system NERVE CELLS/NEURONS *NEURONS composed of a cell body, dendrite & axon. surrounded by a myelin sheath (insulator) func: conducts impulses (nerve) across a synapse to muscles, glands and organs in the CNS (brain, spinal cord) *NEUROTRANSMITTERS help conduct impulses across the synapse - ex. ACETYLCHOLINE & NOREPINEPHRINE
Nerve Cell Nerve cells transmit information from one part of the body to another. Each nerve cell has branching dendrites to connect to other dendrites, and a long axon to transmit or collect impulses. Body
Dendrites Axon I. DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM A. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) 1. Brain & Spinal cord FUNCTIONS: 1. The CNS processes & coordinates all incoming sensory information & outgoing motor commands. 2. The CNS is also the seat of complex brain functions (memory, intelligence, learning & emotion)
B. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) 1. All neural tissue outside of the CNS: (a) Motor/efferent neurons; (b) sensory/afferent neurons FUNCTIONS: 1. PNS is responsible for providing sensory/afferent information to the CNS. 2. PNS is also responsible for carrying motor/efferent commands out to the tissues of the body. Voluntary motor commands (moving muscles to walk/talk Involuntary motor commands (digestion & heart beat)
II. CNS brain & spinal cord A. MENINGES (3 protective membranous layers that cover & protect CNS) 1. Dura Mater outermost membrane 2. Arachnoid membrane middle membrane 3. Pia Mater innermost membrane & most delicate of the 3 B. VENTRICLES [4/Brain cavities] produce & circulate CSF (surrounds & protects brain & spinal cord; exchange nutrients & waste at the cellular level). C. MAJOR PARTS: 1. BRAIN - the control center for movement, sleep, hunger, thirst & virtually all vital activities necessary to survivalemotions). - Parts (Cerebrum, Diencephalons, Brain stem, & Cerebellum): (a) CEREBRUM (most high-level brain functions take place in the cerebrum)
Left and Right Brain Functions Although the cerebrum is symmetrical in structure, with two lobes emerging from the brain stem and matching motor and sensory areas in each, certain intellectual functions are restricted to one hemisphere. A persons dominant hemisphere is usually occupied with language and logical operations, while the other hemisphere controls emotion and artistic and spatial skills. In nearly all right-handed and many left-handed people, the left hemisphere is dominant.
- divided into 2 hemispheres (left & right) & each contains 4 lobes: Frontal lobe site of personality, intellectual functioning & motor speech Parietal lobe site of sensation, integration of sensory information, spatial relationship.
3 Temporal lobe site of hearing, taste, smell & sensory speech Occipital lobe site of vision
Functions of the Cerebral Cortex Many motor and sensory functions have been mapped to specific areas of the cerebral cortex, some of which are indicated here. In general, these areas exist in both hemispheres of the cerebrum, each serving the opposite side of the body. Less well defined are the areas of association, located mainly in the frontal cortex, operative in functions of thought and emotion and responsible for linking input from different senses. The areas of language are an exception: both Wernickes area, concerned with the comprehension of spoken language, and Brocas area, governing the production of speech, have been pinpointed on the cortex.
(b) DIENCEPHALONS composed of thalamus & hypothalamus. - lie underneath the cerebrum & connect it to the brain stem. Thalamus the main relay station for incoming sensory signals to the cerebral cortex (exterior surface of the cerebrum) & for outgoing motor signals from it. Hypothalamus regulates or is involved directly in the control of many of the bodys vital drives & activities (such as eating, drinking, temperature regulation, sleep emotional behavior, & sexual activity). - controls the functions of internal body organs by means of the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS.
Limbic System The limbic system is a group of brain structures that play a role in emotion, memory, and motivation. For example, electrical stimulation of the amygdala in laboratory animals can provoke fear, anger, and aggression. The hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst, sleep, body temperature, sexual drive, and other functions.
(c) BRAIN STEM the most primitive part of the brain (evolutionarily). - includes 3 main structures: Midbrain topmost structure of the brain stem - at its top portion, are relay & reflex centers for visual & auditory (hearing functions) Pons below the midbrain, a prominent bulge in front of the cerebellum - serves mainly as a relay station linking the cerebral cortex & the medulla oblongata Medulla oblongata long, stalk-like lowermost portion of the brain stem - contains vomiting, vasomotor (constriction & dilation of blood vessels), respiratory & cardiac centers.
4 **Cross over of sensory & motor nerve fibers pass through medulla. Left half of the brain communicates with the right half of the body & the right half of the brain with the left half of the body.
Structure of the Brain Stem The brain stem, shown here in colored cross section, is the lowest part of the brain. It serves as the path for messages traveling between the upper brain and spinal cord but is also the seat of basic and vital functions such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate, as well as reflexes like eye movement and vomiting. The brain stem has three main parts: the medulla, pons, and midbrain. A canal runs longitudinally through these structures carrying cerebrospinal fluid. Also distributed along its length is a network of cells, referred to as the reticular formation, that governs the state of alertness.
(d) CEREBELLUM coordinates body movements (voluntary movements); maintains posture & balance by controlling muscle tone & sensing the position of the limbs. **The cerebellum is connected to the 3 parts of the brain stem by 3 fiber bundles called CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES 2. SPINAL CORD - composed of gray matter (forms H- shaped core in the spinal cord) & white matter (includes the ascending/sensory tracts & descending/motor tracts of the spinal cord). - functions: Functions in the transmission of ascending impulses to the brain & of descending impulses from the brain to the cord. It relays impulses also to the muscles, blood vessels, & glands by means of outgoing nerves. ***REFLEX ARC is the involuntary response to a stimulus functional unit of the nervous system.
Pain Transmission When a person experiences an injury, such as a stubbed toe, specialized cells called nociceptors sense potential tissue damage (1) and send an electric signal, called an impulse, to the spinal cord via a sensory nerve (2). A specialized region of the spinal cord known as the dorsal horn (3) processes the pain signal, immediately sending another impulse back down the leg via a motor nerve (4). This causes the muscles in the leg to contract and pull the toe away from the source of injury (6). At the same time, the dorsal horn sends another impulse up the spinal cord to the brain. During this trip, the impulse travels between nerve cells. When the impulse reaches a nerve ending (7), the nerve releases chemical messengers, called neurotransmitters, which carry the message to the adjacent nerve. When the impulse reaches the brain (8), it is analyzed and processed as an unpleasant physical and emotional sensation.
5 II. PNS ( 12 pairs (24) of cranial nerves; 31 pairs (62) of spinal nerves 31 motor spinal nerves & 31 sensory spinal nerves; + Autonomic NS) A. CRANIAL NERVES
Cranial Nerves Whereas most major nerves emerge from the spinal cord, the 12 pairs of cranial nerves project directly from the brain. All but 1 pair relay motor or sensory information (or both); the tenth, or vagus nerve, affects visceral functions such as heart rate, vasoconstriction, and contraction of the smooth muscle found in the walls of the trachea, stomach, and intestine.
**Mnemonics OOO T T A F A GV A H 1. Olfactory sense of smell 2. Optic vision 3. Oculomotor movement of eyes & eyelids 4. Trochlear enervates superior oblique muscle of the eyeballs 5. Trigeminal mastication, sensation for face, nose & mouth 6. Abducens enervates the lateral rectus muscles of the eyeballs 7. Facial facial expression 8. Acoustic (vestibulocochlear) - hearing & equilibrium/balance 9. Glossopharyngeal taste in the posterior third of the tongue 10. Vagus laryngeal (voice box) control, inhibit heart rate, stimulate peristalsis 11. Accessory movements of head & shoulders 12. Hypoglossal movement of the tongue B. SPINAL NERVES arise from the spinal cord. They carry mixed impulses (motor & sensory) to & from the spinal cord (7 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic nerves, 5 lumbar nerves, 5 sacral nerves, 3 coccygeal nerves). C. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM a system of nerves in the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, & gallbladder that influences all digestive processes. - operates without input from the brain or spinal cord. 2. SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Operate together or in opposition 3. PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system directs all activities of the body that occur without a persons conscious control, such as heartbeat, breathing, and food digestion. It has two parts: the sympathetic division, which is most active in times of stress, and the parasympathetic division, which controls maintenance activities and helps conserve the bodys energy.
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