(Type The Document Title) : Chapter No. Title Page No. 1

[Type the document title]
CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. 1 Introduction TITLE PAGE NO.
Historical background
Distribution generation technology
Power quality
Benefits and Issues
Impact of Distributed generation in Power losses
Department of EEE,SREC
[Type the document title] ABSTRACT
The traditional energy structure of our country is single and the environmental pollution is serious. To a certain extent, it impeded the sustainable economic and social development of any country. With the energy problems increasing seriousness, distributed generation growing is growing a wide range of applications for the merits of small investment, environmental protection, clean, reliable power supply and flexible generation manner, and so on. However, a large number of distributed power poured into the grid change the grids structure increase the randomness of system running, and impede the power system seriously. Now a days the energy problems increasing seriousness, distributed generation is growing a wide range of applications for the merits of small investment, environmental protection, clean, reliable power supply and flexible generation manner, and so on. However, a large number of distributed power poured into the grid change the grids structure increase the randomness of system running, and impede the power system seriously. There have been increased focus in the recent years on the concept of smoothing intermittent output of distributed generation (DG) using energy storage. DGs can be defined as the concept of connecting generating units of small sizes, between several kW to a few MW.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
[Type the document title] INTRODUCTION
Definition: Distributed generation is an electric power source connected directly to the distribution network or on the customer side of the meter. Most of the electricity produced today is generated in large generating stations, which is then transmitted at high voltage to the load centers and transmitted to consumers at reduced voltage through local distribution systems in contrast with large generating stations, Distributed generation produce power on a customers site or at a local distribution network. DG technologies include >Engines >Small hydro and gas turbines >Fuel cells >Photo voltaic systems etc This thesis provides an overview of the impact that distributed generation (DG) might have on the operation of power system. Issues like impact of DG on losses, voltage control, power quality, short circuit power, and system protection are discussed. Based on the discussion, it can he concluded that the impact of DG depends on the penetration level of DG in the distribution network as well as on the DG technology. Furthermore, critical issues, For example the impact of DG on the protection system, can he solved by using the right technology and detailed studies beforehand. Also, new operation approaches, using IT technologies, might help to integrate DG into the distribution network operation. DG combines two or more power sources into one integrated system based on renewable energy resources such as natural gas, wind, sun or Hydrogen, locating decentralized power plants closed to power users. Thus, the DG systems are more efficient than traditional power generation techniques .In design of distributed generation, all p. If DG is properly sized,

sited, and selected in terms of technology, it can clearly provide benefits to control, operation and stability of the power system. It should however be noted that distribution networks have traditionally a rather inflexible design (e.g., a unidirectional power flow), which in principle can cause integration problems with higher DG penetration levels or different technologies. Nonetheless, those issues can usually be solved by modifying the distribution network, including the control and/or operation approach, or by other technical means. Power sources units must be connected into parallel.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CENTRALISED AND DECENTRALISED POWER SYSTEMS
Transmission and Distribution losses for Countries(in percentage) India Nigeria Nicaragua Pakistan Cameroon Russia UK China US Japan Germany 33 38 30 26 26 12 8 7 6 4 4
CHAPTER 2 Historical Background
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The importance of the impact that DG might have on the operation, stability, and control of the power system has already been recognized in the late 1970s. One of the most interesting publications on this subject was presented at the conference Research needs for the effective integration of new technologies into the Electric Utility held by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) in 1982 and was entitled Impacts of new technology and generation and storage processes on power system stability and operability . Over the last two decades the number of publications discussing various areas of the interaction between DG and the utility has been gradually increasing. Historically, until the 1990s the main focus of the research was placed upon the impact that renewable power sources had on network operation. However, also distributed generation in general was investigated. In the late 1990s, this theme gained more interest in academia and industry, which resulted in a large number of publications. Recently, also the results of two extensive simulation case studies have been reported: (i) Simulation of interaction between wind farm and power system, by the Russo National Laboratory, Denmark , and (ii) DG Power Quality, Protection and reliability Case Studies Report, by GE Corporate Research and Development.
CHAPTER 3 Distribution Generation Technology
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION TECHNOLOGY

Technologies for distributed generation:
TECHNOLOGY 1.Combined Cycle Gas 2.Internal combustion engines 3.Combustion turbine 4.Micro turbines 5.Small hydro 6.Micro hydro 7.Wind turbine 8.Photo voltaic Arrays 9.Solar thermal, Central receiver 10.Solar Thermal, Lutz system 11.Biomass Gasification 12.Fuel cells, Phos acid 13.Fuel cells, Molten Carbonate 14.Fuel cells, Proton exchange 15.Fuel cells, Solid Oxide 16.Geothermal 17Ocean Energy 18.Stirling Engine 19.Battery storage Typical available size module 35-400MW 5KW-10MW 1-250MW 35KW-1MW 1-100MW 25KW-1MW 200W-3MW 20W-100KW 1-10MW 10-80MW 100KW-20MW 200KW-2MW 250KW-2MW 1-250KW 250KW-5MW 5-100MW 0.1-1MW 2-10KW 0.5-5MW
Table provides a brief overview of the most commonly used distributed generation technologies and their typical module size. The technologies 5-11, 16 and 17 can be considered renewable DG. The other technologies could also be called renewable DG if they are operated with bio-fuels. Also fuel cells could be considered renewable DG if the hydrogen is produced using renewable energy sources, e.g. wind power. Similarly to the centralized generation, the following three generation technologies are normally used for distributed generation: synchronous generator, asynchronous generator, and power electronic converter interface. These DG technologies will now be briefly discussed. Synchronous Generator: The advantageous ability of the synchronous generator the primary generator technology for centralized generation to produce both active and reactive power also provides benefits for distributed generation applications. Synchronous generators are typically utilized by the following DG applications if the generation capacity exceeds a few MW: biomass, geothermal, diesel/gas engines driven generators, solar thermal generation, solar parabolic systems, solar power towers, solar dish engines, gas turbines, and combined cycle gas turbines. Asynchronous Generator: In contrast to synchronous generators, asynchronous (induction) generators are only used for distributed generation, but not for centralized generation. An asynchronous generator is basically an induction machine which is connected to a prime-mover. When the generator is connected to the power network, the mechanical power is converted into electrical power by the action of the prime mover that drives the machine above synchronous speed. Hence, the asynchronous generator is not capable of operating independent from a relatively strong grid. Asynchronous generators are used for many distributed generation technologies as long as the generation capacity does not exceed a few MW due to its competitive price compared to synchronous generators. Squirrel cage asynchronous generator used to be very common in the wind energy

industry; however, this type of induction generator is now being gradually superseded by asynchronous generators equipped with a converter, i.e., double-fed induction generators. Power Electronic Converter: Power converters normally use high power electronics to provide the desired power output. For example, it is quite common that wind turbines use double-fed, variable speed induction generators with an IGBT converter in the rotor circuit. Power electronic converters are also used in photovoltaic systems, fuel cells, micro turbines, Sterling engine as well as battery storage, and magnetic storage system.
CHAPTER 4 Power Quality
[Type the document title] POWER QUALITY

From the CIRED (CIRED is the International Conference of Electricity Distributors). Some of the European countries raise power quality as an issue in the current electricity market evolutions. Depending on the aspect chosen, distributed generation can either contribute to or deteriorate power quality. Here, we focus on some potential problems.
System Frequency
Imbalances between demand and supply of electricity cause the system frequency to deviate from the rated value of 50 Hz. These deviations should be kept within very narrow margins, as the well functioning of many industrial and household applications depends on it. In economic terms, system frequency can be considered as a public good. As a consequence, the transmission grid operator is appointed to take care of the system frequency as well as of other services with a public good character that need to be provided. The installation and connection of distributed generation units is also likely to affect the system frequency. These units will free ride on the efforts of the transmission grid operator or the regulatory body to maintain system frequency. The latter will probably have to increase their efforts and this could have an impact on the efficiency of the plants and on their emissions. Therefore, the connection of an increasing number of distributed generation units should be carefully evaluated and planned upfront.
Voltage level According to Ackermann et al. (2001), the impact of distributed generation connected to the distribution grid on the local voltage level can be significant. A same reaction was noted through the CIRED (1999) questionnaire, where, next to the general impact on power quality, a rise in the voltage level in radial distribution systems was mentioned as one of the main technical connection issues of distributed generation. The IEA (2002) also mentions voltage control as an issue when distributed generation is connected to the distribution grid. This

does not need to be a problem when the grid operator faces difficulties with low voltages, as in that case the distributed generation unit can contribute to the voltage support. But in other situations it can result in additional problems.
Connection issues
Change in power flow Power can flow bidirectional within a certain voltage level, but it usually flows unidirectional from higher to lower voltage levels, i.e. from the transmission to the distribution grid. An increased share of distributed generation units may induce power flows from the low-voltage into the medium-voltage grid. Thus, different protection schemes at both voltage levels may be required. Protection Distributed generation flows can reduce the effectiveness of protection equipment. Customers wanting to operate in islanding mode during an outage must take into account important technical (for instance the capability to provide their own ancillary services) and safety considerations, such that no power is supplied to the grid during the time of the outage. Once the distribution grid is back into operation, the distributed generation unit must be resynchronized with the grid voltage. Reactive power
Small and medium sized distributed generation units mostly use asynchronous generators that are not capable of providing reactive power. Several options are available to solve this problem. On the other hand, DG units with a power electronic interface are sometimes capable to deliver a certain amount of reactive power.
Power Conditioning
Some distributed generation technologies (PV, fuel cells) produce direct current. Thus, these units must be connected to the grid via a DC-AC interface, which may contribute to higher harmonics. Special technologies are also required for systems producing a variable frequency

AC voltage. Such power electronic interfaces have the disadvantage that they have virtually no inertia, which can be regarded as a small energy buffer capable to match fast changes in the power balance. Similar problems arise with variable wind speed machines.
CHAPTER 5 Benefits and Issues
[Type the document title] BENEFITS AND ISSUES

Voltage level at grid connection Although some authors allow distributed generation to be connected to the transmission grid, most authors see distributed generation as being connected to the distribution network, either on the distribution or on the consumers side of the meter. In all cases, the idea is accepted that distributed generation should be located closely to the load. The problem is that a distinction between distribution and transmission grid, based on voltage levels, is not always useful, because of the existing overlap of these voltage levels for lines in the transmission and distribution grid. Moreover, the legal voltage level that distinguishes distribution from transmission can differ from region to region. Therefore, it is best not to use the voltage level as an element of the definition of distributed generation. It would be more appropriate to use the concepts distribution network (usually radial) and transmission network (usually mashed) and to refer to the legal definition of these networks as they are used in the country under consideration.
Generation capacity (MW) One of the most obvious criteria would be the generation capacity of the units installed. However, the short survey of definitions illustrated that there is no agreement on maximum generation capacity levels and the conclusion is that generation capacity is not a relevant criterion. The major argument is that the maximum distributed generation capacity that can be connected to the distribution grid is a function of the capacity of the distribution grid itself. Because this latter capacity can differ widely, it is not possible to include it as an element of the definition of distributed generation. However, this does not imply that the capacity of the connected generation units is not important.
Services supplied Generation units should by definition at least supply active power in order to be considered as distributed generation. The supply of reactive power and/or other ancillary services is possible and may represent an added value, but is not necessary.
Generation technology In some cases, it can be helpful to clarify the general definition of distributed generation by summing up the generation technologies that are taken into account. It would however be difficult to use this approach to come to a definition because the availability of (scalable) technologies and of capacities, especially in the field of renewable, differs between countries. Also conventional systems such as gas turbines are available over wide ranges (a few kW to 500 MW). Sometimes, it is claimed that distributed generation technologies should be renewable. However, it should be clear from section 1 that many small-scale generation technologies exist not using renewable as a primary source. On the other hand, not all plants using green technologies are supplying distributed generation. This would, for example, depend on the plant size or on the grid to which the installation is connected (transmission or distribution). Should a large offshore wind farm of 100 MW be considered as distributed generation? And what about a large hydro power plant located in the mountains?
Operation mode Ackermann et al. (2001) do not consider the operation mode (being scheduled, subject to pool pricing, dispatchable) as a key element in the general definition of distributed generation. This is a correct view, but at the same time it must be recognized that many of the problems related to distributed generation, essentially have to do with the fact that these generation units are beyond control of grid operators. So, it can be meaningful to use (elements of) the operation mode as a criterion to narrow the definition.
Power delivery area In some cases, distributed generation is described as power that is generated and consumed within the same distribution network. As correctly stated by Ackermann, Andersons et al. (2001), it would be difficult to use this as a criterion, even for a narrowed definition, because it requires complex power flow analyses.

Ownership Ackermann et al. (2001) do not consider ownership as a relevant element for the definition of distributed generation. Thus, customers, IPPs and traditional generators can own distributed generation units.
CHAPTER 6 Impact of Distributed Generation in power losses
[Type the document title] THE IMPACT OF DG IN POWER LOSSES

In this section we present the results of the study of the impact of DG connection on the power losses in the distribution network. We evaluated the power losses over one year for different scenarios. The aim will be to know whether DG increases or decreases power losses, depending on the configuration of the network and on the technology used by generators and the level of penetration of DG.
The power losses depend on factors such as demand, DG production and the network operation. Therefore, to study the power losses, it is not enough to study the network in extreme conditions, as it has been done in the previous section. We use profiles for power demand and power generation with a resolution of half an hour, and duration of one year. The DG generation profile is of wind type. These profiles have been obtained from. With these data we have analyzed the effect on power losses caused by variation in the demand and generation profiles. We have defined two different scenarios to assess the impact of different network configurations in the power losses. The first scenario is the one presented in previous section without control

strategies. In the second one, we have included the control strategies previously explained. We have simulated the connection of different inductive wind DG units. Next we present the results obtained using different configuration cases for the DG unit, in the first scenario. The cases are as follow: case 1: No DG unit installed; case 2: One DG unit installed, with a maximum capacity of 0.575 MW operating at a PF of 0.8; case 3: One DG unit installed, with a maximum capacity of 1 MW, with active power output limited to 0.575 MW operating at a PF of 0.8; case 4: One DG unit installed, with a maximum capacity of 0.35 MW operating at a unity PF; case 5: One DG unit installed, with a maximum capacity of 1 MW, with active power output limited to 0.35 MW and operating with unity PF.
The case 1 presents losses close to 6%. For Case 2, losses increase slightly to 6.48% because the flows during the year are higher. These results are influenced by the fact that bank capacitors are active for a smaller number of iterations. Case 3 presents losses of 8.58%. This value is due to a high consumption of reactive power by the DG unit when the generation of active power is high. For the cases 4 and 5, losses are reduced significantly thanks to the active power production of the DG unit, eliminating the need to import this power. Connection of a DG unit has a very positive effect in reducing the number of iterations in which there are violations of lower voltage limits. This is due to the power saving which results from not needing to import power from the head feeder in power networks with low X/R ratio. For the second scenario, the cases are the following: case 6: no DG unit installed; case 7: one DG unit installed, with a maximum capacity of 0.39 MW operating at a PF of 0.8; case 8: one DG unit installed, with a maximum capacity of 1 MW, with active power output limited to 0.39 MW operating at a PF of 0.8; case 9: one DG unit installed, with a maximum capacity of 0.246 MW operating at a unity PF;

case 10: one DG unit installed, with a maximum capacity of 1 MW, with active power output limited to 0.246 MW and operating with unity PF.
[Type the document title] Worldwide installed capacity (GW)
Region North America Central & South America Western Europe Eastern Europe Middle East Africa Asia Total Percentage
Thermal 642 64 353 298 94 73 651 2,175 66.6
Hydro 176 112 142 80 4 20 160 694 21.3
Nuclear 109 2 128 48 0 2 69 358 11.0
Others 18 3 10 0 0 0 4 35 1.1
Total 945 181 633 426 98 95 884 3,262 100
[Type the document title] ADVANTAGES:

1) Useful addition for a large power grid 2) Can make up the deficiency of large power grids stability 3) Need not build power transformer and distributed station 4) High efficiency and environmental protection. 5) Can achieve load power demand in remote areas.
CHALLENGES IN TECHNICAL ASPECTS:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Penetration levels Location sizing Optimizing the location of DG Islanding scenario Line losses reduction
CATEGORIZATION:
One can further categorize distributed generation technologies as renewable and nonrenewable. Renewable technologies include: Solar, photovoltaic or thermal Wind Geothermal Ocean.

Nonrenewable technologies include: Internal combustion engine, ice combined cycle Combustion turbine Microturbines Fuel cell. Distributed generation should not to be confused with renewable generation. Distributed generation technologies may be renewable or not
It can be understood that the impact of DG on operational aspects of the distribution network depends on the penetration of DG well as on the DG technology. Furthermore, critical issues, for example the impact of DG on the protection system, can be solved by using the right technology and detailed studies beforehand. Also, new operational approaches for distribution network, using IT technologies, might help to integrate DG better into distribution network.
[Type the document title] CONCLUSION
It is economically nonsensical to pursue two strategies at the same time, for both a centralized and a decentralized energy supply system, since both strategies would involve enormous investment requirements. I am convinced that the investment in renewable energies is the economically more promising project. When we make additional investments in the electricity grid, we should no longer be spending money on the 20th century grid system, but should instead focus on the 21st century paradigm of distributed generation. The centralized model no longer fits the inherently decentralized nature of renewable energy supply.
The grid must change
[Type the document title] rEFERENCES:

1. Puttgen, H. B., Macgregor, P. R., and Lambert F.C., Distributed Generation: Semantic Hype or the Dawn of a New Era?, IEEE Power & Energy Magazine. 2. A. M. Borbely. Distributed Generation: The Power Paradigm for the New Millennium. CRC Press, 2001. 3. Liang Caihao, Duan Xianzhong, "Distributed Generation and its Impact on Power System", Automation of Electric Power Systems, VoI.2S, pp.53-S6, Dec. 2001. 4. ACKERMANN, T., ANDERSSON, G., and SDER, L., (2001), Distributed generation: a definition, Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 57, p. 195-204. 5. Stan Mark Kaplan, Fred Sissine,(ed.) Smart grid: modernizing electric power transmission and distribution... The Capitol Net Inc, 2009

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Distribution generation technology

Benefits and Issues

Impact of Distributed generation in Power losses

[Type the document title] ABSTRACT