1 + 2
M2 L2 L1
2 I2
An important observation is that regardless of the current I1 or I2 , the magnetic energy is non-negative, so Em 0
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M2 L2 L1
2 I2 0
M2 L2 0 L1
Coupling Coefcient
Usually we express this inequality as
M =k L1 L2
If two circuits are perfectly coupled (all ux from circuit one crosses circuit 2), k = 1 (ideal transformer) Note that M < 0 implies that k < 0, which is totally reasonable as long as k lies on the unit interval 1 k 1
Negative coupling just means that the ux gets inverted before crossing the second circuit. This is easily achieved by winding the circuits with opposite orientation.
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Consider moving a bar in a constant magnetic eld The conductors therefore feel a force
Fm = qv B
This causes charge separation and thus the generation of an internal electric eld that cancels the magnetic eld E=vB
Motion (cont)
++ ++ + +
Fe
Vind =
E d =
(v B) d
v0
z
C
Consider the following generator. A bar of length moves to the right with velocity v0 (always making contact with the rest of the circuit)
D
Vind =
C
(v B) d =
(v0 B0 ) ydy = v0 B0 x z
Energy Dissipated by R
This current ows through the resistor RL where the energy of motion of the bar is converted to heat The load will dissipate energy
(v0 B0 )2 PL = I 2 RL = RL
This power comes from the mechanical work in moving the bar. The force experienced by a current carrying wire dF = Id B
D D
Fm = I
C
d B = I
dy B0 = IB0 y z
(im)Practical Example
Lets say we do this experiment using the earths magnetic eld Use a bar with length = 1 m, B0 = 0.5 G To induce only 1 V, we have to move the bar at a speed of Vind = 2 104 m/s v0 = B0 The magnetic eld on the surface of a neutron star is about B0 1012 G, or about 108 T. Even moving at a speed of v0 = 1 m/s, we generate
Vind = 108 V
An AC Generator
+ V B
sinusoidal motion
If we connect our metal bar to a piston, in turn connecting to a water-wheel or otherwise rotating wheel, we have a crude generator To generate substantial voltage, we need a strong magnetic eld Say we rotate the wheel at a rate of = 2 103 s1 , or 1000 RPS (revolutions per second)
An AC Generator (cont)
The ux is now
= 0 + B0 Am cos t
Plugging in some numbers, we see that with a relatively strong magnetic eld of 1 T, an amplitude Am = 1 m, = 1 m, the voltage generated is reasonable
Vind = 2 103 sin t
AC Motor/Generator
I
I B0 = xB0
A simple AC motor/generator consists of a rotating loop cutting through a constant magnetic eld. The slip rings maintain contact with the loop as it rotates.
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AC Motor/Generator
If AC current is passed through the loop, it rotates at a rate determined by the frequency. If, on the other hand, the loop is rotated mechanically and the circuit is closed with a load, mechanical power is converted to electricity The ux in the loop of area A is simply
= AB0 cos
The phase = 0 t so
Vind = = AB0 0 sin 0 t
B dS J dS
D dS + dV
V
D dS =
S
B dS = 0
B = H
Wave Motion
B E E B E B
wave motion
We can see intuitively that wave motion is possible
E t
B t
E t
. . ., that
These equations are not all independent. Take the divergence of the curl, for instance
( E) 0 = j B
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Or equivalently, E1t = E2t . If magnetic charges are ever found, then this condition will have to include the possibility of a surface magnetic current The boundary conditions on H are similar
n (H1 H2 ) = Js
For the interface of a perfect conductor, for example, a surface current ows so that (H2 = 0)
n H1 = Js
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in the limit
s J1n J2n = t where s is the surface current. In the static case J1n = J2n
implies that 1 E1 = 2 E2 . This implies that s = 0 since 1 E1 = 2 E2 (unless the ratios of match the ratio of perfectly!)
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