MAP DEFINITIONS, TYPES AND PARTS

c.

DEFINITIONS OF A WHAT A MAP IS Traditionally, maps are conceived as directional guides printed on papers. Other people think of maps as any twodimensional representation of the earths surface and is reserved only for cartography Map is any graphical representation of spatial reality. A cartographic representation of specifically chosen spatial information. The information is transmitted through images constructed from symbols. We tend to restrict the term to visual maps, but spatial information may be represented on a computer screen, through braille, or verbally through spoken description, and these categories of spatial representation may also be described as maps (Mayhew). A symbolized image of geographical reality, representing selected features or characteristics, resulting from the creative effort of its authors execution of choices, and is designed for use when spatial relationships are of primary relevance (ICA in Gomez and Jones III). are graphic representations that facilitate a spatial understanding of things, concepts, conditions, processes, or events in the human world (Harley and Woodward in Gomez and Jones III).

Media Printed Cognitive Spoken

PARTS OF A FORMAL PRINTED MAP title map body inset map legend numerical scale orientation (e.g. north arrow) projection (e.g. Mercator, Robinson) other information neat line borders the map body frame line

Projection is a systematic rendering on a flat surface of the geographical coordinates of the features found on Earths surface (Knox, Marston, and Nash).

Types: a. Equidistant projections allow distance to be represented as accurately as possible. b. Conformal projections map projections on which compass bearings are rendered accurately. c. Azimuthal projections map projections on which compass directions are correct from only one central point d. Equal-area map projections that portray areas on Earths surface in their true proportions

Cartography The production and study of maps and charts (Mayhew). the body of practical and theoretical knowledge about making distinctive visual representations of Earths surface in the form of maps (Knox, Marston, and Nash).

TYPES OF MAPS a. Focus Multivariate Bivariate Univariate Symbol Dot Isoline Cholopleth Located Charts Topological Cartogram

Note: A projection preserves and ignores the accuracy of one or more of these: size, shape, area, direction, and distance.

b.

APPROACHES IN MAP DESIGN AND INTERPRETATION

MAPPING AS ART AND SCIENCE Art in maps is reflected in aesthetics and visual pleasures derived when looking and using maps. Science in maps is embedded in communication and standardization of symbols when planning and making maps.

Geographic Information Systems an annual multibillion-dolllar industry and is therefore subject to the demands for profit which leads to the service of particular interests of those who can afford to commission digital mapping.

Securitization in mapping involves the legitimization of the knowledge represented in maps and efforts to mainstream and standardize things related to cartography.

COMMUNICATIVE/BEHAVIORAL APPROACH the map is thought of as a data storage entity and the purpose of the cartographer is to design the map in such a way that the map conveys the intended information. In this model the cartographer is the sender and the map is the messenger. The map is a model to be decoded by the map reader.

Resistance in mapping are efforts that question the implications, purposes, and effects of mappingrelated activities and products even mapping itself.

Reproduction of Geographic Knowledge The reproduction geographic knowledge and the power that comes with such knowledge in this age of the Internet and telecommunications is uneven. Also, maps portray socially accepted norms of spatial representation, especially those of the dominant groups.

CRITICAL APPROACHES There were critical alternatives to formal, communicative and behavioral approaches in the design, distribution, interpretation, and study of maps and related knowledge. Such critical approaches focused on purposes, contexts, reproduction of cartographic knowledge, map interpretation, uses and effects of maps.

Interpretation of Geographic Knowledge Even though maps are purposed to convey a particular message, map readers of different backgrounds, attitudes, knowledge, and behavior may interpret a map in a way that is divergent from the original intended message and may due to place or time differences.

Reasons It is argued, however, that in reality map-related activities do not happen as purely technical events. Instead, they are tied to purposes, subject to various interpretations of people of different backgrounds, and are catalysts for the reproduction of social and spatial norms.

Intertextuality A characteristic of maps that embeds the map within an interpretation process in which users use a variety of experiences and attitudes.

Martin Heidegger the essence of technology is by no means anything technical.

Purposes Mappers intentionally and unintentionally serve purposes that are intended to benefit particular groups of people. A map can be for the depiction of a territory of a nation-state and sometimes such assertions of areal dominion goes unquestioned.

Uses and Effects Of Maps Maps inform us of where we are, where we are going, and what we have. Maps can help settle territorial disputes and mark possible places of potential sustainable development.

Contexts Maps are made within political, historical, social, economic, and cultural contexts.(e.g. Cold War, Age of imperialism). It uses map as propaganda.

Cartographic Anxiety Cartographers whether makers or scholars are thus caught in a schizophrenic situation in which maps are seen as having a two-edged potential. (Jeremy Crampton)

ELEMENTS IN MAP DESIGN

selection and organization scale and generalization projection and graticules symbolization composition

Projection is a systematic rendering on a flat surface of the geographical coordinates of the features found on Earths surface (Knox, Marston, and Nash). 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Equidistant projections. Polyconic Conformal projection. Mercator Azimuthal projections Equal-area map. Mollweide Compromise projection: Dymaxion

SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION what will appear on the map is determined by the cartographer/s and the commissioner/s of the map. what will not appear is intentionally or unintentionally determined.

A projection preserves and ignores the accuracy of one or more of these: size, shape, area, direction, and distance.

Graticule a regular grid, used for referencing points on a map (Mayhew).

Large-scale Quality of Features: Low Quantity of Features: High

SYMBOLIZATION Classification symbol type (color, shapes, sizes) treatment (scientific, aesthetic, critical) data type (quantitative, qualitative)

Small-scale Quality of Features: High Quantity of Features: Low

General rule of thumb: Given the same amount of print/project area (ceteris paribus), the quality of features increases with increases in numerical scale while the quantity of features decreases with increases in numerical scale.

ceteris paribus assuming everything else as constant

Generalization abstraction of real-world geographic features symbolized in a map as measured by quality and/or quality.

PROJECTION AND GRATICULES Equal-distance projection is for pilots and captains of ships. Projection that preserves direction is important for navigators, too. Equal-area projection is fit for the job of a real estate broker.

REMOTE SENSING AND IMAGE INTERPRETATION

4.

Collection available images of particular type/s are gathered Interpretation images are interpreted using basic ande thematic elements and interpretation tools Calibration and validation feedback can be given for improving the tools for collection and interpretation. The human interpreter gains skill. validation using other methods like field visits can be done to ensure a level of accuracy of the results.

5. REMOTE SENSING, IMAGE INTERPRETATION, AND THE RESEARCH PROCESS 6. Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation should not be done for the sake of doing them. They should be fashioned and executed for purposes such as those of research.

Research Process on the other hand, is greatly aided by remote sensing technologies and results of image interpretation. I. GOALS AND TYPES INTERPRETATION GOALS Reconnaisance REMOTE SENSING AND EMR Remote Sensing Inventory the gathering and recording of information about the earths surface by methods which do not involve actual contact with the surface under consideration. (Mayhew). Techniques: photography, infrared imagery, and radar from aircraft, satellites, and spacecraft collection of data about features or phenomena on the Earths surface or atmosphere, without directly being in contact with such features/phenomena. is centered around the principle that particular objects emit and/ or reflect particular types of radiation and there are sensors that can detect such radiations. can also be served by image interpretation in cases such as a listing of tree species or geologic formations. is when the study area is checked before a visit or for the generation of hypothesis/es.

Mapping. Remotely-sensed images can be converted into maps.

Monitoring. Images in a time series are for monitoring phenomena such as dune migration, forest cover, and avulsion.

TASK CONCERNING IMAGE INTERPRETATION is in the use stage in the process within which strict remote sensing is located.

TYPES OF INTERPRETATION Location Identification is for the determination of the types of features and phenomena.

1. Goals and Types Goals for which interpretation is to be made aredetermined. Appropriate interpretation types are specified. 2. Image Type Given goals, useful images of specific type/s are selected for secondary collection Availability Is checked foe the determination of alternative images of method

Measurement is for the quantification geographical features. of attributes of

3.

Analysis is the examination of spatial relationships and attributes of geographical features.

II. TYPES OF IMAGERY Two Factors: a. Sensor Types photographic or digital. infrared, visible light, etc (various parts of the EMR spectrum they correspond to) passive/active (the general way the interact with radiation) b. Platform Type 1. Aerial Resolution: Higher Coverage: Smaller Storage: Digital/ Printed Altitude: Low Sensor Type: Limited 2. Satelllite Resolution: Lower Coverage: Larger Storage: Digital/ Printed Altitude: High Sensor Type: Wide Range III. AVAILABILITY OF IMAGES images that are needed are subject to availability due to ownership, image time, location of area represented by the image, scale, resolution, and type of spatial data expected in the images. IV. COLLECTION V. ELEMENTS OF IMAGE INTERPRETATION Elements are signs that are sought for in a remotely-sensed image to produce a useful and proper interpretation. can be classified as basic or thematic. INTERPRETATION TOOLS The human eye and mind stereoscope viewer for overlapping hardcopy images zoom transfer scope GIS for digital GIS layers

Validation is done to ensure the accuracy of the interpretation, through field visits and other research methods and materials such as reports supplements

THE HUMAN INTERPRETER subjects the images to a system that is systematic and using supplementary materials such as field reports and other maps. (Lillesand and Kiefer) needs skills, patience, and enough understanding of what is being studied. (Lillesand and Kiefer)

VI. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION Calibration of interpretation and collection tools is done using feedbacks from intepretation activities for better remote sensing activities in the future. human mind and eyes are calibrated too.

ELEMENTS OF IMAGE INTERPRETATION

I. BASIC ELEMENTS Tone/ Hue Shape Size of objects on photographs must be considered in the context of the photo scale. Relative sizes among objects on photographs of the same scale must also be considered. refers to the general form, configuration, or outline of individual objects. In the case of stereoscopic photographs, the objects height also defines its shape. refers to the relative brightness or color of objects on photographs. Light-toned areas (higher and/or drier) Dark-toned areas (lower and/or wetter)

Context refers to the occurrence of certain features in relation to others. useful for the identification of a site (topographical/geographical location) and is helpful in the interpretation of types of flora.

Interpretation keys they are visual guides in the form of palettes that can guide the relatively unskilled interpreter in dealing with images new to him/her and not elements or signs sought after in image interpretation. are texts and images used to guide novice interpreters in interpreting aerial photographs.

II. THEMATIC ELEMENTS There are special elements particular to image types. These types of images range from those depicting terrain, infrared, and others. Terrain is of prime importance in the analysis of systems, scapes, forms, and processes and special attention is given to it in this class.

Height/Depth pertains to elevation/depression from the sea level. Height/depth is detected using tones and shadows.

Shadows Importance: 1. The shape or outline of a shadow tells the type of object it is representing. 2. Objects within shadows reflect little light and are difficult to discern on photographs. Pattern Texture is the frequency of tonal change on the photographic image. It is produced by an aggregation of unit features that may be too small to be discerned individually on the photograph It is a product of their individual shape, size, pattern, shadow and tone. There are rough and smooth textures. relates to the spatial arrangement of objects. Terrain variations can be interpreted using shadows.

TERRAIN ANALYSIS
Terrain Analysis The use of remote sensing satellite data for mapping various aspects of terrain, such as land cover, land use, and soils. Software may then be utilized to derive terrain parameters, such as aspect, catchment area, and wetness index, which are then used to describe the morphology of the landscape and the influence of topography on environmental processes.

but instead collects and flow across the surface in small rivulets These initial rivulets enlarge and take on a particular shape characteristic of the material in which they are formed. channel or ditch formed by water erosion. Shape a. v-shaped: Sand and gravel b. u-shaped: Silt c. gently-rounded: Silt clay and Clay

Ridge landform feature characterized by a continuous elevational crest with sloping sides.

SOIL residual, transported, organic fine-textured, coarse-textured percentages of clay, silt, sand, and gravel drainage

PHOTOTONE refers to the brightness at any point on a panchromatic photograph. depends on terrain characteristic, photographic factors (film-filter combination, exposure, and photographic processing) and meteorological and climatological factors (atmospheric haze, sun angle, and cloud shadows) because of these, relative tone values are assessed rather than absolute tone values.

TOPOGRAPHY With vertical photographs having a normal 60 percent overlap, most individuals using stereograms see the terrain exaggerated in height about three of four times

DRAINAGE Attributes: I. Pattern a. Destructional dendritic rectangular trellis radial centripetal deranged b. Constructional II. Texture a. Fine-textured soils and rocks have poor internal drainage and high surface runoff b. Coarse-textured soils and rocks have good internal drainage and little surface runoff EROSION Gullies result from the erosion of unconsolidated material by runoff and develop where rainfall cannot adequately percolate into the ground, Erosion expressed in gullies. a. lighter-toned areas topographically higher position coarser soil texture lower soil moisture content lower organic content b. darker-toned areas topographically lower position finer soil texture higher soil moisture content higher organic content reminder: These points are for black and white panchromatic images

VEGETATION AND LAND USE differences in natural or cultivated vegetation often indicate differences in terrain conditions. a. orchards and vineyards are generally located on well-drained soils, b. truck farming activities often take place on highly organic soils such as muck and peat deposits. vegetation and land use obscure differences in terrain conditions and the interpreter must be careful to draw inferences.

THE GEOMORPHIC SYSTEM AND SCAPE

Solstice A day when the overhead sun is furthest from the equator. June 21 is the Summer Solstice. December 21 is the Winter Solstice.

System any set of interrelated factors (Mayhew).

Seasonal Zone Tropical 0 to 23.5 in both hemispheres Temperate 23.5 to 66.5 in both hemispheres. Polar 66.5 to 90 in both hemispheres.

Geomorphic Systems open systems where the energy of operation comes from outside, and moves across, the system boundary. Changes in inputs will produce changes in outputs; hence, any change in energy or mass causes the processes and their statistically related landforms to adjust in order to maintain a balance in the system. The geomorphic systems approach emphasizes the intimate relationship between process and form, stresses the multivariate nature of geomorphology, and reveals that some landforms may not be in balance because they owe their character to relict conditions example, glaciated landforms (Mayhew). Any analysis of geomorphology or physical geography in general is simplified by the use of the concept of geomorphic system.

The Spatial Relationship Earths orbit and axis tilt determine the distribution of various kinds of geological and biological resources across the globe.

EARTH SYSTEM AND EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE The earth is both like a machine and an organism. As an organic machine, the earth is comprised of parts that interact, grow, become stable, and decline alternately and simultaneously. As such, the earth is a system with parts that are directly and indirectly linked to each other.

Landscape an area, the appearance of an area, or the gathering of objects that make that appearance (Mayhew).

Systems Analysis is a way of viewing complex geomorphological systems as the product of the storage, throughput, input, and output of energy and mass (Mayhew). the analysis of the structure and function of identifiable systems (Holt-Jensen).

Geomorphological Landscape the totality of surface landforms (Mayhew).

Earth System EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIP Perihelion The closest point on the Earth's orbit relative to the Sun. Happens in January 3. the unified set of physical, chemical, biological, and social components and interactions that together determine the state and dynamics of Planet Earth, including its biota and human occupants (ESSP in Goudie).

Aphelion The farthest point on the Earth's orbit relative to the Sun. Happens in July 4.

Earth System Science (ESS) is the study of the Earth System, with an emphasis on observing, understanding and predicting global environmental changes involving interactions between atmosphere, water, ice, biosphere, societies, technologies, and economies (ESSP in Goudie). Criticism: hodge podge of perspectives & analyses of what already exists and attempt to give scientific credence to particular endeavors

Equinox A day when daytime and nighttime are of equal length. March 21 is the Spring Equinox. September 22 is the Fall Equinox.

THE GLOBAL TECTONIC AND HYDROCLIMATIC SYSTEMS Two System of Earth System: a. b. Tectonic system is primarily about rock (whether solid or molten) and the Hydroclimatic system is about air and water (wheter liquid or frozen).

Hydroclimatic System. the conjuction of work between the hydrologic system and climatic system

Direction of Ocean Currents: Northern Hemisphere- Clockwise Southern Hemisphere- Counter-clockwise

Interaction: Air flow is blocked by mountains. Lava flows release gas into the atmosphere. Erosion through rainfall denudes landforms. Hard material diverts running water. Hydrologic system is the complex cycle through which water moves from the oceans, to the atmosphere, over the land, and back to the oceans again. Water in the hydrologic system moving as surface runoff, groundwater, glaciers, waves, and currents erodes, transports and deposits surface rock material (Hamblin and Christiansen). hydrologic system is only a part of the hydroclimatic system.

Direction of Wind Currents: Northern Hemisphere: Counter- clock wise Southern Hemisphere: Clockwise

FOUR SPHERES Biosphere the zone where life is found.

Atmosphere the layer of air surrounding the Earth with an average composition, by volume, of 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and 1 % of other gases (carbon dioxide and water vapor)

Tectonic System involves the movement of the lithosphere which is broken into a mosaic of separate plates. These plates move independently, separating, colliding, and sliding past one another. The margins of the plates are the sites of considerable geologic activity such as seafloor spreading, continental rifting, mountain building, volcanism, and earthquakes (Hamblin and Christiansen).

Hydrosphere all the water on, or close to, the surface of the earth. Some 97% is in the earth's seas and oceans; of the rest, about 75% is in ice caps and sheets, about 25% in surface drainage and groundwater, and about 0.03% in the atmosphere.

Type of Plate Boundaries A. Divergent boundaries are areas where plates move away from each other, forming either mid-oceanic ridges or rift valleys. B. Convergent boundaries are areas where plates move toward each other and collide. These are also known as compressional or destructive boundaries. 1. oceanic -continental: Volcanic arch 2. oceanic -oceanic: Island arch 3. continental-continental: Mountain Ranges C. Transform boundaries occur when two plates grind past each other with only limited convergent or divergent activity.

Lithosphere simple: the rest of the earth including, molten and hardened rock. strict: the earth's crust, and that upper layer of the mantle which lies above the asthenosphere.

Layers by composition: crust, mantle, core by physical properties: lithosphere(strict), plastic asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, inner core

GEOECOSPHERE In this view, the earth is composed of three major spheres a) atmosphere, b) lithosphere. c) toposphere, cryosphere (ice), hydrosphere (water), biosphere (life), pedosphere (soil).

GEOECOSPHERE, ANTHROPOSPHERE Anthroposphere

NOSPHERE,

AND

the cultural and technological environment built by humans. (the modified geoecosphere)

Nosphere which is the sphere of mental activity of humans.

Barysphere the part of the earth that is about core and mantle processes. ignores in geoecosphere view.

THE WORLD SYSTEM

World-Empire Mini-systems that have been absorbed into a common political system while retaining their fundamental cultural differences. Famous world-empires Egypt, Greece, China, Byzantium, and Rome.

World-system An interpendent system of countries linked by economic and political competition. modern world-system began in fifteenth-century Europe. Exploration, shipbuilding, and navigation caused expansion to non-European areas.

Expansion of the World-Empires. Urbanization and Colonization were important contributions of the world-empires to an evolving world-system.

State independent political units with territorial boundaries that are internationally recognized by other political units. has sovereignty, territory, a government, and a population.

Hearth area Pre-modern regions that were sources of technological innovation and centers of economic and political power.

Core Regions Regions that dominate trade, control the most advanced technologies, and have high levels of productivity within diversified economies.

Hinterland the sphere of economic influence of a town or city

Semiperipheral Regions Regions that are able to exploit peripheral regions but are themselves exploited and dominated by core regions.

A NEW WORLD GEOGRAPHY Internal Growth Technological Innovation Overseas Expansion Leadership Cycles Periods of international power established by individual states through economic, political, and military competition. The Portuguese, Dutch, British, and Americans had their own leadership cycle.

Peripheral Regions Regions with undeveloped or narrowly specialized economies with low levels of productivity.

External Arena Regions of the world not fully-absorbed into the modern world-system

Hegemony Domination over the world economy exercised by one national state in a particular historical epoch through a combination of economic, military, financial, and cultural means.

PREMODERN GEOGRAPHIC CHANGE Mini-System A society with a single cultural base and a reciprocal social economy. Slash-and-burn agriculture was practiced

Plantations Large landholdings that usually specialize in the production of one particular crop for market.

Hearth areas emerged where there was plenty of resources: 1. 2. 3. The Middle East South Asia Areas in the Americas

Import Substitution The process by which domestic producers provide goods or services that formerly were brought from foreign producers.

ORGANIZING THE PERIPHERY International Division of Labor Colonies specialized when there was: 1. Established demand in the industrial core. 2. Comparative advantage in the production of goods. 3. No competition of products within core countries. The keyword was dependency. Division of Labor The specialization of different people, regions, or countries, in particular kinds of economic activities.

GLOBALIZATION The Three World: 1. First World: United States and the world-system core 2. Second World: Soviet Union, China, and their satellite countries. 3. Third World: Most of the periphery and independent countries. Neocolonialism Economic and political strategies by which powerful states in core economies indirectly maintain or extend their influence over other areas or people.

Comparative Advantage Principle whereby places and regions specialize in activities for which they have the greatest advantage in productivity relative to other regions or for which they have the least disadvantage.

Globalization The increase in the volume, scale, and velocity of social (and environmental interactions. Globalization is not new, pre-dating colonialism The increasing integration of peoples and places.

Transnational Corporations Imperialism The control of one or a number of countries by a dominant nation. This control may be political, economic, or both, and indicates a degree of dependence in the subordinate nation. Imperialism can exist without the creation of formal colonies, which usually require military force and the institution of a colonial administration. Companies with investments and activities that span international boundaries and with subsidiary companies, factories, offices, or facilities in several countries.

Results of Globalization 1. commodity chains, consumerism, pop culture, English language 2. environmental degradation 3. growth of globally oriented groups 4. differences in the world economy 5. mingling, clashing, and the emergence of cultures and pathways to economic and cultural development

Colonialism The acquisition and colonization by a nation of other territories and their peoples. In this respect, colonialism is as old as society.

Subaltern Theory A theory examining the ways in which the colonized margin is culturally dominated by the colonizing centre. It studies how the centre is producing the concept of others. Examines the ways in which the periphery is marginalized by the colonizing centre. Commodity Chains Networks of labor and production processes beginning with the extraction or production of raw materials and ending with the delivery of a finished commodity.

In 1999, the fifth of the worlds population living in the highest-income countries had 74 % of world income (the bottom fifth had 1%) 82 % of the world export markets (the bottom fifth had just 1%) 74 %of world telephone lines, todays basic means of communication (the bottom fifth had just 1.5%)

Fast World People, places, and regions directly involved, as producers and consumers, in transnational industry, modern telecommunications, materialistic consumption, and international news and entertainment.

Slow World People, places, and regions whose participation in transnational industry, modern telecommunications, materialistic consumption, and international news and entertainment is limited.

Digital Divide Inequality of access to telecommunications and information technology, particularly the Internet.

Spatial Justice The fairness of the distribution of society's burdens and benefits, taking into account spatial variations in people's needs and in their contribution to the production of wealth and social well-being.

INTERPRETING PLACES AND LANDSCAPES

PLACE A particular point on the earth's surface; an identifiable centre produced from human and social interactions and thereafter endowed with meaning.

Sublime Landscape A landscape so impressive that it inspire awe or wonder. Fear Landscape Landscapes that shows fear Ordinary Landscape The everyday landscapes that people create in the course of their lives. Symbolic Landscape Representations of particular values or aspirations that the builders and financiers of those landscapes want to impart to a larger public. Derelict Landscapes Landscapes that have experienced abandonment, misuse, disinvestment, or vandalism.

LANDSCAPE An area, the appearance of an area, or the gathering of objects that make that appearance.

MENTAL MAP A map of the environment within the mind of an individual which reflects the knowledge and prejudices of that individual. Such a map reflects the individual's perceptions of, and preferences for, different places and is the result of the way in which an individual acquires, classifies, stores, retrieves, and decodes information about locations.

Humanistic Approach Places the individual especially individual values, meaning systems, intentions, and conscious acts at the center of analysis. Landschaft A German concept of landscape which attempted to classify landscapes, usually distinguishing between the natural and the cultural landscape. Landscape As Text and written with a code. The idea that landscapes can be read and written by groups and individuals. LANDSCAPE AS A HUMAN SYSTEM

COGNITIVE MAPPING The acquisition, coding, storage, manipulation, and recall of spatial information within the mind. simplifies the complexity of the landscape and the mental map derived thereby is held to influence behavior.

a. Sequential mapping focuses on links between places b. Spatial mapping concentrates on landmarks and areas rather than on paths.

LANDSCAPE AS A HUMAN SYSTEM Landscapes possess human imprints on environment. The landscape is a palimpsest Types: Power Landscape Landscapes that shows power Despair Landscape Landscapes that shows hopeless and sadness the Different people perceive the environment differently. Landscape is a text written by individuals and groups possessing culture and experiences. Signs are codes that exists within a landscape and are those that draw our attention to them away from others. The codes can be aesthetic applications on the landscape. These codes pertain to the definition of the landscape as an appearance. In comparison, the landscape as an area can inspire awe and wonder.

Aesthetic Culturally determined standard of beauty and good taste.

CODED SPACES Coded Spaces are full of signs and symbols. Ex: malls and sacred spaces Step on to a coded space. Observe the signs. Which symbols, once removed, shall largely devoid the coded space of its meaning?

PLACE MAKING AND PLACE MARKETING Territoriality The persistent attachment of individuals or peoples to a specific location or territory. defined as any attempt to fulfill socially produced needs for identity, defence, and stimulation.

Semiotics The practice of writing and reading signs.

a) Territoriality for social interaction b) Territoriality for regulation of access to people and resources c) Territoriality for provision of a focus and symbol of group membership an identity Proxemics The study of the social and cultural meanings that people give to personal space.

Sacred Space An area recognized by individuals or groups as worthy of special attention as a site of special religious experiences or events.

POSTMODERN SPACES Modernism A forward-looking view of the world that emphasizes reason, scientific rationality, creativity, novelty, and progress

Sense of Place Feelings evoked among people as a result of the experiences and memories that they associate with a place and the symbolism.

Postmodernism A view of the world that emphasizes on openness to a range of perspectives in social inquiry, artistic expression, and political empowerment.

How are Cognitive Images of a Place Created? 1. It starts with the real world. 2. From everything that is sensible in a situation, a limited set of information is received 3. by our senses. These limited sensed information is perception. 4. Perception then undergoes mental processes and is filtered by our personality. 5. Perception is transformed into cognition, which is understanding. 6. Cognition is further filtered by our culture. 7. The final output is a transformed cognitive image, a mental map. Elements of Cognitive Images/ Mental Maps Paths Edges Districts Nodes Landmarks channels of movement barriers areas you enter and leave strategic points for travel physical reference points

Postmodern Spaces Postmodernism abandons modernism's emphasis on economic and scientific progress, arguing the modernism's failure to deliver such progress is indicative of its flaws. Because of this, postmodernism also rejects the value of grand universal theories. For some, postmodernism is living for the moment. Postmodernism is consumption-oriented. Globalization and postmodernism converge in consumption. Examples are ethnic cuisines.

CYBERSPACE There are virtual stores, virtual meeting places, etc. The culture propagated by the Internet is very much core-oriented. There is also the issue of the personality or publicity of the cyberspace of individuals.

Images and Behavior Environments are learned through experience. Meanwhile, cognitive images, once generated, influence behavior. People's values and feelings work with cognitive images to influence behavior in.

GEOGRAPHIES OF POPULATION

Population Distribution Almost all of the world's inhabitants live on 10 percent of the land. Most live near the edges of land masses, near the oceans or seas or along rivers with easy access to a navigable waterway. Approximately 90 percent live north of the equator, where the largest proportion of the total land area (63 percent) is located. Finally, most of the world's population lives in temperate, low-lying areas with fertile soils.

Population Geography The study of human populations; their composition, growth, distribution, and migratory movements with an emphasis on the last two. It is concerned with the study of demographic processes which affect the environment, but differs from demography in that it is concerned with the spatial expression of such processes.

Population Density and Composition A. Crude Density (Arithmetic Density) The total number of people divided by the total land area. B. Nutritional Density The ratio between the total population and the amount of land under cultivation in a given unit of area. C. Agricultural Density The ratio between the total population and the number of agriculturists per unit of arable land in a specific area.

Demography The study of the characteristics of human populations.

THE DEMOGRAPHER'S TOOLBOX Sources of Information A. Census The count of the number of people in a country, region, or city. B. Vital Records Information about births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and the incidence of certain infectious diseases. C. Family Reconstitution The process of reconstructing individual and family life histories by linking together separately recorded birth, marriage, and death data. D. Administrative Record Linkage The linking together of a number of different government databases to build one database with much more detailed information on each individual it contains. POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND STRUCTURE Factors that Shape Population Distribution degree of accessibility topography soil fertility climate and weather water availability quality & type& availability of natural resources political and economic experiences and characteristics culture (religion, tradition, or historical experience).

Population In Terms of Its Composition Cohort A group of individuals who share a common temporal demographic experince

A. Youth Cohort Members of the population who are less than 15 years of age and generally considered to be too young to be fully active in the labor force. B. Middle Cohort Members of the population 15 to 64 years of age who are considered economically active and productive. C. Old-Age Cohort Members of the population 65 years of age and older who are considered beyond their economically active and productive years. Age-Sex Pyramid A representation of the population based on its composition according to age and sex.

Dependency Ratio The measure of the economic impact of the young and old on the more economically productive members of the population.

Infant Mortality Rate The annual number of deaths of infants under one year compared to the total number of live births for that same year.

Baby Boom Aging A term used to describe the effects of an increasing proportion of older age groups on the population. The increased number of births in the two decades following the Second World War.

Life Expectancy The average number of years an individual can expect to live.

Demographic Transition Theory Many demographers believe that fertility and mortality rates are directly tied to the level of economic development of a country, region, or place.

Participation Rate The proportion of a cohort or group that becomes involved in a specific activity, such as attending an educational institution.

Demographic Transition The replacement of high birth and death rates by low birth and death rates.

POPULATION DYNAMICS AND PROCESSES Crude Birth Rate The ratio of the number of live births in a single year for every thousand people in the population. POPULATION MOVEMENT AND MIGRATION Mobility The ability to move, either permanently or temporarily.

Crude Death Rate (CDR) The number of deaths in a single year for every thousand people in the population.

Migration A long-distance move to a new location.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) Emigration The average number of children a woman will have throughout the years that demographers have identified as her childbearing years, approximately ages 15 to 49. A movement in which a person leaves a country.

Immigration A movement in which a person goes to another country.

Doubling Time The measure of how long it will take the population of an area to grow to twice its current size

International Migration A move from one country to another.

Natural Increase The difference between the CBR and CDR, which is the surplus of births over deaths.

Internal Migration A move within a particular country or region.

Natural Decrease The difference between CDR and CBR, which is the deficit of births relative to deaths.

Gross Migration The total number of migrants moving into and out of a place, region, or country

Population Policies and Programs Population Policy An official government policy designed to affect any or all of several objectives including the size, composition, and distribution of population.

Net Migration The gain or loss in the total population of a particular area as a result of migration.

Population Program An instrument for implementing the goals and objectives of a population policy. HEALTH, AND THE

Push Factors Events and conditions that impel an individual to move away from a location. POPULATION, ENVIRONMENT

Pull Factors Forces of attraction that influence migrants to move to a particular location.

Voluntary Migration The movement by an individual against his or her will. a) b) c) d)

The study of the interconnections among population, health, and the environment defines the field of study known as medical geography. This broad area of research has traditionally been made up of two quite distinct approaches (the study of the cause and spread of disease and the study of the provision and consumption of health care), to which modern geographical work adds two more (the study of the social construction of health and the study of the effects of environmental change). cause and spread of disease provision and consumption of health care social construction of health effects of environmental

Forced Migration The movement by an individual against his or her will.

change

Guest Workers Individuals who migrate temporarily to take jobs to other countries.

Eco-Migration A population movement caused by the degradation of land and essential natural resources.

POPULATION DEBATES AND POLICIES Population and Resources The question of whether too many people exist for Earth to sustain has bedevilled population policy-makers and political leaders for most of the second half of the twentieth century.

Carrying Capacity The maximum potential number of inhabitants which can be supported in a given area.