BioPsych Lecture Notes Ch 7 - Mechanisms of Perception

Exteroceptive Sensory System: Auditory, Somatosensory (touch) Olfactory (smell) gustatory (taste)

The sensory areas of the cortex is broken into 3 fundamentally different types: Primary Sensory Cortex: receives most of its input directly from the thalamic relay nuclei of that system

Secondary Sensory Cortex: Comprises the area of the sensory cortex that receive most of their input from the primary sensory cortex areas & from the same secondary sensory cortex areas Associate Cortex: Any area off cortex that receives input from more than one sensory system. Most input comes from via the areas of the secondary sensory cortex.

The interactions of the 3 areas are characterized by 3 major principles. 1. Hierarchical organization 2. Functional Segregation 3. Parallel Processing Hierarchical Organization: Members of the system are assigned to specific levels or ranks in relation to one another. The Hierarchical levels are organized on the basis of specificity and complexity of their function. As one moves from layers like receptors to association Cortex, neurons respond optimally to greater levels of complexity and specificity

Receptors --> Thalamic Relay Nuclei --> Primary Sensory Cortex --> Secondary Sensory Cortex --> Association Cortex

Functional Segregation: It is now clear that each of the 3 levels of cerebral cortex (primary, secondary, association) in each sensory system contains functionally distinct areas that specialize in different kinds of analysis. Parallel Processing: The simultaneous analysis of a signal in different ways by the multiple parallel pathways of a neural network. 2 fundamentally different kinds of parallel systems of analysis in our sensory system: 1. One capabel of influencing our behavior without our conscious awareness 2. One that influences our behavior by engaging our conscious awareness

Division of labor: sensory systems are characterized by multiple specialized areas, at multiple levels, are interconnected by multiple parallel pathways Yet complex stimulus are normally perceived as integrated wholes.

Sensory neurons carry information mostly from lower to higher but some go the opposite direction or laterally

Auditory System

Perception of Sound: is the perception of objects and events though the sounds that they make. Sounds are vibrations, of air molecules that stimulate the auditory system. Humans only hear 20 -- 20,000 hertz

Amplitude = loudness Frequency = pitch Complexity = Tibre

Pure tones (sine waves) only occur in laboratory or recording studios Fourier Analysis: The mathematical procedure for breaking down complex waves into their component sine waves. Some theorize that the auditory stystem performs a Fourier-like analysis of complex sounds in terms of their components.

The Ear:

Tympanic Membrane (eardrum): Sound waves travel from the outer ear down the auditory canal and cause the eardrum to vibrate. These vibrations are then transferred to the 3 Ossicles: the small bones of the middle ear: The Malleus (the hammer) The Incus (the anvil) The Stapes (the Stirup) The vibrations of the stapes trigger vibrations of the membrane called the Oval Window: which inturn transfers the vibrations to the fluid of the snail-shaped Cochlea: long, coiled tube with an internal membrane running almost to its tip. The internal membrane is the Organ of Corti: Each pressure change at the oval window travels along the organ of Corti as a wave. Which is composed of 2 membranes Basilar membrane: Tectorial Membrane The auditory receptors (hair cells) are mounted in the basilar membrane and the tectorial membrane. The stimulation of the hair cells increases firing in axons of the Auditory nerve:

Sound -> Ear -> Tympanic Membrane (eardrum) -> 3 Ossicles (strapes) -> Oval Window -> Organ of Corti -> Hair Cells -> auditory nerve

The major principle of Cochlear Coding is that different frequencies produce maximal stimulation of hair cells at different points along the basilar membrane. Tonotopic: the organization of the auditory system is according to the frequency of sound.

Vestibular System: carries information tbout the direction and intensity of head movements, which helps us maintain our balance. Semicircular canals: the receptive organs of the Vestibular system Auditory nerve Syanpse located in Ipsilater Cochlear Nuclei --> superior olives -> inferior colliculi > medial geniculate nuclei (thalamus)

Lateral & Medial Superior Olives: Localization of sounds in space Medial: respond to slight differences in the time of arrival of signals from the 2 ears Lateral: Respond to slight differences in the amplitude of sounds from the 2 ears. Superior Colliculi: locating sources of sensory input in space. Primary Auditory Cortex: Receives input from medial geniculate nucleus Located in the Temporal Lobe (hidden by the lateral Fissure) Adjacent to the PAC is the 3 areas Core Region Belt Para Belt area: Two Main Cortical Streams of Auditory Analysis: Prefrontal Cortex (the what of sounds) Posterior Parietal Cortex (the where of sounds)

Cutaneous Receptors

Free Nerve Endings: the simplest cutaneous receptors, that have no specialized structures on them, They are particularly sensitive to temperature change & pain. Pacinian Corpucles: Shaped like an onion, they are the Largest and Deepest cutaneous receptors. They adapt rapidly, they respond to sudden displacements of the skin but not to constant pressure.

Merkel's Disks & Ruffini Endings: both adapt slowly and respond to gradual skin indentation & skin stretch.

Stereognosis: the attempt to identify objects by touch, with the manipulation of the object in your hands so that the pattern of stimulation continually changes. Most Tactual stimulation Receptors function the same way: Stimuli applied to the skin deform or change the chemistry of the receptor This changes the permeability of the receptor cell membrane to various ions The result is a neural signal

Dermatome: The area of the body that is innervated by the left and right dorsal roots of a given segment of the spinal cord Neural fibers that carry info from cutaneous receptors & other somatosensory receptors gather to form nerves and enter the spinal cord via the dorsal roots.

The somatosensory info ascends each side of the body to the cortex over 2 major pathways:

1. Dorsal-Column Medial Lemniscus system: carry info about touch & proprioception Sensory neurons enter the spinal cord via a Dorsal Root, ascend ipsilaterally in the dorsal collumns and synapse in the Dorsal Column Nuclei of the Medulla. The neurons of the Dorsal column Nuclei Decussate and then ascend in the Medial Lemniscus to the contralateral Ventral Posterior Nucleus of the Thalamus The Ventral posterior nuclie receive input via 3 branches of trigeminal nerve Primary somatosensory Cortex Secondary somatosensory cortex

2. Anterolateral system: Tends to carry info about pain & Temperature. They do not decussate but ascend ipsilaterally. Comprised of 3 different tracts: 1. Spinothalmic Tract: Projects to the thalamus 2. Spinoreticular Tract: Projects to the reticular formation (and then to the parafascicular nuclei) (thalamus) 3. Spinotectal Tract: Projects to the tectum (colliculi)

The 3 Branches of the Trigeminal Nerve: carry pain & Temperature information fro the face to the same thalamic sites.

Primary somatosensory Cortex (SI) is Somatotopic: Organized according to a map of the body surface. This somatotopic map is comonly refffered to as the Somatosensory Homunculus.

The receptive fields of many neurons in the primary somatosensory Cortex can be divided into 2 areas: Antagonistic Excitatory area Inhibitory area Columnar Organization: Organization of somatosensory neurons is similar to that of the primary sensory cortex Each cell in a particular column of primary somatensory cortex had a receptive field on the same part of the body and responded most robustly to the same type of tactile stimuli The primary somatosensory cortex is composed of 4 functional strips: Each strip is of PSC is sensitive to a different kind of somatosensory input (light touch or pressure) As one moves from anterior to posterior the preferences of the neurons would become more complex & Specific

Meaning a Anterior-to-Posterior hierarchical organization

Epileptic patients have 2 minor contralateral deficits Reduced ability to detect light touch Reduced ability to identify objects by touch

Somatosensory Agnosias

2 major types of somatosensory agnosia 1. Astereognosia: The inability to recognize objects by touch. (pure astereognosia is rare)

2. Asomatognosia: the failure to recognize parts of one's own body. Usually Unilateral, affecting the left side of the body; and associated with extensive damage to the Right Posterior Parietal Lobe.

Anosognosia: Often accompanies asomatognosia. It is the failure of neuropsychological patients to recognize their own symptoms Contralateral Neglect: A common component of Asomatognosia. It is the tendency not to respond to stimuli that are contralateral to a right-hemispher injury.

The 3 paradoxes of Pain

1. An experience that seems in every respect to be so bad is in fact extremely important to our survival. No special stimulus for pain; it is a response to potentially harmful stimulation of any type

2. Pain has no obvious Cortical Representation. Painful stimuli activate many areas of Cortex, but the particular areas of activation vary from person to person. However the Anterior Cingulate Cortex: is most frequently linked to the experience of pain (cortex of the anterior cingulate gyrus) The Anterior Cingulate Cortex: appears to be involved in the emotional reaction to pain rather than to the perception of pain itself.

3. Pain is the most compelling of all sensory experiences but can be effectively suppressed by cognitive & emotional factors.

Gate Control Theory: accounts for the ability of cognitive & emotional factors to block pain. It theorizes that signals descending from the brain can activate neural gating circuits in the spinal cord to block incoming pain signals.

3 Discoveries led to the identification of Descending Pain-Control Circuit Periaqueductal Gray (PAG): Discovered it has analgesic (pain-blocking) effects. The discovery that the PAG & other areas of the brain contain specialized receptors for opiate analgesic drugs such as morphine.

The isolation of several endogenous (internally produced) opaite analgesics, Endorphins, meant that drugs & psychological factors might block pain through an Endorphine Sensitive Circuit that descends from the PAG

First Descending Analgesia Circuit Output from the PAG excites the Serotonergic Neurons of the Raphe Nuclei (core of Medulla), which in turn project down the Dorsal Columns of the spinal Cord and Excite interneurons that Block incoming pain signals in the Dorsal Horn

Neuropathic Pain: A severe chronic pain in the absence of a recognizable pin stimulus. Typically develops after an injury: The injury heals and there seems to be no reason for further pain, but the patient experiences chronic excruciating pain. Pain can be triggered by an innocuous stimulus such as a gentle touch. Signals from aberrant Glial Cells trigger hyperactivity in neural pain pathways Caused by abnormal activity in the CNS Pain meds can't help