Foundations of Geometry

I shall not stop to explain this in more detail, because I should deprive you of the pleasure of mastering it yourself. - Rene Descartes

Contents
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Introduction Incidence Axioms Incidence Geometry Betweenness Betweenness Axioms Betweenness Theorems Congruence Congruence Axioms Models of Geometry 2 2 2 4 5 5 11 12 13 13

10 Neutral Geometry

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Introduction Incidence Axioms

In this section we will start a list the words and statements that we will accept without denition or proof. This section should be as short as we can make it and still prove the things we want to prove. To get started, we will use the terms point and line without denition. We will also assume it is understood what we mean when say lie(s) on, as in the point P lies on the line l. There are a variety of alternative ways to indicate that the point P lies on the line l, including: l contains P , and P is incident with l. Standard notation for this is P l. Our goal is to describe (with proof) the properties of the familiar Euclidean geometry of the real plane. In the process, we will come across properties that hold in more abstract geometries (see section 9). Assertions we will make without proof include: Axiom 2.1. For every pair of points P and Q with P = Q, there exists a unique line l that contains both P and Q.

Axiom 2.2. There exist three points that do not all lie on any one line.

Axiom 2.3. For any line l, there exist distinct points P and Q that lie on l. Certainly these three axioms are not surprising, as we know them to be true in Euclidean geometry.

Incidence Geometry

Every term we use (other than our short list of undened terms) needs to be dened. In most cases our denitions are technical in order to give us something to work with when we are constructing proofs. Similarly, any statements we make that arent on our (short) list of axioms require proof. One of the rst tasks is to supply denitions for the terms listed below. Of course we will nd that we will need to provide additional terms and their denitions. Denition 3.1. Three points are collinear if they lie on the same line.

Denition 3.2. The lines l and m intersect if there exists a point P that lies on both l and m. Two or more lines are concurrent if there is a point P that lies on each of the lines.

Denition 3.3. Lines are parallel if they do not intersect. We are going to prove a few things in this course, starting with the following: Proposition 3.4. If l and m are distinct lines that are not parallel, then l and m have a unique point in common.

Proof. Assume l and m are distinct lines that are not parallel. There there exists a point P which is the intersection of l and m, meaning that P l and P m. Assume there exists another point Q so that Q l and Q m. But this contradicts Axiom 2.1. Therefore no such point Q exists, and P is unique. Proposition 3.5. There exist three distinct lines that are not concurrent.

Proof. By Axiom 2.2, there exist three points P , Q and R that are not collinear. By Axiom 2.1, there exist unique lines l, m and n such that P and Q lie on l, Q and R lie on m and P and R lie on n. By Proposition 3.4, P is the unique point that lies on both l and n, and Q is the unique point that lies on both l and m. If a point S lies on l, m and n then S = P and S = Q contradicting that P and Q are distinct. Proposition 3.6. For every line there is at least one point not lying on it.

Proof. First, assume that there exists a line l which every point lies on. By Axiom 2.2, there exists three points P , Q, and R that are not collinear. This contradicts our assumption that there exists a line which every point lies on. Therefore, there is no such line which P , Q, and R all lie on, at least one point must not lie on l. Proposition 3.7. For every point P there exist at least two distinct lines through P .

Proof. Consider arbitrary point P. By Axiom 2.1, there exist three pints which are not collinear. Let these be points Q,R, and S. By axiom 2.1, there is a line which contains P and Q, a line which contains P and R, and a line which contains P and S. Either the line containing P and Q is equivalent to the line containing P and R or it is not. In the case where they are not, it follows trivially that two distinct lines pass through P. In the case where they are, the line containing P,Q, and R can not be the one containing P and S, for 3

that would imply Q,R,S were collinear, a contradiction. Thus the line containing P,Q, and R is distinct from the one containing P and S. In both cases, there exist two distinct lines through P. Because P was an arbitrary point, this result holds for all points. Proposition 3.8. If P is any point, there exist at least one line l such that P does not lie on l. Proof. By Axiom 2.2, there exists 3 points, A, B, C, that are not collinear There exists lines AB, BC, and AC. Assume P lies on all the lines. AB and BC both contain the points P and B. Therefore AB = BC. AB and AC both contain the points P and A. Therefore AB = AC. This is a contradiction by Axiom 2.2 So P does not lie on the line.

Betweenness

In order to discuss the relationships amongst three collinear points, we will need to use (without denition) the word between, as in the point B is between the points A and C. The notation we will use is A B C, and in this context, it is understood that the points A, B and C are collinear. Denition 4.1. Given points A and B the line AB is the unique line containing both A and B. Denition 4.2. Given points A and B the line segment AB is A B {C|A C B} Denition 4.3. Given two points, A and C, the ray AC is AC {B|A C B}.

Denition 4.4. Given a line l and points A and B not on l, we say that A and B are on the same side of l if the line segment AB does not intersect l. A and B are on opposite sides of l if the line segment AB does intersect l. Denition 4.5. Given a line l and a point A not on l, the half-plane determined by l

containing A consists of A together with all points B such that A and B are on the same side of l. Denition 4.6. Given AB, the opposite ray of AB is AC such that B A C. Denition 4.7. The angle ABC consists of two rays BA and BC that share the common point B. The interior of the angle ABC is the intersection of the half-plane formed by the ray BA with the point C and the half-plane formed by the ray BC with the point A.

Betweenness Axioms

Just as we had incidence axioms, we will have four betweenness axioms. Axiom 5.1. If A B C then A, B and C are distinct collinear points, and C B A. Axiom 5.2. If B and D are distinct points, there exist points A, C and E on the line BD such that A B C, B C D and C D E.

Axiom 5.3. If A, B and C are collinear points, then one and only one of the points is between the other two.

Axiom 5.4. For every line l and for any three points A, B and C not lying on l: 1. If A and B are on the same side of l and if B and C are on the same side of l then A and C are on the same side of l. 2. If A and B are on opposite sides of l and if B and C are on opposite sides of l, then A and C are on the same side of l.

Betweenness Theorems

In light of Axiom 5.4, we see that any line l divides the plane into two distinct half-planes: Proposition 6.1. Every line bounds exactly two half-planes, and these half-planes have no point in common. Proof. Consider arbitrary line QR. By Proposition 3.6 there is at least one point not lying on QR. Let one of these points be P . All points must either be on the same side of QR as P or not. The set of points on the same side as P will form one half-plane. The set of points not on the same side as P forms another half-plane. By the given requirements to be in each respective set, the half-planes can not have a point in common. Proof. Take a line l. By Proposition 3.6 there exists a point P l. Thus by denition 4.5 there is a half-plane determined by P and all points Q on the same side of l as P . Next take a point A on line l by 2.1 there exists a line m such that P and A are on m. Next take a point B such that P A B. Thus B is on the other side of l from P thus by 5.5 l bounds exactly two half planes and the planes have no point in common. 5

Proposition 6.2. If A B C and A C D, then B C D and A B D.

Proof. By Axiom 5.1, because we are given AB C, then A, B, and C are distinct collinear points and C B A. By the same axiom, the given A C D means that D is also a distinct collinear point with A, B, and C, and D C A. This means we have 4 distinct collinear points which lie on some line l. B C D: By Proposition 3.6, let there be a point called E that does not lie on the line l. Then, let there be a line EC. Our hypothesis states that A C D, and by Proposition 6.1, the line EC bounds two half planes with no common points, therefore A and D are on opposite sides of EC. Now, assume that the points A and B are on the opposite sides of EC, however, by Proposition 3.4, two distinct non-parallel lines have one unqiue point in common. Therefore, the point at which EC intersects the line AB must be point C because C is collinear with A and B and is part of the line EC. However, this would mean that A C B, but by Axiom 5.3 this cannot happen at the same time as A B C as given. Therefore, our earlier assumption was wrong and A and B are on the same side of EC. We already showed that A and D are on opposite sides of EC, and again by Proposition 6.1, we know that the two halves cannot share common points, thus B and D are on opposite sides of EC. Finally, by Proposition 3.4 point C must be the unqiue point that line EC and BD have in common. Therefore, B C D. A B D: By Proposition 3.6, let there be a point called E that does not lie on the line l. Then, let there be a line EB. Our hypothesis states that A B C, and by Proposition 6.1, the line EB bounds two half planes with no common points, therefore A and C are on opposite sides of EB. Now, assume that the points C and D are on the opposite sides of EB, however, by Proposition 6.1, this means that A and D are on the same side of EB. However, this would mean that A D C, but by Axiom 5.3 this cannot happen at the same time as A C D as given. Therefore, our earlier assumption was wrong and C and D are on the same side of EB. By Axiom 5.4, A and D are on opposite sides of EB. Finally, by Proposition 3.4 point B must be the unqiue point that line EB and AD have in common. Therefore, A B D. Proof. Assume A B C and A C D. By denition, A, B, and C must all lie on the same line l. By Axiom 2.2, we know there exists a point E that is not collinear with A and C. Thus we know that A and C lie on opposite sides of BE. For the sake of contradiction, assume that B C D is not true. Thus, D and C are on opposite sides of BE. However, this is a contradiction, because then by the hypothesis (A C D) and Axiom 5.4, C would

be on the same side of A. Thus, B C D must be true. To prove A B D, use the same point E mentioned earlier and consider the line that goes through C and E, CE. By the inital assumption, we know that A and D lie on opposite sides of CE, and A and B lie on the same side of CE. For the sake of contradiction assume B is not between A and D. Thus, A and D are on the same side of B. This is a contradiction to our inital hypothesis, from which we deduced A and D are on opposite sides of C. Thus, A B D must be true.

Proof. Assume a line l goes through the point B. Therefore points A and C are on opposite sides of the line L. So C and D must be on the same side. Therefore A B D has to be true because A and D are on opposite sides Assume line m goes through point C. Therefore points A and D are on opposite sides of the line m. So A and B are on the same side of m. Therefore B C D has to be true because B and D are on opposites sides. Proof. Suppose A B C and A C D. By Axiom 5.1 we know that A, B, C are collinear points. We also know that A, C, D are collinear points. Then, by the denition of collinear, we can say that B, C, D are collinear points since B is collinear to A and C and D is collinear to A and C as well. SInce A is collinear to B and C along with C and D then we know D must be collinear to A and B due to the denition of collinear. We then can say A, B, D are collinear. since B, C, D are collinear, we know B C D by Axiom 5.1. since A, B, D are collinear, we know A B D by Axiom 5.1.

Proposition 6.3. If A, B and C are points on the line l with A B C, then for every point P on l either P BC or P BA.

Proof. Let A, B and C be points on the line l with A B C, and let P l. By Axiom 5.3, one of the following holds: P A B, A P B or A B P . If P A B, then P BA = BA {Q|B A Q}. If A P B, P AB, so again by denition of BA, P BA. Finally we have the case that A B P . Using Axiom 5.3 again, we know that one of the following holds: P B C, B P C or B C P . But A and C are on opposite sides of B, and A and P are on opposite sides of B, so P and C must be on the same side of B and we are down to two cases: B P C or B C P . If B P C, P BC B C, and if B C P , P BP . We see that in each of these cases, P BC or P BA.

Remark 6.4. Some new notions we discussed in class on Friday, February 10: Given line l and points A and B, we will write AB|l if A and B are on the same side of l, and A|l B if A and B are on opposite sides of l. Given A B C we may say that A and C are on opposite sides of B. This is consistent with our use of the term opposite side because we know that for any line l intersecting AC at B, A|l C. In a slight abuse of notation, we will say that l m = P , when lines l and m intersect at point P . Lemma 6.5. [Gerhardts Lemma] If A B C and B C P then A B P and A C P .

Proof. Let AB C and B C P . By Proposition 3.6, there exists a point Q not lying on the line AB. By Axiom 2.1 there exists a line QB. The line segment AC = AC {R|ARC}. A B C, so B AC. AC and QB both contain B and therefore intersect. By denition 4.4, A and C lie on opposite sides of QB. By Axiom 5.3, one of the following must be true: B P A, B A P , A B P . If B P A, by Proposition 6.2 and the fact that B C P , we have B C A. But this contradicts that A B C. If B A P : The line AP contains B. If AP were to contain any more points of QB, the two lines would in fact be the same. Q AP , however, meaning that could not be the case. This taken with the fact that B A P implies that P B A implies that P A contains no points of BQ. This means P and A fall on the same side of BQ. If P and C were to lie on the same side of BQ, the transitive nature of Axiom 5.4 would ensure that C and A would lie on the same side of BQ Which is a contradiction. P and Q must lie on opposite sides of BQ meaning P C intersects BQ. The only place this could happen is B. Therefore P B C. This contradicts B A P . A B P must be true since the other two possibilities are false. Because A B P and B C P , by Proposition 6.2, guarantees A C P . Lemma 6.6. [Gerhardts Second Lemma] If A B C and A P C, and B = P one of the following must be true: A P B or B P C.

Proof. Assume A B C and A P C, and A P B. By Axiom 5.3, one of the following is true: P A B, P B A, A P B. If P A B, by Lemma 6.5 in conjunction with A B C, we have P A C. This contradicts A P C. If P B A, then by Proposition 6.2, in conjunction with A P C, we have B P C. This contradicts A P C. Therefore A P B. 8

Theorem 6.7. [Pasch] If A, B and C are distinct noncollinear points and l is any line intersecting AB in a point between A and B then l also intersects either AC or BC. Furthermore, l intersects both AC and BC if and only if C l.

Proof. Suppose l does not intersect AC. Then by denition of opposite sides, AC|l . Since l intersects AB at a point between A and B, we see that A|l B. By Axiom 5.4, B|l C. Then by denition of opposites sides, l intersects the line segment BC. Finally, observe that AC and BC intersect at point C. The existence of any other point in the intersection of AC and BC would imply that A, B and C are collinear, contradicting our hypothesis. We can conclude that l intersects both AC and BC if and only if l AC = l BC = C, and C l.

Proposition 6.8. If A B C, then AC = AB BC.

Proof. To show two things are equal, prove that they are subsets of each other. AC AB BC: Let there be a point P on AC which is distinct from the points A, B, C. By Proposition 4.3, there exists a point Q which does not lie on AC. By Axiom 2.1, there is a line P Q. First, assume that points A and B are on opposite sides of P Q. By Proposition 4.1, the point at which P Q intersects AB must be point P . Therefore, P is on AB. Now, lets assume that the points A and B are on the same side of P Q. Because P Q must intersect AC at some point between A and C, and because A and B are on the same side, then B and C must be on opposite sides of P Q. By proposition 4.1, the point at which P Q intersects BC must be point P . Therefore, P is on BC. Therefore, because the point P on AC can be found on either AB or BC, AC ABBC. AB BC AC: Suppose we have a point P on AB such that A P B. By proposition 7.2, because A P B and A B C, then A P C and P is on AC. Therefore, AB AC. Now we must show that BC AC as well. Suppose we have a point P on BC such that B P C. This also means, by Axiom 6.1 that C P B. By proposition 7.2, because C P B and C B A (Also by Axiom 6.1), then C P A. This means that P in on AC. Therefore, BC AC. Finally, this means that together, AB BC AC.

 Proposition 6.9. [Jacksons Inception Propostion] If A B C, then AC = AB. Proof. First, we will show AC AB. Assume a point U lies on AC. Thus, U is on either A U C or A C U . If A U C, then by Axiom 6.2 A U B or B U C must be true. If A U B is true, U must lie on AB and therefore lies on AB. If B U C is true, then U fulls the condition of A B U and therefore lies on AB. If A C U , then by Proposition 7.2 U fulls the condition A B U and therefore lies on AB. Thus U lies on AB, and AC AB. Next, we will show AB AC. Assume a point U lies on AB. Thus, U is on either A U B or A B U . If A U B, then U lies on AB and therefore on AB. If A B U , then U must also lie on AB. Thus, AB AC. Therefore, AC = AB.

Proposition 6.10. If D is in the interior of the angle CAB then: 1. Every point on AD except A is in the interior of CAB. 2. No point on the ray opposite AD is in the interior of CAB. 3. If C A E then B is in the interior of angle DAE. Denition 6.11. AD is between AC and AB if the point D lies in the interior of BAC. Proposition 6.12. If AD is between AC and AB then AD intersects BC.

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Denition 6.13. A triangle is formed by three line segments AB, AC and BC such that A, B and C are non-collinear points, and we will use the notation ABC to indicate this triangle. The interior of a triangle is the intersection of the half-planes determined by AB with C, AC with B and BC with A. The exterior of a triangle is the set of points that are not on any of the line segments AB, AC and BC , and not in the interior of the triangle. When we are speaking of a particular triangle will use the notation B for the angle ABC. Proposition 6.14. Let D be a point in the interior of Then the ray DE intersects some side of ABC. ABC and let E be any point. ABC, and there is no risk of ambiguity, we

Proof. Let D be a point on the interior of is on the exterior of

ABC and let E be any point besides D. If D

ABC, then D must be on the opposite side of one the line segments AB, BC, or CA, and therefore DE must intersect some side of ABC. Next, assume E is a point on the interior of ABC. Thus, DE consists of DE {P | D E P }. Assume DE doesnt intersect any side of ABC. Thus, all sides of the triangle must be on one side of DE, as must the interior of ABC. However, this leads to a contradiction because D and E must both lie in the interior of ABC.

Congruence

In our familiar Euclidean geometry, we understand the idea of congruence in terms of measure. That is, two line segments are congruent if they have the same length. Angles are congruent if their angle measure (be it in radians or degrees) is the same. In a more abstract setting, such notions are undened. We will use, without denition, the expression the segment AB is congruent to the segment CD. For line segments AB and CD we will use the notation AB CD, to mean AB is congruent to CD. Similarly we will use the = undened word congruent with regard to angles and write ABC DEF when ABC = is congruent DEF . Denition 7.1. The triangles DEF are congruent (and we write ABC = DE, AC DF ; and BC EF , and DEF ) if corresponding sides are congruent: AB = = = corresponding angles are congruent: and A D, B E and C F . = = = ABC and

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Congruence Axioms

Axiom 8.1. Given segment AB and ray CD, there exists a unique point E CD such that CE AB. =

Axiom 8.2. Congruence of line segments is an equivalence relation. That is: 1. A segment is congruent to itself: AB AB. = 2. The congruence of the line segments can be dened in either order: If AB CD, then = AB. CD = 3. Segments which are congruent to the same segment are also congruent: If AB CD and = EF , then AB EF . CD = = Axiom 8.3. If A B C and C D E with AB CD and BC DE then AC CE. = = = Axiom 8.4. Given angle BAC with AB not opposite AC and ray DE, there exists unique ray DF on a given side of the line DE such that BAC EDF . =

Axiom 8.5. Congruence of angles is an equivalence relation. That is: 1. An angle is congruent to itself: ABC ABC. = 2. The congruence of the angles can be dened in either order: If ABC DEF , then = DEF ABC. = 3. Angles which are congruent to the same angle are also congruent: If ABC DEF = and DEF GHI, then ABC GHI. = =

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Axiom 8.6. If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are congruent (respectively) to two sides and the included angle of a second triangle then the two triangles are congruent.

Proposition 8.7. Given ABC and segment DE AB, there is a unique point F on a = given side of line DE such that ABC DEF . = Proposition 8.8. Given ABC, if AB AC, then CAB ACB. = =

Denition 8.9. Let AB and CD be line segments. For ray P Q, by Axiom 8.1 there exist point X, Y P Q such that P X AB, and P Y CD. We say that AB < CD if P X Y . = = Denition 8.10. Angles ABC and CBD are supplementary if BA and BD are opposite rays. Angles AP D and BP C are vertical angles if A P B and C P D. An angle ABC is a right angle if there exists an angle CBD that is supplementary to ABC such that ABC = CBD. Proposition 8.11. Supplementary angles of congruent angles are congruent. Proposition 8.12. ASA Proposition 8.13. SSS Proposition 8.14. If ABC has ABC ACB, then AB AC. = =

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Models of Geometry Neutral Geometry

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