Mechanical properties of metals

How do metals respond to external loads? Stress& strain Elastic deformation. Plastic deformation.

STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
Typical tensile specimen Typical tensile test machine
Adapted from Fig. 6.2, Callister 6e.

Other types of tests:

--compression: brittle
materials (e.g., concrete) --torsion: cylindrical tubes, shafts.

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)

Raw Data Obtained

Total Elongation Uniform Deformation

Load, P (kN)

Maximum Load, Pmax

Elastic Deformation
Load, Pf

Elongation, DL (mm)

Engineering Stress-Strain Curve

Elongation

Engineering Stress, S=P/Ao

0.2% offset yield stress

Sy

E E Proportional Limit

(Ultimate)

Su

Engineering Strain, e = DL/Lo)

Stress-strain behavior

Elastic behavior
In brittle materials Non linear elastic behavior In ductile materials Linear elastic behavior

Hookes Law Elastic Deformation

Elastic deformation is not permanent; it means that when the load is removed, the part returns to its original shape and dimensions. For most metals, the elastic region is linear. For some materials, including metals such as cast iron, polymers, and concrete, the elastic region is non-linear. If the behavior is linear elastic, or nearly linear-elastic, Hookes Law may be applied:

S Ee

Where E is the modulus of elasticity (MPa)

Elastic properties of materials

Poissons ratio: When a metal is strained in one direction, there are corresponding strains in all other directions.
For most metals, 0.25 < < 0.35 in the elastic range

ey ex ez ez

Stress-strain behavior
Elastic deformation Reversible: when the stress is removed, the material returns to the dimension it had before the loading. Usually strains are small (except for the case of plastics). Plastic deformation Irreversible: when the stress is removed, the material does not return to its previous dimension.

Elastic Recovery
Loading Loading Reloading

Stress

Unloading Unloading

Strain

elastic strain

Strain

Elastic and Plastic Strain

P (,)

=e+p Total strain =

Stress

elastic strain + plastic strain e= /E

Total Strain

p=- e Strain
e

Plastic
p

Elastic

The 0.2% offset yield stress is the stress that gives a plastic (permanent) strain of 0.002.

Tensile properties: Yielding

Yield strength y - is chosen as that causing a permanent strain of 0.002 Yield point P - the strain deviates from being proportional to the stress (the proportional limit) The yield stress is a measure of resistance to plastic deformation

Tensile properties: Yielding

For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain curve includes both an upper and lower yield point.

The yield strength is defined in this case as the average stress at the lower yield point.

Tensile Strength
For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a more important property than the tensile strength, since once the it is passed, the structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits

Ductility
L f Lo Lo

EL%

x 100

EL%

Ductility is a measure of the deformation at fracture Define as elongation percent or reduction in area L f Lo

Lo
Ao A f Ao

x 100

AR%

x 100

Ductile Vs Brittle Materials

Only Ductile materials will exhibit necking. Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately) Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)
Engineering Stress

Engineering Strain

Example problem
Determine the mechanical properties for metal which have the stress-strain curve as shown below.

 The elastic modulus is the slope in the linear elastic region For the yield strength, the 0.002 strain offset line is drawn dashed. It intersects the stress-strain curve at approximately 285 MPa

 (d) The tensile strength is approximately 370 MPa, corresponding to the maximum stress on the complete stress-strain plot. If the gauge length (L0) = 12 cm , the length at fracture (Lf) = 16 cm, original diameter (d0)= 12 mm, the diameter at fracture (df) = 8mm. Then the ductility =