A Seminar Report On

Military Radars
Submitted In Partial Fulfilment Of The Requirement For The Award Of The Degree Of Bachelor Of Technology Computer Science

: Submited By :

ANKUSH VERMA
: Submitted to :

Department of Computer Engineering

Laxmi Devi Institute of Engineering & Technology, Alwar Rajasthan Technical University, Kota

2011-12 Session

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CANDIDATES DECLARATION
This is to certify that work, which is being presented in the seminar entitled MILITARY

RADARS submitted by ANKUSH VERMA of final year B.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering in partial fulfillment for award of degree of Bachelor of Technology is a record of my own work carried out by me under guidance and supervision of Mr. Mohd. Faisal (Assist. Prof. CSE).

This work has not submitted elsewhere for award of any other degree.

Date: Place: LIET, Alwar

Name & Signature of student ANKUSH VERMA

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LAXMI DEVI INSTITUTE OF ENGG. & TECHNOLOGY, ALWAR

CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the work, which is being presented in the SEMINAR, entitled MILITARY RADARS submitted by Mr. Ankush Verma final year B.Tech. in Computer Science Engineering in partial fulfillment for award of degree of Bachelor of Technology is a record of students work carried out by him/her under our guidance and supervision. This work has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any other degree.
Batch No. CS -I XXXXXXX05 Year: 2011-2012

Date: Place: liet, Alwar

Signature of Student (Ankush Verma) VII SEM CSE Signature of HOD

Signature of Seminar Coordinator (Mr.Mohd. Faisal) Assist. Prof. CSE

(Mr. Manish Mukhija) HOD CSE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Achiving a milestone for anyone alone is extremely difficult.However there are some motivators who came across the curvaceous path like twinkling star in the sky and make our task much easier.So it is my humble duty to acknowledge all of them. My ethical accountability is to be extremely indebted for BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED for their guidance,co-operation and sincere advice with which Ive been able to complete this report. I would also like to thank Mr. Mohd. Faisal for reviewing this report and being humble enough to listen to all my doubts that arose in the course of development of this report.

ANKUSH VERMA (Final Year B.Tech)

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Chapters.

INDEX

Chapter - 1

Abstract

06

Chapter - 2

History of Bharat Electronics

07

Chapter - 3

Introduction

10

Chapter - 4

Radar Principles

11

Chapter - 5

Advance Feature And Benefits

19

Chapter - 6

System Configuration

20

Chapter - 7

Sets Of Terminal Equipments

21

Chapter - 8

Operating The Radar

22

Chapter - 9

System Functions

23

Chapter - 10

Terminal Equipment Functions

25

Chapter - 11

Functional Description Of Radar Subsystem

26

Chapter-12

Conclusion

33

Chapter-13

References

34

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1.ABSTRACT
RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) is basically a means of gathering information about distant objects by transmitting electromagnetic waves at them and analyzing the echoes. Radar has been employed on the ground, in air, on the sea and in space. Radar finds a number of applications such as in airport traffic control, military purposes, coastal navigation, meteorology and mapping etc. The development of the radar technology took place during the World War II in which it was used for detecting the approaching aircraft and then later for many other purposes which finally led to the development of advanced military radars being used these days. Military radars have a highly specialized design to be highly mobile and easily transportable, by air as well as ground.

In this report we will discuss about the advanced features and benefits of military radar, system configuration of a typical military radar, operating the radar, system functions, various terminal equipments used along with their functions and some of the important parts of the radar such as transmitter, receiver, antenna, AFC (Automatic Frequency Control) etc.

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2.HISTORY OF BHARAT ELECTRONICS

Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) is a state-owned electronics company with about nine factories, and few regional offices in India. It is owned by the Indian Government & primarily manufactures advanced electronic products for the Indian Armed Forces.BEL is one of the eight PSUs under Ministry of Defence, Government Of India. It has even earned the government's Navratna status. As of April 1, 2008, BEL's order book is estimated to be around 9,450 crore (US$2.11 billion). Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was set up at Bangalore, India, by the Government of India under the Ministry of Defence in 1954 to meet the specialised electronic needs of the Indian defence services. Over the years, it has grown into a multi-product, multi-technology, multi-unit company serving the needs of customers in diverse fields in India and abroad . BEL is among an elite group of public sector undertakings which have been conferred the Navratna status by the Government of India. The growth and diversification of BEL over the years mirrors the advances in the electronics technology, with which BEL has kept pace. Starting with the manufacture of a few communication equipment in 1956, BEL went on to produce Receiving Valves in 1961, Germanium Semiconductors in 1962 and Radio Transmitters for AIR in 1964. In 1966, BEL set up a Radar manufacturing facility for the Army and in-house R&D, which has been nurtured over the years. Manufacture of Transmitting Tubes, Silicon Devices and Integrated Circuits started in 1967. The PCB manufacturing facility was established in 1968. In 1970, manufacture of Black & White TV Picture Tube, X-ray Tube and Microwave Tubes started. The following year, facilities for manufacture of Integrated Circuits and Hybrid Micro Circuits were set up. 1972 saw BEL manufacturing TV Transmitters for Doordarshan. The following year, manufacture of Frigate Radars for the Navy began. Under the government's policy of decentralization and due to strategic reasons, BEL ventured to set up new Units at various places. The second Unit of BEL was set up at Ghaziabad in 1974 to manufacture Radars and Tropo communication equipment for the Indian Air Force. The third Unit was established at Pune in 1979 to manufacture Image Converter and Image Intensifier Tubes. In 1980, BEL's first overseas office was set up at New York for procurement of components and materials. In 1981, a manufacturing facility for Magnesium Manganese Dioxide batteries was set up at the Pune Unit. The Space Electronic Division was set up at Bangalore to support the satellite programme in 1982. The same year saw BEL achieve a turnover of Rs.100 crores.

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In 1983, an ailing Andhra Scientific Company (ASCO) was taken over by BEL as the fourth manufacturing Unit at Machilipatnam. In 1985, the fifth Unit was set up in Chennai for supply of Tank Electronics, with proximity to HVF, Avadi. The sixth Unit was set up at Panchkula the same year to manufacture Military Communication equipment. 1985 also saw BEL manufacturing on a large scale Low Power TV Transmitters and TVROs for the expansion of Doordarshan's coverage. 1986 witnessed the setting up of the seventh Unit at Kotdwara to manufacture Switching Equipment, the eighth Unit to manufacture TV Glass Shell at Taloja (Navi Mumbai) and the ninth Unit at Hyderabad to manufacture Electronic Warfare Equipment. In 1987, a separate Naval Equipment Division was set up at Bangalore to give greater focus to Naval projects. The first Central Research Laboratory was established at Bangalore in 1988 to focus on futuristic R&D. 1989 saw the manufacture of Telecom Switching and Transmission Systems as also the setting up of the Mass Manufacturing Facility in Bangalore and the manufacture of the first batch of 75,000 Electronic Voting Machines. The agreement for setting up BEL's first Joint Venture Company, BE DELFT, with M/s Delft of Holland was signed in 1990. Recently this became a subsidiary of BEL with the exit of the foreign partner and has been renamed BEL Optronic Devices Limited. The second Central Research Laboratory was established at Ghaziabad in 1992. The first disinvestment (20%) and listing of the Company's shares in Bangalore and Mumbai Stock Exchanges took place the same year. BEL Units obtained ISO 9000 certification in 1993-94. The second disinvestment (4.14%) took place in 1994. In 1996, BEL achieved Rs.1,000 crores turnover. In 1997, GE BEL, the Joint Venture Company with M/s GE, USA, was formed. In 1998, BEL set up its second overseas office at Singapore to source components from South East Asia. The year 2000 saw the Bangalore Unit, which had grown very large, being reorganized into Strategic Business Units (SBUs). There are seven SBUs in Bangalore Unit. The same year, BEL shares were listed in the National Stock Exchange.

In 2002, BEL became the first defence PSU to get operational Mini Ratna Category I status. In June 2007, BEL was conferred the prestigious Navratna status based on its consistent performance.

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During 2008-09, BEL recorded a turnover of Rs.4624 crores.

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3.INTRODUCTION
Military radar should be an early warning, altering along with weapon control functions. It is specially designed to be highly mobile and should be such that it can be deployed within minutes. Military radar minimizes mutual interference of tasks of both air defenders and friendly air space users. This will result in an increased effectiveness of the combined combat operations. The command and control capabilities of the radar in combination with an effective ground based air defence provide maximum operational effectiveness with a safe, efficient and flexible use of the air space. The increased operational effectiveness is obtained by combining the advantages of centralized air defence management with decentralized air defence control.

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4.RADAR PRINCIPLES

A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals in predetermined directions. When these come into contact with an object they are usually reflected and/or scattered in many directions. Radar signals are reflected especially well by materials of considerable electrical conductivityespecially by most metals, by seawater, by wet land, and by wetlands. Some of these make the use of radar altimeters possible. The radar signals that are reflected back towards the transmitter are the desirable ones that make radar work. If the object is moving either closer or farther away, there is a slight change in the frequency of the radio waves, due to the Doppler effect. Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in the same location as the transmitter. Although the reflected radar signals captured by the receiving antenna are usually very weak, these signals can be strengthened by the electronic amplifiers that all radar sets contain. More sophisticated methods of signal processing are also nearly always used in order to recover useful radar signals. The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium through which it passes is what enables radar sets to detect objects at relatively-long rangesranges at which other electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light, are too strongly attenuated. Such things as fog, clouds, rain, falling snow, and sleet that block visible light are usually transparent to radio waves. Certain, specific radio frequencies that are absorbed or scattered by water vapor, raindrops, or atmospheric gases (especially oxygen) are avoided in designing radars except when detection of these is intended. Finally, radar relies on its own transmissions, rather than light from the Sun or the Moon, or from electromagnetic waves emitted by the objects themselves, such as infrared wavelengths (heat). This process of directing artificial radio waves towards objects is called illumination, regardless of the fact that radio waves are completely invisible to the human eye or cameras.

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Reflection

Brightness can indicate reflectivity as in this 1960 weather radar image (of Hurricane Abby). The radar's frequency, pulse form, polarization, signal processing, and antenna determine what it can observe. Electromagnetic waves reflect (scatter) from any large change in the dielectric constant or diamagnetic constants. This means that a solid object in air or a vacuum, or other significant change in atomic density between the object and what is surrounding it, will usually scatter radar (radio) waves. This is particularly true for electrically conductive materials, such as metal and carbon fiber, making radar particularly well suited to the detection of aircraft and ships. Radar absorbing material, containing resistive and sometimes magnetic substances, is used on military vehicles to reduce radar reflection. This is the radio equivalent of painting something a dark color so that it cannot be seen through normal means (see stealth technology). Radar waves scatter in a variety of ways depending on the size (wavelength) of the radio wave and the shape of the target. If the wavelength is much shorter than the target's size, the wave will bounce off in a way similar to the way light is reflected by a mirror. If the wavelength is much longer than the size of the target, the target may not be visible due to poor reflection. Low Frequency radar technology is dependent on resonances for detection, but not identification, of targets. This is described by Rayleigh scattering, an effect that creates the Earth's blue sky and red sunsets. When the two length scales are comparable, there may be resonances. Early radars used very long wavelengths that were larger than the targets and received a vague signal, whereas some modern systems use shorter wavelengths (a few centimeters or shorter) that can image objects as small as a loaf of bread. Short radio waves reflect from curves and corners, in a way similar to glint from a rounded piece of glass. The most reflective targets for short wavelengths have 90 angles between the reflective surfaces. A structure consisting of three flat surfaces meeting at a single corner, like the corner on a box, will always reflect waves entering its opening directly back at the source. These so-called . 12

corner reflectors are commonly used as radar reflectors to make otherwise difficult-to-detect objects easier to detect, and are often found on boats in order to improve their detection in a rescue situation and to reduce collisions. For similar reasons, objects attempting to avoid detection will angle their surfaces in a way to eliminate inside corners and avoid surfaces and edges perpendicular to likely detection directions, which leads to "odd" looking stealth aircraft. These precautions do not completely eliminate reflection because of diffraction, especially at longer wavelengths. Half wavelength long wires or strips of conducting material, such as chaff, are very reflective but do not direct the scattered energy back toward the source. The extent to which an object reflects or scatters radio waves is called its radar cross section. Radar equation The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:

where

Pt = transmitter power Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target F = pattern propagation factor Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.

In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt Rr can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yields:

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small. The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without interference. The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multipath and shadowing and depends on the details of the environment. In a real-world situation, pathloss effects should also be considered.

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Doppler effect Main articles: Doppler radar and Pulse-Doppler radar Ground-based radar systems used for detecting speeds rely on the Doppler effect. The apparent frequency (f) of the wave changes with the relative position of the target. The doppler equation is stated as follows for vobs (the radial speed of the observer) and vs (the radial speed of the target) and f0 frequency of wave :

However, the change in phase of the return signal is often used instead of the change in frequency. It is to be noted that only the radial component of the speed is available. Hence when a target is moving at right angle to the radar beam, it has no velocity while one parallel to it has maximum recorded speed even if both might have the same real absolute motion. Polarization In the transmitted radar signal, the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and this direction of the electric field is the polarization of the wave. Radars use horizontal, vertical, linear and circular polarization to detect different types of reflections. For example, circular polarization is used to minimize the interference caused by rain. Linear polarization returns usually indicate metal surfaces. Random polarization returns usually indicate a fractal surface, such as rocks or soil, and are used by navigation radars.

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Limiting factors
Beam path and range

Echo heights above ground The radar beam would follow a linear path in vacuum but it really follows a somewhat curved path in the atmosphere due to the variation of the refractive index of air. Even when the beam is emitted parallel to the ground, it will raise above it as the Earth curvature sink below the horizon. Furthermore, the signal is attenuated by the medium it crosses and the beam disperse as its not a perfect pencil shape. The maximum range of a conventional radar can either be limited by a number of factors: 1. Line of sight, which depends on height above ground. 2. The maximum non-ambiguous range (MUR) which is determined by the Pulse repetition frequency (PRF). Simply put, MUR is the distance the pulse could travel and return before the next pulse is emitted. 3. Radar sensitivity and power of the return signal as computed in the radar equation. This includes factors such as environmentals and the size (or radar cross section) of the target. Noise Signal noise is an internal source of random variations in the signal, which is generated by all electronic components. Noise typically appears as random variations superimposed on the desired echo signal received in the radar receiver. The lower the power of the desired signal, the more difficult it is to discern it from the noise (similar to trying to hear a whisper while standing near a

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busy road). Noise figure is a measure of the noise produced by a receiver compared to an ideal receiver, and this needs to be minimized. Noise is also generated by external sources, most importantly the natural thermal radiation of the background scene surrounding the target of interest. In modern radar systems, due to the high performance of their receivers, the internal noise is typically about equal to or lower than the external scene noise. An exception is if the radar is aimed upwards at clear sky, where the scene is so "cold" that it generates very little thermal noise. There will be also flicker noise due to electrons transit, but depending on 1/f, will be much lower than thermal noise when the frequency is high. Hence, in pulse radar, the system will be always heterodyne. See intermediate frequency. Interference Radar systems must overcome unwanted signals in order to focus only on the actual targets of interest. These unwanted signals may originate from internal and external sources, both passive and active. The ability of the radar system to overcome these unwanted signals defines its signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). SNR is defined as the ratio of a signal power to the noise power within the desired signal. In less technical terms, SNR compares the level of a desired signal (such as targets) to the level of background noise. The higher a system's SNR, the better it is in isolating actual targets from the surrounding noise signals. Clutter Clutter refers to radio frequency (RF) echoes returned from targets which are uninteresting to the radar operators. Such targets include natural objects such as ground, sea, precipitation (such as rain, snow or hail), sand storms, animals (especially birds), atmospheric turbulence, and other atmospheric effects, such as ionosphere reflections, meteor trails, and three body scatter spike. Clutter may also be returned from man-made objects such as buildings and, intentionally, by radar countermeasures such as chaff. Some clutter may also be caused by a long radar waveguide between the radar transceiver and the antenna. In a typical plan position indicator (PPI) radar with a rotating antenna, this will usually be seen as a "sun" or "sunburst" in the centre of the display as the receiver responds to echoes from dust particles and misguided RF in the waveguide. Adjusting the timing between when the transmitter sends a pulse and when the receiver stage is enabled will generally reduce the sunburst without affecting the accuracy of the range, since most sunburst is caused by a diffused transmit pulse reflected before it leaves the antenna.

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While some clutter sources may be undesirable for some radar applications (such as storm clouds for air-defence radars), they may be desirable for others (meteorological radars in this example). Clutter is considered a passive interference source, since it only appears in response to radar signals sent by the radar. There are several methods of detecting and neutralizing clutter. Many of these methods rely on the fact that clutter tends to appear static between radar scans. Therefore, when comparing subsequent scans echoes, desirable targets will appear to move and all stationary echoes can be eliminated. Sea clutter can be reduced by using horizontal polarization, while rain is reduced with circular polarization (note that meteorological radars wish for the opposite effect, therefore using linear polarization the better to detect precipitation). Other methods attempt to increase the signal-to-clutter ratio. Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR, a form of Automatic Gain Control, or AGC) is a method relying on the fact that clutter returns far outnumber echoes from targets of interest. The receiver's gain is automatically adjusted to maintain a constant level of overall visible clutter. While this does not help detect targets masked by stronger surrounding clutter, it does help to distinguish strong target sources. In the past, radar AGC was electronically controlled and affected the gain of the entire radar receiver. As radars evolved, AGC became computer-software controlled, and affected the gain with greater granularity, in specific detection cells.

Radar multipath echoes from a target cause ghosts to appear. Clutter may also originate from multipath echoes from valid targets due to ground reflection, atmospheric ducting or ionospheric reflection/refraction (e.g. Anomalous propagation). This clutter type is especially bothersome, since it appears to move and behave like other normal (point) targets of interest, thereby creating a ghost. In a typical scenario, an aircraft echo is multipath-reflected from the ground below, appearing to the receiver as an identical target below the correct one. The radar may try to unify the targets, reporting the target at an incorrect height, orworseeliminating it on the basis of jitter or a physical impossibility. These problems can be overcome by incorporating a ground map of the radar's surroundings and eliminating all echoes which appear to originate below ground or above a certain height. In newer Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar equipment, algorithms are used to identify the false targets by comparing the current pulse returns, to those adjacent, as well as calculating return improbabilities due to calculated height, distance, and radar timing.

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Jamming Radar jamming refers to radio frequency signals originating from sources outside the radar, transmitting in the radar's frequency and thereby masking targets of interest. Jamming may be intentional, as with an electronic warfare (EW) tactic, or unintentional, as with friendly forces operating equipment that transmits using the same frequency range. Jamming is considered an active interference source, since it is initiated by elements outside the radar and in general unrelated to the radar signals. Jamming is problematic to radar since the jamming signal only needs to travel one-way (from the jammer to the radar receiver) whereas the radar echoes travel two-ways (radar-target-radar) and are therefore significantly reduced in power by the time they return to the radar receiver. Jammers therefore can be much less powerful than their jammed radars and still effectively mask targets along the line of sight from the jammer to the radar (Mainlobe Jamming). Jammers have an added effect of affecting radars along other lines of sight, due to the radar receiver's sidelobes (Sidelobe Jamming). Mainlobe jamming can generally only be reduced by narrowing the mainlobe solid angle, and can never fully be eliminated when directly facing a jammer which uses the same frequency and polarization as the radar. Sidelobe jamming can be overcome by reducing receiving sidelobes in the radar antenna design and by using an omnidirectional antenna to detect and disregard non-mainlobe signals. Other anti-jamming techniques are frequency hopping and polarization. Interference has recently become a problem for C-band (5.66 GHz) meteorological radars with the proliferation of 5.4 GHz band WiFi equipment.

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5.ADVANCED FEATURES AND BENEFITS

Typical military radar has the following advanced features and benefits: All-weather day and night capability. Multiple target handling and engagement capability. Short and fast reaction time between target detection and ready to fire moment. Easy to operate and hence low manning requirements and stress reduction under severe conditions. Highly mobile system, to be used in all kind of terrain Flexible weapon integration, and unlimited number of single air defence weapons can be provided with target data. High resolution, which gives excellent target discrimination and accurate tracking. The identification of the targets as friend or hostile is supported by IFF, which is an integral part of the system. During the short time when the targets are exposed accurate data must be obtained. A high antenna rotational speed assures early target detection and a high data update rate required for track accuracy. The radar can use linear (horizontal) polarization in clear weather. During rains, to improve the suppression of rain clutter, provision exists to change to circular polarization at the touch of the button from the display console.

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6.THE SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

A typical military radar system can be split up into three parts:

1) Radargroup The radargroup consists of antenna, mast unit, remote control, high tension unit, LO/AFC (Local Oscillator/Automatic Frequency Control) unit, radar transmitter, radar receiver, video processor, waveguide drier and IFF interrogator. The transmitter and receiver forms the active part of the system. The integrated radar/IFF antenna is fitted on the collapsible mast, mounted on the container. The container is connected by cable to the operator/control shelter. 2) Shelter Shelter contains display unit, processor unit, TV monitor, colour PPI (Plan Position indicator), IFF control unit, air conditioner, battery charger with battery, Radio set with antenna for data link, radio set with antenna for voice transmission i.e. communication, filter box for radios. 3) Motor generator The motor generator supplies the power to the whole radar system.

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7.SETS OF TERMINAL EQUIPMENT

These are the sets of lightweight man portable units, which can be easily be stacked together and consists of: -

1) TDR (Target Data Receiver) The TDR is either connected to a VHF-FM radio receiver or to a LCA to receive transmitted target data. The TDR itself is intelligent, it performs parallax correction, threat evaluation and it displays the result in a threat sequence, enabling the weapon commander to make the correct decision.

2) Radio Receiver or LCA (Line Connection Adapter) A radio receiver or LCA (with standard 2 wire telephone line) can be used to receive target data. In principle any VHF-FM radio receiver can be used as a part of the terminal equipment set. In case line connection is applied, no radio receiver is required. An LCA connects the 2-wire telephone line to the TDR cable.

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8.OPERATING THE RADAR

The operators main task is to watch the PPI (Plan Position Indicator) display, which presents only moving targets in the normal mode (MTI-MODE). Detected target can be assigned with the joystick controlled order marker to initiate target tracking. Target tracking is started and a track marker appears over the target echo. A label is displayed near the track marker. The system computer in the processor unit processes data on this tracked target. When an aircraft does not respond to the IFF interrogation it is considered to be unknown.

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9. SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
The main task of the radar is to provide individual weapon systems, after an alert, with accurate target data. Therefore, the system has to perform certain functions as shown in the following block diagram: -

Detection The detection function is supported by the search radar, the MTI processor and the PPI. On the PPI all moving targets, even those flying at low radial speeds, are displayed to the operator.

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Automatic Target Tracking After target detection a track is initiated by indicating the target video with the joystick controlled order marker. The computer starts generating a track on the basis of the joystick data. A target track marker is displayed on the PPI over the target echo. Search radar information is gathered and extracted by video extractor as plots. The computer evaluates the plot information, determines the position and speed of the target and updates the generated track. Identification The identification function comprises: 1) Interrogation of a target detected 2) Decoding IFF responses 3) Display of the decoded IFF responses on the PPI Reporting Function to External Terminal Equipment The data of the tracked targets is automatically converted to X and Y grid co-ordinates, with respect to preset co-ordinates of the radar location. The data is included in digital data message made up for all targets being tracked. The computer-originated message is encoded and automatically transmitted by VHF-FM radio or by line communication. IFF Alarm The IFF alarm function alerts the operator that the IFF code setting has to be changed. The valid code is displayed to the operator. The IFF codes and their validity period are entered into the system in advance.

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10.TERMINAL EQUIPMENT FUNCTIONS

Target Decoding The target information is received and decoded. In case no, or disturbed target information is received, it is indicated on the TDR. Parallax Correction The parallax correction function is performed by the TDR. Through this function the target data received in the X and Y co-ordinates is transferred into polar co-ordinates, with respect to the entered weapon position. Threat Evaluation The data of the targets received is processed by a threat evaluation program, built in to the TDR. This program places all the targets in a sequence according to their threat priority and displays the result (azimuth angle of four most threatening targets) as an engagement advice.

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11. FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF RADAR SUBSYSTEM

The detection of air targets is accomplished by the search radar, the video processor and the colour PPI unit. The colour PPI unit provides the presentation of all moving targets down to very low radial speeds on a PPI screen. The search radar is pulse Doppler radar (also called MTI radar) i.e. it is capable of distinguishing between the echo from a fixed target and that of a moving target. The echoes from fixed target are eliminated, so that the echoes from the moving targets are presented on the screen. The great advantage of this is that it is possible to distinguish a moving target among a large number of fixed targets, even when the echoes from these fixed targets are much stronger. To achieve this the search radar makes use of the Doppler effect, if the target having a certain radial speed with respect to the search antenna is hit by a series of transmitter pulses from the search radar antenna, the change in range between this target and antenna is expressed by successive echo pulses in phase shifts with respect to the phase of the transmitter pulses. For moving targets the phase difference from echo pulse to echo pulse is continually subject to change, whereas for fixed targets this is a constant. The distinction between the echo signals from a fixed target and moving target is obtained by detecting the above phase differences.

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The main units of radar subsystem are: 1) HT Unit The high tension unit converts the phase mains voltage into a DC supply voltage of about in the order of kV for the transmitter unit.

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2) Transmitter Unit The transmitter unit comprises: a) Modulator The modulator consists of the following components: -

Start Pulse Amplifier The start pulse amplifier unit comprises: An amplifier which amplifies the pulses from the video processor, a thyratron for discharging the pulse-shaping network. These pulses then trigger a monostable multivibrator. Pulse Unit The pulse unit comprises of pulse shaping network and pulse transformer. The pulse discharge of the pulse- shaping network will occur only if the magnetron impedance transformed by the pulse transformer is about equal to the characteristic impedance of the pulseshaping network. The thyratron diodes ensure that the remaining negative voltage, caused by the mismatch, on the pulse-forming network is directed to earth. If the mismatch is too large, capacitor is charged by the discharge current to such an extent that relay (reflection coefficient too high) is activated. This relay switches off the high voltage.

b) Magnetron The magnetron is a self-oscillating RF power generator. It is supplied by the modulator by high voltage pulses, whereupon it produces band pulses. The generated RF pulses are applied to the receiver unit. The PRF of the magnetron pulses is determined by the synchronization circuit in the video processor, which applies start pulses to the sub-modulator of the transmitter unit. This sub modulator issues start pulses of suitable amplitude to trigger the thyratron in the modulator. On being triggered the modulator, which is supplied by the high tension unit, produces high voltage pulses.

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As a magnetron is self oscillating some kind of frequency control is required. The magnetron is provided with a tuning mechanism to adjust the oscillating frequency between certain limits. This tuning mechanism is operated by an electric motor being part of AFC control circuit. Together with circuits in LO+AFC unit, a frequency control loop is created, thus maintaining a frequency difference i.e. the intermediate frequency of the receiver between the output frequency of the SSLO and the magnetron output frequency. The magnetron unit comprises a coaxial tunable magnetron, servo motor driving an adjustable plunger.

3) LO+AFC Unit The LO+AFC unit determines the frequency of the transmitted radar pulses. It comprises of: 1) Lock pulse mixer 2) AFC discriminator

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3) Solid State Local Oscillator (SSLO) 4) Coherent Oscillator (COHO)

The SSLO generates a very stable low power RF signal lower than the desired transmitter frequency. This signal is split in two branches and distributed as local oscillator signal to two mixers.

These are: 1) Image rejection mixer in the receiver unit 2) Lock pulse mixer

The lock pulse mixer mixes the SSLO signal with a fraction of the magnetron power. The mixer output consists of AFC lock pulse, provided that the magnetron is correctly tuned. The AFC lock pulses are applied to an AFC discriminator, which checks their frequency. If the frequency of the AFC lock pulses is unequal to IF, a positive or negative control voltage for the AFC control circuit in the transmitter unit is developed, to force the magnetron frequency to the desired value. Thus the AFC loop is closed. The AFC lock pulses are also applied to COHO. The COHO outputs a signal with a frequency of AFC lock pulse, and is synchronized with the phase of each transmitter pulse. In this way a phase reference signal is obtained required by the phase sensitive detector in the receiver unit.

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4) Receiver Unit The receiver unit converts the received RF echo signals to IF level and detects the IF signals. By detecting the IF signals in two different ways, two receiver channels are obtained called MTI channel and linear channel. The RF signals received by radar antenna are applied to the low noise amplifier. The image rejection mixer mixes the amplified signals with the SSLO signal, to obtain an IF signal. After amplification the IF signal is split into two branches viz. a MTI channel and a linear channel. A fraction of amplified received signal is branched off and applied to broadband jamming detector (BJD). In the MTI channel, the IF signal is amplified again by the MTI main amplifier, and applied to the Phase Sensitive Detector (PSD). The second signal applied to the PSD is the phase reference signal from the COHO. The output of the PSD is the function of the phase difference between the two inputs to the PSD. The polarity pulses indicate whether the phase difference is positive or negative. The phase differences between the COHO signal and IF echo signals from a fixed target is constant whereas those between the COHO signals and IF echo signals from a moving target is subject to change. The PSD output signal is applied to the canceller in video processor. In the linear channel, the IF signal is amplified again by the linear main amplifier and subsequently applied to the linear detector. The linear detector output signals are passed on to the colour PPI drive unit.

5) Antenna The search antenna is a parabolic reflector, rotating with a high speed. In the focus of the reflector is a radiator, which emits the RF pulses, and which receives the RF echo pulses. In the waveguide is the polarization shifter, which causes the polarization of the RF energy to be either horizontally or circularly.

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6) Video processor The video processor processes the MTI video from the MTI receiver channel, to make the video suitable for the presentation on the colour PPI screen.

7) Protection Units There are some protection units such as arc sensor to protect the magnetron against arcing and RF power sensor maintaining the RF power.

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12.CONCLUSION
Military radars are one of the most important requirements during the wartime, which can be used for early detection of ballistic missile and also for accurate target detection and firing. Radar system discussed here has a built in threat evaluation program which automatically puts the target in a threat sequence, and advises the weapon crew which target can be engaged first. Most essential, the target data is available to the weapon crew in time, so the can prepare themselves to engage the best target for their specific weapon location. A magnetron radar system is relatively simple and reliable. As a consequence, minimum maintenance is required and thus the system life cycle costs can be kept low.

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13.REFERENCES
1) Skolnik Introduction to Radar Systems McGraw Hill 2) Electronic Communication Systems by Kennedy, Davis Fourth Edition 3) Bharat Electronics Limited www.bel-india.com 4) Google www.google.com

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