FORM EVOLUTION IN NATURE AND IN ARCHITECTURE

DISSERTATION
ARUN VARGHESE | A/1945/2007 | 4TH YR B. ARCH | SPA DELHI

Coordinators - Mrs. Jaya Kumar, Mrs. Ranjana Mital

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I sincerely thank my guide Mrs. Prabhjot Singh Sugga, for His inspiring and constant encouragement during the research work. His constant support, made the dissertation programm a wonderful experience. I acknowledge the necessary help provided by the coordinators Prof. Ranjana Mittal and Prof. Jaya Kumar, throughout the dissertation programme., I thank my family and all my fellow friends whose critique helped me to understand the topic more, and also to provide me with a healthy atmosphere which was much needed for the completion of this dissertation.

Arun Varghese P

Communities of the Next Millennium: We see the world piece by piece, as the sun, the moon, the animal, the tree; but the whole, of which these are the shinning parts, is the soul.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Question 1.2 Aims & Objectives 1.3 Need Identification 1.4 Scope 1.5 Limitations 1.6 Research Methodology

2. NATURAL FORM EVOLUTION: Organic Analogy

2.1 Functional beauty in art and nature 2.2 Anatomy and Building construction 2.3 Geometrical systems of proportion, derived from nature and applied in art 2.4 Golden ratio 2.5 Fibonacci ratios in spirals and flowers

3. NATURAL FORM EVOLUTION: Analogy Based on Classification

3.1 Goethes Urpflanze. Archetypal plant 3.2 Parallel Developments in Architecture

4. NATURAL FORM EVOLUTION: Anatomical Analogy

4.1 Engineering structure and the animal skeleton

5. NATURAL FORM EVOLUTION: The Ecological Analogy

5.1 Analogy between Built Environments and organisms 5.2 Classification in Architecture 5.3 The Darwinian analogy

6. ARCHITECTURAL FORM EVOLUTION: The evolution of Decorative elements

6.1 Pitt-River Experiment 6.2 Evolution of Decoration to a structural element

7. ARCHITECTURAL FORM EVOLUTION: A Process of Growth

7.1 Design Process in Architecture 7.2 Design as a Growth Process

8. WAYS OF NATURE: Understanding the inner engineering

8.1 Biotechnics 8.2 Low Energy Forms 8.3 New organic architecture 8.4 New Methods in Architecture 8.5 Biological analogy in Parametric Design Development

9. CASE STUDIES: Biological Analogies

10.1 The Eden Project Biomes (2001), Cornwall, UK 10.2 Olympic Stadium (2008), Beijing, China

10. ANALYSIS

11. CONCLUSION

12. BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERNCING

CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Question 1.2 Aims & Objectives 1.3 Need Identification 1.4 Scope 1.5 Limitations 1.6 Research Methodology

Introduction

In the beginning of human history, when we were lacking control over Nature, architecture was more about changing functions according to the form; we took shelter under the trees, in caves etc. And throughout the history, Architecture existed as interplay between these two aspects of human tendencies. Slowly we learned to change the surrounding. All our inventions helped us to improve our habitat. We started defining architecture by means of changing the form according to the necessary functions. We started building dwellings. Gradually, these collections of dwellings grew into small villages, and thereby, giving birth to towns and cities. And now architecture is more about changing the surrounding according to the functions. In the process we almost forgot completely about the living environment and the trace of our path of evolution. At this juncture I would like to quote the words of L.B. Alberti to bring light

into this area The most expert Artists among the Ancients were of the Opinion that, an Edifice was like an Animal, so that in the Formation of it we ought to imitate Nature.
- L. B. Alberti.

This dissertation is a comparative study of Form evolution in Nature and in Architecture. Especially we are trying to understand how evolution of form happening in the biological world, what are the root causes of biological evolution. And also drawing anology between biological theories And design theories to understand the process of form evolution better

1.1 Research Question

Is it beneficial to infuse the abstract design principles derived from Nature with architecture?

1.2 Aims & Objectives

To understand the relationship between form and function in nature To analyze the process by which the form evolves simultaneously when function evolves.

To understand the structural, functional and hierarchical aspects of forms found in Nature (includes structural evolution of organism).

Characterize the analogy between ecosystems and architecture to understand the general design process

To explore the biological analogy to contemporary designing methods

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1.3 Need Identification

As in all other fields because of our own lack of future vision architecture also has come to a point where our whole process of constructing living environment has turned out to be very impolite. The reason why we are being impolite is nothing but our lack of holistic understanding about the environment we are living in. Nature has been our open book of knowledge so far. It is intriguing to see how form evolves in nature. There is a lot of factors that contribute form evolution in nature. Form evolution in nature happens as a result of a cosmic co-incidence Todays chaotic scenes of living environment all over the world are the

consequences of our own incomplete understanding of nature. More than a need, my dissertation is a compulsion from nature to learn from her and to protect her. we all know that nature is the symbol of harmony and form evolution that can be seen in nature is purely spontaneous. Architecture can be viewed as an unending process of optimizing the level of availability of natural elements, either by means of changing the form according to functions, or functions according to the form. Over these aspects nature has been showing far more intelligence than we did so far. Each time when we confront a problem, the solution always came from nature. There are so many similarities between the work of a human mind and nature. Learning about natural world and learning from natural world can enhance the design process. More over architecture needs a constant revival with the integration of technology to adapt the inevitable changes coming in the future. In this sense architecture can be treated as an organism which is adapting accordingly with the environment and needs.

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1.4 Scope

Form evolution in nature and in architecture investigates into the evolutionary roots of form and order and explores a rough global architecture history of theories up till the complete development of vernacular architecture. It also headfirst in to a critical point in architecture where architecture loses its locale character all over the world and turns out to be just a replication of technological knowledge rather than a deep response to the local and global environment . All types of man-made processes like air-conditioning, artificial/synthetic materials have distanced us from natural processes and weather cycles. These changes of living environment have brought us to a point to look forward an organic approach in architecture. An understanding of natural evolution can enhance architecture to answer all these issues.

1.5 Limitations
The primary emphasis of this study is of theoretical purpose. Eventually a theory is something which influences the practical implimentation. The Study emphasizing more on the evolution of organisms since the whole study is based on the assumption that architecture is a kind organism which grows with the availability of resources. Examples and theories have taken from all the periods; to give an overlook at subsequent developments happened in both the fields of study. Most part of the study is analogy between biological and architectural theories.

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1.6 Research Methodology

Theories on form evolution in nature will be acting as the key tool to analyse the transformation that keep happening in the domain of architecture. Verifying different ecosystems and their working, understanding connection between evolution of form and the changing functions would be another part of the dissertation. Evolution of architectural styles in different architectural traditions is collected, to verify the accuracy of the theories that have come up in different times.

Study Includes: Theories on form evolution in nature especially biological theories will be acting as the key tool to analyze the transformation that keep happening in the domain of architecture The study combines a primary theoretical purpose with a certain amount of history, and hence the investigation of the ideas of particular historical individuals Then the appropriate case studies to explore the relevance of the established theory shall be taken. Analysis of information between data observations and conclusions. Lastly, the bibliography and the references shall be presented in the APA referencing format.

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CHAPTER

NATURAL FORM EVOLUTION: Organic Analogy

2.1 Functional beauty in art and nature 2.2 Anatomy and Building construction 2.3 Geometrical systems of proportion, derived from nature and applied in art 2.4 Golden ratio 2.5 Fibonacci ratios in spirals and flowers

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Introduction

A tree or a plant is initially conceived as a seed, similarly architecture conceived conceptually in our minds. Seed germinate only in the direction in which sun is available. Just like, an idea of architecture develops around the energy availability of the locality to maximize the efficiency. Plants and trees are the basic forms of life in nature. Their functions are inseparable from the functions of nature. In this chapter we are trying to understand the relationship between form and function in nature, especially we are going to see how can we draw an analogy between architecture and biological kingdom How can we correlate Organism to architecture? The ideas of wholeness, coherence, correlation and integration, used to express the organized relationship between the parts of the biological organism, can be applied to describe similar qualities in the well-designed artifact .The adaptation of the organism to its environment, its fitness, can be compared to the harmonious relation of a building to its surroundings, and, more abstractly, to the appropriateness of any designed object for the various purposes for which it is intended Before we go into Analogies I would like to make a remark on the significance of Analogy. Analogy at a deeper level can be a most fundamental source of understanding and of scientific insight, as many writers on that subject have pointed out.

if made with sufficient care, watching always for where the analogy breaks down, they can be a most fertile source of new ideas and knowledge. L.B. Alberti

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Organic Analogy

The relation of the parts to the whole in the organism and in the work of art Critics and philosophers since ancient Greece have looked to natural organisms as offering perfect models of that harmonious balance and proportion between the parts of a design which is synonymous with the classical ideal of beauty. The qualities of wholeness, of integrity, of a unity in structure such that the parts all contribute to the effect or purpose of the whole, and no part may be removed without some damage to the whole these are central concepts in the aesthetics and in the natural history of Aristotle, and are characteristics in the Aristotelian view both of living beings and of the best works of art. Animals and plants grow to sizes determined by their particular structures, habitats, and conditions of life, and each separate organ observes the proportion of the whole to which it belongs. The painter or sculptor considers the symmetry of the whole composition in every detail of his work. (J. A. Stewart, 1892) In architecture it is the context, natural laws, proportions molds the form.

2.1 Functional beauty in Art and Nature

The second interpretation of the organic analogy, the functional view, is in some ways a development from or further explanation of the first. The equation of the beautiful with the useful or with the expression of usefulness, the idea that an artefact which is well-designed and adapted for its purpose will be seen to be beautiful through a recognition of this fitness for use
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Aristotles statement of his functional approach to anatomical investigation is

expressed, in The Parts of Animals, thus:

Now, as each of the parts of the body, like every other instrument, is for the sake of some purpose, v, so in some way the whole body exists for the sake of the soul, and the parts of the body for the sake of those functions to which they are naturally adapted. ( J. A. Stewart, 1892) In this way Aristotle stated the existence of soul. And he appreciated the beauty in the human form in its functioning, rather than mere composition of form. It is not the contribution of the parts to the surface appearance of the whole in some kind of balanced visual arrangement which is as important as our recognition, through their appearance, of their functional significance even though this be only a vague apprehension of their purposes, rather than any complete scientific biological understanding. And so our pleasure or satisfaction has more the character of intellectual appreciation of an end or meaning than thst of simple sensual impression.

2.2 Anatomy and Building construction

The analogies can be drawn from anatomy and applied to building construction too. With DArcy

Thompson the process is the other way about. He makes a whole

series of comparisons of mechanical structures with plant stems and with animal skeletons; he draws parallels between, for example, the structure of bones and their artificial man-made counterparts in girders and columns; he shows how the hollow bones of the vultures wings are stiffened after the manner of a Warrens truss, and how the human femur matches the design of heavy cranes (figure 1).19
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Figure 2.1 Metacarpal bone from vultures wing, stiffened after the manner of Warrenstruss.

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

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Analogies between organisms, mechanisms and works of art.

Figure 2.5

Skeleton of fossil bison (above) and two-armed cantilever of the Forth Bridge (below).

Figure 2.6

Indeed functionalism in architecture in the modern movement has made a virtue out of the positive emphasis of the means of construction, of the material, and of the purpose of each part .

2.3 Geometrical systems of proportion, derived from nature and applied in art

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Here the parallel was drawn especially between the harmonic interrelationship of the parts of the human body and the proportional harmony which ought to be achieved in architectural design. The idea is to be found first in Vitruvius,

Figure 2.7

Francesco di Giorgio, human figure inscribed in church plan.

Golden ratio

In those times, German scholars had rediscovered the golden ratio. The original work of Zeising was very influential as his work later on appreciated and the Golden Section started being considered as the key to all morphology, both in nature and in art. Much of the evidence for the supposed importance of the golden number system in relation to natural form came from exact botanical observations of the arrangement of leaves and stems in plants, and of the patterns of petals in flowers the subject of phyllotaxis.
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Repeating spiral

Two primordial

New primordium forming

Generative spiral

Figure 2.8

Fibonacci ratios in spirals and flowers

A repeating spiral can be represented by a fraction describing the angle of windings leaf per leaf. Alternate leaves will have an angle of of a full rotation. In beech and hazel the angle is , in oak and apricot it is , in poplar and pear it is , and in willow and almond the angle is 5/13. The numerator and denominator normally consist of a Fibonacci number and its second successor. The number of leaves is sometimes called rank, in the case of simple Fibonacci ratios, because the leaves line up in vertical rows. With larger Fibonacci pairs, the pattern becomes complex and non-repeating. The most famous example is the sunflower head. This phyllotactic pattern creates an optical effect of criss-crossing spirals. In the botanical literature, these designs are described by the number of counter-clockwise spirals and the number of clockwise spirals. These also turn out to be Fibonacci numbers. In some cases, the numbers appear to be multiples of Fibonacci numbers because the spirals consist of whorls. Much of the biological work in this area is brought together in

DArcy Thompsons On Growth and Form, which gives

mathematical description to many of the geometrically more regular natural forms and
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gives straightforward scientific explanations of the processes of growth by which they are produced. There are many examples to be found in plant structures and small sea creatures even more so in crystal forms of regular patterns of symmetrical organization which might provide models for design. Once the common underlying mathematical laws of symmetry have been formulated, then the specific analogy of artwork with organism becomes irrelevant, perhaps, and might better be dropped (Steadman. P,2008).

But if in this way, the biological analogy between the natural organism and the work of art, interpreted narrowly in terms of geometrical systems of proportion, and finally degenerated. The original metaphor, which had emphasized the wholeness of the artwork and the organism, the somehow necessary relation of all the parts in their contribution to the whole, could lead and did lead in quite other directions.

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CHAPTER

NATURAL FORM EVOLUTION: Analogy Based on Classification

3.1 Goethes Urpflanze. archetypal plant 3.2 Parallel Developments in Architecture

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Analogy Based on Classification

The classificatory analogy Building types and natural species

Introduction

Attempts to classify the different species of plants and animals found in nature were quite common in the beginning of biological advancement. Since our knowledge of nature was very limited those times, the early attempts to classify living entities, according to some criterion were very simple. One of these classification were very extended to include inorganic beings such as rocks and crystals at the bottom end, through plants and animals, right up to man at the summit. Indeed it is no accident that greater attention was paid to the classification of plants than to that of animals, not just because plant specimens were more readily available and easier to handle, but because by contrast with animals their special structures were all on the exterior, and displayed to the eye.

Goethe an early natural theorist, he wrote in his diary:

Seeing so much new and burgeoning growth, I came back to my old notion and wondered whether I might not chance upon my archetypal plant. There must be such a plant, after all. If all plants were not molded on one pattern, how could I recognize that they are plants?(Steadman.P, 2008)

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At this stage it seems that Goethe was actually expecting to come across and recognize the Urpflanze on his travels. Later on the notion became more abstract. Goethe developed a theoretical model of plant structure with the stems as geometrical axes of growth,

Figure 3.1

Goethes Archetypal Plant Urpflanze.

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Parallel Developments in Architecture

In a very loose and metaphorical way, the geographical variety in styles of contemporary architecture could be seen to correspond to the variety of living species, while the historical styles reconstructed from archaeological evidence would be the counterparts of fossil species. the emergence, with the industrial and social revolutions, of demands for quite new types of building with functions which were largely recorded. Up to that time it was almost possible for the whole variety of human activities to be accommodated comfortably in the few traditional forms which had been inherited from the Romans Thus we find J.N.L.

Durands revolutionary synthetic method of architectural

composition, as expounded in his work (Lecons dArchitecture 1819), being developed out of his previous work on classificatory analysis of building types and their history.16 Durands system of composition involves the setting up of principal and subsidiary axes for a building, around which pre-designed elements the basic molecules or cells of the structure are then disposed in symmetrical arrangement. His compositional procedure is essentially a formal, geometrical one, and not in a certain sense functional at all Durand to Beaux Arts For

Sullivan the additive procedures and elementary character of Beaux Arts

composition were the mere setting together of ready-made ideas, of conventional assumptions. The Beaux Arts method is, he says a mechanical, not an organic process; it is, indeed, the very antithesis of an organic process. (L. H. Sullivan, 1902)

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CHAPTER

NATURAL FORM EVOLUTION: Anatomical Analogy

Engineering structure and the animal skeleton

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Introduction

It is impossible to explore into this area of study without mentioning two important personalities, whose contributions were very relevant in the later development of anatomical science. They are the proto-evolutionist J. B. de Lamarck, and the man who is regarded as the effective founder of comparative anatomy, Georges Cuvier. According to Cuviers immediate predecessor Felix Vicq dAzyr, There exist constant relations between the structure of the carnivores teeth and that of their muscles, toes, claws, tongues, stomachs and intestines. (Vicq dAzyr, 1792) These understanding are not only derivable from the biological field of study. it can be derived even from the working of a city. The relevance of these statements will be explained in more detail later on.

Cuviers two famous anatomical rules

The correlation of parts, and the subordination of characters

By the correlation of parts Cuvier meant the necessary functional interdependence between the various organs or systems of the body By the second rule, the subordination of characters, was meant that certain of the organs or bodily systems had greater functional significance than others, and could thus be arranged in order of importance.

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The classification of species by functional systems of the body would simultaneously constitute a classification in environmental and behavioral terms. At this point I would like to relate this statement to the similarity between organism and the development of vernacular architecture. Extinction of certain sort of buildings may be the kind of buildings which are not adaptable to the surrounding is similar to natures selective process which we are doing consciously

Engineering structure and the animal skeleton

According to Horatio Greenough The principles of construction can be learned from the study of the skeletons and skins of animals and insects. (Haratio, 1852) For Le Corbusier, in whose writings biological analogy flourishes, the traditional load-bearing wall construction of stone is to be compared with the restricting external bony shell of the tortoise or lobster.

Figure 4 .1
A. Bartholomew, diagram comparing the counter-abutments of Gothic vaulting with the human skeleton

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Gothic Rationalism

Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc The French cathedrals of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries exhibit their beauty results from an absolute rationality and economy of structure. This is the so-called Gothic Rationalism of which Eugene Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc was the greatest exponent Viollet-le-Duc says: Just as when seeing the leaf of a plant, one deduces from it the whole plant; from the bone of an animal, the whole animal; so from seeing across-section one deduces the architectural members; and from the members, the whole monument.26 (E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, 1854) The American Poet Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803) wrote beautifully about Flying buttress of a Gothic cathedral

Nature gladly gave them place Adopted them into her race, And granted them an equal date With Andes and with Ararat.

This analogy is more than poetically true. In art as in nature an organism is an assemblage of interdependent parts of which the structure is determined by the function and of which the form is an expression of the structure.
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Le Corbusiers analogy of organic functions with architecture

Le Corbusier has shown us excellent analogies between architecture and biological functions and by thus establishing the significance of the study of organic processes to enhance architecture methodologies. He compared physiology of breathing with the ventilation of buildings; of the nervous system with the networks of electricity supply, communication and telephone services in a building or city, of the bowels with sewer pipes and refuse systems; and, favorite analogy of all, the circulation of the blood with the circulation of people or traffic. Although Le Corbusier admits to a degree of confusion about how exactly some of the analogies are to be carried through: A plan arranges organs in order, thus creating an organism or organisms. The organs possess distinctive qualities, specific differences. What are they? Lungs, heart, stomach? The same question arises in architecture.( Steadman P.,2008)

The principle of similitude A simple anology can help to understand the principle of similitude . take the case of a bird. A bird with twice the body dimensions of another would have a weight roughly eight times as great in proportion to the volume. But if it were to be exactly of the same shape, simply scaled up as it were, it would have a wing area only four times as large, yet needing to support the increased weight. It follows that proportions of wing to body size would have to be different in the larger bird to take account of this consideration.

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Several writers have pointed out the relevance of this kind of effect to systems of architectural proportion and to structural and engineering problems in building. 4 metres in length onto columns 2 metres high, you would not be able to put, on two columns of 200 metres in height, a lintel of 400 metres. To change scale, the architect must change the method, and style consists precisely in choosing the method appropriate to the scale

Figure 4.2

P. E. Nobbs, proportions of columns determined in relation to differing imposed loads.

The principle of similitude In the other aspects of architecture

Nobbs discusses how the form of a two-hundred room house cannot be an enlargement of the form of a twenty-room house, nor that an enlargement of the form of a two-room house. A seedling with four small leaves is a very different thing, from the point of view of design, from a plant with a thousand large leaves and fifty blooms. ( P. E. Nobbs)
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DArcy Thompson illustrates how for different reasons various body surfaces have their area increased by a similar conformation. Thus the villi on the lining of the intestine increase the surface available for absorption A coral reef is another natural example of a much increased surface area for given volume.49 . An architectural analogy for similar phenomenon would be the corrugation of external surface to allow more light into the building. But again one consideration works in opposition to the other; an increased surface area is required for light, but a decreased area is preferable on heat retention grounds. So the optimum conditions will be adapted for particular situations.

Consequences of the principle of similitude It is a consequence of the principle of similitude that when creatures or plants increase (or decrease) in absolute size during their lifetimes, the proportions and shape must change to compensate functionally for the dimensional effects. Thus the proportions of head, trunk and limbs in human babies are very different from those of the mature adult body.

Figure 4.3 33

CHAPTER

NATURAL FORM EVOLUTION: The Ecological Analogy

5.1 Analogy between Built Environments and organisms 5.2 Classification in Architecture 5.3 The Darwinian analogy

34

Analogy between Built Environments and organisms

Introduction

According to Horatio Greenough, an American sculptor

The law of adaptation is the fundamental law of nature in all structure.

By a study of this principle of adaptation in nature, the architect may arrive at sound principles in building. This will demand a study of the climate which a building will be exposed to, of the site for which it is intended, of the nature of the institution which it houses, and of the varied wants of the buildings users. The form of the building always progress towards the fulfilling of its various functional needs. This reminds the famous words by Louis Sullivan

Form follows function

Sullivan says, in nature It stands to reason that a thing looks like what it is, and vice versa, it is what it looks like. (L. H. Sullivan, 1902)

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The Reasoning behind the establishment of styles in Architecture

Beyond these physical and material factors in the environment of the artifact, we come to what are clearly highly important though rather indeterminate and more abstract environmental components These are the social, economic and cultural

environments in which the requirements for the artifact are created, to serve activities and tastes .An artifact, or a creature, which is well-adapted, will have style.

Style is not consciously aimed at, but grows like a plant according to fixed rules. It is certainly not a sort of spice which one takes from a bag to sprinkle over those works which, by themselves, would lack any savor. ( E. E. Viollet-le-Duc,1854 )

Classification in Architecture

Many architects, design theorists have tried to classify architecture in many ways, sometimes treating artifacts exactly the way scientists tried to classify plants and animals, according to the evolving pattern. In architecture this classification doesnt have a common platform analogical to biology.
Structural System is a way to classify buildings

Architecture style is another method of classification used by viollet-le duc

Based on materials Used is a method used by Semper to classify buildings

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Figure 5.1 E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Cathedral ideal. A prototype of Gothic cathedrals, imagined by Viollet-le-Duc

The old monuments are very can be compared to the fossil shells of extinct organisms of society,. They are free creations of man, who used intelligence, observation of nature, genius, will, knowledge and power.(Steadman P,2008)

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Theory of Darwin

The Darwinian analogy

How is the analogy made, precisely, between Darwins concept of organic evolution and architecture? The first step, as we saw with Semper and Viollet-le-Duc, is to equate heredity with copying. New tools or buildings are copied from old models, with every effort made to ensure the exact reproduction of the traditional design.

Trial and Error Method The essence of the Darwinian Theory lies in the concept of trial and error; the trials being provided by variations, and the errors being detected and removed by selection. There is a very general idea that technical progress in building, the accumulation of structural, material and engineering knowledge and the refinement of constructional form and technique, has been the product of extended historical processes of trial and error by many generations of architects and craftsmen.

The Metaphorical Meaning of Darwins Theory in Architecture Context of Evolution

In architectural context his theory amounted to much the same as saying that if one were to throw a heap of bricks up in the air, repeatedly, then by the effect of random variations they would be bound at some time or other, after a lot of trials, to come down in the form of a house.

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The analogy is of course false from the beginning. Darwin never suggested that large numbers of variations occurred simultaneously to the whole form and organisation of the creature or plant. On the other hand. It would be more truly analogous to his argument to imagine the design of a house being produced through the occasional random change of the position of one brick or one feature at a time, while all the others remained fixed; that element being retained in its new position if this turned out to be more appropriate in use.

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CHAPTER
elements 6.1 Pitt-River Experiment

ARCHITECTURAL FORM EVOLUTION: The evolution of Decorative

6.2 Evolution of Decoration to a structural element

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6.1 Pitt-River Experiment

This is a comparatively small chapter explaining an experiment done by Pitt-River. This is to illustrate a rough idea of the possible reason behind the evolution of elements in architecture He gave a certain drawing to someone (A) to copy; his rendering was sent on to another person (B) to copy, this copy was handed on to a third individual (C), and so on, each copyist having only the preceding persons performance before him. In each case fresh variations occur according to the greater or less imitative skill of the artist. The General has collected some very curious examples of series of this kind.9 Examples of successive copying of drawings by different individuals, each working from the immediately preceding copy, without reference to the original. (below)

Figure 6.1 41

If one reflects on what is happening in Pitt-Rivers copying exercise, it becomes clear that there is actually no real equivalent of selection in the biological sense in it at all, and that it is in fact an experiment in pure heredity.

6.2 Evolution of Decoration to a structural element ! In Sempers architectural theory is his belief was that the wall in architecture has its beginnings in textiles. Hangings were draped around and between the structural framework of the columns in Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman buildings; and while these draperies might have served some practical functions, to provide privacy or shade, they were principally intended, says Semper, to grace the structure with colour and pattern. If he is right in following an evolution from these textile hangings to the permanent partition wall (with its applied decoration), it is a structural element derived from a decorative one.

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CHAPTER

ARCHITECTURAL FORM EVOLUTION: A Process of Growth

7.1 Design Process in Architecture 7.2 Design as A Growth Process

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Introduction

In Biology the development of the animal embryo goes through a series of stages which appear to correspond roughly to the evolutionary history of the species as a whole; that, as it was phrased, ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny. ( F. Muller) Another biologist namely Von Baer, His work showed that the development of the embryo seemed always to move from the general to the particular, and that the simple, undifferentiated and homogeneous form of the egg was progressively changed into the complex and heterogeneous form of the mature creature.von Baer himself: The chick begins simply as a vertebrate, then becomes an air-breathing vertebrate, then a bird, then a terrestrial bird, then a gallinaceous bird and finally a domestic chicken. (C. U. M. Smith, 1976)

Figure 8.1

Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny

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7.1 Design Process in Architecture

Few quotations regarding the design process, are very relevant at this juncture According to Montgomery Schuyler Architectural forms are not invented; they are developed, as natural forms are developed, by evolution. (M. Schuyler, Modern Architecture)

Sullivans remark on design process

Design process is a germ, or an acorn. Given nourishment and time to mature, the seed of an architectural design can grow quite naturally unless it be trapped inside a husk of intellectual misconceptions and develop into the fully grown design (L. H. Sullivan, 1934)

Frank Lloyd Wright takes up the metaphor:

An inner-life principle is a gift to every seed. An inner-life principle is also necessary for every idea of a good building. (F. L. Wright, Modern Architecture, Kahn lecture, Princeton University, 1930)

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Whereas Spencer(a prominent biologist in Victorian era) saw social forms and social institutions themselves evolved in response to natural environment as shaping the thoughts and actions of men and not the other way round

7.2 Design as a Growth Process In Sullivans case, he used stylized plant forms in decorative treatments carried out in his favorite terracotta. In Wrights case, the integration of the structural elements of a building into an interconnected system, and molding of its interior spaces into an interpenetrating and continuous spatial whole was prominent. It is, however, the characteristically Spencerian* ideas in Sullivans writings about design as a growth process, or rather a developmental process

*Spencer is best known for coining the concept "survival of the fittest", which he did in Principles of Biology (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. This term strongly suggests natural selection, yet as Spencer extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, he also made use of Lamarckism 46

CHAPTER

WAYS OF NATURE: Understanding the inner engineering

8.1 Biotechnics 8.2 Low Energy Forms 8.3 New organic architecture 8.4 New Methods in Architecture 8.5 Biological analogy in Parametric Design Development

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Understanding the innerworking

8.1 Biotechnics

We now come to a second way in which a biological or organic method in design might seek in mimicking the natural evolutionary process. This is to be found in the concept of biotechnique or biotechnics, The idea was this: In the evolution of plants and animals, nature herself had already made a great variety of inventions, embodied in the designs of organs or in the adaptations of the limbs. These inventions solved in ingenious ways all kinds of functional and engineering problems structural, mechanical, even chemical, and electrical. What was required was a diligent study of the engineering of nature, and man would find there the solution to all his technical needs; natural models requiring only to be copied in the design of machines or structures. In this way, instead of technological evolution needing to be highly timeconsuming, it could borrow the time already invested in the organic evolution of these natural counterparts to human artifacts.

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8.2 Low Energy Forms

It is the operation of the law of economy or least expenditure of energy which governs the processes by which perfected forms have been selected and developed. Lewis Mumford (American urban design critic) uses the word biotechnic in the architectural context to describe a design philosophy which would favor light, low structures over the massive and monumental; and which would suggest that mechanical services for buildings might be simplified and decentralized. The whole discussion is curiously prophetic of the alternative technology movement of the 1970s, for instance in Mumfords mention of the possibility and advantages of local small-scale sewage treatment systems, and special sun-reflectors . . . as auxiliary heaters. One important scenario being noticed in all fields of creation, is that workers are striving today to find purely functional solutions of a technical-biological kind: that is, to build up each piece of work solely from the elements which are required for its function.

8.3 New organic architecture

Over the last three decades there has been a great flowering of new organic architecture, of an extremely rich character. Indeed it is not always easy to say what these organic buildings share in common, or in what precise features their character lies.

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 They depend on ecological analogy or metaphor to do with the adaptation of the building to its environment interpreting that word better. The universal feature of the new organic architecture is its rejection of the rectangular and its embrace of the non orthogonal or curvilinear. Another theme the desire to live in contact and harmony with nature. Special attention needs to be paid to orientation and aspect, particularly in the planning of houses. House and landscape may interpenetrate, and the boundaries between them may become indistinct.

Organic architecture examples: Houses

One exemplar is Bruce Goffs Bavinger House where the forest floor continues undisturbed under the building, beneath the cantilevered fungus-like living balconies

Figure 8.1

Bavinger House
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Wrights Falling water is a recurrent source of inspiration here.

Figure 8.2

8.4 New Methods in Architecture As for materials, the new organic method tends to choose between three types of option. The materials may be natural and local ones timber, bamboo, straw bales, stone, bricks fired on site, perhaps even scrap and recycled items so that less energy is used in transport, and the building blends into its surroundings. They may be materials that allow the production of free form and curvilinear shapes, such as Styrofoam or concrete sprayed onto metal mesh as in the wildly buglike houses. Wooden structures covered with shingles to achieve flowing, rippling roof forms. The third option is lightweight structures such as tents, curving space frames or even pneumatic structures, both because of their economy in materials, and their affinities with efficient structures in nature. There is a curious contrast here, within an organic architecture that at one moment invokes eternal values and traditional methods, and at another embraces impermanence and transience.
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8.5 Biological analogy in Parametric Design Development

Gene and Chromosome Analogy in Parametric Architecture How are designs represented by genes in evolutionary algorithms? In the simplest case a gene in an evolutionary algorithm Is a symbol that codes for some feature or parameter of the designed object.

Bentley gives an elementary example of the

facade of a house, in which the

features might include the width and height of the facade, the position of the roof, and the number and positions of the windows. The genes or symbols are then listed in a string or chromosome. Different values for genes are referred to by the biological term alleles. Suppose for example that the genes are all binary digits (0s or 1s). Then a simple chromosome with six genes might take the form 110101. Suppose a random mutation is made to occur to the first of these genes: the result will be the new chromosome 010101. The corresponding designed object is changed accordingly.

What happens in the equivalent of sexual reproduction is that two chromosomes or strings of symbols from the two parents are broken and rejoined in new combinations. Suppose that the chromosomes of the parents are ABCDEF and abcdef. These might be recombined or crossed over to produce new chromosomes for two children ABCDef and abcdEF. In this example the crossover point is 4 (after the fourth symbol). Crossover points, like mutations, are chosen randomly by the algorithm. Chromosomes in EAs, then, are encoded representations of features of designed objects: whether the features are present or absent, their size, shape, quantity, position, material and so on. They are, figuratively speaking, the DNA of the world of evolution by computer. In more advanced algorithms, as we will see, the chromosomes, rather than representing the forms and
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features of objects directly, can instead consist of instructions for building the objects from component parts and sub-assemblies. (The resemblance to DNA is then rather closer.) (Peter Bentley, 1999)

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CHAPTER

CASE STUDIES: Biological Analogies

10.1 The Eden Project Biomes (2001), Cornwall, UK 10.2 Olympic Stadium (2008), Beijing, China

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9.Case Studies

The case studies have been carefully chosen in the following pages that explore the various aspects of Biological analogies in Architecture, and thus not necessarily cover all the aspects of biological analogy in one study. One case study may be explaining the analogy in the development of form where as the other one explaining the analogy in biological processes or the design strategies adapted. Biological analogies infused in the design process, is what we are focusing in each of the case studies.

Primary Case Studies

9.1 The Eden Project Biomes (2001), Cornwall, UK 9.2 Olympic Stadium (2008), Beijing, China

9.1 The Eden Project Biomes (2001), Cornwall, UK

The idea for biomes was thought up by Tim Smit who had worked on and was largely responsible for the successful restoration of The Lost Gardens of Heligan. Tim teamed up with the internationally known sustainable architecture firm of Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners. Together they explored many innovative ideas for the creation of the worlds largest biome. This structure aimed to educate visitors about the importance of a sustainable environment through the study and education of plants.

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Figure 9.1.1, the Eden Project Biomes (2001), Cornwall, UK

The main features of the project Humid Tropics Biome Plants from Amazonia, West Africa, Malaysia and Oceania. Warm Temperate Biome Plants from California, Southern Africa and the Mediterranean. Landscaped Grounds The story of plants from our own temperature climate. Visitor Centre Gallery, restaurant and shops. Lake Main car park Amphitheatre (2300 seat) Restaurant at the Centre of the World

Objectives of the design

First, the structure was to be the worlds largest plant enclosure. This involved coming up with a design scheme that could span for great distances without the use of a single internal support. The structure must be as light as possible. This was needed for transportation reasons primarily because all the materials would have to be brought in from other cities, a long distance away and also a lighter structure would put less stress on the soil and allow for smaller footings and less site impact

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About Eden Project

The Main purpose of Eden Project was to promote the understanding and responsible management of the vital relationship between plants, people, and resources, leading towards a sustainable future for all. Grimshaws solution to this challenge was to look at nature. He got his inspiration from looking at the honeycomb of bees and even the multifaceted eyes of a fly. These creatures used their surroundings most effectively to create a very strong, yet light-weight, solution. In addition, a geodesic dome-like structure would be able to conform to the expanding and contracting contours of the clayey soil.

Figure 9.1.2, Birds Eye View

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There are essentially three biomes in the Eden Project: the humidtropics biome
(110x55x240), the warm temperate biome ((65x35x150), and the moderate temperate

biome which is the land surrounding the two enclosed bubble-like structures. The humidtropics biome, the largest biome at over 240m long, houses tropical plants from all over the world

Figure 9.1.3, View from Inside

Trails and various waterfalls enclosed inside the structure allow visitors to totally immerse themselves in a unique environment that would otherwise be impossible. The moderate temperate biome, though smaller still, allows visitors to enjoy and learn about plants and environments from all over the world.
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Cushions of ETFE (ethyl-tetra-flouro-ethylene) transparent foil are used for the glazing. This very lightweight material weighs approximately 1% of glass. In addition, its strength and the fact that it is self-cleaning make it the perfect product to use for this project. Last, it also has excellent ultraviolet transmittance which is essential for the healthy development of the plants grown inside. This also means that it is important to wear sunscreen when hiking through the biome.

Figure 9.1.4, Rendered images of the digital ground models showing the original survey data on the left and remodeled site on the right

Form

The final structure looks very similar to half a sphere; the entire building uses straight planes with straight edges. It incorporates an outer shell of primarily hexagonal pieces, (some pentagons) which attaches to an inner network of triangles (Figure 10.1.5) for stability. The design is so structurally stable that it does not need any internal supports even in the 240m span of the largest biome. The biomes are supported on a concrete necklace which follows the perimeter of the buildings, according to the contours of the site.
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In addition, all the steel tubes that make up the grid-like network could be easily transported to the site in small pieces reducing costs. The structure transfers loads to the ground uniformly around its base which helps to eliminate large footings that otherwise might have been needed to support such a large enclosure.

Energy efficiency-wise, the hemisphere shape helps to conserve the heating that is needed especially in the humidtropics biome. This is because of the fact that a sphere has the largest amount of volume compared to its surface area of any form.

It was as important to find an optimum geometrical arrangement for the spherical structures. The object was to utilize the largest cushion possible in order to maximize light transmission and to minimize cost. Large cushions mean fewer connections in the steelwork and reduced length of aluminum framing.

Humid Tropics Biome: structural analysis deflection diagram for snow loading.

Use of Material

The system chose to clad the biomes is a pneumatic structure of cushions. Each cushion is contained within one module of the structure in the form of either a hexagon, pentagon or triangle.
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The panels are formed from multiple layers of Ethyl tetra flouro ethylene (ETFE) foil. The foil is extremely thin and light weight. The cushions are held in extruded aluminum perimeter frames. even with such large panels, the whole cladding system only weighs around 15 kg/m2

Figure 9.1.5, Double-layer space frame referred to as the hex-tri-hex arrangement.

Figure 9.1.6, Key plan for biome geometry.

Figure 9.1.6 Cushion under test at Foiltec Gmbh, Bremen, Germany.

Figure 9.1.7 Aluminum cladding frames and corner units ready to receive cushions.

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Observation The exporting or importing of fill material kept to a minimum. Storm water run-off is controlled by a low tract and ditches interconnected with the car park terraces and landscaped areas. Geodesic arrangement was chosen to achieve maximum structural stability. Adopting the hexagon form derived by Buckminster Fuller brought an even distribution of structural members. The Overall form of the project is chose in response to the site conditions The hexagonal shapes used in the roofing panels were inspired from nature

9.2 Birds Nest Olympic Stadium (2008), Beijing, China

The Olympic Stadium in Beijing is designed by Swiss architects Herzog & de Meuron, is an excellent example of the use biometrics in modern architecture. As implied by its nickname, the stadium rises out of the landscape in the shape of a giant upturned birds nest.
The concept of biological analogy in architecture is not new. Human structures

have borrowed from nature throughout history. Our first shelters, for example, were little more than upturned birds nests. They were formed of branches and insulated against the elements by whatever materials were readily available. New technologies, however, have allowed us to investigate and replicate systems that our ancestors were unable to exploit on a grand scale

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Figure 9.2.1 Birds Nest Olympics Stadium, Beijing, china

Objectives of the Design A stadium capacity of approximately 100 000 people during the games (to be reduced to approximately 80 000 afterwards), A retractable roof A multi-functional design, to efficiently incorporate a range of uses in the future An emphasis on green building and advanced technology.

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About the stadium

The stadium consists of an inner bowl of concrete seating surrounded by a facade of twisted steel, with a public gathering area sandwiched between the two (figure 9.2.2). The elliptical building footprint is within the constraints of seating 100000 people around an athletics track and field. Meanwhile, the variation in the height of the stands between the major and minor axes of the ellipse allows for the majority of spectators to be seated along the longest length of the track, and ensures that all spectators are within the same radius of view from the corners of the field.In all, the structure encloses a volume approximately 333 meters long by 284 meters wide and 69 meters tall.

Figure 9.2.2 Interior Public Gathering area

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Form Structural Modeling

The buildings distinctive facade was conceived in order to disguise the large parallel steel girders required to support the retractable roof that was specified in the design program. In defining the geometry of the structure, lines representing members were extended outward from the projected plan of the athletic field, along the roof and wall surfaces to the ground in one continuous motion (Figure 10.2.3, blue lines). They intersect at ground level in 24 points spaced at regular intervals around the elliptical building footprint. This allows the vertical components of the structural members to be prefabricated in truss-columns of a roughly pyramidal shape (Figures 10.2.4). The remaining infill members balance the aesthetic of the faade.(Figure 10.2.3, red lines)

Figure 9.2.3 CAD model of stadium Structure

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Use of Steel As the continuity of the members from the ground across the roof surface was essential to the aesthetic desired by the architects, steel HSS sections were chosen to allow each stick to twist over the curved intersection of the wall and roof to maintain its outer edge parallel to the faade. Hollow structural

sections (HSS) are strong in torsion, a property essential to members that are subjected to the eccentric loading experienced at the rounded intersection of the roof and wall.

Figure 9.2.4, Truss-Column

The structure designed Using computer software that is to be assembled in prefabricated segments of multiple intertwined HSS components, which were connected on site using welded joints. These welded joints provided a smooth appearance, creating an illusion of continuity between all the prefabricated segments. Steels high strength-to-weight ratio provides further advantages due to the large spans inherent in the construction of a sports arena, as the roof structure must be cantilevered from the exterior walls to avoid interior columns which obstruct spectator views.

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Observation

Green Features

Beijings Olympic Stadium draws directly from nature, as elements of the bird nest are exposed as its major aesthetic motif, with little material wasted to disguise the structure. Aside from the structural advantages provided by steel, it has the added benefit of being easily recyclable In keeping with the birds nest analogy, the faade is in-filled with translucent ETFE panels in much the same way that a nest is insulated by stuffing small pieces of material between the twigs that make up the structure . The panels are lighter than either glass or aluminum panels would be, reducing the dead load supported by the roof. The panels are also self-cleaning and durable, reducing costly maintenance. Openings in the faade allow natural ventilation as air filters through the public concourse, into the stadium, and eventually vents through the central opening in the roof structure.

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CHAPTER
ANALYSIS

10

68

Introduction
It is important to see how do abstract designing principles derived from nature that I have been discussing in the chapters, infused into the few examples that I have chosen as case studies. So in the analysis part, what I am looking forward is how, this is practically achieved in the case studies, and also how efficient is the outcome, of the implementation of these principles in contemporary architecture

What are we seeking in case studies

What all analogies can be accounted in the A to Z process of designing? Are the implementations of these analogies from nature helpful in achieving better efficiency? Operative frame work Case study analysis

One more word Since we are more focused about the form-function analogy of architecture with nature, the first part of this chapter is provided to understand profoundly the physical form of the building in the respective projects, in comparison with the examples picked from nature.

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NATURE.........

FORM

DESIGN

FUNCTION

ARCHITECTURE..........

Figure 10.1, Form-Function Analogy

Form From the early chapters we have seen how intimately form is intertwined with functions in nature. And also we saw how the efficiency of a building varies according to the degree in which the form-function interdependency is established. So here, first we are going to understand the connection between form and function. The Eden Project Biomes (2001), Cornwall, UK Analysis of form There are essentially three biomes in the Eden Project. In form, these structures resemble bubbles. The structure was to be the worlds largest plant enclosure. It has the design scheme that could span for great distances without the use of a single internal support.

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 The structure chosen for the construction is very light. This was intentionally done for the purpose of easy transportation and for other conveniences in construction processes The overall enclosure is ecologically friendly.

The Design Approach and Analogy Grimshaws solution to this challenge was to look at nature.

He got his inspiration from looking at the honeycomb of bees and even the multifaceted eyes of a fly. These creatures used their surroundings most effectively to create a very strong, yet light-weight, habitat

In addition, a geodesic dome-like structure would be able to conform to the expanding and contracting contours of the clayey soil.

Figure 10.2, honeycomb

Figure 10.3, Geodesic dome

It incorporates an outer shell of primarily hexagonal pieces, which attaches to an inner network of triangles for stability.

The hemisphere shape helps to conserve the heating that is needed especially in the humidtropics biome.
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Put table no 1

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Olympic Stadium (2008), Beijing, China

Analysis of form The design of the stadium is inspired from the form of a birds nest Openings in the facade allow natural ventilation as air filters through the public concourse, into the stadium, and eventually vents through the central opening in the roof structure. In the design The form of structural members transfigured into the twigs- making the birds nest. Over all the project was eco-friendly

The Design Approach

In keeping with the birds nest analogy, the faade is in-filled with translucent ETFE panels in much the same way that a nest is insulated by stuffing small pieces of material between the twigs that make up the structure .

Just like the materials used in the making of a nest is recyclable, The materials used in the construction of the stadium is easily recyclable

The Efficient usage of material was one of the key reminder which decided the form of the stadium

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Put table no 2

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CHAPTER
CONCLUSION :

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Conclusion Now it is the time for us to conclude what we have been trying to understand through the theories of evolution, design and related case studies. As explained in the early chapters the history of design has revealed a lot of similarities between architecture and the evolution of biological and ecological systems.. In the beginning we tried to mimic biological forms and then biological processes. Biology was always a Constant source of architectural inspiration due to the fixed relationship between form and function and also natural balance of forces and the corresponding geometric solutions found in living beings. Now, There was critical time in architectural history, when we started looking at our living environment in a different way. Thats when, the technology started dominating over nature. There after Our buildings started to look like machines to live in. we used technology without complete understanding. We are warm no matter how cold it was outside and cool no matter how hot. It isn't our intentions that are wrong but rather the path we chose to get there. And most of the time we looked at our environment separate from our self as something dead. But on the other hand in reality, Architecture rather manifests as a living thing. Looking fast forward at the settlement patterns of a city for a time span, what we encounter is similar to an organism which grows with the availability of resources. Thats the place where the research question of this dissertation becomes significant. Is it beneficial to infuse the abstract design principles derived from Nature with architecture? As we can see from history that improvising theories of design according to our understanding of the living world was always beneficial. But when it comes to practical
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level it was not always successful. The reason behind this is, many times our imitation of nature is not the result of a deeper understanding of nature. And of course there are times the imitation did become successful. The case studies prove this fact. Imitating nature is the best way to find solutions because, after all it is into the same nature that our solutions are going to fit. But it is important to see Are we responding naturally to the existing elements. In way organic Architecture can be seen as the wisdom to use the knowledge from nature. It need not be the direct implication or imitation of what we see in nature. It is the result of what we want to see and what we have seen so far and also the wisdom to apply them in suitable circumstances. In recent years this imitating capability has reached deeper levels of understanding. More than just copying the physical form, now we are able to imitate the form evolution processes in virtual environments. Eventually abstract design principles derived from nature has contributed a lot in the evolution of architecture. It is not only beneficial, but it is the only way to move forward..

We see the world piece by piece, as the sun, the moon, the animal, the tree; but the whole, of which these are the shinning parts, is the soul.

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CHAPTER

12

12.1 LIST OF FIGURES 12.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No: 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1 6.1 6.2 8.1 8.2 9.1.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 9.1.4 9.1.5 9.1.6 9.1.7 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.2.4 10.1 10.2 10.3

Description/Source Evolution of designs (2008) http://www.rlt.com http://www.rlt.com Evolution of designs (2008) Evolution of designs (2008) Evolution of designs (2008) Evolution of designs (2008) www.wikipedia.org www.google.com Evolution of designs (2008) Evolution of designs (2008) http://www.Childrestraints.co.nz Evolution of designs (2008) Evolution of designs (2008) Evolution of designs (2008) http://www.schildrotharchitect.com http://www.thesemiwindup.blogspot.com http://www.Wikipedia.org http://www.google.co.in http://www.google.co.in http://www.google.co.in http://www.eden project.com http://www.eden project.com http://www.eden project.com http://www.eden project.com http://www.mcgill.ca/files/architecture/biomimcrySSEFessay2007.pdf http://www.mcgill.ca/files/architecture/biomimcrySSEFessay2007.pdf http://www.mcgill.ca/files/architecture/biomimcrySSEFessay2007.pdf http://www.mcgill.ca/files/architecture/biomimcrySSEFessay2007.pdf http://www.designshoot.com http://www.graphicriver.net http://www.indirapaires.tradeindia.com http://www.textile-blog.com

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Stewart, J. A. (John Alexander), 1846-1933, Notes on the Nicomachean ethics of Aristotle, Oxford, The Clarendon press, 1892 Philip Steadman. The Evolution of Designs: Biological Analogy in Architecture and the Applied Arts (2008),-- revised edition (first published 1979) L. H. Sullivan, Kindergarten Chats, serialised in Interstate Architect and Builder (Feb.1901Feb. 1902); republished in book form as Kindergarten Chats (New York, 1947). F. Vicq dAzyr, Systme Anatomique des Quadrupdes (Paris, 1792), Discours prliminaire, p. lxxxvii; quoted in M. Foucault, The Order of Things, Horatio Greenough, Form and Function. Remarks on Art, Design and Architecture, edited by H. A. Small (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1947) E. E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire Raisonn de lArchitecture Franaise du XIe au XVIeSicle (10 vols., Paris, 185468) P. E. Nobbs, Design: A Treatise on the Discovery of Form, C. U. M. Smith, The Problem of Life, M. Schuyler, Modern Architecture, American Architecture and Other Writings, edited by .W. H. Jordy and R. Coe L. H. Sullivan, The Autobiography of an Idea (New York, 1934)

INTERNET SOURCES
http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://img.rlt.com/x/20111.jpg&imgrefurl=htt p://www.rlt.com/20111&usg http:// www.google.com http://www.wikipedia.org http://www.free-d.nl/project/show/subCat/shape/id/552 http://www.actararquitectura.com http://www.exploration-architecture.com

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