a b l y to that one use-value into w h i c h is c o n d e n s e d the core of capital: l a b o u r power. T h i s is the sticking p o i n t , a n d it makes no sense at a l l to evade it. E c o s o c i a l i s m is m o r e t h a n socialism as t r a d i t i o n a l l y k n o w n , but it is definitely socialism as w e l l . C a p i t a l is the efficient cause of the crisis afflicti n g ecologies, but the sine qua non of capital, the one feature that defines its d y n a m i c above all others, is the c o m m o d i f i c a t i o n of l a b o u r p o w e r a n d its r e d u c t i o n to abstract social l a b o u r for sale on the market. If one prefers a n o t h e r line of e x p l a n a t i o n for the e c o l o g i c a l crisis, so be it, a n d this c o n s i d e r a t i o n does not h o l d . B u t if c a p i t a l is t r u l y the enemy of nature, t h e n we do not overcome it w i t h o u t the l i b e r a t i o n of labour. T h i s d e m a n d , w h i c h is the core of socialism, eco- or otherwise, comes d o w n to the following: u n d o i n g the separation of the producers f r o m the means of p r o d u c t i o n . A n d this means a basic change in p r o p e r t y relations so that the earth, v i e w e d as the source of all use-values a n d a l l ecosystems, is a p p r o p r i a t e d by the 'associated p r o d u c e r s ' . O t h e r w i s e there is no o v e r c o m i n g of separation. W i t h the o v e r c o m i n g of separation, the use-value of l a b o u r ceases to be s u b o r d i n a t e d to exchange-value: l a b o u r w o u l d be freed f r o m the chains of c a p i t a l a n d h u m a n p o w e r w o u l d b e c o m e freed f r o m false addictive needs a n d able to resume its potentials. T h e r e is m u c h m o r e to ecosocialism t h a n this, but we need to d w e l l on the f u n d a m e n t a l theme, as its i m p l i c a t i o n s are significantly different f r o m the s t a n d a r d c o m p l e x o f green politics. G r e e n s i n the U S A , for example, have 'ten key values', each m e r i t o r i o u s . Yet n o n e raises this d e m a n d , except derivatively, a n d in p r a c t i c a l fact almost all G r e e n s w o u l d reject it in favour of a p o p u l i s t p o s i t i o n . We have already p o i n t e d out that this leaves c a p i t a l
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t h e m by p o i n t i n g to the a n t i - c o m m u n i s t blight on the p o l i t i c a l intelligence. F o r the fact is that the nations w h o c a l l e d themselves 'socialist' in the past century d i d display all three of those defects, a n d the fact also remains that as a result of the e p o c h a l collapse of the Soviet system, a l o n g w i t h the tremendous setbacks in other societies that either called themselves socialist or h a d the n a m e given to t h e m , the m o r a l e of the socialist cause has taken one b l o w after another, a n d has pretty well d e c l i n e d to v a n i s h i n g p o i n t over the past decade. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of questions to be tackled here, chiefly whether the societies in question were actually socialist, w h y their failings took place, a n d whether a fully r e a l i z e d socialist society w o u l d fall into the same abyss. As for the first of these, one must u n e q u i v o c a l l y say that 'actually existing s o c i a l i s m ' never passed over the threshold of restoring to the p r o d u c e r s c o n t r o l over the means of p r o d u c t i o n . In other words it d i d not live up to the s t i r r i n g words of the Communist Manifesto, that the goal is for society to b e c o m e ' a n association in w h i c h the free development of each is the c o n d i t i o n for the free development of a l l ' . It is essential that we not confuse i
9

the c o n v e n t i o n a l definition of socialism, that it consists of public ownership of the means of p r o d u c t i o n , w i t h the true d e f i n i t i o n , that it consists of a free association of producers. T h e latter implies the former, no d o u b t , but the converse is definitely not necessarily so. A free association implies the fullest extension of democracy, w i t h a p u b l i c sphere a n d p u b l i c o w n e r s h i p that is genuinely collective a n d in w h i c h each p e r s o n makes a difference. B u t the w o r d ' p u b l i c ' i s tricky, a n d c a n signify another k i n d o f a l i e n a t i o n , namely, that of the state, or the Party, or the Leader, or whoever gets substituted for /

in the driver's seat, w i t h all that implies. N o w the g o a l of socialism itself

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Towards Ecosocialism the producers a n d owns a n d / o r controls the means o f p r o d u c t i o n i n their stead. It is this latter t u r n of events that became the fate of socialisms past. T h e n o t i o n of a free association of producers is indisputably the keystone of M a r x ' s c o n c e p t i o n of socialism. It c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d as m u c h as one likes f r o m a study of M a r x ' s life a n d w o r k - just as it c a n be demonstrated to have not been the case for the 'actually existing socialisms', chiefly the U S S R a n d its satellites i n E a s t e r n E u r o p e , o r C h i n a , o r V i e t n a m , N o r t h K o r e a , a n d , w i t h v a r y i n g degrees o f exactitude, for the socialisms o f L a t i n America, C u b a and Nicaragua.
1 0

Prfiguration apparatus: no s m a l l a c c o m p l i s h m e n t given the i m p o r t a n c e of the state as an instrument of c o e r c i o n a n d d i r e c t i o n , yet w i t h no necessary effect on society itself. To be m o r e exact, any effect depends u p o n the character of the r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t , a fact of great i m p o r t a n c e for us. To the extent that the m o v e m e n t is c o n s p i r a t o r i a l , or cut off f r o m the development of society, its t r i u m p h w i l l find society an inert mass r e q u i r i n g leadership f r o m above; to the extent that b r o a d strata of the p o p u l a t i o n participate in the r e v o l u t i o n a r y process, so that it becomes a k i n d of gigantic school, so w i l l the t r i u m p h b e c o m e the a c c e l e r a t i o n o f a n o r g a n i c (in the terms e m p l o y e d here, ecosystemically integral) development in w h i c h the d e m o cratic potentials of socialism c a n be released. T h e actually existing socialisms came to exist by virtue of the c o r r u p t i o n a n d weakness of their ancien rgimes, often accelerated by w a r - or, as in the case of the Soviet satellites, because of the p r o x i m i t y of these regimes to a p o w e r f u l centre of influence. T h u s the first two stages of the r e v o l u t i o n were, however b l o o d y a n d contested, o p e n for the w i n n i n g . B u t in a l l cases, the t h i r d a n d essential stage of social t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was foreclosed by an ensemble of forces that, however distinct f r o m c o u n t r y to country, shared a c o m m o n inaptitude for the d e m o c r a t i z i n g m o t i o n of socialism. In R u s s i a , where there was v i r t u a l l y no d e m o c r a t i c heritage, the Tsarist p o l i c e forced a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c , c o n s p i r a t o r i a l patterns on the Bolsheviks, w h o took p o w e r - despite their name, w h i c h means 'majority' - as a distinct m i n o r i t y . T h e r e v o l u t i o n fell i n t o their lap thanks to the G r e a t W a r , w h i c h also, however, further c r i p p l e d society. T h e n , in a c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n of i m m e n s e savagery, greatly abetted by W e s t e r n i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d invasion, the e x t r a o r d i n a r y needs of ' w a r c o m m u n i s m ' , c a r r i e d on in a situation of m a x i m u m chaos, put the seal o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m o n the process. L e n i n a n d Trotsky resorted to terror as an instrument a n d b l o c k e d the free development o f labour, shutting d o w n the workers' councils, o r 'Soviets', a n d c r i p p l i n g the unions. At the same time, they espoused the e m u l a t i o n of capitalist efficiency a n d p r o d u c t i v i s m as a means of s u r v i v a l . Is it any wonder, t h e n , that socialism failed to take h o l d - or that the stage was set for Stalin's b a r b a r i s m ? " In C h i n a , where again there was effectively zero d e m o c r a t i c heritage, a m u c h m o r e extended p e r i o d o f i n t e r n a l development o f the m o v e m e n t took place p r i o r to the t r i u m p h . H o w e v e r , this was i n o r d i n a t e l y m a r k e d by warfare. Massacres of the C o m m u n i s t P a r t y in 1927 set the stage for m o r e

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T h e s e latter a l l r e l i e d o n some k i n d o f

a l i e n a t i n g substitute ' p u b l i c ' , generally speaking the P a r t y - S t a t e , as the active force d i r e c t i n g the r e v o l u t i o n . T h e r e is as little d o u b t about the two sides o f this p r o p o s i t i o n - o f what M a r x actually i n t e n d e d , a n d o f what actually h a p p e n e d in socialism - as about the phases of the m o o n , a n d yet the e r r o r of identifying these failed experiments w i t h M a r x ' s concept of socialism still persists. We need to ask w h y they a l l seemed to fail this w a y a n d whether this general f a i l i n g was not in itself an i n d i c t m e n t of the core socialist n o t i o n ; a n d , consequently, whether there is any chance of b u i l d i n g a socialism a l o n g the lines of a free association of producers, a n d w i t h e c o l o g i c a l rationality. Several characteristics stand out a m o n g those societies that m a d e - a n d failed to realize - socialist revolutions. First of a l l , they were all in p e r i p h e r a l a n d dependent status a m o n g the capitalist powers. T h i s m e a n t that they started w i t h two strikes against t h e m : they were e c o n o m i c a l l y weak to b e g i n w i t h a n d unable to meet even the basic needs of their people; a n d they h a d to face the hostility of the stronger adversary f r o m the m o m e n t of the i n c e p t i o n of r e v o l u t i o n a r y power. To these m a y be a d d e d the t h i r d strike that put these ventures out so far as the r e a l i z a t i o n of socialism is c o n c e r n e d : they a l l , each a n d every one, l a c k e d d e m o c r a t i c traditions a n d the institutions of c i v i l society that fostered such traditions. In the gestation of a revolution, there is first the pre-revolutionary p e r i o d , w i t h a b u i l d - u p of tension, a d e l e g i t i m a t i o n of the established authority, a n d the g r o w t h of a r e v o l u t i o n i z i n g m o v e m e n t . N e x t comes the revolut i o n a r y m o m e n t as such, a i m i n g at seizure of state power, w i t h greater or lesser degrees of violence a n d the i n t r o d u c t i o n of contradictions that have to be h a n d l e d further o n . Finally, the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of society begins; this is the r e v o l u t i o n proper, an inevitably extended p e r i o d of struggle. On dayone after the m o m e n t of t r i u m p h , a l l that has been achieved is a n e w state

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Towards Ecosocialism t h a n twenty years of g u e r r i l l a war, the m i l i t a r i z a t i o n d e e p e n i n g w i t h the Japanese invasion a n d the L o n g M a r c h . B i t t e r m e m o r i e s o f h u m i l i a t i o n a n d penetration by i m p e r i a l i s m in this most ancient - a n d once pre-eminent - society created a b u r n i n g desire to catch up w i t h the capitalists. T h e state that e m e r g e d f r o m this c a u l d r o n bore m u c h m o r e resemblence to the c e n t r a l i z e d b u r e a u c r a c y that h a d r u l e d C h i n a for two m i l l e n n i a t h a n i t d i d to a socialist democracy. T e r r i b l e struggles w i t h R u s s i a a n d the U S A , a l o n g w i t h the i m p e r i a l status granted to M a o Z e d o n g , o n l y h a r d e n e d its authorita r i a n tendencies. G i v e n the impulsive grandiosity of the latter, the result became the h o r r o r s of the G r e a t L e a p F o r w a r d , w i t h its associated famine, a n d the C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n . Despite c e r t a i n remarkable a n d b r i l l i a n t a d vances, especially in the countryside, is it a n y wonder, again, that socialism failed to take h o l d - or that the stage was set for D e n g X i a o p i n g ' s capitalist road?
12

Prfiguration because it posed 'the threat of a g o o d e x a m p l e ' to other nations in the U S A ' s sphere of influence. As for C u b a , all of its e m p t y shelves do not I nullify the fact that it offers resources of e d u c a t i o n a n d health care that w o u l d m a k e most of the people of the S o u t h believe they were in heaven were they to wake up there one day. N o r s h o u l d it be forgotten that C u b a is the first, a n d still the only, c o u n t r y to have a d o p t e d o r g a n i c agriculture on a n a t i o n a l scale - no d o u b t out of harsh necessity thanks to the US ' blockade a n d Soviet collapse, but nonetheless feasible because there was no agribusiness there to stay in the way of r a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g .
14

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S t i l l , part-way t o w a r d socialism is not far e n o u g h ; not o n l y were these models not exportable, but they were p r i m e d to self-destruct. T h e y rese m b l e d less a b r e a k t h r o u g h t h a n a r u b b e r b a n d stretched to the p o i n t of r e c o i l . T h e vectors p u l l i n g actually existing socialism b a c k i n c l u d e d the social a n d c u l t u r a l forces sedimented into the psyche by generations of p a t r i a r c h y a n d autocracy. H o w e v e r , these w o u l d never have h a d effect w i t h o u t the failure of the p r o d u c t i v e system to transcend the ancien rgime, a n d , specifically, to overcome c a p i t a l i s m . T h e actually existing socialisms d i d not, of course, r e p r o d u c e the capitalist structures of the West. Instead, they r e a r r a n g e d capital to introduce other engines of a c c u m u l a t i o n , notably u s i n g the state a n d p o l i t i c a l means rather t h a n e c o n o m i c incentives as in t r a d i t i o n a l c a p i t a l i s m . T h i s e n d e d up by p r o v i n g that old-fashioned markets w o r k better t h a n c e n t r a l i z e d state c o n t r o l for purposes of a c c u m u l a t i o n . O n e m a y be forgiven for not h a i l i n g this as the greatest of discoveries. T h e ' b o t t o m l i n e ' - if we m a y b o r r o w a p p r o p r i a t e l y here f r o m capital's l e x i c o n - r e m a i n e d a c c u m u l a t i o n ; a n d the p r e s u p p o s i t i o n of a c c u m u l a t i o n rem a i n e d , as ever, the h i e r a r c h i c a l d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r a n d the extraction of surplus value t h r o u g h exploitation. T h e r e c a n be no mystery as to w h y this fatal c o n t r a d i c t i o n forced the state u n d e r actually existing socialism to be specially coercive a n d n o n - d e m o c r a t i c , or w h y a new type of bureaucratic r u l i n g class arose by virtue of c o n t r o l over the state apparatus - or w h y the workers secretly, a n d eventually opeply, l o n g e d for g o o d old-fashioned l i b e r a l c a p i t a l i s m , whose wage m e c h a n i s m creates m o r e opportunities, whose state c a n afford to provide certain l i m i t e d d e m o c r a t i c rights, a n d where the m o r e fluid productive system c h u r n s out a m u c h greater a m o u n t of h i g h e r quality goods. A f t e r a l l , if one is g o i n g to live u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m , one m i g h t as w e l l do it p r o p e r l y .
10

S i m i l a r considerations h e l d for V i e t n a m , h a r d e n e d b y generations o f c o l o n i a l i s m , U S invasion a n d post-war punitiveness b y the superpower. I n C u b a , y o k e d w i t h centuries of dependency, the l i m i t i n g factors took the shape of b e i n g scissored between superpowers; for N i c a r a g u a , it was an even greater underdevelopment, a n d an incomplete revolution w i t h a sudden dnouement that left great chunks of the bourgeoisie intact, while exposing the revolution to the vengeance of B i g B r o t h e r to the N o r t h ; for the E a s t e r n Europeans, it was revolution i m p o s e d f r o m above a n d the constant shadow of Stalinist Russia. In case after case, the elementary conditions for socialist development in the p e r i o d after revolutionary v i c t o r y were either not present or crushed. T h i s s h o u l d not be interpreted as a blanket rejection of the a c c o m p l i s h ments of these regimes, for socialism is not a switch one turns on a n d off, a n d part-way t o w a r d a socialist ethos is still some way f o r w a r d . T h e people o f the f o r m e r U S S R , curently facing social disintegration o n a scale u n p a r a l l e l e d for a n a t i o n not i n v a d e d in war, have just cause to look back w i t h p r i d e on the c u l t u r a l achievements, full e m p l o y m e n t a n d solidarity of the Soviet era, as well as their heroics against N a z i s m . F i r s t - h a n d experience w i t h C u b a a n d N i c a r a g u a has c o n v i n c e d me, as it has m a n y others, that what was b e i n g g e r m i n a t e d there remains of inestimable value to the future o f h u m a n i t y , i f value b e m e a s u r e d i n terms o f d i g n i t y a n d generosity instead o f m o n e y .
13

T h e N i c a r a g u a n r e v o l u t i o n h a d t o b e slaughtered, a c c o r d i n g t o O x f a m ,

T h e basic contradictions of the state c a p i t a l i s m that was called actually

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Towards

Ecosocialism

Prfiguration about a future of r e a r r a n g e d rivers a n d m o u n t a i n s , where the h u m a n b o d y itself w o u l d be reshaped into that of a S u p e r m a n w h o conquers death, the great entropie leveller. In the Soviet U t o p i a , a heroic B o l s h e v i s m redeems fallen h u m a n i t y .
19

205

existing socialism h a d c o m p l e x ecological effects, a l t h o u g h the e n d result was worse t h a n that u n d e r market c a p i t a l i s m . To be m o r e exact, its effects were intensively worse, a n d extensively less so, o w i n g to p o o r e r overall productivity. T h e s e were, it s h o u l d be repeated, e n d results; on the w a y to that e n d , the actually existing socialisms d i d grapple w i t h the ecological question in an interesting way. It is scarcely appreciated, for example, that / in the first decade of the Soviet system, a great deal of attention was p a i d to conservation, a n d an effort was m a d e to integrate p r o d u c t i o n w i t h n a t u r a l laws a n d limits. T h i s impulse was g r o u n d e d in a p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o v e m e n t , a n d a t r a d i t i o n of r a d i c a l i n n o v a t i o n that a c c o m p a n i e d the early years of B o l s h e v i s m a n d i n c l u d e d a great deal of c o n c e r n about ecology. It was n o u r i s h e d by r a d i c a l innovators such as A l e k s a n d r Bogdanov, V whose Proletkul't m o v e m e n t attempted to o p e n R u s s i a n culture to democratic impulses; a n d supported to a degree by none other t h a n L e n i n , w h o , as A r r a n G a r e writes, 'interpreted M a r x i s m in such a w a y as to acknowledge the limitations of the e n v i r o n m e n t , [and] of the existence of d y n a m i c s w i t h i n nature w i t h w h i c h h u m a n i t y must a c c o r d . '
16

T h e gruesome o u t c o m e is well k n o w n , but bears b r i e f reflection. A f t e r Stalin's accession to p o w e r in 1927, persistent e c o n o m i c stagnation triggered a second r e v o l u t i o n , n o w f r o m above. W h a t e v e r d e m o c r a t i c impulses h a d j e n d u r e d t h r o u g h the early p e r i o d of the B o l s h e v i k regime were jettisoned, a n d the entire m i g h t of Soviet society was c o n c e n t r a t e d on b u i l d i n g the forces of p r o d u c t i o n for all-out a c c u m u l a t i o n . T h e result was utter topd o w n c o n t r o l , m a x i m u m s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f h u m a n beings t o the p r o d u c t i o n process, the surplus b e i n g taken by the state, willingness to let m i l l i o n s die for the larger purpose, the deification of the ruler a n d the party-state to m o b i l i z e messianic forms o f legitimacy, p r o f o u n d c y n i c i s m a n d mendacity, a n d , last but certainly not least, a reign of terror to eliminate the remnants of o p p o s i t i o n . In this regime, Trotsky's musings were given an official i m p r i m a t u r even as he h i m s e l f was d r i v e n out a n d eventually m u r d e r e d . ' W i t h i n a few years all the m a p s of the U S S R w i l l have to be revised', wrote one Stalinist planner, while another o p i n e d that the conservation of nature for its o w n sake 'reeks of ancient cults of nature's deification', a n d a t h i r d p r o c l a i m e d the g o a l of 'a p r o f o u n d rearrangement of the entire l i v i n g w o r l d ... A l l l i v i n g nature w i l l live, thrive a n d die a t n o n e other t h a n the w i l l o f m a n a n d a c c o r d i n g t o his plans.' S t i l l another c a l l e d for e l i m i n a t i n g a l l references to 'plant c o m m u n i t i e s ' in b i o l o g y books. In other words, as S t a l i n i s m developed, the very n o t i o n of ecology came u n d e r j attack, in a d d i t i o n to ecologies.
20 1

B u t there were c o u n t e r v a i l i n g forces at w o r k in all the m a j o r figures of B o l s h e v i s m , a n d in the d o c t r i n e itself. Despite his ecological insights, L e n i n harshly attacked B o g d a n o v in his 1908 Materialism and Empirio-Criticism for an alleged 'idealism'. To this, L e n i n opposed a sharply dualistic m a t e r i a l i s m , rather s i m i l a r to the C a r t e s i a n separation of matter a n d consciousness, a n d perfectly tooled, like C a r t e s i a n i s m , to the active w o r k i n g over of dead, d u l l matter by the h u m a n h a n d .
1 7

A f u n c t i o n of this was to overcome the

n a t i o n a l 'backwardness' a n d sloth, that dreamy, vodka-soaked, i m p r a c t i c a l i m m e r s i o n i n M o t h e r R u s s i a that h a d h a u n t e d its i n t e l l i g e n t s i a , a n d i n s o

18

T h i s was the framework that s p a w n e d

d o i n g , to move full speed a h e a d into i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d modernity. F r o m this angle, Russia's m o d e r n history is d o m i n a t e d by a messianic a m b i t i o n a n d a m b i v a l e n c e towards the West. B o l s h e v i s m i n c o r p o r a t e d features of b o t h . A ferocious drive to catch up w i t h the West shaped its w o r l d - v i e w f r o m the start, a n d was accelerated by the severe crisis of the early years. T h e tendency was especially p r o n o u n c e d i n L e n i n ' s b r i l l i a n t associate, L e o n Trotsky, architect a n d c o m m a n d e r o f the R e d A r m y d u r i n g the counterr e v o l u t i o n , a n d a cosmopolite a n d m o d e r n i z e r par excellence. A l t h o u g h he was a resolute atheist, Trotsky's w o r s h i p of technology was of idolatrous p r o p o r t i o n s . T h i s was expressed i n a r h a p s o d i c p a e a n t o C o m m u n i s t M a n after the Soviet t r i u m p h , in w h i c h T r o t s k y a l l o w e d h i m s e l f to fantasize

Lysenko's official doctrine that a c q u i r e d characteristics c a n be i n h e r i t e d , a n d that d i d in fact set about to rearrange the R u s s i a n m a p , diverting rivers, creating cities overnight, b u i l d i n g colossal hydroelectric plants, a n d so transf o r m i n g the l a n d that what took three h u n d r e d years u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m was a c c o m p l i s h e d i n one generation. W e r e Stalin's monstrosity still w i t h us, it w o u l d w i n the g o l d m e d a l for e n m i t y to nature - a n d i n d e e d there was an element of outright hostility to nature in S t a l i n i s m b e y o n d what obtains u n d e r market c a p i t a l i s m , even after S t a l i n passed a n d the regime ceased u s i n g terror. T h a t S t a l i n i s m d i d not survive owes something, moreover, to its r a d i c a l l y anti-ecological character. C h o k e d w i t h p o l l u t i o n , beset w i t h d e c l i n i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l yields a n d

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Towards Ecosocialism h a u n t e d by nightmares like the v i r t u a l disappearance of the A r a l Sea, the

Prfiguration nature c o m m a n d a passion c o m p a r a b l e to that reserved for the e m a n c i p a t i o n of labour. T h i s is a c c o m p a n i e d by a somewhat naive faith in the ecological capacities of a w o r k i n g class defined by generations of capitalist p r o d u c t i o n . To the characteristically socialist w a y of t h i n k i n g , labour, once freed f r o m the prison-house of c a p i t a l , w i l l u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y p r o c e e d to rearrange p r o d u c t i o n in an ecologically sane way. H e r e is an e x a m p l e f r o m Against the Market, by D a v i d M c N a l l y , an otherwise estimable w o r k that argues for a full socialism g r o u n d e d in the e m a n c i p a t i o n of labour. After s h o w i n g c o n v i n c i n g l y h o w the 'socialist econ o m y does possess an i n b u i l t drive to increase the efficiency of p r o d u c t i o n : Our Marx the impetus to m a x i m i z e free, disposable t i m e ' , M c N a l l y continues w i t h the observation that just as capital increases people's needs but 'restricts their opportunities to realize t h e m ' , so w i l l socialism liberate 'this positive side of capital's self-expansion f r o m the a l i e n a t i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n associated w i t h it'. He elaborates: ' T h r e e things follow f r o m this. First, the r e d u c t i o n of necessary social l a b o u r cannot be at the expense of the range of human satisfactions. On the contrary, the p r o d u c t i v i t y gains b r o u g h t about by the development of the forces of p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d in a l l p r o b a b i l i t y be distributed in two ways ... by increasing the social output to raise consumption levels ... a n d , after that, by r e d u c i n g necessary social labour.' T h e second a n d t h i r d principles are that this r e d u c t i o n in social l a b o u r ' c o u l d not be at the expense of the conditions of w o r k i t s e l f or of 'the n a t u r a l a n d social e n v i r o n m e n t outside the workplace'.
21

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\J!

Soviet system l a c k e d i n t e r n a l correctives a n d was h u r l e d d o w n into an c h a s m of ecocatastrophe. In g o o d measure, this lack of adaptability lay in 'Y a r i g i d , self-perpetuating b u r e a u c r a t i c regime fixedly p r o g r a m m e d on the goal o f a c c u m u l a t i o n . A s inefficiencies proliferated a n d the i n t e r n a l market w i t h e r e d for lack of consumable goods, a c c u m u l a t i o n became increasingly difficult. A c h i e f response to this crisis was a heightened e x p l o i t a t i o n of nature. E c o l o g i c a l concerns kept b e i n g shelved, a vicious cycle set i n , a n d , abetted by US policy, collapse was o n l y a matter of time.

H o w does one assess this in relation to the ecological potentials of socialism? To some, the answer is straightforward: because the U S S R was f u n d a m e n t a l l y non-socialist, there c a n be no relation. T h e Soviets, it is said, broke w i t h socialism f r o m the m o m e n t they put the clamps on l a b o u r a n d started the e m u l a t i o n of capital. G i v e n the w a y of the w o r l d , the rest was foreo r d a i n e d : gigantism, bureaucratic state c a p i t a l i s m , the stifling of d e m o c r a c y - a l l c o n t r i b u t e d to a r a d i c a l l y anti-ecological regime that w o u l d have likely executed M a r x h a d h e s h o w n u p i n M o s c o w i n 1935. F r o m this angle, the extreme e n m i t y t o w a r d nature that m a r k e d S t a l i n i s m is an example of h o w a noble ideal, once perverted, c a n t u r n into its opposite, as Satan, once the favoured son of G o d , became G o d ' s greatest enemy. B u t this is too simple: it smacks of c o n s o l a t i o n , not a facing of reality. For the t r u t h is that almost the entire socialist t r a d i t i o n , i n c l u d i n g those 1/ branches of it u n b u r d e n e d by S t a l i n i s m , has largely b e e n unable to a p p r o priate an ecological attitude. T h e r e have b e e n a few i m p o r t a n t i n d i v i d u a l exceptions, such a s R o s a L u x e m b u r g a n d W i l l i a m M o r r i s , a n d a strong recent effort to correct things, but these hopeful signs do not relieve us of the necessity of a c c o u n t i n g for what has been on the whole a significant lapse. Despite all the r e c o g n i t i o n of the fact that there is a g l o b a l crisis of nature for w h i c h c a p i t a l is p r i m a r i l y responsible, the fact remains that m i n d i n g nature still tends to strike the t y p i c a l socialist as an afterthought, b o t h in the sense that nature does not come i m m e d i a t e l y to the socialist m i n d , a n d that the c a r i n g for nature is s o m e t h i n g a d d e d on to existing socialist doctrine rather t h a n i n t e g r a l t o it. A n i n t e g r a l a p p r e c i a t i o n o f nature's intrinsic value is not at the existential heart of socialism, n o r does

T h i s finesses a serious c o n t r a d i c t i o n between raising c o n s u m p t i o n levels a n d p r o t e c t i n g 'the n a t u r a l ... e n v i r o n m e n t outside the w o r k p l a c e ' . A r e workers - not just in the i n d u s t r i a l West, but also in C h i n a , I n d i a , Indonesia, a n d so o n , as r e q u i r e d by the internationalist ethos of socialism - to have m o r e cars, even ecologically better cars, w i t h o u t further deterioration of ecologies? Questions like this scarcely arise in socialist discourse, w h i c h , however m u c h it m a y surpass capital m o r a l l y a n d economically, has significant trouble g o i n g b e y o n d capital's fatal a d d i c t i o n to growth. M c N a l l y claims there is a positive side of capital's self-expansion that c a n be 1 liberated. B u t this is ecologically quite dubious. O n e expects gases to selfe x p a n d . B u t h u m a n s , b e i n g organisms in ecosystems, c a n o n l y .yg/^expand to the detriment of the ecosystem, a n d / o r as a sign of its degeneration, the w a y algal b l o o m s signify that a p o n d is disintegrating ecosystemically. As a l i e n a t i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n are overcome, therefore, we w o u l d expect

206

Towards Ecosocialism h a u n t e d by nightmares like the v i r t u a l disappearance of the A r a l Sea, the

Prfiguration nature c o m m a n d a passion c o m p a r a b l e to that reserved for the e m a n c i p a t i o n of labour. T h i s is a c c o m p a n i e d by a somewhat naive faith in the ecological capacities of a w o r k i n g class defined by generations of capitalist p r o d u c t i o n . To the characteristically socialist w a y of t h i n k i n g , labour, once freed f r o m the prison-house of c a p i t a l , w i l l u n p r o b l e m a t i c a l l y p r o c e e d to rearrange p r o d u c t i o n in an ecologically sane way. H e r e is an e x a m p l e f r o m Against the Market, by D a v i d M c N a l l y , an otherwise estimable w o r k that argues for a full socialism g r o u n d e d in the e m a n c i p a t i o n of labour. A f t e r s h o w i n g c o n v i n c i n g l y h o w the 'socialist econ o m y does possess an i n b u i l t drive to increase the efficiency of p r o d u c t i o n : Our Marx the impetus to m a x i m i z e free, disposable t i m e ' , M c N a l l y continues w i t h the observation that just as capital increases people's needs but 'restricts their opportunities to realize t h e m ' , so w i l l socialism liberate 'this positive side of capital's self-expansion f r o m the a l i e n a t i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n associated w i t h it'. He elaborates: ' T h r e e things follow f r o m this. First, the r e d u c t i o n of necessary social l a b o u r cannot be at the expense of the range of human satisfactions. On the contrary, the p r o d u c t i v i t y gains b r o u g h t about by the development of the forces o f p r o d u c t i o n w o u l d i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y b e distributed i n two ways ... by increasing the social output to raise consumption levels ... a n d , after that, by r e d u c i n g necessary social labour.' T h e second a n d t h i r d principles are that this r e d u c t i o n in social l a b o u r ' c o u l d not be at the expense of the conditions of w o r k i t s e l f or of 'the n a t u r a l a n d social e n v i r o n m e n t outside the w o r k place'.
21

207

\J I

Soviet system l a c k e d i n t e r n a l correctives a n d was h u r l e d d o w n into an c h a s m o f ecocatastrophe. I n g o o d measure, this lack o f adaptability lay i n a r i g i d , self-perpetuating bureaucratic regime fixedly p r o g r a m m e d on the goal o f a c c u m u l a t i o n . A s inefficiencies proliferated a n d the i n t e r n a l market w i t h e r e d for lack of consumable goods, a c c u m u l a t i o n b e c a m e increasingly difficult. A c h i e f response to this crisis was a heightened e x p l o i t a t i o n of nature. E c o l o g i c a l concerns kept b e i n g shelved, a vicious cycle set i n , a n d , abetted by US policy, collapse was o n l y a matter of time.

/ \

H o w does one assess this in relation to the ecological potentials of socialism? To some, the answer is straightforward: because the U S S R was fundam e n t a l l y non-socialist, there c a n be no relation. T h e Soviets, it is said, broke w i t h socialism f r o m the m o m e n t they put the clamps on l a b o u r a n d started the e m u l a t i o n of capital. G i v e n the w a y of the w o r l d , the rest was foreo r d a i n e d : gigantism, bureaucratic state capitalism, the stifling of d e m o c r a c y - all c o n t r i b u t e d to a r a d i c a l l y anti-ecological regime that w o u l d have likely executed M a r x h a d h e s h o w n u p i n M o s c o w i n 1935. F r o m this angle, the extreme e n m i t y t o w a r d nature that m a r k e d S t a l i n i s m is an example of h o w a noble ideal, once perverted, c a n t u r n into its opposite, as Satan, once the favoured son of G o d , became G o d ' s greatest enemy. B u t this is too simple: it smacks of consolation, not a facing of reality, f F o r the truth is that almost the entire socialist t r a d i t i o n , i n c l u d i n g those branches of it u n b u r d e n e d by S t a l i n i s m , has largely been unable to a p p r o priate an ecological attitude. T h e r e have been a few i m p o r t a n t i n d i v i d u a l exceptions, such as R o s a L u x e m b u r g a n d W i l l i a m M o r r i s , a n d a strong recent effort to correct things, but these hopeful signs do not relieve us of the necessity of a c c o u n t i n g for what has been on the whole a significant lapse. Despite a l l the r e c o g n i t i o n of the fact that there is a g l o b a l crisis of nature for w h i c h c a p i t a l is p r i m a r i l y responsible, the fact r e m a i n s that m i n d i n g nature still tends to strike the t y p i c a l socialist as an afterthought, b o t h in the sense that nature does not come i m m e d i a t e l y to the socialist m i n d , a n d that the c a r i n g for nature is s o m e t h i n g a d d e d on to existing socialist doctrine rather t h a n i n t e g r a l t o it. A n i n t e g r a l a p p r e c i a t i o n o f nature's intrinsic value is not at the existential heart of socialism, n o r does

T h i s finesses a serious c o n t r a d i c t i o n between r a i s i n g c o n s u m p t i o n levels a n d p r o t e c t i n g 'the n a t u r a l ... e n v i r o n m e n t outside the w o r k p l a c e ' . A r e workers - not just in the industrial West, but also in C h i n a , I n d i a , Indonesia, a n d so o n , as r e q u i r e d by the internationalist ethos of socialism - to have m o r e cars, even ecologically better cars, w i t h o u t further deterioration of ecologies? Questions like this scarcely arise in socialist discourse, w h i c h , however m u c h it m a y surpass c a p i t a l m o r a l l y a n d economically, has significant trouble g o i n g b e y o n d capital's fatal a d d i c t i o n to g r o w t h . M c N a l l y claims there is a positive side of capital's self-expansion that c a n be liberated. B u t this is ecologically quite dubious. O n e expects gases to selfe x p a n d . B u t h u m a n s , b e i n g organisms i n ecosystems, c a n o n l y s e l f - e x p a n d to the detriment of the ecosystem, a n d / o r as a sign of its degeneration, the w a y algal b l o o m s signify that a p o n d is disintegrating ecosystemically. As a l i e n a t i o n a n d e x p l o i t a t i o n are overcome, therefore, we w o u l d expect

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Towards Ecosocialism h u m a n life not to e x p a n d , but rather to develop ever m o r e subtle, interrelated, m u t u a l l y r e c o g n i z i n g , beautiful a n d s p i r i t u a l l y fulfilled ways o f being. We s h o u l d seek not to b e c o m e larger w i t h i n socialism, but m o r e realized. B a c h d i d not quantitatively e x p a n d m u s i c , m a k i n g it l o u d e r a n d m o r e insistent like degenerate forms of rock music that m i r r o r capitalist relations; he rather saw m o r e deeply into its possibilities a n d realized t h e m . So w o u l d it be expected for an ecological society, where the ideal of g r o w t h as such s i m p l y needs to be scrapped. Sufficiency makes m o r e sense, b u i l d i n g a w o r l d where n o b o d y is h u n g r y or c o l d or lacks health care or succour in o l d age. T h i s c a n be done at a fraction of the c u r r e n t w o r l d output, a n d w o u l d create the g r o u n d for ecological r e a l i z a t i o n . Sufficiency is a better t e r m t h a n the ecological b u z z w o r d , sustainability, as the latter leaves a m b i g u o u s the question of whether what is to be sustained is the existing system or not. B u t in either case, h u m a n i t y needs to greatly reduce its l o a d on p l a n e t a r y ecosystems. T h e c u s t o m a r y response of e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m is to think of restraining c o n s u m p t i o n . B u t such a focus is repressive, r e q u i r i n g some c o m b i n a t i o n of market forces, as by m a k i n g p e t r o l e u m m o r e expensive t o discourage purchase o f gas-guzzlers a n d eventually cars themselves; a l o n g w i t h c o e r c i o n , as by r a t i o n i n g or e x a c t i n g legal sanctions like p r i s o n . M e a s u r e s of this sort m a y be necessary in the short t e r m , but they are never desirable, a n d get us no closer to an ecological socialism, w h i c h builds on the l i b e r a t i o n of l a b o u r sought by 'first-epoch' socialism a n d seeks the restoration of intrinsic value by liberated producers. A c t u a l socialism was i l l - f o r m e d by history for this task. Forged at the m o m e n t of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n , its transformative impulse tended to r e m a i n w i t h i n the terms of the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d d o m i n a t i o n of nature. T h u s it c o n t i n u e d to manifest the t e c h n o l o g i c a l o p t i m i s m of the i n d u s t r i a l world-view, a n d its associated logic of p r o d u c t i v i s m - a l l of w h i c h fed into the m a n i a for g r o w t h . T h e belief i n u n l i m i t e d t e c h n i c a l progress has been beaten b a c k in c e r t a i n quarters by a host of disasters, f r o m n u c l e a r waste to resistant b a c t e r i a , but these setbacks b a r e l y t o u c h the core of socialist o p t i m i s m , that its historical mission is to perfect the i n d u s t r i a l system a n d not overcome it. T h e productivist logic is g r o u n d e d in a v i e w of nature that regards the n a t u r a l w o r l d as an ' e n v i r o n m e n t ' , a n d f r o m the standpoint of its utility as a force of p r o d u c t i o n . It is at that p o i n t that socialism all too often shares w i t h c a p i t a l i s m a r e d u c t i o n of nature to resources - a n d , coordinatively, a sluggishness in r e c o g n i z i n g ourselves in nature a n d nature in

Prfiguration ourselves. W h e n M c N a l l y says that socialism 'cannot be at the expense of the range of h u m a n satisfaction', then he is failing to recognize that these satisfactions c a n be p r o b l e m a t i c w i t h respect to nature w h e n they have been historically shaped by the d o m i n a t i o n of nature; a n d m o r e , that the i n d u s t r i a l tools a n d techniques that pass into the hands of the workers after the r e v o l u t i o n are also a sediment of that history. T h e r e f o r e , unless the socialist r e v o l u t i o n also undoes the d o m i n a t i o n of nature, w h i c h is to say, becomes ecosocialist, its satisfactions - a n d the needs a n d use-values in w h i c h they are g r o u n d e d - are g o i n g to tend to reproduce the d o m i n a t i o n of nature. S i m p l y o v e r c o m i n g the p o w e r of exchange-value c a n be no m o r e t h a n a necessary c o n d i t i o n for this. F r o m another angle, there c a n be no ecosocialist e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m as such, since to the ecological w o r l d - v i e w the n o t i o n of nature as an e n v i r o n m e n t outside us w i l l w i t h e r away. R e c o g n i t i o n of ourselves in nature a n d nature in ourselves, in other words subjective as well as objective p a r t i c i p a t i o n in ecosystems, is the essential c o n d i t i o n for o v e r c o m i n g the d o m i n a t i o n of nature, a n d its pathologies of instrumental p r o d u c t i o n a n d addictive c o n s u m p t i o n . For an example, we m a y t u r n to R o s a L u x e m b u r g , m e n t i o n e d above as one of the few socialists w h o showed what m i g h t be called an authentically 'ecocentric w a y of being'. I m e a n this existentially, for L u x e m b u r g was not ecologically oriented in her views of what socialism ought to be (unlike W i l l i a m M o r r i s , whose thought was consciously ecocentric, albeit w i t h o u t using that t e r m ) .
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B u t what she

d i d evince - a n d this is connected w i t h her gender - was a capacity to express a fellow-feeling for n o n - h u m a n creatures that is quite e x c e p t i o n a l in the M a r x i s t t r a d i t i o n . Witnessing the beating of a buffalo f r o m her p r i s o n where she was kept while protesting the war, L u x e m b u r g wrote the f o l l o w i n g in a letter: the one that was bleeding, all the while looked ahead with an expression on its black face and its soft black eyes like that of a weeping c h i l d who has been severely punished and who does not know why, what for, who does not know how to escape the torment and the brutality ... I stood facing the a n i m a l and it looked at me: tears were r u n n i n g from my eyes - they were his tears. O n e cannot quiver any more painfully over one's dearest brother's sorrow than I quivered in my impotence over this silent anguish ... O h ! My poor buffalo! My poor beloved brother! We both stand here so powerless and spiritless and are united only in pain, in powerlessness and in longing.
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Towards Ecosocialism S u c h an ethos in itself does not ecosocialism m a k e - that w o u l d require what L u x e m b u r g d i d not do, namely, develop a consciously ecological line in her socialist practice. N o r does it i m p l y a fundamentalist p o s i t i o n on a n i m a l rights, w h i c h forgets that a l l creatures, however they m a y be rec o g n i z e d , are still differentiated a n d that we m a k e use of other creatures w i t h i n o u r h u m a n nature. N o r , it is scarcely necessary to a d d , does this i m p l y a deep ecological affirmation of 'wilderness' that splits the w i l d away f r o m the h u m a n a n d w o u l d just as soon dispense w i t h the latter; nor, to go yet further d o w n the track of n i h i l i s m , w o u l d it consist of the k i n d of deep ecological attack o n i n d u s t r i a l i s m i n f a m o u s l y associated w i t h T h e o d o r e K a s c z y n s k i , the U n a b o m b e r . T o overcome the limits o f actually existing s o c i a l i s m requires, rather, a synthesis in w h i c h h u m a n i t y is restored to ecosystemic differentiation w i t h nature. T o follow the e x a m p l e o f L u x e m burg, it w o u l d connect existential fellow-feeling w i t h a sense of justice, a n d b u i l d f r o m there. In other words, the o p t i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l socialism for the travails of l a b o u r needs to be m a t c h e d by, a n d dialectically i n t e r w o v e n w i t h , an equivalent existential o p t i o n for nature. T h e w o u n d s of one must be felt w i t h the same passion for justice as those of the other. O u r very b e i n g needs to be t u r n e d towards nature, not as an afterthought n o r as an i n s t r u m e n t a l necessity for p r o d u c t i o n , but as a sensuously l i v e d reality. A n d this needs to be g r o u n d e d in specifically ecological relations of p r o d u c t i o n lest it b e c o m e a p u r e l y voluntaristic slogan. A s for K a r l M a r x himself, w e f i n d a b e w i l d e r i n g a r r a y o f o p i n i o n s c o n c e r n i n g his ecological bona fides. F r o m one side there is a fairly robust t r a d i t i o n alleging that M a r x essentially shared the e n m i t y towards nature evinced by the Bolsheviks, or at the least set t h e m on their p r o f o u n d l y a n t i e c o l o g i c a l p a t h . I n this view, w h i c h m a y b e t e r m e d the ' P r o m e t h e a n ' interpretation, the founder of historical m a t e r i a l i s m is tasked w i t h e n o u g h elements of the d o m i n a t i o n of nature to justify the often-made identification w i t h the g o d w h o gave h u m a n k i n d fire, a n d whose temerity was p u n i s h e d by Zeus by b e i n g c h a i n e d to a rock, where he suffered the assaults of an eagle on his liver. T h e substance of the i n d i c t m e n t holds M a r x to have been an

Prfiguration holds that M a r x , far f r o m b e i n g P r o m e t h e a n , was a m a i n o r i g i n a t o r of the e c o l o g i c a l world-view. B u i l d i n g their a r g u m e n t f r o m M a r x ' s materialist foundations, his scientific affinity w i t h D a r w i n , a n d his c o n c e p t i o n of the ' m e t a b o l i c rift' between h u m a n i t y a n d nature, Foster a n d B u r k e t t consider the o r i g i n a l M a r x i a n c a n o n as the true a n d sufficient guide to save nature from capitalism.
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To enter the substance of this debate w o u l d distract us f r o m the t h r e a d of the present argument. B u t we m a y say the following: that it is foolish to reduce the subtlety of so p r o f o u n d l y d i a l e c t i c a l a t h i n k e r to any l a b e l or singular i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A close r e a d i n g w i l l show M a r x to be no P r o methean.
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B u t he was no g o d of any k i n d , either, o n l y the best interpreter

h u m a n i t y has ever h a d of its o w n h i s t o r i c a l e m e r g i n g ; a n d this great virtue s p r a n g f r o m the integration of a passion for justice w i t h intellectual p o w e r a n d dialectical gift. H o w e v e r superior it m i g h t be, M a r x ' s thought, b e i n g a h u m a n p r o d u c t , r e m a i n s t i m e - b o u n d a n d i n c o m p l e t e . F o r this reason i t becomes most realized w h e n most free, or to use his o w n expression, ' r u t h lessly c r i t i c a l of everything e x i s t i n g ' .
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T h i s w o u l d i n c l u d e , needless to say,

b e i n g c r i t i c a l o f itself. T h e r e f o r e M a r x i s m today c a n have n o greater g o a l t h a n the c r i t i c i s m o f M a r x i n the light o f that history t o w h i c h h e h a d not b e e n exposed, namely, of the ecological crisis. H e r e it needs to be observed that, however M a r x m a y not have been P r o m e t h e a n , there r e m a i n s in his w o r k a foreshortening of the intrinsic j value of nature. Yes, h u m a n i t y is part of nature for M a r x . B u t it is the active part, the p a r t that makes things h a p p e n , while nature becomes that w h i c h is acted u p o n . E x c e p t for a few e n t r a n c i n g anticipations, chiefly in the Manuscripts of 1844, nature to M a r x appears directly as use-value, a n d not as what use-value leaves b e h i n d , namely, r e c o g n i t i o n of nature in a n d for itself.
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In M a r x , nature is, so to speak, subjected to l a b o u r f r o m the start. T h i s side of things m a y be inferred f r o m his c o n c e p t i o n of labour, w h i c h involves an entirely active relationship to what has b e c o m e a k i n d of n a t u r a l substratum. N o w there are two ways of n o t b e i n g active. T h e r e is passivity, w i t h its i m p l i c a t i o n of i n e r t i a ; a n d it is f r o m this c o n d i t i o n that M a r x sought to free the alienated realities of l a b o u r u n d e r the d o m i n a t i o n of capital. B u t there is also receptivity, w h i c h is not passive a n d inert at a l l , but another k i n d of activity; a n d it is this side of things that M a r x - a n d , by a n d large, the

y
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advocate of technological d e t e r m i n i s m , of p r o d u c t i v i s m , of the ideology of progress, a n d of hostility to r u r a l life a n d p r i m i t i v i s m - in s u m , as an unreconstructed apostle of the E n l i g h t e n m e n t in its rankest industrial f o r m .
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A n o p p o s i n g p o i n t o f view, recently a r g u e d b y M a r x i s t s such a s J o h n B e l l a m y Foster a n d P a u l Burkett, energetically contests the i n d i c t m e n t , a n d

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Towards Ecosocialism socialist t r a d i t i o n - failed to see. W h e n R o s a L u x e m b u r g felt for the buffalo she was b e i n g receptive to its anguish. T h e r e was r e c o g n i t i o n there, w h i c h meant a t a k i n g in of the buffalo's being, a n d its r e - a w a k e n i n g inside her. Is this the female position? W e l l , yes, so l o n g as we keep in m i n d that it is the constructed a n d relegated female p o s i t i o n , at once the source of women's strength a n d the measure of their d o w n f a l l in m a l e - d o m i n a t e d society. F u l l receptivity is of b o t h identity a n d difference. T h e w o r l d is taken i n , but never fused w i t h the self. T h i s is a knack of language, w h i c h represents the given, but as imaginative signifier that never stays still. To recapture the receptive m o m e n t in labour, therefore, requires an active o p e n i n g of being. T h i s does not s i m p l y absorb the w o r l d a n d register it subjectively. It opens

Prfiguration d u c e d p r o d u c t i o n into nature, a n d then economies, class economies a n d capitalism, w h i c h , spreading cancerously, generates o u r ecological crisis. P r o d u c t i o n is therefore nature's formativity as expressed t h r o u g h h u m a n nature. W h a t distinguishes p r o d u c t i o n f r o m n a t u r a l e v o l u t i o n lies i n the d i m e n s i o n of consciousness as s h a p e d by language a n d social o r g a n i z a t i o n . H u m a n beings w o r k w i t h a m e n t a l image of nature; we represent the section of nature before us - itself v i r t u a l l y always m o d i f i e d by previous l a b o u r then act u p o n it to t r a n s f o r m it a c c o r d i n g to an envisioned e n d . In every instance, some p r e a r r a n g e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n of nature-as-transformed-byl a b o u r is i m a g i n a t i v e l y a p p r o p r i a t e d , then r e n d e r e d a c c o r d i n g to a p l a n . P r o d u c t i o n is therefore i n h e r e n t l y t e m p o r a l i z i n g a n d i n c o r p o r a t e s the future; that is w h y we call it p r o - d u c t i o n , to m a k e w i t h a v i e w ahead. H u m a n s do not choose whether to p r o d u c e , but there are numberless ways of p r o d u c i n g . C a p i t a l is one such o r g a n i z a t i o n of p r o d u c t i o n that violates ecosystemic integrity t h r o u g h the i n t e r p o s i t i o n of exchange-value as an instrument of e x p l o i t a t i o n . E a c h such m o m e n t is a c u t t i n g of the specific interconnectedness that defines an integral ecosystem. T h e hope of socialism is to overcome e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d b r i n g d o w n the regime of exchange-value. E c o s o c i a l i s m develops this further t h r o u g h the r e a l i z a t i o n of use-values a n d the a p p r o p r i a t i o n of intrinsic value. F r o m the angle of p r o d u c t i o n , this means b u i l d i n g ecosystemic integrity. As an i n - j tegral is a whole, ecological p r o d u c t i o n has as its o v e r r i d i n g c o n d i t i o n the creation of wholeness.
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b e i n g to the w o r l d as prelude to the transformation of the w o r l d ; a n d it links the m a k i n g of poems a n d songs to the m a k i n g of solar ovens. It is a ful-filling, w h i c h is essential b o t h to the freeing of l a b o u r a n d to the ecological transf o r m i n g of labour, so that l a b o u r m a y transform reality in an ecologically integral way. T h e o p e n i n g of the self to the w o r l d engages the sensuous i m a g i n a t i o n a n d o u r full being. A b s e n t the receptive m o m e n t in labour, the self is closed, i m p a c t e d inside itself, a n d isolated f r o m others a n d f r o m nature. We r e t u r n to the anti-ecological m o m e n t e n s h r i n e d by capital: the w a y of the ego. T h i s is the secret to the r i d d l e of g r o w t h a n d the m a n i a of c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e s e t w i n compulsions of the r e i g n i n g order are expressions o f a n i m p e d e d m o t i o n between i n n e r a n d outer w o r l d . O c c l u d e d a n d incapable of a full life, the h u m a n b e i n g c o m p u l s i v e l y turns to g r i n d i n g out c o m m o d i t i e s w i t h o u t e n d , a n d , just a s wantonly, c o n s u m i n g t h e m . T h e insertion of exchange-value is that invisible b a r r i e r c a g i n g in the capitalist ego, a h i m of abstraction reinforced w i t h the titanic p o w e r of the capitalist state a n d c u l t u r a l apparatus. T h a t is w h y these must be taken d o w n , a n d w h y l a b o u r must be really, t r u l y freed. B u t it becomes free in o r d e r to t r a n s f o r m p r o d u c t i o n ecologically. T h e recovery of intrinsic value proceeds t h r o u g h a struggle for use-value, a struggle in w h i c h the goal is e m b e d d e d in the p a t h .

Ecosystems are not to be regarded in the way of

c o m m o d i t i e s , as countable a n d isolable things. T h e y are, rather, m u t u a l l y constitutive, i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g each other. T h a t is w h y the n o t i o n of an ' e n v i r o n m e n t ' sits i l l w i t h an ecological world-view. T h e r e is no 'outside' in nature, where a l l beings i n h a b i t a n d co-determine each other, a n d where subtle force fields interpenetrate reality a n d c a n be registered in consciousness. S i m i l a r l y , p r o d u c i n g ecosystemic integrity connects f o r m t h r o u g h a l l dimensions, t e m p o r a l as w e l l as spatial. Past b e i n g is integral to present b e i n g r e g a r d e d ecologically - as against capital's fetish of the new. A n d there i s n o b e i n g i n t r i n s i c a l l y a l i e n t o ecological p r o d u c t i o n , except c a p i t a l itself, the creator of alienated labour, a n d strangers a n d false b o u n d ary lines. A considerable n u m b e r of interwoven patterns are involved here, some of w h i c h are p r e s u m e d to be m o r e p r o m i n e n t t h a n others in the concrete instance.

Ecological

Production

N a t u r e does not p r o d u c e anything. Rather, it evolves n e w forms that interact w i t h each other in ensembles we c a l l ecosystems, w h i c h b e c o m e the l o c i of further evolution. As it t u r n e d out on earth, this led to a creature w h o intro-

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Towards Ecosocialism T h e process of ecological p r o d u c t i o n is a l i g n e d w i t h the p r o d u c t , thus, the m a k i n g of a t h i n g becomes part of the t h i n g made. Since the e n d of p r o d u c t i o n is satisfaction a n d pleasure, as in a finely m a d e m e a l or garment, pleasure w o u l d o b t a i n for the c o o k i n g of the m e a l or the designing a n d m a k i n g of the garment. T h e s e processual pleasures are generally reserved for hobbies u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m ; in a society o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d ecological p r o d u c t i o n , they w o u l d compose the fabric of everyday life. F o r this to h a p p e n , l a b o u r has to be freely chosen a n d developed, in other words, w i t h a fully realized use-value as against its r e d u c t i o n to l a b o u r power. At first a n d for some time, this is a matter of shifting the coefficient u v / x v i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the n u m e r a t o r i n o r d e r t o b u i l d anti-capitalist intentions. Since use- a n d exchange-value are not i m m e d i a t e l y c o m p a r a b l e , this involves the dialectical 'negation of the negation': exchange is negated t h r o u g h a w i t h d r a w a l f r o m capitalist values; in this context, r e a l i z a t i o n of use-value ensues, further d e l e g i t i m i z i n g capital a n d f u r t h e r i n g the rupture. T h e ' F o o d N o t B o m b s ' projects i n cities such a s S a n F r a n c i s c o a n d N e w Y o r k have b e e n examples of this, a n d the fact that this seemingly i n n o c e n t activity has brought d o w n severe repression u p o n itself is a sign of just h o w subversive the n o t i o n i s .
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Prfiguration is defined t h r o u g h the active i n t e r p o s i t i o n of h u m a n agency into nature. Instead of l i v i n g passively a n d , i n d e e d , parasitically f r o m the negentropy stored in fossil fuels, h u m a n i t y n o w w i l l live m o r e directly a n d receptively e m b e d d e d i n nature, hence m o r e sensuously, too, w i t h a n o v e r c o m i n g o f the ancient d i v i s i o n o f l a b o u r between h e a d a n d h a n d a n d a n enhancement of craft. F r o m another angle, the fulfilling of a use-value/ecosystem is a c c o m p a n i e d , at the level of the subject, by a q u a n t u m of satisfaction, j o y a n d aesthetic r e a l i z a t i o n . A l l this i s s u m m e d u p i n the n o t i o n o f ' v i r t u e ' , h u m a n being. ' L i m i t s to g r o w t h ' are to be p r e d i c a t e d on a reorientation of h u m a n need m a d e possible by e n h a n c e d receptivity. C l e a r l y , h i g h l y developed p r o d u c t i o n need not be dependent on destabilizing inputs of energy. S i n g i n g songs is certainly productive, a n d creating t h e m even m o r e so. E v e n interpreting dreams is productive, because it introduces a configuration into the h u m a n ecosystem. So the ways in w h i c h time is passed b e c o m e i n t e g r a l l y related to the f o r m of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d w h a t is perceived as necessary. By r e g a r d i n g limits to g r o w t h in terms of altered needs, we still address the question of 'sustainability'. B u t we treat it n o n - t e c h n o c r a t i c a l l y a n d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the basic o r g a n i z a t i o n o f l a b o u r a n d the question of satisfaction, in other words, f r o m a qualitative standpoint. S u c h considerations a p p l y to the question of technology, once it is no longer seen as a ' t e c h n i c a l ' p r o b l e m , subjugated to considerations of profit a n d efficiency. T h e m a k i n g a n d using o f technology i n ecological p r o d u c t i o n is directed, rather, towards the m a k i n g of ecosystems a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n w i t h i n ecosystems. T h e e n h a n c e m e n t o f use-values a n d the c o r r e s p o n d i n g restructuring of needs becomes n o w the social regulator of technology rather t h a n , as u n d e r c a p i t a l , the conversion of time i n t o surplus value a n d money. We w o u l d expect considerable areas of technological o v e r l a p p i n g between capitalist a n d ecological p r o d u c t i o n . O n e w o u l d , for instance, use sophisticated m e d i c a l i m a g i n g in each case, a n d this one a p p l i c a t i o n implies the w h o l e edifice of i n f o r m a t i o n a l a n d electronic science. B u t it makes a w o r l d of difference w h e t h e r a technology is i n c o r p o r a t e d into m e d i c a l profiteering, or used to care for the o r g a n i s m i c aspect of a h u m a n ecosystem. C a p i t a l w o u l d have technology isolated f r o m the m a n i f o l d of social relations of w h i c h it is but an element. B u t ecological p r o d u c t i o n includes theory as w e l l , a n d has as its deepest c o n s i d e r a t i o n the fullest range of
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a n d it comprises the c o m i n g together of dialectical ensembles w i t h i n a free

M u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n is r e q u i r e d for the process as w e l l as the p r o d u c t , such b e i n g the c o n d i t i o n o f ecosystemic integrity. T h e most i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n of this is that it rules out h i e r a r c h i c a l a n d exploitative relations of labour, a n d fosters d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n at a l l levels of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d , mutatis mutandis, a l l of society P r o d u c t i o n stays w i t h i n the entropie relations of n a t u r a l e v o l u t i o n , in w h i c h the inputs of a m b i e n t solar r a d i a t i o n are able to subserve the creation of order. Because the 'closed' system w i t h i n w h i c h the S e c o n d L a w applies is the earth + s u r r o u n d i n g cosmos, nature provides a c e r t a i n space for creating lower entropy f r o m the b i n d i n g of solar energy - a space, however, that requires distinct limits if it is to be sustained. It is precisely the a i m of ecological p r o d u c t i o n to i n c o r p o r a t e limits i n t o f u n c t i o n i n g ecosystems, in stark contrast to c a p i t a l . T h e r e f o r e it goes w i t h o u t saying that ecological p r o d u c t i o n makes use of all modes of conservation a n d renewable energy. A n a d d i t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n o f l i v i n g w i t h i n the entropie law i s that direct h u m a n l a b o u r w o u l d replace, as far as possible, the c o n s u m p t i o n of the l o w entropy of past aeons sedimented into fossil fuels, the release of w h i c h m a r k e d l y increases entropy to destabilizing levels. B u t the 'as far as possible'

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Towards Ecosocialism interconnections. T h e r e f o r e to begin seeing a m a c h i n e or a technique as fully p a r t i c i p a n t in the life of ecosystems is to b e g i n r e m o v i n g it f r o m exchange a n d restoring a realized use-value. T h i s is what is called f a m i l i a r l y in e c o l o g i c a l discourse as ' a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y ' , a n d i n d e e d it is a technology e n a b l i n g us to appropriate nature in h u m a n ways. If we take the n o t i o n of h u m a n ecosystems seriously we are led fully to i n c o r p o r a t e consciousness into t h e m . Fullness here implies the development of the receptive m o d e of being. It entails a consciousness of nature as such, a c c o r d i n g to the p r i n c i p l e that the i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s of a h u m a n ecosystem i n c l u d e subjective r e c o g n i t i o n as an element - not alongside, but integrally related t o p h y s i c a l c o n n e c t i o n s .
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Prfiguration capacity for interrelatedness a n d m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n , most elementally, to restore nature as a source of w o n d e r a n d be o p e n to nature. T h e g r a n d e u r of the u n t r a m m e l l e d w o r l d is an essential aspect of this, but not its w h o l e . W i l d e r n e s s , recall, is a constructed category w i t h its o w n use-value, while actual nature, whether e x p e r i e n c e d i n the G r a n d C a n y o n o r i n the i n t a k i n g of a breath, is always directly 'at h a n d ' , even if scarcely realized. A m a n c a n visit the G r a n d C a n y o n a n d r e m a i n p r e o c c u p i e d b y his stock quotes; another sees a tree, as B l a k e put it, as o n l y a green t h i n g in the way. B u t trees still a b o u n d , a n d each is a w o n d e r , as is a b l a d e of grass, or a Paramecium.
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To be o p e n to nature means b e i n g receptive to ecosystemic

A n organic f a r m i s not

b e i n g w i t h o u t the fear of a n n i h i l a t i o n that is the legacy of the m a l e ego. T h e m a s c u l i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n of b e i n g interprets receptivity as the castrated ; c o n d i t i o n of the female. R e c e p t i v i t y is r e a d as passivity, w i t h the s y m b o l i c I threat of b e i n g swallowed up by the w o r l d - m o t h e r . G a i a is a M e d u s a or a H a r p y to the ego. T h e terror induces severe death anxiety w i t h associated m e n t a l repression, distancing, r e d u c t i o n o f nature a n d counter-aggression, a l o n g w i t h compulsive p r o d u c t i o n a n d c o n s u m p t i o n : i n this w a y h u m a n nature is restricted to t e a r i n g nature apart a n d aggressively r e b u i l d i n g it at ever greater distances. T h e ensemble enables separation a n d is the core attitude of the d o m i n a t i o n of nature as it surfaces into p r o d u c t i v i s m w i t h a fierce energy, an attitude w h i c h has so p e r m e a t e d the capitalist (and state capitalist) m e n t a l i t y as to be r e a d as an a x i o m . T h e larger a n d p r a c t i c a l virtue e m b e d d e d here i s a n e x p a n s i o n o f the i m m e m o r i a l role assigned to w o m e n , that of p r o v i d i n g a n d c a r i n g for life. T h e p r o f o u n d r a t i o n a l i t y inherent in this role is b o t h d o w n g r a d e d a n d split off in nature's gendered b i f u r c a t i o n . O v e r c o m i n g this gives to p r o d u c t i o n a specifically ecological f o r m . T h e functions of receiving, p r o v i s i o n i n g a n d h o l d i n g , once sequestered in a l o w e r social level, n o w p r e v a i l , a n d in so d o i n g , move to b e c o m e the regulating principles of p r o d u c t i o n . E c o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n , therefore, goes b e y o n d the virtues of f o r m a l distributive equality to w o m e n , or their access to previously male preserves such as strenuous athletics. It also negates the lowliness of what h a d been sequestered as 'woman's w o r k ' , a n d transforms this, while r e a l i z i n g use-values associated with it.
34

s i m p l y a c o l l e c t i o n of organisms; it is those organisms interrelated in a universe of m e a n i n g f u l r e c o g n i t i o n t h r o u g h the farmer. T h i s does not make the f a r m e r a l o r d over the f a r m , or the gardener mistress of the garden. It means that the f a r m , a n d the g a r d e n - a n d the w h o l e universe to w h i c h they connect - are i n t e g r a l to the h u m a n self w h o produces t h r o u g h t h e m . A relative of m i n e c o u l d catch hsh w i t h his bare hands. T h i s feat r e q u i r e d a contact w i t h the h s h that went b e y o n d the coarsely physical, a l o n g w i t h a k i n d o f m u t u a l recognition between h u m a n a n d a n i m a l . S u c h r e c o g n i t i o n c o u l d , if it were r e a l i z e d in p r o d u c t i o n , extend to the entire universe as a fully active a n d alive consciousness. T h e relative in question was male, a n d the function of r e c o g n i t i o n is as open to i n d i v i d u a l m e n as to w o m e n . Nevertheless, the systematic developm e n t o f a n e c o l o g i c a l consciousness across o u r c i v i l i z a t i o n depends o n o v e r c o m i n g the barriers between h u m a n i t y a n d nature, w h i c h , as we have seen, requires o v e r c o m i n g the d u a l i s m i m p o s e d by w o m a n = n a t u r e / m a n = reason; a n d for this, patriarchy itself needs be overcome. I am certain that at least 95 p e r cent of readers w o u l d identify R o s a L u x e m b u r g ' s account of seeing herself in the suffering buffalo as the w o r k of a w o m a n , w i t h o u t k n o w i n g the gender of its author in advance. M e n are s i m p l y not socialized to feel that way, while w o m e n are by a n d large socialized to l i m i t themselves to feeling this way. T h a t a w o m a n such as L u x e m b u r g w o u l d escape the constraints of intellectual suppression p l a c e d u p o n her gender is not an astounding finding, needless to say. B u t u n d e r the d o m i n a n t gender system such occurrences, no matter h o w frequent, r e m a i n i n d i v i d u a l exceptions to a d u a l i s m that must be overcome if we are to survive. T o b u i l d ecological p r o d u c t i o n , t h e n , means restoring the ecosystemic

If past b e i n g is integral to present b e i n g in ecological p r o d u c t i o n , so is future being. A n i m p o r t a n t p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e n o w emerges - one that applies to the p r o d u c t i o n of use-values for the sustenance of life, a n d also

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Prfiguration i n d i v i d u a l must decide h i m - or herself whether to r e t u r n a n d re-enter the c o m m u n i t y as an adult. F r o m what I have been told, about three-quarters decide to do so. 3. T h e phrase is f r o m his ' C r i t i q u e of the G o t h a P r o g r a m ' , M a r x 1978e: 531. T h e literature on this subject is vast. See C o r t 1988. For M a r x himself, see M i r a n d a 1974. 4. B r u d e r h o f are very strongly h o m o p h o b i c , for example, h a v i n g gone out of their way to try to close gay bars in their vicinity, a n d refusing to j o i n coalitions against the death penalty in w h i c h gay rights groups participate. W i t h i n the c o m m u n e , although w o m e n have a definite voice, there is also distinct inequality, for example, in dress code, where the m e n c a n wear what they please while the w o m e n must wear traditional calico. F u r t h e r m o r e , divorce is forbidden. M o r e o v e r , the m o r a l authority of the c o m m u n i t y devolves f r o m the paternal voice of the A r n o l d family. T h e r e are signs that the generation c o m i n g up m a y see things differently, a n d it w i l l be interesting to follow this development. B u t in general, it seems to be harder for r a d i c a l religions to give up patriarchal t h a n class d o m i n a t i o n . 5. C o u l d this be the h i d d e n m e a n i n g of the Fall? O n e should not be too hasty, for an archaic pre-economic life of pure utilization is not free of aggression or ambivalence, although it does lack expansive a n d cancerous implications. 6. ' T h e Sick Rose,' f r o m 'Songs of Experience,' in Blake 1977: 123. 7. T h e values are grassroots democracy, social justice, ecological w i s d o m , n o n violence, decentralization, community-based economics a n d economic justice, feminism, respect for diversity, personal a n d global responsibility, a n d future-focus a n d sustainability. T h e closest relative to socialism, e c o n o m i c justice, goes no further than the call for protecting workers' rights a n d a m i x t u r e of e c o n o m i c forms, i n c l u d i n g 'independently o w n e d companies' - in short, it stays w i t h i n the perspective criticized in the previous chapter. 8. W e l l into the last century, A m e r i c a n socialists used the t e r m 'cooperative c o m m o n w e a l t h ' . No doubt that's a good way of p u t t i n g socialism, but then, does one call what we have in m i n d an 'eco-cooperative c o m m o n w e a l t h ? ' W h a t e v e r the short-term tactical gains of such circumlocutions, it is clear that they gain n o t h i n g overall. If the w o r d socialism is in that m u c h disfavour, then the fact h a d better be confronted a n d not evaded. 9. M a r x 1978c: 491. 10. For M a r x , see D r a p e r 1977, et seq.; for a magisterial account of the failings of the Soviet bloc, see Mszros 1996; for a general survey of the whole socialist tradition in this light, see B r o n n e r 1990. 11. 12. 13. 14. Figes 1997. H i n t o n 1967; M e i s n e r 1996. I tried to put some of this in writing. See K o v e l 1988. Rosset a n d B e n j a m i n 1994.

219

t o the p r o d u c t i o n o f ways b e y o n d c a p i t a l . T h e p o t e n t i a l for the g i v e n t o c o n t a i n the l i n e a m e n t s of w h a t is to be m a y be c a l l e d prfiguration. It is i n t r i n s i c to e c o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n , r e n d e r i n g the provisioning of e c o f e m i n i s m as the previsioning of a U t o p i a n m o m e n t . T h e prefigurative praxes that are t o o v e r c o m e c a p i t a l i n a n ecosocialist w a y are a t once v e r y r e m o t e a n d exactly a t h a n d . T h e y are r e m o t e insofar a s the entire r e g i m e o f c a p i t a l stands i n the w a y o f t h e i r r e a l i z a t i o n , a n d they are at h a n d insofar as a m o m e n t t o w a r d the future exists e m b e d d e d i n every p o i n t o f the s o c i a l o r g a n i s m w h e r e a n e e d arises. M a n y instances are b o u n d to w i t h e r - it is, after a l l , v e r y difficult to i m a g i n e a n y ecosocialist i n s p i r a t i o n a r i s i n g f r o m a t r i p to W a l - M a r t b e y o n d rage at the g i v e n o r d e r ; others w i l l p r o p a g a t e , b u t not v e r y far, like h a u l i n g recyclable j u n k m a i l t o the d u m p ; still others w i l l p r o p a g a t e , p e r h a p s even to a t r a n s f o r m a t i v e extent, b u t take a w r o n g t u r n , like that of fascism; finally, there w i l l arise those w h o m o v e i n a n ecosocialist way. I t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g that i n the r e a l w o r l d there c a n b e n o neat c a t e g o r i z a t i o n c a p a b l e o f c o v e r i n g a l l possibilities. If e v e r y t h i n g has a prefigurative p o t e n t i a l , t h e n prfiguration w i l l b e scattered over the entire, d i s o r d e r l y surface o f the w o r l d . T h i s fact generates a n o t h e r p r i n c i p l e o f ecosocialist p o l i t i c s : i t is, besides b e i n g p r e f i g u r a t i v e a n d b u i l d i n g u p o n the t r a n s f o r m a t i v e p o t e n t i a l s o f f o u n d m c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of events, also interstitial, in that its a g e n c y c a n be f o u n d a l m o s t anywhere. T h i s is a blessing, because it signifies that there is no p r i v i l e g e d agent of ecosocialist t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , b u t it also imposes a great responsibility. F o r as they n o w exist, instances o f e c o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n are b o t h scattered a n d m a i n l y e n t r a p p e d like i r r i t a n t s i n the pores o f c a p i t a l . T h e task i s t o free t h e m a n d c o n n e c t t h e m , s o that t h e i r i n h e r e n t p o t e n t i a l m a y b e r e a l i z e d . W e c a n n o t rest i n this u n t i l e c o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n has b e c o m e a n e c o l o g i c a l mode o f p r o d u c t i o n . W h e n this h a p p e n s , for w h i c h a n extensive struggle must be a n t i c i p a t e d , the p o w e r to regulate society w i l l be in ecosocialist hands.

Notes 1. Z a b l o c k i 1971. A great deal of i n f o r m a t i o n is also available t h r o u g h P l o u g h publications. 2. A l l youths are required to live away for two years following graduation f r o m h i g h school, either at college or in supervised settings d o i n g g o o d works. F o l l o w i n g this, the

15. Of course, what they got after socialism's b r e a k d o w n was a special version of capitalism, overseen by the I M F a n d the US Treasury, where the r a p i d sell-off of state assets was used to finance a c c u m u l a t i o n in its most ruthless a n d u n c o n t r o l l e d f o r m . Russia's domestic output has fallen by about h a l f since the collapse of the U S S R , a n d while this has l i m i t e d the effects of p o l l u t i o n , there has been virtually no effort to improve the dismal record of the Soviet years w i t h respect to the environment. In m a n y parts of the economy, even exchange-value has b r o k e n d o w n , a n d payments in barter - or no payments at all - have been the case. In M a y 2000, Russian President V l a d i m i r

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P u t i n , in his effort to reinstate the i r o n h a n d while pleasing transnational c a p i t a l , dissolved Russia's State C o m m i t t e e on E c o l o g y as well as the Forest Service, w h e r e u p o n the W o r l d B a n k approved another b i l l i o n dollars in loans. T h u s 'the worst of b o t h worlds' c o u l d be the title of the latest chapter in the sufferings of Russia. 16. G a r e 1996b: 266, 211-28. At its height early in the revolution, ProletkuVt h a d 400,000 members, published 20 j o u r n a l s , a n d drew in great numbers of artists a n d intellectuals. M a t e r i a l on B o g d a n o v c a n be found in M a r t i n e z - A l i e r 1987 as well as G a r e . M a r t i n e z - A l i e r also writes extensively about Sergey Podolinsky, a nineteenthcentury engineer w h o pioneered the integration of t h e r m o d y n a m i c a n d M a r x i s t theory, a n d can be seen as the progenitor of ecological economics. Gare's treatment of the Soviets is very extensive: see pp. 2 3 3 - 8 0 , passim. A shorter a n d m o r e accessible version of the argument m a y be found in G a r e 1996a. S i m i l a r considerations pertained to C o m m u n i s t C h i n a . A l t h o u g h the manifest ideology was highly productivist in accordance w i t h first-epoch socialist values a n d in contrast to the ecocentric philosophy of t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n a , still, ' u n t i l recently it has h a d a far better r e c o r d t h a n traditional C h i n a i n relation t o environmental problems. T h e C o m m u n i s t s , a t least w h e n M a o Z e D o n g r u l e d , d i d m u c h to reforest the country, to conserve resources a n d to improve the environment in other ways' (Gare 1996b: 36). In support of this, G a r e cites O r l e a n s a n d Suttmeier 1970 a n d G e p i n g a n d L e e 1984. 17. L e n i n 1967. N o t h i n g if not complex, L e n i n veered away f r o m this in his later p h i l o s o p h i c a l writings, notably his reading of Hegel's Logic ( L e n i n 1976). It is safe to say, however, that it was the cruder a n d more mechanistic side of Lenin's ambivalence that sedimented into Soviet practice. 18. Classically depicted in Goncharov's novel Oblomov, about a m a n w h o c o u l d not get out of bed. L e n i n w o u l d frequently inveigh to his followers against the dangers of s u c c u m b i n g to ' o b l o m o v i s m ' . 19. ' M a n , w h o w i l l l e a r n h o w to move rivers a n d mountains, h o w to b u i l d people's palaces on the peaks of M o n t B l a n c a n d at the b o t t o m of the A t l a n t i c , w i l l not only be able to a d d to his o w n life richness, brilliance a n d intensity, but also a d y n a m i c quality of the highest degree. T h e shell of life w i l l h a r d l y have time to f o r m before it w i l l be burst open again u n d e r the pressure of new technical a n d c u l t u r a l inventions a n d achievements ... E m a n c i p a t e d m a n w i l l want to attain a greater e q u i l i b r i u m in the work of his organs a n d a more p r o p o r t i o n a l developing a n d w e a r i n g out of his tissues, in order to reduce the fear of death ... [he will] raise himself to a new plane, to create a higher social biologic type, or if y o u please, a s u p e r m a n ' (Trotsky i 9 6 0 : 253). 20. G a r e 1996b: 267-9. 21. M c N a l l y 1993: 2 0 6 - 8 . Italics added. 22. T h e great B r i t i s h socialist thought in terms of a p r o d u c t i o n that i n c o r p o r a t e d craft a n d the aesthetic d i m e n s i o n , thereby envisioning an e m a n c i p a t i o n of use-value. See especially the U t o p i a n novel News From Nowhere ( M o r r i s 1993). 23. B r o n n e r 1981: 75. Italics in original. 24. T h e list of plaintiffs in the case ranges f r o m members of the socialist a n d M a r x i s t traditions, such as T e d B e n t o n a n d R a i n e r G r u n d m a n n (who is for the P r o m e t h e a n attitude), to anarchist/social ecologists such as J o h n C l a r k , to ecocentric philosophers such as R o b y n Eckersley. See B e n t o n 1996 for a survey f r o m the M a r x i s t side; also C l a r k 1984; Eckersley 1992. T h e r e is an associated question, of M a r x ' s relation to Engels, a n d of Engels himself on these matters. T h i s is an i m p o r t a n t issue, w h i c h cannot,

Prfiguration
however, be taken up here. T h e cover of the paperback edition of Bertell O i l m a n ' s Alienation ( O i l m a n 1971) shows an illustration f r o m 1842, w h e n M a r x was all of 24, directly depicting h i m as Prometheus. M a r x ' s later physical afflictions, such as his boils, reinforced the association. See W h e e n 2000. 25. See Burkett 1999; Foster 2000. For my assessment of Foster's book, see K o v e l 2001. 26. Parsons 1977 provides a g o o d anthology of relevant passages. For an earlier c o n t r i b u t i o n of m i n e on this theme, see K o v e l 1995. 27. F r o m a youthful letter to A r n o l d Ruge. M a r x 1978a. 28. M a r x ' s most i m p o r t a n t statement about use-value appears in the little-read Theories of Surplus Value, ( M a r x 1971: 296-7), where we l e a r n that the terms of value 'originally express n o t h i n g but the use-value of things for people, those qualities w h i c h make t h e m useful or agreeable etc. to people. It is in the nature of things that "value", "valeur", " W e r t " c a n have no other etymological o r i g i n . Use-value expresses the natural relationship between things a n d m e n , in fact the existence of things for m e n . Exchangevalue, as the result of the social development w h i c h created it, was later superimposed on the w o r d value, w h i c h was synonymous w i t h use-value. It [exchange=value] is the social existence of things. [There follows an etymological passage, viz: 'Sanskrit - W e r means cover, protect, consequently respect h o n o u r a n d love, c h e r i s h . . . ' etc, a n d then:] T h e value of a t h i n g is, in fact, its o w n virtus [virtue], while its exchange-value is quite independent of its material properties.' Italics in original. I am indebted to W a l t Sheasby for p o i n t i n g out this passage, w h i c h clearly reveals that for M a r x use-value is e m b e d d e d in natural ecologies, but at the same time, that he sees no need to differentiate use-value f r o m any n o t i o n of intrinsic value in nature. T h a t is, a t e r m b e l o n g i n g to e c o n o m i c discourse suffices to embrace the entirety of what nature means to humans. 29. E n r i q u e L e f f has made an i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n to this concept in his Green Production (Leff 1995). However, the subjective elements developed here are not i n corporated in his a p p r o a c h , n o r does he set the goal of o v e r c o m i n g capital. 30. T h e linkage between use- a n d exchange-values needs to be kept in m i n d , as m a n y cases of enhanced use-value exist whose outcome need not be inherently ecological. T h u s fine a n d enhanced use-values occur regularly w i t h i n a regime of exchange, as in the p r o d u c t i o n of l u x u r y goods, while at the other end, we find collapsing states of p r o d u c t i o n , in w h i c h b o t h forms of value deteriorate. A current example is the former U S S R , where d e m o r a l i z e d w o r k m a n s h i p abounds, creating 'accidents w a i t i n g to h a p p e n ' (viz., the submarine Kursk) while at the same time exchange-functions have also broken d o w n for great blocks of the p o p u l a t i o n , m a n y of w h o m have h a d to resort to barter a n d other circuitous means in order to survive, rather t h a n , as w o u l d obtain for a functioning ecological society, to develop beyond exchange. 31. See N o t e 28.

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32. T w o recent works that do this theme justice are K i d n e r 2000; Fisher 2001. 33. E v e n a garden slug, though here I must confess a certain b a r r i e r of recognition. 34. Mellor 1997.

Ecosocialism change. Instead, G r e e n s t e n d to i m a g i n e an o r d e r l y extension of c o m munity, a c c o m p a n i e d by the use of instruments that have b e e n specifically created to keep the present system going, such as p a r l i a m e n t a r y elections

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a n d various tax policies. S u c h measures m a k e transformative sense, h o w ever, o n l y if seen as prfigurations of s o m e t h i n g m o r e r a d i c a l s o m e t h i n g by definition not i m m e d i a t e l y on the h o r i z o n . It w i l l be o u r j o b here to b e g i n the process of d r a w i n g in this not-yet-seen. T h e o n l y certainty is that the result w i l l at most be a r o u g h a n d schematic m o d e l of what actually m i g h t emerge. H o w e v e r u n c e r t a i n the e n d p o i n t , the first two steps on the p a t h are clearly l a i d out, a n d are w i t h i n the reach of every conscientious person. T h e s e are that people ruthlessly criticize the capitalist system ' f r o m top to b o t t o m ' , a n d that they i n c l u d e in this a consistent attack on the w i d e s p r e a d belief that there c a n be no alternative to it. If one believes that capital is not o n l y basically unjust but r a d i c a l l y unsustainable as w e l l , the p r i m e o b l i g a t i o n is to spread the news, just as one s h o u l d feel o b l i g e d to tell the inhabitants of a structurally u n s o u n d house d o o m e d to collapse of what awaits t h e m unless they take drastic measures. To continue the analogy, for the critique to matter it needs to be c o m b i n e d w i t h an attack on the false idea that we are, so to speak, t r a p p e d in this house, w i t h no hope of fixing it or getting out. T h e belief that there c a n be no alternative to c a p i t a l is u b i q u i t o u s - a n d no wonder, given h o w w o n d e r f u l l y convenient the idea is to the r u l i n g ideology.
2

If we imagine that decrees are all that is needed to get away from competition, we shall never get away from it. A n d if we go so far as to propose to abolish competition while retaining wages, we shall be proposing nonsense by royal decree. But nations do not proceed by royal decree. Before framing such ordinances, they must at least have changed from top to bottom the conditions of their industrial and political existence, and consequently their whole manner of being. ( M a r x , The Poverty of Philosophy )
1

R e v o l u t i o n s b e c o m e feasible w h e n a people decides that their present social arrangements are intolerable, w h e n they believe that they c a n achieve a better alternative, a n d w h e n the balance of forces between t h e m a n d that of the system is t i p p e d in their favour. N o n e of these c o n d i t i o n s is close to b e i n g met at present for the ecosocialist r e v o l u t i o n , w h i c h w o u l d seem to make the exercise u p o n w h i c h we are about to e m b a r k a c a d e m i c . B u t the present is one t h i n g , a n d the future another. If the a r g u m e n t that c a p i t a l is i n c o r r i g i b l y ecodestructive a n d expansive proves to be true, then it is o n l y a question of time before the issues raised here achieve explosive urgency. A n d c o n s i d e r i n g what is at stake a n d h o w r a p i d l y events c a n change u n d e r such circumstances, it is most definitely h i g h time to take up the question of ecosocialism as a l i v i n g process - to consider what its v i s i o n of society m a y be a n d what k i n d of p a t h there m a y be towards its achievement. T h e present chapter is the most p r a c t i c a l a n d yet also the most speculative of this w o r k . B e a t e n d o w n by the great defeats of U t o p i a n a n d socialist ideals, few today even b o t h e r to t h i n k about the kinds of society that c o u l d replace the present w i t h one of ecological rationality, a n d most of that speculation is w i t h i n a green p a r a d i g m l i m i t e d by an insufficient a p p r e c i a t i o n of the regime of c a p i t a l a n d of the depths n e e d e d for real

T h a t , however, does not keep it f r o m b e i n g nonsense, a n d a

failure o f v i s i o n a n d p o l i t i c a l w i l l . W h e t h e r o r not the v i s i o n o f ecosocialism offered here has m e r i t , the n o t i o n that there is no other w a y of o r g a n i z i n g an a d v a n c e d society other t h a n c a p i t a l does not follow. N o t h i n g lasts for ever, a n d what i s h u m a n l y m a d e c a n theoretically b e u n m a d e . O f course it c o u l d be the case that the j o b of c h a n g i n g it is too h a r d a n d c a p i t a l is as far as h u m a n i t y c a n go, in w h i c h instance we must s i m p l y accept o u r fate stoically a n d try to palliate the results. B u t we don't k n o w this a n d cannot k n o w this. T h e r e is no p r o v i n g it one w a y or the other, a n d o n l y i n e r t i a , fear of change or o p p o r t u n i s m c a n e x p l a i n the belief in so shabby an idea as that there c a n be no alternative to c a p i t a l for o r g a n i z i n g society. L o g i c alone neither persuades n o r gives hope; s o m e t h i n g m o r e solid a n d m a t e r i a l is r e q u i r e d , a c o m b i n a t i o n of the d a w n i n g insight of just h o w incapable c a p i t a l is of resolving the crisis, a l o n g w i t h some spark that breaks

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Towards Ecosocialism t h r o u g h the crust of inert despair a n d c y n i c i s m by means of w h i c h we have a d a p t e d to the system. At some p o i n t - it has to h a p p e n if capital is the efficient cause - the realization w i l l d a w n that a l l the s o u n d ideas for, say, regulating the c h e m i c a l industries, or preserving forest ecosystems, or d o i n g s o m e t h i n g serious about species-extinctions, or g l o b a l w a r m i n g , or whatever p o i n t of ecosystemic disintegration is of c o n c e r n , are not g o i n g to be realized by a p p e a l i n g to l o c a l changes in themselves, or the D e m o c r a t i c Party, or the E n v i r o n m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n Agency, or the courts, or the foundations, or ecophilosophies, or changes in consciousness - for the o v e r r i d i n g reason that we are l i v i n g u n d e r a regime that controls the state a n d the economy, a n d w i l l have to be overcome at its root if we are to save the future. Relentless c r i t i c i s m c a n delegitimate the system a n d release people into struggle. A n d as struggle develops, victories that are no m o r e t h a n i n c r e m e n t a l by their o w n terms - stopping a m e e t i n g of the I M F , the hopes stirred forth by a c a m p a i g n such as R a l p h N a d e r ' s in 2000 - c a n have a s y m b o l i c effect far greater t h a n their external result, a n d constitute points of r u p t u r e w i t h c a p i t a l . T h i s r u p t u r e is not a set of facts a d d e d to o u r knowledge of the w o r l d , but a change in o u r relation to the w o r l d . Its effects are d y n a m i c , not i n c r e m e n t a l , a n d like a l l genuine insights it changes the balance of forces a n d c a n propagate very swifdy. T h u s the release f r o m i n e r t i a c a n trigger a r a p i d cascade of changes, so that it c o u l d be said that the forces pressing towards r a d i c a l change need not be l i n e a r a n d increm e n t a l , but c a n be e x p o n e n t i a l in character. In this way, conscientious a n d r a d i c a l c r i t i c i s m o f the given, even i n advance o f h a v i n g blueprints for a n alternative, c a n be a m a t e r i a l force, because it c a n seize the m i n d of the masses of people. T h e r e is no greater responsibility for intellectuals. I n w h a t follows, there w i l l b e neither b l u e p r i n t s n o r o m n i s c i e n c e , a l t h o u g h I w i l l be l a y i n g out c e r t a i n hypothetical situations as a w a y of f r a m i n g ideas. T h e overall task c a n be stated simply enough: if an ecological m o d e of p r o d u c t i o n is the goal, what sort of p r a c t i c a l steps c a n be defined to get us there? W h a t m i g h t an ecosocialist society l o o k like? H o w are the g r a n d but abstract terms of basic change to be expressed as functions of l i v e d life? A n d h o w c a n the p a t h towards an ecosocialism that is not s h a r p l y defined i n c o r p o r a t e the goal towards w h i c h it moves?

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Ecological Ensembles and the Modelling of Ecosocialist Development If ecological politics is to be prefigurative a n d interstitial, then it must begin w i t h what is at h a n d , a n d a c c o r d i n g to its p o t e n t i a l for r e a l i z i n g integral ecosystems. L e t us c a l l any such u n i t an ecological ensemble. It consists of a h u m a n ecosystem v i e w e d f r o m the standpoint of its p o t e n t i a l for ecological p r o d u c t i o n . W h a t we look for is the g r o w t h a n d i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n of ecological ensembles, f r o m islands w i t h i n the capitalist sea, to a k i n d of archipelago that further coheres, finally, i n t o a continent of ecosocialism. T h e n o t i o n of ecological ensembles is deliberately cast widely, thus any of the f o l l o w i n g w o u l d qualify: an o r g a n i c f a r m an affinity g r o u p engaging in direct action against the W o r l d B a n k a s m a l l c o m m u n i t y credit u n i o n a p e r f o r m e d c u l t u r a l w o r k , engaging an audience an i n t e n t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y a political party a classroom, or a c h i l d w i t h i n it the D u Pont c o r p o r a t i o n a n e i g h b o u r h o o d in M a n h a t t a n - or M a n h a t t a n itself, or N e w Y o r k State, o r the U S A . At its e n d , this list seems to b e c o m e a reductio ad absurdum. It is preposterous, m a n y w o u l d say, t o t h i n k o f D u Pont, o r the U S A , i n the same breath a s a n o r g a n i c f a r m i n terms o f their p o t e n t i a l for ecosocialism. A n d what does a c h i l d have in c o m m o n w i t h any of these? O n e m i g h t as w e l l put the W o r l d B a n k on the list a l o n g w i t h the affinity g r o u p stopping traffic in an effort to b r i n g the B a n k to heel. W e l l , yes, one m i g h t as w e l l , since the W o r l d B a n k , too, is an ecosystem, insofar as the h u m a n w o r l d is that sub-set of nature whose ecosystemic b e i n g is given t h r o u g h p r o d u c t i o n , a n d since all p r o d u c t i o n contains some m o m e n t pressing t o w a r d universality. In this respect a c h i l d , m o r e p a r t i c u larly a c h i l d in relation to its h u m a n a n d sensuous w o r l d , is certainly an ecosystem, as is any o r g a n i z e d p o r t i o n of the h u m a n w o r l d . It follows that / even the bleakest capitalist enterprise has some ecosocialist p o t e n t i a l . H o w - ' ever, the j u d g e m e n t of bleakness a p p l i e d to such an enterprise means, in

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Towards Ecosocialism effect, that its development has left the p a t h of ecosystemic wholeness for the alternative a n d cancerous f o r m of capitalist a c c u m u l a t i o n . As this is the case for D u P o n t a n d the W o r l d B a n k , we m a y say that they are ecological ensembles w i t h a very l o w i n t e r n a l ecosocialist potential, confined, say, to a pledge taken by the f o r m e r to cut its greenhouse gas emissions, or in the case of the B a n k , by the conscientious impulses of some staff m e m b e r s , a l l o f w h i c h are h e m m e d i n a n d t a m e d b y the p o w e r f u l force f i e l d o f capital that they exist to serve, a n d therefore b e c o m e m a i n l y used for g r e e n w a s h i n g a n d p u b l i c relations. N o r w i l l this p o t e n t i a l develop spontaneously; i t w i l l develop o n l y after very strenuous a n d p r o t r a c t e d a c t i o n taken against these institutions. A c t i o n of the sort is p r o v i d e d by the affinity group, by reason of w h i c h we w o u l d say that this k i n d of ecological ensemble has a h i g h ecosocialist potential; indeed, that it is not just active, but activating - although it must be a d d e d that this p o t e n t i a l exists at present as a loosely configured set of points scattered relatively harmlessly over the p o l i t i c a l landscape, i T h e general m o d e l of ecosocialist development is to foster the activating potentials of ensembles in o r d e r to catalyse the emergence of others so as to d r a w together those points into ever m o r e d y n a m i c bodies. T h e praxis by w h i c h this takes place is dialectical, that is, it comprises the active b r i n g i n g a n d h o l d i n g together of negations, as w h e n the affinity g r o u p confronts the W o r l d B a n k , o r w h e n a p e r s o n confronts a p a i n f u l t r u t h . N e g a t i o n i n p o l i t i c a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n defines what it means to struggle, a n d it has m u l t i p l e aspects: the g r o u p offers itself as a c o u n t e r - i n s t i t u t i o n , m o r e i n t e r n a l l y d e m o c r a t i c a n d w i t h e n h a n c e d ecocentric potentials; it offers direct critique of the B a n k a n d seeks to educate others in the same, thereby b r i n g i n g a p a i n f u l t r u t h to bear; a n d finally, it seeks to shut d o w n the B a n k , at least for a while, by b l o c k i n g access to its meeting. T h e development of a h u m a n ecosystem depends greatly on the degree of r e c o g n i t i o n it appropriates, in this case the degree of u n d e r s t a n d i n g the affinity g r o u p holds of the B a n k (and the police, politicians, m e d i a , a n d so o n , w h o support the bank); a n d also of the fidelity, i n t e r n a l coherence, a n d so forth, of the g r o u p - in short, its capacity to stay together in dialectical activity throughout the p e r i o d of c o n f r o n t a t i o n . A n d the longer a n d m o r e sustained the c o n f r o n t a t i o n , the m o r e developed the dialectic, the m o r e m o b i l i z e d the h o l d i n g together (this b e i n g the insertion p o i n t of ecofeminist values into ecosocialist practice),

Ecosocialism such as the credit u n i o n , where the coefficient of use-value over exchangevalue, uv/xv, c a n be e x p a n d e d . C o m m u n i t y enterprises of this sort objectively t e n d to keep capital l o c a l a n d away f r o m b e i n g l e a c h e d into the great p o o l of ecodestruction; at the same time, they subjectively t e n d to detach people f r o m capital's force field a n d i n d u c e ever-widening degrees of ecological p r o d u c t i o n . T w o b r o a d types o f f u n c t i o n differentiate themselves
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f r o m this m a t r i x , a n d , r e m a i n i n g differentiated, c o n t i n u a l l y stay in contact: those h a v i n g to do w i t h the p r o d u c t i o n , proper, of ecological use-values, as, for example, in the g r o w i n g of food a c c o r d i n g to organic p r i n c i p l e s ; a n d those h a v i n g to do w i t h the activation, or t r a n s f o r m i n g of l a b o u r itself, the m a k e r of a l l use-values as it engages nature. It m a y be said of activating groups such as the affinity g r o u p that their p r o d u c t i o n becomes one of ecosocialist possibilities. T h i s is seen prefiguratively in their theoretical p r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h starts f r o m the present level a n d achieves a fuller a n d m o r e r a d i c a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g f r o m the struggle itself. Needless to say, this distinction must not be regarded too rigidly, for in fact the process described is equally possible w i t h i n groups, a n d indeed, w i t h i n individuals. As struggle develops, activation is spead across the whole social field, a n d g r a d u a l l y comes to define a n e w set of o r i e n t i n g principles that w i l l coalesce into a 'party-like' f o r m a t i o n . In this w a y there arises, interwoven in c o m b i n a t i o n s presently impossible to p r e d i c t , g r o w i n g islands of relatively ecological p r o d u c t i o n , a l o n g w i t h the emergence, a l o n g other dimensions, of a g u i d i n g p o l i t i c a l spirit e m b o d i e d in nascent organizations, whose w o r k enables the b r i n g i n g of p r o d u c t i v e ensembles together a n d strengthening their resolve. A l l of this is p r e s u m e d to be played out against the b a c k d r o p of a gathering r e a l i z a t i o n that capital is the efficient cause of the ecological crisis. T h e next step to be i m a g i n e d in this development is the emergence of m o r e f o r m a l organizations, t a k i n g the shape of m i c r o - c o m m u n i t i e s serving the c o m b i n e d functions of resistance to c a p i t a l , production of an e c o l o g i c a l / socialist alternative to it, a n d m u t u a l i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n of their semi-auton o m o u s sites t h r o u g h the vision of a c o m m o n goal. To weave one possibility, the affinity g r o u p at some p o i n t 'settles i n ' , c o n s t r u c t i n g its ties n o w a l o n g m o r e f o r m a l l y productive lines a n d d r a w i n g their lives m o r e closely together a r o u n d this. We c a n t h i n k of these a l o n g the lines of the B r u d e r h o f discussed in the previous chapter, w i t h an anti-capitalist i n t e n t i o n f o r m e d out o f the c o m b i n e d w i t h d r a w a l o f value f r o m exchange a n d its replacement w i t h t r a n s f o r m e d use-value p r o d u c t i o n . A s w e saw w i t h that religious

and the more integral the ecosystem so produced. The model can be applied to ensembles engaged in economic activity,

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Towards Ecosocialism c o m m u n e , a powerful spiritual m o v e m e n t is necessary to neutralize capital's force field a n d provide the protective u m b r e l l a to p e r m i t ecosystemic deve l o p m e n t . It is a k i n to the greenhouse that allows y o u n g plants to g r o w d u r i n g the winter, a l l o w i n g c e r t a i n r a d i a t i o n i n , a n d h o l d i n g it in so that the y o u n g shoots m a y be protected f r o m the c o l d . T h e r e is no reason w h y this c a n n o t be C h r i s t i a n , a l t h o u g h it w o u l d have to be a post-patriarchal C h r i s t i a n i t y in o r d e r to realize the goals of ecological p r o d u c t i o n . By the same reasoning, there is no n e e d that it be C h r i s t i a n at a l l , or religious, either, so l o n g as it is post-patriarchal a n d post-capitalist, a n d spiritually attuned to the logic of ecological p r o d u c t i o n . Spiritualities arise p r i o r to their religious c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e y are f o r m e d f r o m the striving o f h u m a n b e i n g b e y o n d the given, a n d there is a m p l e resource w i t h i n those forms of b e i n g that negate the d o m i n a t i o n of nature to give content to an emergent ecological spirituality - i n c l u d i n g , it s h o u l d be e m p h a t i c a l l y a d d e d , f r o m w i t h i n the socialist t r a d i t i o n itself, w h i c h h a d a glorious spirituality w h e n it h a d genuine claims o n the U t o p i a n i m a g i n a t i o n . N o r need this spirituality
4

Ecosocialism organize a c c o r d i n g l y - a n d in all such cases the possibility exists for unified ecosocialist practice to emerge collectively as this happens. B u t there are also types of activity yet closer to the i d e a l , where b o t h aspects of the u v / xv coefficient c a n change directly in relation to each other for example, e d u c a t i o n . A s current e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y i n the U S grinds d o w n the l i v i n g c h i l d i n t o an interchangeable part for the great capitalist m a c h i n e , the possibility of resistance i m m e d i a t e l y arises for teachers of conscience. By o r g a n i z i n g against the system a n d c r i t i c i z i n g its e d u c a t i o n a l policy, one necessarily protests the regime of exchange i n a s m u c h as e d u c a t i o n u n d e r c a p i t a l i s m moves t o w a r d s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n , quantification a n d the treatment of c h i l d r e n as passive containers to be shaped i n t o docile workers a n d consumers. B u t it also requires r e s h a p i n g one's practice as an educator, t o w a r d a m o d e l that, whatever its p a r t i c u l a r shape, regards the c h i l d as an active, self-determining b e i n g w h o lives t h r o u g h m u t u a l r e c o g n i t i o n . In this w a y the teaching process becomes the p r o d u c t i o n of ecosystemic use-values even as its p o l i t i c a l a r m attacks the rule of exchange-value. N o t e , too, that this c a n o c c u r i n advance o f a n explicit assault o n c a p i t a l , b e i n g located rather at the p o i n t of capital's p e n e t r a t i o n into life-worlds.
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be p r o c l a i m e d as such. In a time saturated w i t h N e w A g e huckstering, that spirituality is best w h i c h does not a n n o u n c e itself, a n d truest to the extent that ego is transcended in a greater cause.
5

A h i g h l y salient e x a m p l e applies to the alternative m e d i a c o m m u n i t y , situated at the A r c h i m e d e a n p o i n t of capitalist l e g i t i m a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l . H e r e prfigurations of the n e w society in the f o r m of the ' I n d y m e d i a ' centres have recently arisen, as collectives of r a d i c a l m e d i a activists in the cities visited by a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n protests. Initially set up to d o c u m e n t the protests in ways d e n i e d by corporate m e d i a , the independent centres tended to stay on after the waves of street protests receded. T h e i r w a y h a v i n g been p r e p a r e d by a generation of m e d i a activists, the centres manifest a flexible a n d o p e n structure, a d e m o c r a t i c r e n d e r i n g of the use-values of n e w technologies such as the Internet, a n d a c o n t i n u a l involvement in w i d e r struggle. T h e y g r o w a n d gather into n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l collectives, f o r m i n g nodes on a g r o w i n g web u n i h e d by an increasingly anti-capitalist v i s i o n . T h e same force that binds together the m o v e m e n t for d e m o c r a t i c m e d i a also keeps it ecosystemic, that is d e m o c r a t i c a l l y c o m m u n i t a r i a n , a n d to that degree u n w i l l i n g to c o m p r o m i s e w i t h the powers that be. In this w a y the spontaneously d e v e l o p i n g collective evolves i n t o a community of resistance, one defined by praxis rather t h a n place, a n d , in contrast to the p l a n of t r a d i t i o n a l G r e e n theory, c o s m o p o l i t a n to the core.' It is essential to not get c a r r i e d away by these successes. M e d i a workers

S u c h a development w i l l u n d o u b t e d l y be h i g h l y uneven. C e r t a i n areas - for example, organic agriculture or p e r m a c u l t u r e - are favoured in terms of b e i n g able to p r o d u c e ecologically realized use-values; thus for t h e m , the n u m e r a t o r of the coefficient u v / x v c a n be increased relatively i n d e p e n dently, r a i s i n g the potential to break loose of c a p i t a l . O t h e r areas - for example, the emergent a n t i - g l o b a l i z a t i o n movements - are relatively m o r e able to d i m i n i s h the d e n o m i n a t o r , exchange-value, t h r o u g h p o l i t i c a l practice, thus a c h i e v i n g the same general effect. Clearly, however, the processes in either case c a n go o n l y so far before b e c o m i n g snared by the force h e l d - the o r g a n i c f a r m e r by the b r u t a l i n t r u s i o n of m a r k e t forces, w h i c h impose debt, c o m p e t i t i o n a n d the need to exploit labour; the affinity group member, w h o is most t y p i c a l l y a student, by the need to m a k e a l i v i n g , w i t h all its attendant compromises, as w e l l as by the p o w e r f u l forces of state repression, Practices that i n the same m o t i o n enhance use-values a n d d i m i n i s h exchange-values are the i d e a l in terms of ecosocialist p o t e n t i a l . Needless to say, the student r a d i c a l c a n t h e n go on to law school a n d study to b e c o m e a defender of the people a n d earth; just so, the organic f a r m e r c a n find h i m / h e r s e l f ' n a t u r a l l y ' p o s i t i o n e d to adopt G r e e n p o l i t i c a l values a n d to

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Towards Ecosocialism o c c u p y one e n d of the s p e c t r u m of l a b o u r favourably configured for the s p i n n i n g off o f ecosocialist possibilities. H o w e v e r , the e m a n c i p a t i o n o f l a b o u r requires that the entire i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r be overcome, a n d this is a p r o b l e m the difficulty of w h i c h c a n scarcely be overestimated. C a p i t a l ' s d o m i n a t i o n o f l a b o u r i s p r e d i c a t e d o n separating workers f r o m the means of p r o d u c t i o n , a n d also f r o m each other. T h i s is the f o u n d a t i o n of its t r i u m p h , a n d has become sedimented into the l a b o u r m o v e m e n t itself, w h i c h , b e i n g dependent u p o n j o b s w i t h i n existing capitalist workplaces, often shares w i t h c a p i t a l a resistance to e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n , or is d i v i d e d n a t i o n a l l y o r regionally, N o r t h a n d S o u t h h a v i n g m a n y separate agendas. B u t the p r o b l e m is equivalently that of existing e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m , w i t h its single-issue focus on p r o t e c t i n g n a t u r a l habitats w i t h o u t c o n c e r n for labour. T h e entire impasse cries out for the synthesis of an ecological p r o d u c t i o n i n w h i c h there i s n o c o n t r a d i c t i o n between l a b o u r a n d nature, a n d creative w o r k for a l l . B u t that is the goal, a n d a l o n g w a y off; o u r j o b in the here a n d n o w is to develop prefigurative ensembles for it. T h e best candidates w o u l d b e a u t o n o m o u s zones o f p r o d u c t i o n w i t h i n w h i c h ecocentric potentials c a n be developed. At present, these appear drastically U t o p i a n a n d out of reach for most industries. For auto workers, say, to b u i l d p r o d u c t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s , as r a d i c a l m e d i a workers are d o i n g , is a fantasy u n d e r present conditions. N o t o n l y does it e n c o u n t e r the c r i p p l i n g blows suffered by the l a b o u r movements over generations, it must also face the g l o b a l i z e d productive system in w h i c h m o t o r vehicles today are v i r t u a l l y m a d e everywhere, w i t h l a b o u r so d i v i d e d that n o b o d y outside the i n n e r circles of the c o r p o r a t i o n c a n even track its p a t h . In s u m , the current potential of o r g a n i z e d l a b o u r to r e c l a i m its use value is low, a n d the i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n of l a b o u r m a y be the most b a c k w a r d p o i n t of prfiguration. Yet even here, significant openings exist to b r i n g a l o n g ecosystemic development. T h r e e c a n be n o t e d , two of t h e m tendencies, the t h i r d a necessary possibility. First, we m i g h t r e m i n d ourselves again of the B r u d e r h o f , w h o survive rather w e l l in a heavily i n d u s t r i a l i z e d m a r k e t thanks to their c o m m u n i s t i c m o d e of social o r g a n i z a t i o n , w h i c h blunts the effects of capital's force field. S u c h a m o d e l c a n be d u p l i c a t e d w i d e l y t h r o u g h a l i m i t e d p o r t i o n of the i n d u s t r i a l system. N o , it w i l l not presently i n c l u d e the m a k i n g of automobiles, passenger planes, missiles, t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n networks, a n d so o n . B u t this leaves a considerable a m o u n t of i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n o p e n to

Ecosocialism the incursions of d e v e l o p i n g ecological ensembles, so l o n g as these are protected f r o m the force field t h r o u g h a heightened anti-capitalist intentionality. T h a t is what has been m i s s i n g by a n d large f r o m the m u c h - t o u t e d green business m o v e m e n t , w h i c h a c c o r d i n g l y has s u c c u m b e d time a n d again to the nefarious effects of the market. T h e r e is n o t h i n g w r o n g w i t h 'green enterprise', therefore, so l o n g as it does not sink into 'green c a p i t a l i s m ' , w i t h its a c c o m p a n i m e n t of e x p l o i t i n g labour, c o m p e t i t i o n for market share, a n d so forth. T h i s tells us little about the great mass of proletarians whose l a b o u r holds up the capitalist w o r l d . However, even here there have been significant stirrings, as the class struggle has b e c o m e i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z e d in the face of g l o b a l i z a t i o n , a n d even b e g u n to take on an ecological consciousness. In the first six m o n t h s of 2000, huge strikes, some of general p r o p o r t i o n s , broke out across the globe: N i g e r i a , S o u t h A f r i c a , S o u t h K o r e a , I n d i a , U r u g u a y a n d A r g e n t i n a , to cite o n l y the most massive. W h a t makes this significant in terms of o u r a r g u m e n t is that the strikes represent points of r e b e l l i o n against globalized c a p i t a l , m a i n l y as a d m i n i s t e r e d by the I M F , t h o u g h c a r r i e d out by n a t i o n a l bourgeoisies. T h i s introduces a universal8

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i z i n g m o m e n t into l a b o u r politics, d r a w i n g the eyes of l a b o u r to w i d e r h o r i z o n s - w i t h i n each n a t i o n (in I n d i a , for example, the strikers, 20 m i l l i o n strong, i n c l u d e d farmers a n d factory workers), between nations, a n d , critically, t o w a r d a n ecological i n c l u s i o n o f nature. W h e n the i n s t r u m e n t o f c a p i t a l is less the i n d i v i d u a l firm a t t e m p t i n g to m a x i m i z e value-extraction a n d cut costs t h a n the b o u n d a r y - d i s s o l v i n g instruments of g l o b a l i z a t i o n , then grounds for a genuinely g l o b a l i z e d resistance are also in place. F o r the I M F , W o r l d B a n k a n d W T O put their pressure o n whole nations, a n d a n a t i o n in this context comprises t e r r i t o r y a l o n g w i t h the society u p o n it. It is globalization's destiny to break boundaries, but this means also that g l o b a l capital's regime c a n n o t legitmate itself as d i d the classical nation-state, leaving the r e a l m of nature o p e n for recovery by o p p o s i t i o n a l forces. W h e n the forests as well as the hospitals a n d trade u n i o n s are subjected to capital's onslaught, resistance begins to encompass nature as w e l l as labour. In fact, labour's most cherished values are already i m m a n e n t l y ecocentric. W h e n w o r k i n g people sing ' S o l i d a r i t y forever', they express humanity's deepest wishes for wholeness. T h e n o t i o n of a ' u n i o n ' itself prefigures solidarity, as a process of c o m i n g together, a j o i n i n g of w o r k i n g people into a larger entity. S o l i d a r i t y is as m u c h a subjective experience as it is an objective

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Towards Ecosocialism connection. Subjectively, solidarity corresponds to a p a r t i a l dissolving of the harsh separateness i m p o s e d by egoic being, replacing it by j o i n i n g into a collectivity, a p p r o p r i a t i n g a previously suppressed power, a n d a c h i e v i n g historical agency. If, u n d e r capital, all that is solid melts into air, w i t h the selfo r g a n i z a t i o n of labour, what been alienated achieves effective solidity, that is, ecosystemic integrity. T h e m u t u a l receptivity it engages is one of the most intense a n d e n n o b l i n g experiences that h u m a n beings c a n undergo. W h e t h e r this c a n be extended depends on a t h i r d development not yet on the h o r i z o n , but necessary if ecosocialism is to move f o r w a r d . We have spoken of the activating potentials aroused in ecological ensembles. At first, these are scattered a n d , given the present intellectual climate, remote f r o m an anti-capitalist o r i e n t a t i o n , m u c h less the further development into a d e m a n d for socialism. As these develop into c o m m u n i t i e s of resistance, their activating potentials c a n come together into the g e r m of a consciously 'Ecosocialist Party', an o r g a n i z a t i o n that takes it u p o n itself, f r o m c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y a n d transnationally as w e l l , consciously to organize the struggle.

Ecosocialism b e y o n d c a p i t a l , one begins, then, w i t h the betrayed p r o m i s e of f r e e d o m a n d builds f r o m there. It follows that the means of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n have to be as free as the ends. T h a t is w h y v a n g u a r d i s m , where the p a r t y is separate f r o m as w e l l as a h e a d of the people, is a non-starter in today's climate. O n l y a freely e v o l v i n g praxis of p a r t i c i p a t i o n c a n m o b i l i z e the i m a g i n a t i o n a n d b r i n g together the i n n u m e r a b l e points at w h i c h anti-capitalist struggle originates. A n d o n l y a 'party-like' f o r m a t i o n that postulates a goal c o m m o n to all struggles w i t h o u t c o n s t r a i n i n g t h e m f r o m above c a n organize this into 'solidarity solidified' a n d press t o w a r d power. T h u s the p a r t y is f o r m e d f r o m its o w n dialectic; it is a ' h o l d i n g together' b o t h objectively a n d subjectively - the f o r m e r b e i n g the p r o v i s i o n of m a t e r i a l conditions, the latter b e i n g the attunement to intersubjective a n d r e l a t i o n a l nuance, all subsumed into the p r a c t i c a l n o t i o n that dialectic is a matter of artfulness a n d subtlety. T h o u g h o p e n to i n d i v i d u a l s , the ecosocialist p a r t y s h o u l d be g r o u n d e d i n c o m m u n i t i e s o f resistance. D e l e g a t i o n f r o m such c o m m u n i t i e s w i l l supply the cadre of p a r t y activists as such, a n d the assembly that is its strategic a n d deliberative body. T h e p a r t y is to be i n t e r n a l l y f u n d e d t h r o u g h c o n tributions by m e m b e r s , structured in such a way that no alienating force c a n take financial c o n t r o l . T h e delegates a n d such administrative bodies as m a y arise w i t h i n this structure are to rotate on a regular basis a n d to be subject to recall. Further, the deliberations of the assembly, i n d e e d all the activities of the p a r t y except certain tactical questions (for example, the details of a direct action), are to be o p e n a n d transparent. L e t the w o r l d see clearly what the party stands for - if this is w o r t h w h i l e , it w i l l o n l y d r a w in m o r e participants; if not, one needs to find out sooner rather t h a n later. T h e various green parties that have arisen across the w o r l d (as of this w r i t i n g , in some 80 countries) are an i m p o r t a n t movement in this direction. E x p e r i e n c e has shown, however, that by defining themselves as a progressive p o p u l i s m w i t h i n the framework of bourgeois democracy, greens are solidifyi n g as a k i n d of intermediate f o r m a t i o n that stops considerably short of what is needed for t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
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The Ecosocialist Party and its V i c t o r y T w o models of p a r t y - b u i l d i n g d o m i n a t e d the last century: the p a r l i a m e n t a r y parties of the bourgeois democracies a n d the ' v a n g u a r d ' L e n i n i s t p a r t y of the B o l s h e v i k t r a d i t i o n . N e i t h e r m o d e l c a n suit the ecosocialist project, w h i c h c a n n o t b e voted into power, a n d dies i m m e d i a t e l y i f i n t e r n a l d e m o cracy is not m a d e i n t e g r a l to its g r o w t h , as p r o v e d the case w i t h L e n i n i s m . L e n i n i s t parties succeeded in i n s t a l l i n g first-epoch socialism chiefly because they were configured to the largely pre-capitalist societies in w h i c h the revolutions succeeded. T h o s e capitalisms v a n q u i s h e d by first-epoch sociali s m were either i m p e r i a l offshoots o f m e t r o p o l i t a n c a p i t a l , o r b a c k w a r d regimes grafted on to a largely precapitalist society. T h e y encompassed neither the i n t e r n a l penetration n o r the external g l o b a l r e a c h of capital's present order, b o t h of w h i c h r a d i c a l l y change the r e v o l u t i o n a r y project. M o d e r n capitalism legitimates itself by i n v o k i n g 'democratic values'. T h i s is spurious, as we have seen, but, however unfulfilled, it is a real promise that rests u p o n a definite f o u n d a t i o n . By f r a g m e n t i n g life-worlds a n d t r a d i t i o n a l hierarchies, c a p i t a l sets h u m a n i t y loose into an unfree freedom of f o r m a l liberty a n d stunted development. T h e uneasy balance is kept g o i n g i n capitalist institutions, w h i c h b i n d i t for purposes o f a c c u m u l a t i o n . T o g o

G r e e n activists continue to make valuable

contributions, but their parties lack a prefigurative vision surpassing the given society. As a result, green parties t e n d to lapse into n a r r o w r e f o r m i s m a n d anarchic bickering. A n d w h e n they have achieved some state power, as in E u r o p e , greens have proven loyal to capital, g i v i n g it a shield of ecological responsibility. O n e sign of the limits of green politics as c u r r e n t l y practised has been

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Towards Ecosocialism a severe i n a b i l i t y to reach out to c o m m u n i t i e s of n o n - E u r o p e a n o r i g i n . F r e q u e n t l y chastised for their lily-white m a k e - u p , greens regularly inveigh against the p r o b l e m a n d resolve to do better. Yet little changes. T h e reason cuts to the core of the green d i l e m m a : the p a r o c h i a l values i n t r i n s i c to their l o c a l i s m . Unless the n o t i o n of c o m m u n i t y is a d v a n c e d in a universali z i n g way, it loses transformative p o w e r a n d , despite g o o d intentions, drifts towards ethnocentricity. T h e r e f o r e the greens' i n e r t i a on questions such as i m m i g r a t i o n a n d p r i s o n r e f o r m , a n d their general i n a b i l i t y t o appeal w i t h m o r e t h a n token gestures to blacks a n d L a t i n o s , are no oversight. T h e s e are manifestations of an i n a b i l i t y to see b e y o n d c a p i t a l itself that a l l too often renders green politics, to choose an unfashionable but v i v i d t e r m , petty-bourgeois. W i t h anti-capitalism the p o i n t of reference, one sees the whole of society, as well as its concrete workings. T h e ecological crisis a n d i m p e r i a l expansion n o w appear as distinct a n d deeply c o n n e c t e d manifestations of the same d y n a m i c - invasive, cancerous g r o w t h t e a r i n g up nature a n d humanity. Today's b u z z w o r d , ' g l o b a l i z a t i o n ' , i s i m p e r i a l i s m ' s c u r r e n t l y p r i m e m a n i festation. B u t the history of e m p i r e is a narrative of the creation of peoples a n d the races themselves, i n c l u d i n g the subalterns w h o i n h a b i t the S o u t h . F r o m this perspective, a politics against a n d b e y o n d c a p i t a l needs to be as f i r m l y rooted i n o v e r c o m i n g r a c i s m a s i n ecological m e n d i n g . T h e two themes intersect directly in the ' e n v i r o n m e n t a l justice' movement, g r o u n d e d in the defence against capitalist p e n e t r a t i o n a n d p o l l u t i o n by c o m m u n i t i e s o f colour, a n d often led b y w o m e n .
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Ecosocialism A n o t h e r variant, m o r e defined a n d less embattled, is the t o w n of Gaviotas in the C o l o m b i a n highlands. H e r e , b e g i n n i n g in 1971, one of the harshest e n v i r o n m e n t s o n e a r t h has b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d b y creative l a b o u r u s i n g ecologically r a t i o n a l technology. O n what was once a b l i g h t e d a n d a r i d p l a i n , the soil toxic w i t h n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g a l u m i n i u m , today stands a reforestation project larger t h a n a l l the rest of C o l o m b i a ' s projects c o m b i n e d , some 6 m i l l i o n trees, a source of resin a n d m u s i c a l instruments. T h e s e a n d other c o m m o d i t i e s are p r o d u c e d outside capitalist circuits, a n d w i t h o u t a capitalist state - in other words, w i t h e n h a n c e d use-values a n d r e d u c e d exchange-value - an i s l a n d of non-capitalist a n d ecological p r o d u c t i o n that c o u l d b e c o m e part o f a n archipelago o f anti-capitalist a n d ecological p r o d u c t i o n .
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If, that is, o p p o s i t i o n a l forces became strong enough, a n d took the shape, b r o a d l y conceived, of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l people's ecosocialist party or effective c o a l i t i o n of similarly constructed bodies. T h e n one day there c o u l d be a furtherance of the pressure on instruments of g l o b a l capital that began w i t h the great agitations of 1999-2000. J a m e s O ' C o n n o r has recently i m a g i n e d s o m e t h i n g of this sort: if you think about it, poverty can be abolished in a few months, assuming the political w i l l and the economic and ecological resources. First step, make poverty abolition the basic goal of international politics. Second step, allocate some billions of dollars of W o r l d Bank, I M F , regional development bank, and other monies to the task at hand. T h i r d step, employ these monies, not for h u m a n capital or any other k i n d of capital, but to use local biomass for building homes, schools, and the rest; paying (well) public health and medical technicians, teachers of the 'pedagogy of the oppressed' variety, psychologists of the Fanon-type, planners of the K e r a l a '
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E c o s o c i a l i s m w i l l b e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r i t w i l l b e nothing. A n d w h e n its history is w r i t t e n , a starting p o i n t w i l l be n o t e d as i J a n u a r y 1994 - the day that N A F T A went into effect a n d the E Z L N (Zapatista A r m y for N a t i o n a l L i b e r a t i o n ) l a u n c h e d a r e v o l u t i o n of the oppressed in C h i a p a s , M e x i c o . T h e Zapatistas provide perhaps the first m o d e l of a revolutionary m o v e m e n t on a b i o r e g i o n a l scale. Despite constant harassment by an a r m y vastly superior in firepower, the Zapatistas retain a k i n d of ecosystemic integrity. T h e y f o r m a society w i t h i n a state a n d w i t h o u t a state, p r o d u c t i v e l y u n i t e d i n resistance. W h a t M a r x said o f the Paris C o m m u n e , that i t lived the idea of the 'dictatorship of the proletariat', c o u l d be said, therefore, of the Z a p a t i s t a p a t h , w i t h the w i d e r lesson that there c a n be no single w a y v a l i d for all peoples, but rather a m u l t i p l i c i t y of ways defined by concrete societies, j o i n e d in c o m m o n opposition to global capital."

or Gaviota variety,

and organizers of the type presently engaged in the anti-globalist movement (including N G O people of course) ... T h e n , choose investment projects, not in terms of [Environmental Impact Reports] that seek to m i n i m i z e damage to local or regional ecologies but rather to maximize ecological values, c o m m u n i t y values, cultural values, public health values, and so on: a simple reversal of existing capitalist values and investment criteria. N o t 'safe food' but 'nourishing food.' N o t 'adequate housing' but 'excellent housing.' N o t 'mass transport' but 'public transit of different types that are a pleasure to utilize.' Obviously, not 'chemical-laced' agriculture but 'pesticide-

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Towards Ecosocialism free agronomy.' N o t 'food monopolies' but 'farm-to-market global distribution.' T h e tragedy is that so m a n y people know 'what is to be done,' based on tens of thousands of local and regional experiments and practices, from the allocation of water to the production and allocation of steel (in the U.S. d u r i n g W W I I , for example), yet we can do little to make a w o r l d in w h i c h use value subordinates exchange value (and concrete labor subordinates abstract labor) given the present-day monopoly of power by capital, capital markets, the capitalist state, and capitalist international agencies. Just suppose the I M F , W B , et al., were reduced to the status of the I H O , I L O , and other branches of the 'international peoples' state,' while the latter's power was expanded to the level of the present-day WB and I M F . T h a t w o u l d be something, wouldn't it? T h e problem of course is not a technical one, a practical problem, but a political problem, the problem of capitalist power, in and outside the markets, and no movement can challenge capitalist power with success without adopting its own political aims and socio-economic alternatives.
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Ecosocialism T h e r e is no p o i n t in p r e d i c t i n g a scenario a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h this w i l l e x p a n d , b e y o n d the c o n d i t i o n that it o c c u r in the context of capital's i n c a p a b i l i t y of regulating the ecological crisis. At some time w i t h i n this span, the c o m m u n i t i e s arising f r o m the process m a y be i m a g i n e d to g r o w to a p o i n t of relative a u t o n o m y such that they c a n b e g i n p r o v i d i n g m a t e r i a l support for activists, w i t h bases of o p e r a t i o n a n d - in the case of those considerable n u m b e r o f c o m m u n i t i e s p r o d u c i n g food, w o o l , h e m p , solar technology, a n d so on - the actual means of subsistence for people engaged in r e v o l u t i o n a r y struggle. It must also be p r e s u m e d - a large but feasible order that these people w i l l have developed the spiritual a n d psychological strength e n a b l i n g t h e m to go f o r w a r d . F o r there s h o u l d be no mistake: the struggle for ecosocialism is no t e c h n i c a l or v o l u n t a r i s t i c process, but a r a d i c a l t r a n s f o r m i n g of self as w e l l as w o r l d to l i n k up in e v e r - w i d e n i n g a n d d e e p e n i n g solidarity. H e r e is where post-patriarchal values w i l l c o m e f o r w a r d , r a d i c a l i z i n g h u m a n b e i n g itself for the struggle. N o w the m o v e m e n t o f events i s self-sustaining, r a p i d a n d d r a m a t i c . C o m m u n i t i e s of place a n d of praxis increasingly coalesce to f o r m m i n i a t u r e societies, a n d these enter into relations w i t h others b o t h inside a n d outside the n a t i o n a l boundary. C a p i t a l m a y be expected to respond w i t h heightened efforts at repression. A heroic phase begins, w i t h m u c h sacrifice. T h e awesome m i g h t of the c a p i t a l system n o w encounters a set of factors it has never dealt w i t h before: T h e forces against it are b o t h n u m e r o u s a n d dispersed. T h e y operate w i t h c h a n g e d needs, a n d on the basis of a k i n d of p r o d u c t i o n capable o f sustaining itself w i t h small inputs a n d l a b o u r intensive technologies; a n d they have secure bases a n d 'safe houses' in the i n t e n t i o n a l c o m m u n i t i e s of resistance, n o w e x t e n d i n g across n a t i o n a l boundaries. T h e i r m a n y allies in the interstices of the m a i n s t r e a m society are capable o f f o r m i n g support groups a n d ' u n d e r g r o u n d railroads'. As w i t h a l l successful forms of r e v o l u t i o n a r y protest, the o p p o s i t i o n a l forces are capable o f shutting d o w n n o r m a l p r o d u c t i o n t h r o u g h strikes, boycotts, a n d mass actions. T h e forces of c a p i t a l have lost confidence, a n d are further u n d e r m i n e d by support for the r e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n the alternative parties a n d their various niches in the state. T h i s extends to armies a n d police. W h e n the

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Yes, it w o u l d be something. A n d because a m o v e m e n t of the sort w i l l be ecosocialist a n d not populist, it w i l l be infused w i t h a spirit that agitates for these changes yet regards t h e m prefiguratively a n d does n o t settle for t h e m . T h i s is the reason we postulate a goal far off the present m a p : because it offers the hope, v i s i o n a n d energy to t r a n s f o r m the present. If such events as O ' C o n n o r envisions were to c o m e to pass, they w o u l d not yet be ecosocialism, but they w o u l d f o r m a k i n d of self-generative a n d n o n - l i n e a r dialectic that c a n r a p i d l y accelerate the m o t i o n t o w a r d ecos o c i a l i s m . A f t e r a l l , it is the 'tens of thousands of l o c a l a n d r e g i o n a l experiments a n d practices' w h o w o u l d have h a d t o j o i n w i t h c o m m u n i t i e s of activation to m a k e this possible, a n d whose p o w e r w o u l d be a c c o r d i n g l y m a g n i f i e d b y it. A n d b e i n g m a g n i f i e d , the Zapatistas, a n d the Gaviotistas, a n d the I n d y m e d i a centres that connect t h e m , a n d the p o l i t i c i z e d collectives of farmers f r o m a r o u n d the w o r l d , a n d the teacher's associations, a n d the ecologically r a d i c a l i z e d fractions of the l a b o u r m o v e m e n t , a n d the little B r u d e r h o f - l i k c m a n u f a c t u r i n g collectives m a k i n g ecologically sane products w i t h the a i d o f l o c a l credit unions, a n d all the ten t h o u s a n d l o c a l l y o r i g i n a t i n g but u n i v e r s a l l y s t r i v i n g c o m m u n i t y f o r m a t i o n s a l l w o u l d c o m e together in solidarity to m a k e such an event, a n d , in its aftermath, to press for further t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .

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Towards Ecosocialism first of these lays d o w n their a r m s a n d j o i n s the r e v o l u t i o n , the t u r n i n g p o i n t is reached. T h e b e h a v i o u r of the revolutionaries is s p i r i t u a l l y superior, a n d the examples they set are given c r e d i b i l i t y a n d persuasiveness by the brute facts of the crisis a n d the g a t h e r i n g r e a l i z a t i o n that what is at stake here is not so m u c h the r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of w e a l t h as the sustenance of life itself. T h u s i t c o u l d b e that i n a n increasingly hectic p e r i o d , m i l l i o n s o f people take to the streets, a n d j o i n together in g l o b a l solidarity - w i t h each other, w i t h the c o m m u n i t i e s o f resistance, a n d w i t h their c o m r a d e s i n other nations - b r i n g i n g n o r m a l social activity to a halt, p e t i t i o n i n g the state a n d refusing to take ' n o ' for an answer, a n d d r i v i n g c a p i t a l i n t o ever smaller pens. W i t h defections m o u n t i n g a n d the i r r e d u c i b l e fact a l l a r o u n d that the people d e m a n d a n e w b e g i n n i n g in o r d e r to save the p l a n e t a r y ecology, the state apparatus passes into new hands, the expropriators are e x p r o p r i a t e d , a n d the 500-year regime of c a p i t a l falls.

Ecosocialism usufructuary relationship is where one uses, enjoys - a n d t h r o u g h that, improves - another's property, as, for instance, c o m m u n i t y groups w o u l d use, enjoy a n d i m p r o v e an a b a n d o n e d city lot by collectively b u i l d i n g a g a r d e n there. Because we are h u m a n to the degree that we creatively engage nature, the self is defined t h r o u g h its extensions into the m a t e r i a l w o r l d . We b e c o m e w h o we are by appropriating nature, t r a n s f o r m i n g a n d i n c o r p o r a t i n g it, a n d it is w i t h i n this frame that the n o t i o n of p r o p e r t y logically arises. T h e r e f o r e a person w i t h no possessions whatsoever is no i n d i v i d u a l at a l l , as s/he has no p a r t i c u l a r g r o u n d i n g in nature. It follows that in an ecologically realized society everyone w i l l have rights of o w n e r s h i p - a place of one's o w n , decorated a c c o r d i n g to taste, personal possessions, such as books, c l o t h i n g , objects of beauty, likewise - a n d , of special significance, rights of use a n d ownership over those means of p r o d u c t i o n necessary to express the creativity of h u m a n nature. T h i s latter most definitely includes the b o d y - whence the reproductive rights of w o m e n are logically secured, a l o n g w i t h the rights of free sexual expression. T h e n o t i o n o f p r o p e r t y becomes self-contradictory because each i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n emerges in a tissue of social relations, a n d , in D o n n e ' s words, is never an i s l a n d . E a c h self is therefore a part of a l l other selves, a n d p r o p e r t y is i n e x o r a b l y tied into a dialectic w i t h others. T h i s m a y be i m a g i n e d as a set of nested circles. At the centre is the self, a n d here o w n e r s h i p exists in relatively absolute terms, b e g i n n i n g w i t h the body, i n t r i n s i c a l l y the p r o p e r t y of each person. As the circles extend, issues of sharing arise f r o m early c h i l d h o o d o n , each potentially resolvable a c c o r d i n g to the p r i n c i p l e that the full self is e n h a n c e d m o r e by g i v i n g t h a n by taking. F o r a realized b e i n g is generous. T h e m o r e lightly m a t e r i a l possessions w e i g h u p o n the self, the m o r e fully c a n one give, a n d the r i c h e r one becomes. It is the w o r k of socialism to m a k e this potentiality actual. T h e d o m a i n of use-value w i l l be the site of contestation. To restore usevalue means to take things concretely a n d sensuously, as befits an authentic relation of o w n e r s h i p - but by the same gesture, l i g h t l y since things are enjoyed for themselves a n d not as buttresses for a shaky ego. U n d e r c a p i t a l , as M a r x famously saw, what is p r o d u c e d is fetishized by the s h r o u d of exchange-value - m a d e remote a n d m a g i c a l . In the fetishized w o r l d , n o t h i n g is ever really o w n e d , since everything c a n be exchanged, taken away a n d abstracted. T h i s stimulates the thirst for possessions that rages u n d e r

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A U s u f r u c t u a r y of the Earth F r o m the standpoint of a higher economic form of society, private ownership of the globe by single individuals w i l l appear quite as absurd as private ownership of one m a n by another. E v e n a whole society, a nation, or even all simultaneously existing societies taken together, are not the owners of the globe. T h e y are only its possessors, its usufructuaries, and, like boni patres familias, they must h a n d it down to succeeding generations in an improved c o n d i t i o n .
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T h u s wrote K a r l M a r x , i n the t h i r d v o l u m e o f Capital. T h e n o t i o n o f usufruct is an ancient one, w i t h roots g o i n g back to the C o d e of H a m m u r a b i , a l t h o u g h the w o r d itself arises in R o m a n law, where it a p p l i e d to ambiguities between masters a n d slaves w i t h respect to property. It appears a g a i n in Islamic law, a n d in the legal arrangements of the A z t e c s a n d the N a p o l e o n i c C o d e - i n d e e d , wherever the n o t i o n of p r o p e r l y reveals its inherent contradictions. Interestingly, the L a t i n w o r d condenses the two meanings of use - as in use-value, a n d enjoyment as in the gratification expressed in freely associated labour. As c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d today, a

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Towards Ecosocialism capitalist rule. T h e unappeasable c r a v i n g for things - a n d m o n e y to get things - is the necessary u n d e r p i n n i n g of a c c u m u l a t i o n a n d the subjective d y n a m i c of the ecological crisis. T h e circuits of capitalist society are defined by having - a n d e x c l u d i n g others f r o m h a v i n g - u n t i l we arrive at a society of gated c o m m u n i t i e s i n h a b i t e d by l o n e l y egos, each split f r o m a l l a n d the a t o m i z e d selves split f r o m n a t u r e .
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Ecosocialism T h e extension proceeds, as M a r x realizes, to the planetary level, a n d devolves d o w n w a r d f r o m there to govern the p a r t i c u l a r laws of ecosocialist society. T a k e n all in all, the earth we i n h a b i t s h o u l d be regarded not as o u r collective p r o p e r t y but as a w o n d r o u s m a t r i x f r o m w h i c h we emerge a n d to w h i c h we r e t u r n . Perhaps it w i l l be easier to dislodge the r u l i n g class f r o m their cancerous o w n e r s h i p if we r e m i n d ourselves that this is not done to transfer ownership to 'the people' or some surrogate. Indeed, ownership of the planet is a pathetic i l l u s i o n . It is p l a i n hubris to think that the earth, or nature, c a n be o w n e d - a n d stupid to boot, as t h o u g h one c a n o w n that w h i c h gives us being, a n d whose b e c o m i n g we express. T h e n o t i o n of standing over a n d against the earth in order to o w n it is central to the d o m i n a t i o n of nature. A usufructuary is all we c a n c l a i m w i t h regard to the earth. B u t this demands that o u r species proves its w o r t h by using, enjoying a n d i m p r o v i n g the globe that is o u r h o m e . F r o m that r e i g n i n g p r i n c i p l e c a n be derived those i n d i v i d u a l regulations that are to subserve the m e t a b o l i s m between h u m a n i t y a n d nature called ecosocialism. N o class o w n e r s h i p o f the means o f p r o d u c t i o n stands at one pole, absolute o w n e r s h i p of one's self as the other for the self is the earth e m e r g i n g into consciousness at this one p o i n t of i n d i v i d u a l i t y ; while the institutions of ecosocialist society exist to set g o i n g the ways o f using, enjoying a n d i m p r o v i n g o u r c o m m o n f i r m a m e n t . T h e society that emerges f r o m the s t o r m of the r e v o l u t i o n w i l l at first be o n l y m a r g i n a l l y capable of fulfilling this project. Its highest p r i o r i t y is to set things g o i n g in a truly ecosocialist d i r e c t i o n a n d its first goal is to secure the 'free association of producers'. E a c h t e r m here needs to be respected. T h e association is free because in it people self-determine; hence society must m a k e means of p r o d u c t i o n accessible to a l l . It is a free association because life is collective; therefore the relevant p o l i t i c a l u n i t is a collectivity d r a w n together by m u t u a l p r o d u c t i v e activity. A n d it is of producers, w h i c h is to be taken in the h u m a n - n a t u r a l sense a n d not economistically. T h i s means that the w h o l e m a k i n g of the h u m a n w o r l d is to be taken into account rather t h a n just that w h i c h contributes or controls exchange-value. Since a core goal of ecosocialism is the d i m i n u t i o n of exchange-value's d o m a i n , it valorizes forms of p r o d u c t i v e activity to the degree that these foster ecosystemic integrity, whether this be the r a i s i n g of beautiful c h i l d r e n , the g r o w i n g of o r g a n i c gardens, the p l a y i n g of excellent string quartets, the c l e a n i n g of streets, the m a k i n g of c o m p o s t i n g toilets, or the i n v e n t i o n of n e w technologies for t u r n i n g solar energy into fuel cells.

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T h e y c a n o n l y be resolved in a society

that p e r m i t s this h u n g e r to wither, a n d this requires the release of l a b o u r f r o m the bondage i m p o s e d by exchange value. Ecosocialist society w i l l be defined by being, achieved by g i v i n g oneself to others a n d restoring a receptive r e l a t i o n to nature. Ecosystemic integrity is to be restored across a l l the nested circles of h u m a n p a r t i c i p a t i o n - the family, the c o m m u n i t y , the n a t i o n , the i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y , or, w i t h a leap across the h u m a n i t y / n a t u r e m e m b r a n e , the planet, a n d , b e y o n d it, the universe. F o r c a p i t a l , p r o p e r t y rights of the i n d i v i d u a l ego are sacrosanct, a n d b e c o m e solidified into class structures, whence they succeed in dispossessing masses of people f r o m their inherent o w n e r s h i p of the means to p r o d u c e creatively. T h i s is o n l y the legal aspect of a regime of fetishized relations. W i t h i n ecosocialism, the b o u n d s of the i n d i v i d u a l ego are surpassed as use-value overcomes exchange-value a n d opens a w a y for the r e a l i z a t i o n of intrinsic value. In the n e w society, the right of an i n d i v i d u a l freely to appropriate the means of self-expression is p a r a m o u n t . Society is structured to give this p r i m a c y by differentiating o w n e r s h i p between i n d i v i d u a l a n d collectivity. A l t h o u g h each p e r s o n - a n d each f a m i l y as the extension of p e r s o n h o o d into r e p r o d u c t i o n - has an inalienable right to g o o d housing, the o w n e r s h i p as such of the h o u s i n g a n d the l a n d u p o n w h i c h it stands is collective, a n d g r a n t e d by the collectivity. In this way, there arise distinct limits on the a m o u n t of p r o p e r t y i n d i v i d u a l s c a n c o n t r o l , b o t h f r o m the standpoint of domestic usage as w e l l as that of the c o n t r o l over p r o d u c t i v e resources. No p e r s o n is to be a l l o w e d to arrogate such resources, therefore, as w o u l d p e r m i t the a l i e n a t i o n of means of p r o d u c t i o n f r o m another. T h e r e w i l l be no such a r r a n g e m e n t as n o w obtains, where w e l l over a b i l l i o n absolutely landless people, a l o n g w i t h several b i l l i o n m o r e w h o must sell themselves on the m a r k e t because they are effectively w i t h o u t c o n t r o l over m o r e t h a n the slenderest threads of property, confront a tiny fraction w h o o w n v i r t u a l l y all the w e a l t h - p r o d u c i n g w o r l d . E x t e n d i n g further out a l o n g the nested circles, we find that those things essential for social p r o d u c t i o n are to be shared by all a n d not o w n e d by the few.

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Towards Ecosocialism To secure the association, we need ways of p r e v e n t i n g the emergence of a l i e n a t i n g agencies. Private o w n e r s h i p of means of p r o d u c t i o n has been s h o w n to be the c h i e f of these u n d e r c a p i t a l , but the Soviets showed that the state c a n just as w e l l fill this role. A n d since the g a i n of state p o w e r by the r e v o l u t i o n is essential for r e d i r e c t i n g society, so must the r e v o l u t i o n give h i g h p r i o r i t y to b u i l d i n g ways of p r e v e n t i n g the state f r o m t u r n i n g into a m o n s t e r over society. A key p r i n c i p l e is the i n t e r n a l development of true democracy, the absence of w h i c h c r i p p l e d all previous socialisms. T h a t is w h y alternative p a r t y - b u i l d i n g i n the p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d i s i m p o r t a n t not to w i n state p o w e r in the here a n d now, w h i c h is out of the question, but to d e m o c r a t i z e the state insofar as possible, a n d to t r a i n people in the ways of self-governance so that w h e n the r e v o l u t i o n is m a d e they w i l l be in a p o s i t i o n to sustain d e m o c r a t i c development. A n o t h e r essential p r i n c i p l e is the enfranchisement of p r o d u c t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s , e n a b l i n g p o w e r to flow f r o m the p r o d u c e r s - or, since everyone produces a n d has m u l t i p l e p r o ductive affiliations, f r o m those collectivities that best express t h e i r free association a n d the e n h a n c e m e n t of ecosystemic integrity. As the r e v o l u t i o n begins its w o r k , we find that society comprises four fractions. First are those w h o have engaged in r e v o l u t i o n a r y practice, either as p o l i t i c a l agents a n d / o r as m e m b e r s of c o m m u n i t i e s of resistance. S e c o n d are those w h o d i d not participate actively yet whose productive activity is directly c o m p a t i b l e w i t h ecological p r o d u c t i o n - the housewives, nurses, schoolteachers, l i b r a r i a n s , technicians, i n d e p e n d e n t farmers, a n d so o n , a l o n g w i t h the very o l d , the very y o u n g , the i l l , a n d those on welfare or otherwise m a r g i n a l i z e d ( i n c l u d i n g m a n y o f those i n prison). T h i r d are those whose p r e - r e v o l u t i o n a r y practice was given over to capital the bourgeoisie proper, a l o n g w i t h those legions i n v o l v e d i n w o r k worthless f r o m a n ecosocialist standpoint - the PR m e n , the car salesmen, the ad executives, the supermodels, the cast of ' S u r v i v o r ' a n d like shows, l o a n sharks, security guards, wealth psychologists, a n d so o n . Finally, we find a r r a y e d between the second a n d t h i r d categories the workers whose activity a d d e d surplus value to capitalist c o m m o d i t i e s , as industrial proletarians, field hands, truckdrivers, a n d s o forth. M a n y o f these latter w o r k e d i n p o l l u t i n g , ecologically destructive settings; others in industries that have little or no place in an ecologically r a t i o n a l society, for example weapons factories or those m a k i n g diet sodas. A l l w i l l have to be p r o v i d e d for a n d r e t r a i n e d if society is to be rebuilt.

Ecosocialism Clearly, it w i l l be no easy matter to reallocate p r o d u c t i v e activity a m o n g so vast an assemblage. T h e f o l l o w i n g b r o a d p r i n c i p l e s m a y be useful: A n i n t e r i m assembly o f delegates f r o m the r e v o l u t i o n a r y c o m m u n i t i e s of resistance constitutes itself as an agency to h a n d l e the r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of social roles a n d assets, to m a k e sure that a l l are p r o v i d e d for out of c o m m o n stocks, a n d to exert such force as is necessary to reorganize society. T h e assembly w i l l convene i n w i d e s p r e a d locations a n d send delegations to r e g i o n a l , state, n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l bodies. E a c h level w i l l have a n executive c o u n c i l w i t h r o t a t i n g leadership, recallable by votes f r o m the level below. P r o d u c t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s (and n o w they m a y be authentically called 'cooperatives'), w h e t h e r of place or praxis, f o r m the p o l i t i c a l as w e l l as e c o n o m i c u n i t o f society. T h e p r i o r i t y o f those groups w h o m a d e the r e v o l u t i o n w i l l be to organize others a n d create paths for the r a p i d assimilation of other workers to the network of productive c o m m u n i t i e s . T h i s includes a l l a b l e - b o d i e d people, the ex-perpetrators of c a p i t a l as w e l l , w h o - w i t h a few egregiously c r i m i n a l exceptions - w i l l be a l l o w e d t o participate i n b u i l d i n g a n ecosocialist w o r l d . People m a y j o i n whatever u n i t they w i s h (although standards w i l l have to be set, as for health-care providers), a n d c a n have associate m e m b e r ship in others - for example, a d o c t o r w h o is also a father c a n j o i n his l o c a l h e a l t h service c o m m u n i t y a n d have associate m e m b e r s h i p in the c h i l d - r e a r i n g c o m m u n i t y , the c o m m u n i t y theatre, a n d so o n . T h e i n t e r i m assembly w i l l have to devise incentives to m a k e sure that v i t a l functions are m a i n t a i n e d . In the i n i t i a l stages, before ecosocialist values have been fully i n t e r n a l i z e d , these w o u l d i n c l u d e differential r e m u n e r a t i o n , perhaps a factor of three separating the least f r o m most p a i d . In each locality, one such c o m m u n i t y w o u l d directly a d m i n i s t e r the area of j u r i s d i c t i o n . F o r example, t o w n g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a collective whose p r o d u c t is the p r o v i s i o n of ecologically s o u n d governance - a n d also an assembly elected by a l l the inhabitants of that area. E a c h area, therefore, m a y have several assemblies - one for a d m i n s t r a t i o n , another for w i d e r spheres of governance. E a c h p r o d u c t i v e c o m m u n i t y participates fully as soon as it demonstrates its fidelity to ecosocialist principles. A n d as it j o i n s , it plays a p o l i t i c a l role in its l o c a l assembly, sending delegates a n d votes to the next level.

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Towards Ecosocialism T w o vitally i m p o r t a n t functions w i l l devolve on to the m o r e c e n t r a l assemblies. T h e first w i l l be to m o n i t o r the degree that c o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r its j u r i s d i c t i o n are c o n t r i b u t i n g to ecosystemic integrity, a n d to give a k i n d of weight to c o m m u n i t i e s a c c o r d i n g to their c o n t r i b u t i o n . T h i s supervisory b o d y potentially has considerable power, l i m i t e d , h o w ever, by the fact that it serves at the behest of the productive c o m m u n i t i e s themselves. T h e s e c o n d f u n c t i o n pertains to the g e n e r a l c o o r d i n a t i o n of social activities, the p r o v i s i o n of society-wide services like r a i l systems, the a l l o c a t i o n of resources, the reinvestment of the social p r o d u c t , a n d the h a r m o n i z a t i o n of relations between regions at a l l levels, i n c l u d i n g the i n t e r n a t i o n a l . T h e r e is no a v o i d i n g a state-like f u n c t i o n , w h i c h must be eventually transferred f r o m the i n t e r i m assembly a n d h a n d l e d at the level of the society as a whole t h r o u g h appropriate a n d d e m o c r a t i c a l l y responsive committees. T h e key to its success - a n d to that of the system as a whole - lies in the degree to w h i c h d e m o c r a c y has b e c o m e a l i v i n g presence in society.

Ecosocialism developed a n d a d v a n c e d b y any p a r t i c u l a r p r o d u c t i o n . T h u s d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n t r i n s i c value becomes the u l t i m a t e s t a n d a r d , r a t h e r t h a n abstract labour time.

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A l t h o u g h n o one i n ecosocialist society w i l l d o w i t h o u t , actual

r e m u n e r a t i o n , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y a p p r o v a l a n d sense o f w o r t h a n d dignity, comes w i t h the fulfilment of use-values. W i t h i n the new f r a m e w o r k , p r i c e signals of the capitalist market lose their 'receptors'. T h i s n e e d not rule out a place in ecosocialism for market p h e n o m e n a - for example, to facilitate the a l l o c a t i o n of resources, p e r s o n a l exchanges, a n d so o n . N o r is it f o r b i d d e n that a p e r s o n engaged in a s m a l l scale activity m a y hire others - for example, to help move a h o u s e h o l d so l o n g as it is m a d e clear that this is temporary, that no profitable exploitat i o n of l a b o u r takes place, a n d that if the activity becomes sustained a n d structured, then the l a b o u r w i t h i n it takes on a cooperative a n d ecocentric f o r m . B u t a market p h e n o m e n o n is one thing, a n d regulation of society by T h e M a r k e t is another. It stands to reason that standards w i l l have to be developed w i t h i n the society of c o m m u n i t i e s a n d assemblies to assay the surplus a n d m a k e decisions about c o o r d i n a t i o n of activity as w e l l as investm e n t in n e w facilities. B u t there is no reason b e y o n d capitalist i n e r t i a to t h i n k that these matters c a n n o t be d e c i d e d democratically, a n d in a w a y that valorizes ecosystemic integrity.
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Some Questions What w i l l be the future of markets, and h o w does this relate to t h e o v e r c o m i n g of c a p i t a l ? W i t h the revolution's t r i u m p h , there w i l l be a r a p i d transfer of assets to direct producers, a n d for the m a j o r i t y of enterprises that p r e s u m a b l y enter the n e w e p o c h as non-ecosocialist, a r a p i d c o n v e r s i o n to ecosocialist p r o d u c t i o n . F i r s t of a l l , this means restoring ecosystemic integrity to the w o r k p l a c e , a n d to the interrelations w i t h other sites of p r o d u c t i o n . F o r example, the first change at an auto p l a n t w i l l be w o r k e r o w n e r s h i p a n d c o n t r o l . T h e n e w structure w i l l p r o c e e d swiftly t o redesign its p r o d u c t i o n a c c o r d i n g to socially developed plans, for example, by b e g i n n i n g a conversion to l i g h t - r a i l transport, or to m a k i n g super-efficient vehicles, a n d so o n . D u r i n g the transition, incomes w i l l be guaranteed, using the reserves n o w in possession of the r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s is c o m b i n e d w i t h t r a n s f o r m i n g other sites considered outside the v a l u e - p r o d u c i n g econ o m y o f c a p i t a l , for e x a m p l e c h i l d care, i n t o p r o d u c t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s , thereby g i v i n g reproductive l a b o u r a status equivalent to p r o d u c t i v e labour. A t f i r s t the o l d m o n e y w i l l b e used, t h o u g h given n e w conditions o f value, namely, a c c o r d i n g to use a n d to the degree to w h i c h ecosystem integrity is

O n c e the ecocentric m o d e of p r o -

d u c t i o n is in place, it becomes the 'reason' things stand to, a n d the capitalist M a r k e t loses all but a l i m i t e d i n s t r u m e n t a l rationality. W i t h this, the b i n d i n g o f t i m e i s u n d o n e , a n d i n d i v i d u a l s b e c o m e s e l f - d e t e r m i n i n g agents o f ecological integrity. H o w is the new society to deal with questions of repression and violence? Specifically, does not the enforcement role give the state a dangerous opportunity to become yet another power over society? In the disorderly transfer that is the likely route to ecosocialism, there w i l l be some violence, perhaps a lot. A l m o s t a l l of this w i l l be suffered by the r e v o l u t i o n a r y forces, because the master is always m o r e violent t h a n the subaltern (violence b e i n g i n t e g r a l to the master's way), a n d because the means of ecosocialist struggle s h o u l d be aligned w i t h its ends. Since violence is the r u p t u r i n g of ecosystems, it is deeply c o n t r a r y to ecosocialist values. It is the situation after the victory, where w o u n d s are fresh a n d m u c h conflict must be p r e s u m e d to r e m a i n , that stirs fears that the post-revolut i o n a r y state m i g h t prove repressive a n d a u t h o r i t a r i a n . W h o is to rule out

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Towards Ecosocialism the possibility b e y o n d a doubt? Nevertheless, measures c a n be taken that m i n i m i z e the risk. T h e necessary c o n d i t i o n , even m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n espousing non-violent ideals, is p r i o r development of the democratic sphere. To the degree that people are capable of self-government, so w i l l they t u r n away f r o m violence a n d r e t r i b u t i o n .
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Ecosocialism n e t w o r k o f p r o d u c t i v e c o m m u n i t i e s , f r o m a g r i c u l t u r a l cooperatives, t o t r a n s - n a t i o n a l scientific teams, to g o v e r n i n g assemblies - m a n y v a r i e d settings creating the c o n d i t i o n s for i n d i v i d u a l self-realization. To the degree to w h i c h this is fulfilled, people b e c o m e self-governing; a n d a self-governed people c a n n o t be p u s h e d a r o u n d by any a l i e n government. Is there not another level of repression here? S o m e t i m e s it sounds as if e c o s o c i a l i s m , w i t h its emphasis on production, w i l l be a gigantic w o r k h o u s e . Is this not a n e w k i n d of Puritanism? The use of the t e r m ' p r o d u c t i o n ' c a n give rise to this i m p r e s s i o n , but it is h i g h l y m i s t a k e n . In fact, precisely the opposite is i n t e n d e d . Established r e l i g i o n has t e n d e d to reinforce the suffering of the w o r k e r u n d e r class society. T h e P u r i t a n m e n t a l i t y went further still: it was integral to the foundations of c a p i t a l , w h i c h it h e l p e d secure by t u r n i n g the b o d y into a m a c h i n e a n d the self into an engine of capital's w o r k discipline. T i m e - a s - m o n e y a core relation of capital, continues the C a l v i n i s t project in the f o r m of debt. F o r the average w o r k i n g family, ravaged by c o n s u m e r debt, in p e r p e t u a l p a n i c about affording health care, a n d o n l y a paycheck or two away f r o m losing the house a n d the car, i n d i v i d u a l life becomes a transmission belt in a gigantic factory of a c c u m u l a t i o n . T h e C a l v i n i s t g o d that became P u r i t a n i s m ' s H o u n d of H e a v e n is deployed over a t h o u s a n d points of surveillance, credit checks a n d friendly r e m i n d e r s that one's paym e n t is overdue. People c a n see a face of c a p i t a l as it appears on the stock market or on television c o m m e r c i a l s . B u t they see it w i t h b e m u s e d eyes a n d do not recognize c a p i t a l as the beast ravenously telling t h e m to p a y up. E c o s o c i a l i s m explodes this c o n n o t a t i o n . To emancipate l a b o u r is to free h u m a n i t y f r o m the constraints of w o r k discipline i m p o s e d by the clock. E c o s o c i a l i s m is p r e d i c a t e d on e l i m i n a t i n g a c c u m u l a t i o n as the m o t o r of society, a n d , w i t h this, the h o u n d i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l s caught u p i n debt a n d the rat race. It explodes the t i m e = m o n e y equation by restoring the usevalue of l a b o u r as a free association. E c o s o c i a l i s m gives p r o d u c t i o n dignity, as part of a full life. As realized i n d i v i d u a l s are self-governing, so are they free f r o m c o m p u l s i o n , i n c l u d i n g compulsive p r o d u c i n g a n d c o n s u m i n g . T h u s the p o i n t of ecosocialism is to overcome t o i l , not submit to it. In a w o r l d of r e a l i z e d use-value, the spheres of w o r k a n d culture are reintegrated, as in the eighteenth-century P a r a g u a y a n I n d i a n c o m m u n i t i e s , o r g a n i z e d by Jesuits, w h i c h u n d e r w e n t m o r e t h a n a century of a u t o n o m o u s

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It is also essential that, wherever else

it takes place, the r e v o l u t i o n takes place in the U S A , or spreads there very rapidly, as the U S A is capital's g e n d a r m e a n d w i l l crush any serious threat so l o n g as its o w n security apparatus remains intact. In a d d i t i o n , the f o l l o w i n g principles are i m p o r t a n t . First, strict standards of g o v e r n m e n t a l openness must be secured, a l o n g w i t h active a n d c r i t i c a l m e d i a to serve as watchdog. T h e exception to this is the interface where p u b l i c functions intersect w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s ' legitimate needs for privacy, as in m e d i c a l records or c o u r t cases where falsely defamatory testimony c a n be given. T h e rule, therefore, is that p u b l i c functions d e m a n d disclosure, while personally private ones d e m a n d respect for the rights of i n d i v i d u a l s not to have their i m m e d i a t e self/property i n t r u d e d u p o n . E c o s o c i a l i s m reverses the constantly e x p a n d i n g p e n e t r a t i o n of p e r s o n a l space by forms of capitalist surveillance. I m p o r t a n t c o u n c i l a r bodies, to w h i c h citizens have direct access, need to be established to safeguard this f u n c t i o n . F u r t h e r , o p p o s i t i o n to the death penalty is an i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t of any ecosocialist p r o g r a m m e a n d must be stricdy a d h e r e d to in the postr e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r i o d , especially where the treatment of the v a n q u i s h e d classes is c o n c e r n e d . It needs to be a c k n o w l e d g e d that the death penalty is an evil in itself, irrespective of any abuses, because by g i v i n g to the state the right to k i l l , it blocks the p a t h towards t r a n s c e n d i n g violence a n d denies the r e a l i z a t i o n of h u m a n nature. T h e r e f o r e , there w i l l be no official k i l l i n g , even of the most repulsive a n d u n r e c o n s t r u c t e d enemy. In the great majority of cases, u n c o n d i t i o n a l amnesty c a n be offered to a l l w h o agree to enter an ecosocialist p a t h , a n d take up their positions in a suitable cooperative or c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e w i l l be exceptions, either those w h o refuse to transfer p r o d u c t i v e assets, or those whose p r i o r b e h a v i o u r a m o u n t e d to c r i m e s against h u m a n i t y a n d / o r nature. B u t there are none w h o c a n n o t be dealt w i t h by i n c a r c e r a t i o n , where the miscreant c a n have a m p l e o p p o r t u n i t y to rethink his or her ways w h i l e g a z i n g at flourishing o r g a n i c farms or street festivals t h r o u g h the bars of the p r i s o n w i n d o w . In the larger sense, protection against the a u t h o r i t a r i a n state is a function of the success of ecosocialist p r o d u c t i o n . E c o s o c i a l i s m w i l l be a great

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Towards Ecosocialism d e v e l o p m e n t u n t i l e m p i r e c l a i m e d their territory. A s P a o l o L u g a r i , the v i s i o n a r y founder o f the G a v i o t a s c o m m u n i t y , said o f their w o r l d : ' E v e r y one ... was taught to sing or to p l a y a m u s i c a l instrument. M u s i c was the l o o m that wove the c o m m u n i t y together. M u s i c was in schools, at meals, even at work. M u s i c i a n s a c c o m p a n i e d labourers right into the c o r n a n d yerba mate fields. T h e y ' d take turns, some p l a y i n g , some harvesting. It was a society that l i v e d in constant h a r m o n y - literally. It's what we i n t e n d to do, right here in this forest.'
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Ecosocialism t i o n i n g core of the e c o n o m y while g a i n i n g time a n d space for r e b u i l d i n g it ecologically. T h e p r a c t i c a l measures w o u l d be, first, to cease speculation in currencies as a w a y of b r e a k i n g d o w n the f u n c t i o n of m o n e y as c o m m o d i t y , a n d r e d i r e c t i n g funds on use-values. A l o n g s i d e this w o u l d be the i m m e d i a t e c a n c e l l a t i o n of the debts of the nations of the S o u t h , thereby b r e a k i n g the back of the value f u n c t i o n a n d e n a b l i n g ecologically s o u n d development to take over. W h a t is lost in the d o i n g is strictly capital's p r o b l e m : a vast reservoir of m a i n l y p h o n e y value suddenly evaporates, a grievous b l o w to the great banks a n d investment houses. T h e reservoir, m e a n w h i l e , has b e e n o p e n e d for use - a n d some reparations have been m a d e to those u p o n whose back c a p i t a l i s m has been built. As simple exchange n o w prevails over exchange-value, the b u i l d i n g of use-values becomes the p r i m a r y goal. T h e life-blood of c o m p r a d o r elites in the S o u t h is rather a b r u p t l y d r a i n e d , a n d this, a l o n g w i t h the i m m e d i a t e shutting d o w n o f m i l i t a r y a i d a n d other forms of support f r o m the m e t r o p o l i t i a n capitalist powers, m a y be expected to l e a d to their collapse in short order. W i t h the rise of p o p u l a r forces, the g l o b a l society comes together to replace the instruments of c a p i t a l w i t h those e n a b l i n g ecosocialism. R e c o n f i g u r i n g g l o b a l trade becomes a n i m m e d i a t e priority. W e m a y t h i n k o f this as a ' W o r l d People's T r a d e O r g a n i z a t i o n ' ( W P T O ) , c o n t r o l l e d by a n d responsible to a confederation of p o p u l a r bodies o r g a n i z e d on a g l o b a l basis, w h i c h w i l l set parameters for regulating trade in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the T r a n s n a t i o n a l capital flourishing of ecosystems, while p r o v i d i n g at the same time an i n t e r n a t i o n a l f o r u m for the c o o p e r a t i o n a n d u n i f i c a t i o n of peoples. T h e degree of c o n t r o l over trade is n o w p r o p o r t i o n a l to involvement w i t h p r o d u c t i o n - that is, farmers w o u l d have a special say over food trade, auto-workers over that of automobiles, while the transport workers w h o directly c a r r y out the trade w o u l d also have a special role c o r r e s p o n d i n g to their f u n c t i o n , as w o u l d all citizens in their capacity as consumers a n d 'stakeholders'. A c o u n c i l , elected f r o m a n d responsible to the people, w o u l d take care of overall c o o r d i n a t i o n as w e l l as the setting a n d c o l l e c t i o n of tariffs. A core f u n c t i o n o f the W P T O w o u l d b e a n alternative calculus o f p r i c i n g . W h e r e goods are n o w t r a d e d i n a s m u c h as they are profitable to capitalists, goods w i l l become t r a d e d a c c o r d i n g to an 'ecological p r i c e ' (EP), d e t e r m i n e d by the difference between actual use-values a n d fully realized

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W h a t the Paraguayans d i d r e m i n d s us of the

h a p p y i n t e r r e l a t i o n of play, song a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n in the life of c h i l d r e n , as, for example, at a g o o d nursery school. A n d if we t h i n k of this c o m p a r i s o n as d i s p a r a g i n g to adult w o r k settings, then we have not c o m p r e h e n d e d the central p o i n t of ecosocialism. F o r c h i l d r e n a n d adults alike have an inherent n e e d to sing, dance a n d play. To restore use-values is to r e b u i l d the c o n ditions for the expression of h u m a n nature as an integral element of c a r i n g for nature. T h e m a c h i n e r y o f capitalist p r o d u c t i o n not o n l y binds the b o d y t e m p o r a l l y ; it also expresses the life-denying character of male d o m i n a t i o n . It is Father-power that enforces repression, stifles the f l o w i n g of life-forces, a n d curses p r o d u c t i o n w i t h p a i n since the e x p u l s i o n f r o m E d e n . T h e overc o m i n g of male d o m i n a t i o n also restores to p r o d u c t i o n its intrinsic pleasure. T h e r e w i l l b e plenty o f h a r d w o r k t o do, but h a r d w o r k freely chosen a n d collectively c a r r i e d out is a great joy. H o w will ecosocialism be internationalized?

flows must be r e i n e d i n , to release capital's g r i p on the g l o b a l e c o n o m y a n d o p e n a p a t h for the restoration of use-values a n d ecocentric p r o d u c t i o n . Needless to say, one does not one-sidedly break d o w n the g l o b a l capital system; one installs, rather, its alternative, or the pilot projects a n d prefigurative structures of its alternative, even as the o l d walls are c o m i n g d o w n . A r a p i d replacement of m o n e t a r y exchange-value functions w i t h use-value functions w i l l be essential to this. We have seen ( C h a p t e r 6) that m o n e y has three functions - e n a b l i n g exchanges, b e i n g a c o m m o d i t y in its o w n right, a n d b e i n g the repository of value. T h e goal in the transitional p e r i o d is to retain the first a n d b r i n g d o w n the latter two. T h e effect w o u l d be to w e a k e n capitalist institutions while d i r e c t i n g m o n e y to the creation a n d free e n h a n c e m e n t of use-values. T h r o u g h subsidization of use-values, therefore, society preserves the func-

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Towards Ecosocialism ones, hence, the greater the difference, the h i g h e r the tariff. P r o d u c t i o n a l o n g ecological lines, for e x a m p l e o r g a n i c agriculture, w o u l d have l o w tariffing for purposes of trade. S u c h p r o d u c t i o n c o u l d also receive subsidies generated by tariffs exacted f r o m those producers whose E P s exceed the n o r m . A s a n example o f those c o m m o d i t i e s o n w h i c h a h i g h E P w o u l d b e set, we c o u l d t u r n first to the a u t o m o b i l e i n d u s t r y in its current superp o l l u t i n g a n d w a n t o n l y wasteful state. L o w ecological prices w i l l thus be used as a standard for the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of the industries themselves. W h a t e v e r is presently s u b s u m e d into the e x t e r n a l i z a t i o n of costs on to the e n v i r o n m e n t - for instance, p o l l u t i o n - w o u l d be i n t e r n a l i z e d into the c o m p u t a t i o n of E P . In a d d i t i o n , E P ' s w o u l d be set as a f u n c t i o n of the distance t r a d e d , i n a s m u c h as ecologically deleterious effects are built into c o m m o d i t i e s in p r o p o r t i o n to this distance (as in fuel costs of transport, the need for extensive packaging, dyestuffs, a n d so on). In this sense, the W P T O w o u l d replace the reckless a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y destructive g r o w t h of 'free trade' while c o n t i n u i n g to p r o v i d e for the intercourse of peoples a n d the exchange of goods. T h e n e w system w o u l d r a d i c a l l y alter the g r o w i n g crisis o f i m m i g r a t i o n that n o w besets the w o r l d a n d is associated w i t h m u c h of its r a c i s m a n d neo-fascism. T h e pressure to migrate is directly related to the differentials in wealth between nations, a n d , m o r e generally, to the m o b i l i t y of c a p i t a l in r e l a t i o n to the fixity of labour. By s t o p p i n g capital in its tracks, the ecosocialist order knocks out one p r i m e cause of this, while the g r o w i n g e q u a l i z a t i o n o f w e a l t h a n d the f l o u r i s h i n g o f o n c e - p e r i p h e r a l societies remove the other. T h e r e is s i m p l y no societal pressure to migrate w h e n one's h o m e is intact. C l o s e l y related to this, we find the ecosocialist arrangement of g l o b a l society to be the only r a t i o n a l solution of the p o p u l a t i o n crisis. W h e t h e r or not the world's p o p u l a t i o n w i l l level off, or is hopelessly b i g already the fact remains that p r o v i d i n g o p t i m a l conditions for c o n t r o l l i n g p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h remains a h i g h priority. T h e core p r i n c i p l e is already integral to ecosocialism: g i v i n g people, a n d especially w o m e n , c o n t r o l over their lives. A m u t u a l l y cooperative w o r l d society w i l l restore flourishing ecosystemic conditions to life - a n d as it is in the nature of ecosystems to self-regulate their populations, so w i l l this be the nature of ecosocialist society. T h e n e w order of trade is transitional to a c o n d i t i o n in w h i c h c o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n withers away. In this c o n d i t i o n , n o w free of m o n e y as we k n o w

Ecosocialism it, use-values are no longer subordinated to exchange-value, but h a r m o n i z e d w i t h intrinsic value. We leave to the citizens of that far-off e p o c h the details of w o r k i n g out its functions of exchange a n d distribution. In the i n t e r i m , the W P T O signifies a dissolution of the i m p e r i a l system that has h e l d sway since the beginnings of class society. Indeed, it forms the g e r m of a w o r l d society w i t h o u t i m p o s e d boundaries. We tend to forget that the lines n o w d r a w n on the m a p are m a i n l y reflections of the expansive d y n a m i c of class structures where an elite exploits the l a b o u r of a majority. A g g r a n d i z e m e n t is c o m m o n to this relationship, a n d empire in all its forms, f r o m direct conquest, to c o l o n i a l i z a t i o n , to the e c o n o m i c instruments of globalization, is the result. E c o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i o n cuts the heart out of e m p i r e by e l i m i n a t i n g the pathological d y n a m i c of g r o w t h , a n d creates the g r o u n d for genuine coo p e r a t i o n between nations. W h e t h e r the a c t u a l boundedness between nations, a n d w i t h that the very structure of the nation-state, is transformed in the process into a truly global society is a matter for speculation, although it c a n be said that such a society w o u l d not be formless a n d undifferentiated - quite inconceivable for a realized h u m a n nature - but the integral of all the world's eco-communities of place a n d of praxis, w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g wealth of interrelated cultures. What are the practical guidelines for today's activists, w o r k i n g at a very great distance f r o m these possibilities? T h e notions deve l o p e d here m e a n that there is no r o y a l r o a d to ecosocialism, n o r any p r i v i l e g e d agent. It follows that h u m i l i t y a n d flexibility s h o u l d guide present politics. T h e interstitial character of ecosocialist resistance implies a great d e m o c r a c y of protest. S o m e o n e w h o signs a p e t i t i o n against a p o l l u t i n g p o w e r p l a n t is a potential ecosocialist, as is someone w h o decides to g a r d e n organically, o r w o r k a t a community-access cable T V station. T h e general rule, though, is somewhat different f r o m usual environmentalist assumptions. W h e r e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i s m seeks first of all to protect external nature f r o m assault, a prefigurative ecosocialism combines this goal w i t h anti-capitalist activity - w h i c h implies, as we have seen, anti-imperialist a n d anti-racist activity, a n d all that devolves f r o m these. In the great wealth of interstitial openings the general rule is that whatever has promise of b r e a k i n g d o w n the c o m m o d i t y f o r m is to be e x p l o r e d a n d developed. T h i s c a n extend f r o m o r g a n i z i n g l a b o u r (reconfiguring the use-value of l a b o u r power), to b u i l d i n g cooperatives (ditto, by a relatively free association of labour), to creating

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Towards Ecosocialism alternative l o c a l currencies (undercutting the value-basis of money), to m a k i n g r a d i c a l m e d i a ( u n d o i n g the fetishism o f commodities). I n every instance, the challenge is to b u i l d s m a l l beach-heads - l i b e r a t e d zones that c a n b e c o m e the focal points of resistance a n d c o m b i n e into larger ensembles. F o r those w h o decide to d e m o c r a t i z e the state by b u i l d i n g alternative electoral parties, the f o l l o w i n g r o u g h rules w o u l d apply: first, there s h o u l d be dialogue but no c o m p r o m i s e w i t h the established m a c h i n e parties. To take the U S A a s a n example, the D e m o c r a t i c Party, however m a n y g o o d people m a y be w i t h i n it a n d however lesser an evil it m a y be c o m p a r e d to the R e p u b l i c a n s , remains, as it has for generations, the graveyard of r a d i c a l politics. T h e h a r d w o r k o f b u i l d i n g alternative p o l i t i c a l parties therefore has as a first requirement avoidance of co-optation. T h i s requires a c o n t i n u a l association of electoral w o r k w i t h m o v e m e n t work, to keep the f o r m e r f r o m b e i n g sucked back into the system. As a corollary, one s h o u l d be content w i t h l o s i n g elections a n d staying s m a l l for some time. A loss by o r d i n a r y electoral terms is by no means so f r o m the perspective of ecosocialism, whose gains are m e a s u r e d not in terms of vote counts, but m o r e subtly, as a f u n c t i o n of h o w electoral w o r k contributes to an ecologically w o r t h y b u i l d i n g of d e m o c r a t i c ensembles. P a n d e r i n g to w i n a c c o r d i n g to the established rules, in a w o r d , a l l o p p o r t u n i s m , is hostile to the cause. O n e must be fully p r e p a r e d , rather, to lose, a n d lose, a n d lose, in o r d i n a r y terms, u n t i l victories appear. A n d that is another reason w h y m o v e m e n t activities are necessary - so that w i n n i n g a n d l o s i n g c a n be seen in qualitative terms, of b u i l d i n g ensembles instead of vote counts. S u c h electoral victories as do appear are b o u n d to o c c u p y the m o r e l o c a l rungs of the p o l i t i c a l system. T h i s is a g o o d place to b e g i n d e m o c r a t i z i n g the state, w i t h i n w h i c h project, no advance is too s m a l l if conscientiously done. At the same time the longer-range goals of ecosocialism n e e d to be b r o u g h t f o r w a r d , a n d for this purpose n a t i o n a l campaigns s h o u l d be c a r r i e d out. H e r e the purpose is not at a l l to w i n the office, an a b s u r d goal. T h e i n t e n t i o n , rather, is r a d i c a l l y to challenge the existing system by the elementary means of exposing its b r o k e n promises. W h e r e the standard electoral c a m p a i g n makes a series of c o m p r o m i s e s a n d moves t o w a r d the p o l i t i c a l centre, here the candidate enunciates d e m a n d s that are l a w f u l , feasible a n d h i g h l y r a t i o n a l so far as the real interests of the people are c o n c e r n e d - for example, w i n n i n g socialized m e d i c i n e by m a k i n g health care a h u m a n right, Notes C a n there be such a society?

Ecosocialism or d i s m a n t l i n g the m i l i t a r y - i n d u s t r i a l c o m p l e x - but w h i c h are not g o i n g to be enacted precisely because to do so w o u l d f u n d a m e n t a l l y cut into the p o w e r of c a p i t a l . M o r e o v e r , these measures are not to be posed p i e c e m e a l , but w i l l a p p l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y across a great s p e c t r u m of social a n d ecol o g i c a l needs, thereby exposing the fact that it is not one interest g r o u p or another that opposes t h e m , but the full weight of the c a p i t a l c o m m o n to the corporate o r d e r as a whole. A c c o r d i n g l y , the m i n d of the citizen is d r a w n to the n o t i o n that, as each of these measures is b o t h just a n d r a t i o n a l , a n d as there seems to be such a measure for every facet of social existence, then the question needs to be raised as to an alternative society capable of r e a l i z i n g t h e m a l l . T h e r e should be such a society - t h e n , why not have such a society? - a n d next, h o w do we t h i n k of such a society, a n d what shall be done to advance it? In other words, one runs not against this R e p u b l i c a n or D e m o c r a t , each m o r e or less i n d i v i d u a l l y the t o o l of c a p i t a l , but against the sedimented hopelessness that passes for c o m m o n sense.

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O n l y i f we get m o v i n g right away.

E v e r y t h i n g depends o n m a k i n g the b u i l d i n g o f ecosocialism p r o c e e d i n advance o f ecological b r e a k d o w n , w h i c h a t some p o i n t w i l l b r i n g a l l o u r hopes to an e n d . If we w a i t for things to w o r s e n , t h e n the logic of the crisis w i l l see to it that things w i l l get too m u c h worse, so that n o t h i n g w i l l save us, either f r o m direct collapse or f r o m its ecofascist precursor. T h e r e is no time to lose, a n d a w o r l d to be w o n .

1. M a r x 1963: 107. I became acquainted w i t h this passage through Mszros 1996. 2. ' T h e r e is no alternative', is often acronymously called T I N A , is a phrase ascribed to M a r g a r e t Thatcher, a n d useful for rhetorical purposes. I w i l l eschew i t / h e r here, because of the misogynistic i m p l i c a t i o n . 3. See G u n n a n d G u n n 1991 a n d M e e k e r - L o w r y 1988 for discussion of h o w to b u i l d l o c a l economies in an anti-capitalist direction. G a r e 2000 advocates the b u i l d i n g of such institutions as a major prefigurative step toward ecosocialism. 4. T h e B r i t i s h socialists' use of Blake's a n t h e m f r o m Milton, A n d d i d those feet in ancient t i m e / W a l k u p o n England's mountains green?' e n d i n g w i t h the i m m o r t a l words, 'I w i l l not cease f r o m m e n t a l fight,/Nor shall my sword sleep in my h a n d , / T i l l we have built J e r u s a l e m , / In England's green a n d pleasant l a n d ' (Blake 1977: 514), is the best example, especially for h o w readily it translates into the terms of ecosocialism. 5. M e i s t e r E c k h a r t has a splendid saying, ' L e t us pray to G o d to be r i d of " G o d " ' , w h i c h applies perfectly here. For a general discussion, see K o v e l 1998.

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6. A l l 'progressive' education, in my view, follows this m o d e l , famously l a i d out by Paulo Freire (Freire 1970). 7. By August 2000, there were 28 such centres, in places r a n g i n g f r o m L o s Angeles to the C o n g o . For the m a n y aspects of the alternative m e d i a movement, see H a l l e c k 2001. 8. M o o d y 2000. For example, the I M F forced the N i g e r i a n government to deregulate a n d e n d its $2 b i l l i o n subsidy of fuel prices, the resultant rise of w h i c h precipitated a general strike. In K o r e a , the strikes were in opposition to d r a c o n i a n w o r k i n g hours imposed by the I M F as a c o n d i t i o n for b a i l i n g the country out of the financial crisis of 1998. In S o u t h A f r i c a , 4 m i l l i o n workers protested I M F - i m p o s e d austerity f r o m the mid-1990s. In I n d i a , 20 m i l l i o n w a l k e d out, in a strike a i m e d , in the words of one of its leaders, 'against the surrender of the country's economic autonomy before the W o r l d T r a d e O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d the International M o n e t a r y F u n d ' . S i m i l a r patterns were seen in U r u g u a y a n d A r g e n t i n a , as new presidents took office scurrying to impose I M F austerity. See also M o o d y 1997. 9. R e n s e n b r i n k 1999 exemplifies this tendency For a detailed account of green politics in the U S A f r o m an ecofeminist perspective, see G a a r d 1998. 10. Faber 1998. 11. M a r c o s 2001 provides a good i n t r o d u c t i o n . M a r x 1978L 12. W e i s m a n 1998. 13. A state in southern I n d i a w i t h a l o n g r e c o r d of c o m m u n i s t adminstrations a n d remarkable ecological development, i n c l u d i n g the empowerment of w o m e n . See Parayil 2000. 14. 15. 16. 17. O ' C o n n o r 2001. M a r x 1967b: 776. Prefigured by M a r x in the 1844 manuscripts. M a r x 1978b. Istvn Mszros writes: 'the socialist undertaking cannot even begin to realize its

Afterword

A w o r k that makes as m a n y claims as The Enemy of Nature deserves r o u n d i n g off w i t h an afterword. B u t I must confess that I f o u n d this no easy task. O v e r a n d over I w o u l d b e g i n w r i t i n g this section, t h e n leave off, unsatisfied. T h e p r o b l e m was one of tone, f i n d i n g the p r o p e r register to finish off so weighty a subject w i t h o u t seeming heavy. Yet the heaviness w o u l d keep r e t u r n i n g , u n t i l in frustration I thought of d r o p p i n g the whole passage. I t h e n recalled s o m e t h i n g a student h a d once asked, to the effect of h o w one c o u l d keep f r o m d e s p a i r i n g w h i l e studying such awful things as the ecological crisis a n d the ghastly p o w e r h e l d by c a p i t a l over o u r existence. I h a d said s o m e t h i n g p e r f u n c t o r y at the time, but the question c o n t i n u e d to flit in a n d out of my m i n d , a n d , as it d i d , took on a somewhat different value. For the fact was, I d i d not despair; for whatever reason, I actually f o u n d myself in g o o d spirits as I studied the crisis further a n d devised the ideas that have gone into this work. It d i d n ' t make sense at first, given h o w dreadful is the p r e d i c a m e n t in w h i c h we find ourselves - but there d i d seem to be a logic to it. A n d then I thought back to the o p e n i n g sentence o f m y Preface, i n w h i c h I h a d w r i t t e n o f people b e c o m i n g frozen i n their tracks by the d a w n i n g r e a l i z a t i o n of capital's r a d i c a l ecodestructiveness, a n d it o c c u r r e d to me that the best tack w h i c h my A f t e r w o r d c o u l d take w o u l d be to address this d i l e m m a , a n d try to show in however h a l t i n g a w a y that there were grounds for actually b e i n g of g o o d cheer w i t h i n the perspective argued here. T h e thesis that drives this work, that capital is b o t h ecodestructive a n d u n r e f o r m a b l e , is either true or false. If it is false, then I have been w r o n g , a n d the apologists for capital right. B u t their correctness w o u l d require a great sea change in capital, a historic adaptation a n d o v e r c o m i n g of its evil tendencies. T h i s w i l l be great a n d g o o d news. For capital w i l l now, h a v i n g overcome its ecological o r d e a l , be a better system entirely. It w i l l stand

fundamental objectives without successfully a c c o m p l i s h i n g at the same time the shift f r o m the exchange of products ... to the exchange of genuinely planned a n d self-managed (as opposed to bureaucratically planned from above) productive activities'. Mszros 1996: 761, italics in text. 18. D a v i d M c N a l l y summarizes these arguments well: '[w]here l a b o u r is c o m m u n a l , a n d its allocation d e t e r m i n e d in advance, a certificate or voucher is not money; it is not the m e c h a n i s m w h i c h validates the social character of labour, nor does it transform the latter into the former'. ( M c N a l l y 1993: 195). For a study of current market contradictions, see Altvater 1993. 19. G a n d h i ' s post-colonial I n d i a h a d a powerful non-violent ideology, but very u n d e m o c r a t i c institutions - especially the caste system - as w e l l as the spectre of religious-ethnic nationalism that tore the country apart. U n d e r these circumstances the horrible violence that supervened u p o n p a r t i t i o n was virtually inevitable. 20. W e i s m a n 1998: 10.

256

The Enemy of Nature forth not as the enemy, but as nature's f r i e n d . C a p a b l e of regulating itself, it w i l l be a true f r i e n d to h u m a n i t y as w e l l . T h e r i s i n g tide w i l l lift a l l boats, a n d poverty, e x p l o i t a t i o n a n d oppression w i l l be things b e l o n g i n g to the d i m prehistory of o u r species. We w i l l have entered a t r u l y g o l d e n age. So there w i l l be plenty to cheer about if the The Enemy of Nature turns out to be w r o n g . B u t what if I am right, a n d the choice is either to e n d capital's reign or face the destruction of o u r w o r l d ? N o w things seem to get g r i m m e r a n d m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d as we t u r n to face o u r enemy. B u t is this really so? W h a t has b e e n p r o p o s e d here is a line of reasoning to help us c o m e to grips w i t h a great crisis. W h e t h e r or not one adopts it - whether or not this b o o k was w r i t t e n in the first place - capital's ecodestruction w i l l take place. A l l that has been striven for here is to face things squarely - to alter the p e r c e p t i o n of an i m p e n d i n g disaster, to meet it actively instead of passively s u b m i t t i n g to the terms of u n d e r s t a n d i n g dealt out by the d o m i n a n t system. A n d surely it is better actively to c o m p r e h e n d rather t h a n n u m b l y s u b m i t to the logic of one's destroyer. Is it not l i b e r a t i n g to realize that the m i g h t y capitalist system is at heart a trick p l a y e d u p o n us? T h e d e l e g i t i m a t i o n o f its p r i n c i p l e o f exchange, the revelation o f h o w h u m a n possibilities are stunted u n d e r its regime - a l l this opens a p a t h to the i n t r i n s i c beauty o f the w o r l d a n d lets u s j o i n w i t h others o f like m i n d . If c a p i t a l is a d e l u s i o n , then private o w n e r s h i p of the globe is p a r t of that delusion. A n d once we realize as m u c h , the p r i n c i p l e of usufruct w i l l c o m e to apply. N o w this tells us to i m p r o v e a n d enjoy that w h i c h is a n other's, t h o u g h it happens to be o u r h o m e . W h y s h o u l d we wait u n t i l after the r e v o l u t i o n before d o i n g so? I n d e e d , the r e v o l u t i o n has already b e g u n once this a p p r e c i a t e d - a n d if the p r i n c i p l e of usufruct tells us that we s h o u l d enjoy the earth, s h o u l d we not also enjoy freeing the earth f r o m bondage? T h e great themes of the ecological crisis do not alter o u r existential p o s i t i o n , w h i c h remains f r a m e d by the fact that each of us is allotted a l i m i t e d time on the earth a n d , w i t h i n it, the o p p o r t u n i t y of l i v i n g as best we c a n . B u t it does shape what that best m i g h t be, a n d here, it seems, the great virtue of addressing the crisis appears. F o r what other generation has been given the chance to t r a n s f o r m the relation between h u m a n i t y a n d nature, a n d to h e a l so ancient a w o u n d ? W h a t a fantastic challenge! A l l creatures must e n d , a n d a l l species. E v e n the earth, a n d time a n d space w i l l v a n i s h . B u t o u r creatural destiny is to have a degree of choice over o u r
i.

Afterword e n d . We s h o u l d not a l l o w the exit to o c c u r u n d e r the c o l d , c r u e l h a n d of capital; it is an e n d i n g u n w o r t h y of the beauty of the w o r l d . A l l H u m a n Forms identified even Tree M e t a l E a r t h & Stone; all H u m a n Forms identified, living going forth & returning wearied Into the Planetary lives of Years M o n t h s Days & H o u r s reposing A n d then A w a k e n i n g into his B o s o m in the Life of Immortality.
1

257

Note
T h e last lines but one of Jerusalem (Blake 1997: 847).

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Index
165; as efficient cause, 224; as powerful f o r m of h u m a n organization, 82; as regime of ego, 141, 171; breaking-down of, 198; crises w i t h i n , 142-3; d o m i n a t i o n by, 149; ecodestructivity of, 7, 8, 51, 83, 89, 91, 115, 117, 150, 152, 222, 255; f o r m of society, 8; growth of, 158 (positive aspect of, 207); postindustrial, 158; reformability of, 141-4, 255; replacement of, 11; resistance to, 153 see also anti-capitalism di C a p r i o , L e o n a r d o , 3 c a r b o n emissions, 3, 51, 67 C a r s o n , R a c h e l , 79 cash nexus, 43 categories, p r i o r i t i z a t i o n of, 123 C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , 54, 129 causa efficiens see efficient cause causality, relation to blame, 32-3 C a v a l l o , D o m i n g o , 45 C h e G u e v a r a beer, 82 children: a n d education system, 229; as ecosystems, 225; homeless, 5; raising of, 107 C h i n a , 14, 45, 201-2 Christianity, 117-18, 122, 133, 192-3, 228 circulation time o f capital, 5 8 - 6 8 C i t i c o r p company, 4 5 - 6 class, 134, 176, 177, 251; appearance of, 122; p r i o r i t i z e d as category, 123, struggle, 124 class struggle, 231 class system in capitalism, 61, 77-8 climate change, 47 C l i n t o n , B i l l , 3, 143, 153 C l u b o f R o m e , 46; ' T h e L i m i t s t o G r o w t h ' , 3, 4 C o b b J . , 170 C o c a - C o l a company, 54, 65, 80 C o c h a b a m b a (Bolivia), 74 Cockburn, Alex, no C o l u m b u s , Christopher, 129 commodity, 53, 60, 61, 127, 195, 242, 250-1; a d d i c t i o n to, 66; c o n s u m p t i o n of, 116; fetishized, 239; l a n d as, 174; money as, 125, 164-5; nature as, 40, 132; p r o d u c t i o n of, 39, 42 c o m m u n i s m , 191, 192, 230 c o m m u n i t y : intentional, 193, 194; of resistance, 229 competition, 81, 141, 170, 176 conservation movement, 172 consumerism, 192; addictive, 209; conspicuous, 196 cooperatives, 163-4, 185, i93> m, 243. 247, 250, 252; limits of, 165 coral, death of, 17 c o r r u p t i o n , 180 C o u g h l i n , Father, 183 credit unions, 236 criminality, organized, 75 'Cross of G o l d ' movement, 182 C u b a , 202, 203 culture, 101, 102 currencies, alternative, 252 Daly, H e r m a n , 169-70 D a r w i n , Charles, 93, 211 death: fear of, 217; protest against, 103 death penalty, opposition to, 246 death squads, 75 debt, 4, 62, 71, 76, 134; cancellation of, 249 deforestation, 13, 14 democracy, 10, 179-86, 197, 232, 242, 244; l i v i n g , 168-9; f protest, 251; v i c t i m of globalization, 76 D e m o c r a t i c Party ( U S A ) , 153, 252 democratization, of the state, 155, 252 d e m o r a l i z a t i o n , 16 D e n g X i a o p i n g , 202 D e p a r t m e n t of the Treasury (US), 71 dialectical process, 139-40, 226, 233, 236, 239 differentiation, 106, 109, no d i o x i n , 55, 158 disposability of life, 196 division of labour, 119, 191, 203, 230 dollar, 71, 141 d o m i n a t i o n : gendered nature of, 121, 177; of nature, 8, 9, 115-46 D o w C h e m i c a l company, 3 8 drought, in Indonesia, 13 d r u g trafficking, 57 Du Pont company, 225, 226 E a r t h Day, 3 E b o l a virus, 15 ecocentrism, 91, 209 ecofascism, 184-5 ecofeminism, 9, 176-7, 185, 218, 226 ecological balance, restoration of, 24 ecological crisis, 7, 8, 10, 13-27, 41, 46, 52, 53. 66, 72, 76. 7 M . 81, 82, 100, 102,

267

Index

A b u - J a m a l , M u m i a , 192 accident, nature of, 36-7 accumulation, 41-8, 65, 115, 117, 133, 158, 191, 192, 203, 205, 232,240; complexity of, 143; logic of, 47; primitive, 82 affinity groups, 225, 227 ageing, 62 A g e n t O r a n g e , 38 A I D S , 16, 173 alienation, 36, 57, 103, 106, 121, 125, 131, 132, 168, 200, 232, 240; fourfold m e a i n g of, 130-1; f r o m nature, 116, 117, 196; of labour, 129-30, 213 allopatric speciation, 109, no A m a z o n B a s i n , ecological crisis i n , 109-10 A m e r i c a n Express company, 6 3 - 4 , 65 Anabaptists, 190 anarchism, 178, 179 a n i m a l rights, 210 A n n a n , Kofi, 45 a n n i h i l a t i o n , fear of, 217 anthropocentric delusion, 116 anti-capitalism, 168, 176, 191, 223, 227, 232,233,234,237 anti-Semitism, 184 A r n o l d , E b e r h a r d , 190 A r n o l d , E m m y , 190 A s i a n financial crisis, 23, 72 asthma, 67; increase i n , 18 authoritarianism, 24, 202, 245; of the state, 246 a u t o m o b i l i a , 6 6 - 8 see also m o t o r vehicles autonomous zones of p r o d u c t i o n , 230 A z i z , Shaukat, 46 B a c o n , Francis, 131 B a h r o , R u d o l p h , 184 Bechtel company, 73-4 beef, culture of, 54 being, being of, 92

B h o p a l disaster, 7, 2 9 - 3 8 , 40, 69, 73, 106, 138 biodiversity, loss of, 19 bioregionalism, 173-6, 185 biotechnology, 24 b i r d m i g r a t i o n patterns, 16 Blair, Tony, 153 Blake, W i l l i a m , 48, 107, 217 blame, 32-5, 36, 46 body, hatred of, 118 B o e i n g company, 45 Bogdanov, Aleksandr, 204 B o l i v i a , sale of water systems i n , 73-4 Bolshevism, 204-5, 232; enmity to nature, 210 B o o k c h i n , M u r r a y , Post-Scarcity Anarchism, 179 bovine spongiform encephalopathy, 185 B o w d e n , Charles, 56 b r a n d i n g of self, 62 Breyer, Stephen, 154 de B r i e , C h r i s t i a n , 74 Bruderhof, 190-8, 227, 230, 236 B r y a n , W i l l i a m Jennings, 182 Budweiser company, 61 Burkett, P a u l , 210-11 b u r n i n g of landscape, 109-10 B u s h , George W, 51, 143, 159 C a l v i n i s m , 118, 247 capital, 2 8 - 5 0 , 106; a n d d o m i n a t i o n of nature, 115-46; as a relation, 70; as werewolf, 38; changing forms of, 70; degrading the conditions of its p r o d u c t i o n , 38; drive of, 41, 43, 143-4, 149; expansion of, 39, 80; identified w i t h state, 125; i m p o s i t i o n of, 115; mystery of, 115, 116; natural, 162, 168; rise of, 125-33 capitalism, 6, 9, 51-86, 174; alternatives to, 223, 227; as c o m m o d i t y p r o d u c t i o n ,

268

The Enemy of Nature

104, I l 6 , 121, 132, 149, 152, 154, 155, 164, 172, 179, 206, 224, 237, 24O, 253; as effect of globalization, 75; in A m a z o n B a s i n , 109-10; technological means of overcoming, 156; testing for, ecological justice, 176-7 ecological price (EP), 249-50 ecological p r o d u c t i o n , 212-18 Ecologist magazine, 163 ecology, 8, 155, 205; deep, 171-3; m e a n i n g of t e r m , 89, 9 0 - 1 ; relation to evolution, 95; social, 177-9, society, 168, 175, 240; vision of society, 166-7 ecopolitics, 152-89 ecosocialism, 7, 9-10, 11, 91, 151, 152, 186, 197, 198, 209,213, 218, 222-54, 222; development of, 225-32; internationalization of, 248-51 ecosphere, concept of, 90 ecosystems, 15, 52, 53, 90, 94, 95, 153, 208, 216, 225; boundaries of, 104; b r e a k d o w n of, 143, 185, 207; damage to, 18; endocrine, 106; f o r m a t i o n of, 155; gardens as, 108; h u m a n , 8, 16, 53, 215, 216, 225, 226 (boundary w i t h natural, 21); integrity of, 97, 104-10, 242, 244; interaction of, 213; of oceans, 16; restoration of, 107, 139; society as, 20; splitting of, 121, 140; stability of, 97; systems theories of, 105 ecotourism, 172 education, i n U S A , 229 efficient cause, 7, 109, 136, 149, 192, 224; concept questioned, 134; m e a n i n g of t e r m , 31-2 egotism, 141, 155, 212, 232, 240 electricity: access to, 56; generation of, 159 en-framing, 135-6 enclosure of c o m m o n s , 130 energy: free, 157; l o w - p o l l u t i n g devices, 157; renewable, 159; supplies of, 131 Engels, Frederick, 56 entropy, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 104, 107, !3 > H3> 214-15 E n v i r o n m e n t a l Defense F u n d ( U S A ) , 154 E n v i r o n m e n t a l Impact Reports, 235 environmental justice movement, 234 environmental movement, 6, 154 essentialism, 9 8 - 9 , 103; of w o m e n , 176-7
2

Index
exchange-value, 39, 4 0 , 59, 127-8, 129, 132, 133, 169, 195-7, 198, 209, 212, 213, 214, 227-9, 235, 239, 240, 248, 251; d i m i n i s h i n g d o m a i n of, 241 executives, failure of, 79 E x x o n V a l d e z disaster, 18 family, break-up of, 57 F a n o n , Frantz, 235 fascism, 179-86, 218 see also ecofascism fast food, 54-5, 58 Federal Reserve B a n k , 38, 71, 74 finance capital, 70; a n d crime, 74; as c o m m a n d centre, 37; cross-border flows of, 71-2; power of, 6 4 - 5 fish, falling populations of, 17 fishing, w i t h bare hands, 216 flooding, 14; in C h i n a , 14 F o o d N o t B o m b s project ( U S A ) , 214 force, institutionalization of, 120 forces of p r o d u c t i o n , 77, 208 F o r d i s m , 153, 170, 179 forests, 105, 143; destruction of, 4, 15, 175; rainforests, 53, 109; reforestation, 235 Fortey, R i c h a r d , 94 fossil fuels, 131-2; dependence o n , 158 Foster, J o h n Bellamy, 210-11 foundations, creation of, 154 France, 48 Francis, St, 117 free association of labour, 199, 238, 241-2, 247, 252 freedom, as p a r t i c i p a t i o n in power, 180 fuel cells, 157, 159 funerary evidence of humanity, 103 G a i a p r i n c i p l e , 96, 173, 217 gardening, 107-8 G a r e , A r r a n , 133, 204 Gaviotas c o m m u n i t y (Colombia), 235, 248 gender, 102, 133, 141, 177, 194; in ecosystems, 55 gendered bifurcation of nature, 118-25, 131, 176,217 G e n e r a l M o t o r s company, assets of, 69 genome, d e c o d i n g of, 157 Georgescu-Roegen, N . , 169 'giant force field' of capital, 38, 69, 74, 142, 150, 164-5, 93> 227, 228, 230 global w a r m i n g , 3-4, 13, 14, 18, 46, 67, 73, 81, 185
J

269

globalization, 7, 16, 52, 6 8 - 7 6 , 130, 154, 170, 179, 182, 196, 234; resistance to, 151, 178, 186, 228, 229, 231 gold standard, a b a n d o n m e n t of, 71 G o r e , A l , 153-4 green business, 24, 142, 231 green economics, 16070 green movement, 223, 2 3 3 - 4 ; key values of, 198 G r e e n Party ( U S A ) , 180, 182 G r e e n R e v o l u t i o n , 32, 37, 73 greenhouse gases, 15, 47, 153, 226 G r e e n s p a n , A l a n , 74 gross domestic product, index, 48 growth, 4 2 - 3 , 45, 158; limits to, 3, 10, 22, 46, 161, 215; nature of, 6, 24; size of global economy, 22; u n l i m i t e d , 72 G r u h l , H e r b e r t , A Planet is Plundered, 184
t e n

industrialization, 116, 138, 208; energy c o n s u m p t i o n of, 132; force for smashing nature, 131 I n d y m e d i a centres, 229, 236 i n f o r m a t i o n age, 59, 69, 158 insurance industry, 23, 47 International M o n e t a r y F u n d ( I M F ) , 7, 38, 71, 72-3, 158, 224, 231, 235, 236 Internet, 229 island effect, 106 Ivester, Douglas, 80 James, L e o n , 68 Jefferson, T h o m a s , 161, 167 J u a r e z , M e x i c o , 56-7; m u r d e r rate i n , 58 K a s c z y n s k i , T h e o d o r e , 210 K a y a p o , agriculture of, n o K e m p f , Herv, 47 Kessler, D e n i s , 47 K o r t e n , D a v i d , 162, 167, 169 K r o p o t k i n . Peter, 163 K u r z m a n , D . , 33 K y o t o protocols, 143, 153, 154 labour, 57, 5 9 - 6 0 , 103, n o , 122, 128, 165, 180, 201, 214, 231, 251; alienated, 213; control over, 121; d e h u m a n i z a t i o n of, 169-70; discipline of, 131; d o m i n a t i o n of, 141, 178, 230; e m a n c i p a t i o n of, 168, 171, 207, 208, 212, 214, 230, 247; exploitation of, 51, 120, 166, 167; free, provision of, 156; illegal, 75; reproductive, 244; socially necessary, 207 see also division of l a b o u r and free association of l a b o u r labour movement, 197 labour relation, 129-30 l a n d , as commodity, 174 language, emergence of, 100 Las Vegas, 65 laws of thermodynamics, 143; First Law, 93; S e c o n d Law, 93, 94, 95, 96, 214 L e g g e " , Jeremy, 23 lemonade, m a k i n g of, 166 L e n i n , V l a d i m i r Ilych, 201; Materialism and Empirio-Criticism, 204 L e n i n i s m , 232 life, nature of, 9 2 - 8 life-worlds, penetrated by capital, 5 2 - 8 , 229 L o s Angeles, 157; freeways i n , 68

H a m m u r a b i , C o d e of, 238 H a n t a virus, 15 H a r r i n g t o n , M i c h a e l , 169 health care, 16 H e c h t , Susanna, n o hegemon, U S A as, 7 0 H e i b e r g , A s t r i d , 13 Heidegger, M a r t i n , 134-9 H e l m s , Jesse, 72 Heraclitus, 97 H i m m l e r , H e i n r i c h , 184 history: as history of class, 124; p r o d u c t i o n of, 104 H i t l e r , A d o l f , 184 H o l o c a u s t , 141 Homo conomicus, 128 Homo sapiens, 173 h u m a n being, 98-104 h u m a n nature see nature, h u m a n h u m a n i t y : created ' i n G o d ' s image', 117; w i t h i n nature, 172 hunter-gatherers, 119-21 H u r r i c a n e M i t c h , 13, 14, 46 hustling customers, 61, 81 Hutter, J a k o b , 190 hydropower, 175 i m m i g r a t i o n , 173; conflicts over, 183; crisis of, 250; illegal, 75 indigenous peoples, genocide of, 172, 174 Indonesia, 72; b u r n i n g forests i n , 15; drought i n , 13 Industrial R e v o l u t i o n , 131

270

The Enemy of Nature

Love C a n a l p o l l u t i o n , 18 L u g a r i , P a u l , 248 L u x e m b u r g , R o s a , 206, 209-10, 216; ecocentrism of, 212 M - C - M ' circuit, 4 4 m a l a r i a , 15, 18 male p r i n c i p l e , 141 males: f o r m a t i o n of identity, 121, 217, 248; in division of labour, 119; r u n history, 120 M a l t h u s i a n i s m , 23 m a n , as subject, 1367 managerial science, 61 M a o Z e d o n g , 202 maquiladoras, 56, 57, 130 M a r c o s , I m e l d a , 79 market, 165, 166, 245; future of, 244-5; regulated, 162 market society, 77, 78, 160 M a r s h , George Perkins, Man and Nature, 22 Martinez, Ricardo, 68 M a r x , K a r l , 38, 39, 43, 60, 103, 126, 129-30, 130-1, 163, 165, 169, 192, 200, 234, 239, 241; Capital, 44, 238; Communist Manifesto, 199; ecological view of, 210-11; Grundrisse, 41, 43; Manuscripts, 211; The Poverty of Philosophy, 222 M a r x i s m , i o - n , 178, 204, 206-12 masculine gender, construction of, 119 M c D o n a l d s : in Far East, 55; penetration of, 54-5 M c N a l l y , D a v i d , 209; Against the Market, 207 m e d i a , r a d i c a l , 252 methyl isocyanate, 2 8 - 3 8 , 4 6 - 7 , 106 M e x i c o , 130 money, 30, 36, 44, 51, 59, 6 4 - 5 , 70, 107, 108, 125, 128, 141, 191, 195, 240, 244, 251; as capital, 24, 43; as commodity, 125, 164-5; exchangeability, 165; as hieroglyph for phallus, 176; as instrument of trade, 125; as quantity, 127; as repository of value, 126; forced use of, 128; m e l t i n g of coinage, 129; three functions of, 248 M o r e h o u s e , W a r d , 37 M o r r i s , W i l l i a m , 206, 209 M o r r i s o n , Roy, 163 m o t o r vehicles, 191, 249; as traffic, 6 6 - 8 ;
as

Index
electric, 159; g r o w i n g numbers of, 3, 67, 157; overcapacity in industry, 67; p r o d u c t i o n of, 230, 244; stealing of, 75 M u r r a y , Alexander, 128, 129 music, as creative of community, 248 Nader, R a l p h , 180, 182, 224 Naess, A r n e , 171 N a t h a n , D e b b i e , 57 nation-state, 125, 231; break-up of, 69, 71, 173 N a t i o n a l E n d o w m e n t for D e m o c r a c y ( U S A ) , 179 natural disasters, 13 nature, 8, 99, 115, 172, 205, 206; alienation f r o m see alienation, f r o m nature; a p p r o p r i a t i o n of, 239; as 'environment', 208; as commodity, 132; as essence, 98; as h u m a n product, 108; as integral of all ecosystems, 90, 91; beauty of, 98; concept of, 89; dissipative of f o r m , 92; d o m i n a t i o n of, 241; formative, 92, 97; h a r m o n y w i t h , 108; h u m a n , 98, 119-21, 178, 213 (as subjectivity, 99, 101; threads of, 100-2); intrinsic value of, 140; objeeducation of, 195; ownership of, 241; q u a r r e l l i n g w i t h , 102; reading the book of, 108; tension w i t h humanity, 102, 103 see also d o m i n a t i o n of nature and gendered bifurcation of nature N a z i s m , 183, 190, 202; of M a r t i n Heidegger, 134, 137 needs, 191, 192, 194, 207, 209, 240; construction of, 52-3 neoliberalism, 153, 162 N e o P l a t o n i s m , 133, 134 N i c a r a g u a , 180, 2 0 2 - 3 La N i n a , 13, 14 El N i n o , 13-14, 19 N i x o n , R i c h a r d , 71 N o r t h A m e r i c a n Free T r a d e A g r e e m e n t ( N A F T A ) , 5 5 - 8 , 1 3 0 , 1 8 0 , 234 nuclear energy, 157, 158 oceans: rising levels of, 23; w a r m i n g of, 16 O ' C o n n o r , James, 40, 143, 235-6 o i l , 48; c o n s u m p t i o n of, 3; supplies of, 23 (shrinking, 185) optimistic denial, 81 organic f a r m i n g , 159-60, 203, 216, 225, 228,250 organochlorines, 106; released into atmosphere, 20 ownership: by workers, 181, 244; of productive resources, 150; of the planet, 241, 256; p u b l i c , 199; rights of, 239 O x f a m , 202 ozone layer, hole i n , 4, 18, 20, 67, 185 pandemics, global, 23 Paraguayan I n d i a n communities, 247-8 Paris C o m m u n e , 234 party-building, alternative, 242, 252 party-state, 200 patriarchy, 57, 121, 124, 176, 194, 237 people, concept of, 182 permaculture, 108 Perot, Ross, 157 pesticides, 37, 236; manufacture of, 29, 32, 38 p h a r m a c e u t i c a l industry, 42 physis, 135 P l a t o n i s m , 134 P l o u g h Books, 190 poiesis, as 'bringing-forth', 135 Polanyi, K a r l , 169 p o l l u t i o n , 4, 34, 42, 66, 159, 250; control of, 24, 41, 51, 77; in U S S R , 2 0 5 - 6 ; tradable emission credits, 161 p o p u l a t i o n , growth of, 10, 23, 250 (in U S A , 67) p o p u l i s m , 179-86 Porter, James, 17 poverty, 13, 56, 66, 82, 155; e l i m i n a t i o n of, 235; p o o r people irrelevant, 47 precautionary principle, 47 prfiguration, 218 privatization, 74 p r o d u c t i o n , 21, 77, 103, 120, 191, 193; as nature's formativity, 213; ecological, 212-18, 228, 247-8; for profit, 39, 42; forms of, 108; industrial, 230; modes of, ecological, 218; p r o d u c i n g of, 107; reallocation of activity, 243-4; redesign of, 244 productive communities, 243 p r o d u c t i v i s m , 208, 210 profit, 149, 164; short-term, 80 progressivism, 181 proletariat, 242 Proletkul't movement, 204 P r o m e t h e a n interpretation, 210-11 property, 121, 122, 238, 240; gendered nature of, 121; private, 238, 241, 242 prostitution, 57 P r o u d h o n , Pierre-Joseph, 163 P u r i t a n i s m , 247-8 quantity, regime of, 41 racism, 123, 137, 183, 184, 234, 250 R e a g a n , R o n a l d , 153 receptivity, 211-12 recognition, 216, 229 recycling, 77, 156, 158, 159, 218 refugees, environmental, 13 regional blocks, construction of, 70 regions, self-sufficient, 175 repression, 245-7 R e p u b l i c a n Party, 252 resistance, assemblies of, 243 resources, substitution of, 158 revolution, 7, 200-1, 237-8, 241, 242, 244, 256; C u l t u r a l R e v o l u t i o n (China), 202; in N i c a r a g u a , 2 0 2 - 3 ; Russia, 201 r o a d rage, 68, 157 roads, b u i l d i n g of, 68 rootlessness, 56 roses, m e a n i n g of, 197 Ruggiero, R e n a t o , 45 r u l i n g class, 77-8, 81 Russia, rearranged m a p of, 205
m

271

Sachs, Jeffrey, 45 Sale, K i r k p a t r i c k , 174-5 sales mentality, 60 S c h o o l of the A m e r i c a s , 74 Schumacher, E.F., 163 science, 117, 123, 126, 131 'Scientific R e v o l u t i o n ' , 162 Seattle, demonstrations i n , 7, 178, 184 S e c o n d C o n t r a d i c t i o n of C a p i t a l , 40, 41, 5 self, 99, 101, 102, 119, 212; as part of other selves, 239; shadowed by emptiness, 104; transformation of, 237 Sevin pesticide, 33 sex industry, 5, 55 sexuality, 102, 118-19; freedom of, 239 shanty towns, 14, 46, 56 Shoshone Indians, 172 Shultz, George, 74 silver chalice, m a k i n g of, 134, 137 S i m m e l , G e o r g , 126, 127, 128 S killing, Jeffrey, 76, 78
1

272

The Enemy of Nature

slavery, 55, 169 smallpox, 23 S m i t h , A d a m , 128, 161-2, 167 Social D a r w i n i s m , 93, 133 socialism, 9, 10, 160, 168, 171, 178, 183, 198-206, 213, 222, 232; 'first-epoch', 208, 232; traditional, 210 society, creation of, 101, 102 soil, degradation of, 4, 235 solar energy, 158 solidarity, 231-2, 233, 238 Soros, George, 45 space, 65; c o l o n i z a t i o n of, 68; compression of, 62 species: disappearance of, 4; diversification of, 109; loss of, 20 speed-up, i n capitalism, 5 8 - 6 8 s p e r m count, falling, 18 spiritual life, 104, 228 splitting, 106-7, 3> \ 3 ' 4 ' 4 166, 176, 240 S t a l i n , Josef, 205 Stalinism, 205; enmity towards nature, 206 state, 134, 242, 244, 245-7; d class, 124; capitalist control of, 132; c h a n g i n g configuration of, 70; democratizing, 252; in C h i n a , 202; post-revolutionary, 245; role of, 122, 153 (in securing class system, 178); struggle for, 155 see also nation-state Stiglitz, J o s e p h , 45, 72 storms, violent, 4 6 - 8 strikes, 36, 75, 237; in I n d i a , 231 stromatolites, 94 structural adjustment programmes, 71, 72 struggle, 98, 124, 151, 224, 227, 228, 233, 237-8; concept of, 93; for life, 102 sufficiency, 208 Suharto, President, 15, 72, 73 S u m m e r s , Lawrence, 76, 78, 80 S u r i n a m e , 53-4 sustainability, 22, 94, 116, 208, 215 sweatshops, 55, 169 system, w o r k i n g w i t h i n , 152-5
I2 I 2 D I 2 I 0 I I a R

Index
think-tanks, 154 T h o m a s , Dave, 58 throw-away society, 61 time, 65, 66; c o l o n i z a t i o n of, 68; compression of, 62; natural, 60; socially c o n d i t i o n e d , 104 see also circulation time Tomney, R y a n , 5 8 - 9 trade: a m o n g open economies, 45; new order of, 250; w o r l d growth of, 22 trade unions, 75 trans-statal formations, 70-1 transportation, 235 Treasury D e p a r t m e n t , 73 Trotsky, L e o n , 201, 204-5 tuberculosis, 15 u n i o n , idea of, 231 U n i o n C a r b i d e company, 2 9 - 3 8 , 73, 138; damages awarded against, 30 U n i o n o f Soviet Socialist Republics ( U S S R ) , 155, 200, 204, 2 0 5 - 6 ; antiecological nature of, 206; collapse of, !99 U n i t e d A i r l i n e s , 165 U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a ( U S A ) , 45, 70, 71, 72, 171, 198-9, 203, 206, 246, 252 u r b a n i z a t i o n , 53 use-values, 9, 39, 4 0 , 52, 103, 127-8, 130, 133, 9 > m, !95-7> 9 > 4> 7~9> 235. 3 , 3 9 , 4o> 245, 247, 2 4 8 - 9 , 251; enhancement of, 215; liberation of, 198; p r o d u c t i o n of, 217; struggle for, 197 usufructuary of the E a r t h , 238-44 usury, creation of, 129
l6 20 2I 22 2 8 2 2

273

waste, 208; d u m p i n g of, 76, 79; management of, 156; p r o d u c t i o n of, 61 water: access to, 56; sale of systems, 73-4 Wendy's O l d - F a s h i o n e d H a m b u r g e r s , 58 West N i l e virus, 15 W h o l e s , 91-2, 97, 104, 105, 106, 132 wilderness, 210; as constructed category, 217; preservation of, 172 Wolfensohn, James, 74, 76, 78 w o m e n : as nature, 216; c o n t r o l over, 121; control over o w n lives, 250; d o m i n a t i o n of, 122; leadership of, 234; life conditions of, 55; relegated position of, 212; reproductive rights of, 239; work of, 168, 217 women's liberation, 176-7 w o o d - b u r n i n g stoves, 175

worker ownership see ownership, by workers w o r k i n g class, ecological capacities of, 207 W o r l d B a n k , 7, 71, 72, 73-4, 169, 172, 226, 231, 235, 236; as ecosystem, 225 W o r l d People's T r a d e O r g a n i z a t i o n ( W P T O ) , 249-51 W o r l d T r a d e O r g a n i z a t i o n ( W T O ) , 7, 45, 71, 231 ' w r o n g t u r n ' of civilization, 133 Yosemite, development of, 172 youth, as commodity, 62 Zachary, G. Pascal, 45 Zapatista A r m y for N a t i o n a l L i b e r a t i o n ( E Z L N ) , 234, 236

value, 48, 126, 127, 128, 142, 165, 191, 249; intrinsic, 197, 245; measurement of, 60; m o n e y as repository of, 126 Venice, B a n k of, 129 village life, 53-4 violence, 122, 124, 245-7; against w o m e n , 55; male, 121 Voltaire, 156 v o l u n t a r i s m , 155-6 wage labour, 167, 168; exploitation of, 150 wage relation, 132, 165-6 W a l - M a r t , 52, 218 Walker, Peter, 14 W a l l Street, 39

taxation, 19, 223 teckne, 135, 138 technology, 101, 116-17, 159, 215; appropriate, 216; critique of, 138; fetish of, 80 Teresa of A v i l a , St, 117

Critical A c c l a i m for this Book

A c h a l l e n g i n g b o o k , w r i t t e n w i t h p a s s i o n a n d e l o q u e n c e . Its message is that ' c a p i t a l c a n n o t be r e f o r m e d : it e i t h e r rules a n d destroys us, or is destroyed, so that we m a y have a lease o n life'. T h e u n d e r l y i n g causes a n d t h e i r f a r - r e a c h i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s are systematically e x p l o r e d . R i c h i n d e t a i l a n d insights a n d l e a d i n g t o m u c h n e e d e d r a d i c a l c o n c l u s i o n s , this b o o k s h o u l d b e r e a d b y a l l those w h o are c o n c e r n e d a b o u t the s u r v i v a l of the h u m a n species. Alienation and Beyond Capital J o e l K o v e l has b r o u g h t u s a persuasive, passionate a n d h o p e f u l ecosocialist m a n i festo. H e shows h o w p r o b l e m s f r o m t o x i c p o l l u t i o n t o g l o b a l i z e d p o v e r t y reflect the i n n e r l o g i c o f c a p i t a l i s m , a n d extends the lessons o f M a r x i s m a n d o t h e r r a d i c a l traditions to illuminate a path toward an ethical a n d ecological revolution. T h i s b o o k offers m u c h f o o d for t h o u g h t t o a l l w h o seek a systemic u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f today's s o c i a l a n d e c o l o g i c a l crises. designing Life? and Earth for Sale B r i a n T o k a r , a c t i v i s t a n d a u t h o r o f ReIstvan Meszaros, author of M a r x ' s T h e o r y of

A necessary a n d t i m e l y b o o k . N e c e s s a r y because it o p e n l y declares c a p i t a l i s m as T H E destroyer o f the e a r t h a n d a l l eco-systems. T i m e l y , because i t a p p e a r s a t a m o m e n t w h e n m o r e a n d m o r e p e o p l e are b e g i n n i n g t o lose f a i t h i n capital's a b i l i t y to solve the s o c i a l a n d e c o l o g i c a l crises. T h e b o o k is a m u s t for a l l those w h o are active i n the i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t against c o r p o r a t e - d r i v e n g l o b a l i z a t i o n a n d w h o l o o k for a perspective b e y o n d capital's e n s l a v e m e n t o f n a t u r e a n d p e o p l e . Maria Mies, author of The Subsistence Perspective

The Enemy of Nature exposes better t h a n a n y o t h e r single w o r k the extent a n d d e p t h of capitalism's global ecological destruction. T h i s master work by J o e l K o v e l then pursues the necessary i m p l i c a t i o n s - i n c l u d i n g the o p p o r t u n i t y a n d n e e d t o i m a g i n e a n e c o l o g i c a l socialist society. K o v e l shows that the c o r e c o n d i t i o n s o f s u c h a society are the accession o f q u a l i t y over q u a n t i t y a n d use-value over e x c h a n g e v a l u e , w i t h the e m a n c i p a t o r y possibilities these i m p l y . of Natural Conditions J a m e s O'Connor, author

F u l l o f insights i n t o the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e c o l o g i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n a n d capitalist e x p a n s i o n , this i s a must r e a d for thinkers a n d activists. Director, Focus on the Global South, Thailand J o e l K o v e l has w r i t t e n a h i g h l y o r i g i n a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l l y elegant a r g u m e n t that e c o l o g i c a l crisis a n d capitalist e x p l o i t a t i o n o f l a b o u r m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s t w o aspects o f the same p r o b l e m , a n d therefore r e m e d i e s for e c o l o g i c a l d e s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e the d e s t r u c t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m . I n the process, h e puts f o r w a r d a n a c c o u n t o f the ways the g e n d e r e d s e p a r a t i o n o f m a n f r o m n a t u r e (woman) lies a t the r o o t of a masculinist capitalism. T h e abolition of patriarchy, then, becomes central to the ecosocialist project. I n a d d i t i o n t o this i m p r e s s i v e r e w o r k i n g o f M a r x i s t theory, h e offers a v i s i o n a r y p r o g r a m o f p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n . Professor of Political Science, University of Washington A m o n g the m a n y benefits that have resulted f r o m cessation o f the C o l d W a r i s o u r f r e e d o m t o c r i t i c i z e c a p i t a l i s m , o p e n l y a n d forcefully, w i t h o u t b e i n g l a b e l l e d ' c o m m u n i s t s ' , o r worse. J o e l K o v e l takes strategic a d v a n t a g e o f this d e v e l o p m e n t b y i n d i c t i n g capital's d i s m a l e c o l o g i c a l r e c o r d in a b o o k that is sure to s p a w n l i v e l y a n d sensible debate. M a r k D o w i e , a u t h o r a n d f o r m e r e d i t o r o f Mother Jones Nancy Hartsock, Waiden Bello, Executive

THE ENEMY OF NATURE

' F u l l o f insights i n t o the r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e c o l o g i c a l d e g r a d a t i o n a n d capitalist e x p a n s i o n , this is a m u s t - r e a d f o r t h i n k e r s a n d activists.' W a i d e n B e l l o , E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r , F o c u s o n the G l o b a l S o u t h ' A persuasive, passionate a n d h o p e f u l ecosocialist m a n i f e s t o . T h i s b o o k offers m u c h f o o d f o r t h o u g h t t o all w h o seek a systemic u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f today's s o c i a l a n d e c o l o g i c a l crises.' B r i a n T o k a r , activist a n d a u t h o r of Redesigning Life? ' A necessary a n d t i m e l y b o o k . N e c e s s a r y because i t o p e n l y declares c a p i t a l i s m a s the d e s t r o y e r o f the e a r t h a n d all eco-systems. T i m e l y , because i t appears a t a m o m e n t w h e n m o r e a n d m o r e p e o p l e are b e g i n n i n g t o lose f a i t h i n capital's a b i l i t y t o solve the s o c i a l a n d e c o l o g i c a l crises.' M a r i a M i e s , a u t h o r of The Subsistence Perspective ' A c h a l l e n g i n g b o o k , w r i t t e n w i t h passion and e l o q u e n c e . . . R i c h i n d e t a i l a n d i n s i g h t s , this b o o k s h o u l d b e r e a d b y all those c o n c e r n e d a b o u t the s u r v i v a l o f the h u m a n species.' Istvan M e s z a r o s , a u t h o r of Beyond Capital ' The Enemy of Nature exposes b e t t e r t h a n a n y o t h e r single w o r k the extent a n d d e p t h of capitalism's global ecological destruction. T h i s master w o r k also s h o w s the c o r e c o n d i t i o n s o f a n y e c o l o g i c a l socialist s o c i e t y . ' J a m e s O ' C o n n o r , a u t h o r o f Natural Conditions ' A h i g h l y o r i g i n a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l l y elegant a r g u m e n t that e c o l o g i c a l crisis a n d capitalist e x p l o i t a t i o n o f l a b o u r m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d a s t w o aspects o f the same p r o b l e m . I n the process, K o v e l puts f o r w a r d a n a c c o u n t o f the w a y s the g e n d e r e d s e p a r a t i o n o f m a n f r o m n a t u r e ( w o m a n ) lies a t the r o o t o f a m a s c u l i n i s t c a p i t a l i s m . I n a d d i t i o n t o this i m p r e s s i v e r e w o r k i n g o f M a r x i s t t h e o r y , h e offers a v i s i o n a r y p r o g r a m of practical political action.' N a n c y H a r t s o c k , Professor o f P o l i t i c a l Science, University of Washington ' J o e l K o v e l i n d i c t s capital's d i s m a l e c o l o g i c a l r e c o r d i n a b o o k that i s sure t o s p a w n l i v e l y a n d sensible debate.' M a r k D o w i e , a u t h o r a n d f o r m e r e d i t o r o f Mother Jones

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