ROLL NO.

479/IC/08 480/IC/08 481/IC/08 482/IC/08 483/IC 484/IC/08

NAME PRATEEK GUPTA PRATEEK JHA PRIYANKA PATHAK PULKIT GOSWAMI PUSHPENDAR SINGH RACHIT GARG

PHONE NUMBER 9868264126 9958616461 9811649865 9811837879 9871832060 9717146776

Objective: To study the equilibrium of a particle under the action of forces in a plane. Apparatus: Hangers, slotted weights, thread, circular table, pulley, rings etc. Theory: FORCE AND SYSTEM OF FORCES Newton defined as the external cause which either changes the state of a body (static or dynamic) or tends to change it. It a body is acted upon by a number of forces, then it constitutes a system of forces. This system can be represented by a resultant force, the effect of which is equivalent to the combined effect of all the forces of the system. Forces are said to be coplanar, if they are acting in the same plane. Forces are said to be concurrent, if they are acting at the same point or are passing through it. Forces are said to be collinear, if they are acting in one direction. Conditions for a body to be in equilibrium:A particle is said to be in equilibrium, when the vector sum of all the forces acting on it is zero. but this condition does not speak about the rotation of the body. So the second condition of equilibrium is that the sum of the torques about any point must be zero. Mathematically, the first condition of equilibrium is put as, Fx = 0, Fy = 0 and Fz = 0 and, the second condition of equilibrium as M = 0 i.e. the algebraic sum of the moments due to all external forces acting on the body, with respect to any specific point, must be zero. The body may be in a state of equilibrium or dynamic equilibrium. If all the forces are assumed to be acting in a single plane, say xy plane, the equations of equilibrium are reduced to: Fx = 0 and Fy = 0 M = 0 In the current experiment all the forces are coplanar and concurrent. The ring remains at the center when all the four forces balance each other.

Static Equilibrium: It describes the condition in which a body is at rest with respect to a frame of reference. In static equilibrium:(i) The vector polygon of all forces acting on body is closed. (ii) The sum of components of force along any axis is zero. Polygon Method: When adding vectors by polygon method, move the vectors parallel to themselves to form a polygon in any order, since vector addition is commutative. In case of static equilibrium the vectors very likely add to zero. A+B+C A B Equilibrant: The equilibrant of any number of forces is the single force that is required to produce equilibrium. Lami's Law: If a particle is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, each force must bear the same proportionality with the sine of angle between the other two forces. It states that if three coplanar forces are acting on a same point and keep it stationary, then it always obeys the relation: F1 F F = 2 = 3 Sin Sin Sin C

Analysis of body at equilibrium: When all forces which act upon an object are balanced, the object is said to be in a state of equilibrium. This does not mean that the forces are equal. The net force is 0 and the acceleration is 0 m/s2. An object at equilibrium is either: (i) At rest and staying at rest. Or (ii) In motion and continuing in motion with the same speed and direction. If an object is at rest and in a state of equilibrium, then we would say that it is at static equilibrium. If a particle is in equilibrium under the action of n coplanar forces, the forces must be represented in magnitude, direction and sense by n sides of polygon taken in order in the same sense. F4 F3 F5

F2 F1

F6

A particle cannot be in equilibrium when a single force is applied on it. It would be in equilibrium under the action of two or more forces if the vectorial summation of force is zero.

F = 0
In particular if a particle is subjected to only two forces, the forces must be equal and opposite, i.e., equal in magnitude, in the same line of action but opposite in sense in order to keep it in equilibrium. If it is subjected to only three forces, the three forces must be coplanar forces. This fact can be appreciated by recognizing that the resultant of any two must be equal and opposite to the third force for equilibrium, and this cannot happen unless the three force lie in one and the same plane. If a particle is in equilibrium under the action of four or more forces, the forces may be spatial, i.e., not necessarily confined to act along the same line or in the same plane. When a particle is in equilibrium under the action of three forces F1 , F2 & F3 as shown in figure, the condition of equilibrium is, i.e., F1 + F2 + F3 = 0 may alternatively be expressed as Lami's theorem or Triangle Law of Equilibrium. Triangle Law of Equilibrium: If a particle is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, the forces must be represented in magnitude, direction and sense by the sides of a triangle, taken in order, in the same sense. When a particle is in equilibrium, under the action of more that three coplanar forces, the condition of equilibrium, i.e. F1 + F2 + F3 + F4 + ... = 0 F = 0, may alternatively be stated in forms of the polygon law of equilibrium. If a particle is in equilibrium under the action of n coplanar forces, the forces must be represented in magnitude, direction and sense by the n sides of a polygon taken in order in the same sense.

Procedure: (i) Fix the threads at one end to ring and at other end to the hangers. (ii) Pass the threads over the pulleys. (iii) Fix the position of pulleys by taking some suitable angles.

(iv) Hang the weight at all the hangers. (v) Lift the ring up to some height and leave it, check that the ring must be at the centre. (vi) If the ring is not at centre, then again adjust the weight to bring the ring at centre. (vii) For the next set of reading set the angles and repeat the above (iv, v, vi) steps. (viii) Draw the vector diagram with suitable scale moving in one direction for all the set of reading. (ix) Find out the error in magnitude and direction of last side of polygon using the formulae: % error in Magnitude = (| F4-F4 | / F4) x 100 % error in Direction = (| 4-4 | / 4) x 100 Observations
Magnitude of forces (gram weight) F1 1 2 3 4 5 105 105 105 145 105 F2 110 115 130 110 85 F3 110 175 275 130 255 F4 110 130 80 180 165 Angular position of forces (degrees) Actual Magnit ude of Closing Side F4(gm wt.) 109 134 87 201 177 Observed Magnitude of Closing Side F4(gm. wt.) 110 130 80 180 165 Obse rved Positi on Percentage Error Mag .91 3.46 8.75 11.67 7.27 Dir 3.33 8.33 6.67 3.33 0.67

S.No.

Actual Position

1
90 90 30 60 90

2
90 90 150 90 90

3
90 120 120 90 150

4
90 60 60 120 30

4
93 122 128 87 151

4
90 120 120 90 150

Average error in magnitude Average error in direction

= =

6.412% 4.466%

Result: Within the limits of experimental error the observed values and the actual values are found to be in approximation with each other and hence law of polygon of forces for equilibrium is verified. % Error in Magnitude = 6.412% % Error in Angle = 4.466%

Precautions: (i) Weights/Pans should not touch the table. (ii) The weight of hangers should be added to the weights put into pan to find the total force in each case.

(iii) Before taking the reading of forces see that all the hangers are at rest. (iv) See that pulleys must be free from friction. Sources of Error: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) The slotted weights may not be calibrated properly. There may be friction in pulleys. Error in measurements of angles of thread. The threads may not be perfectly radial. The threads are assumed to be light and in extensible. The muscular force used to put the weights might create an error.

Reference: www.wikipedia.org Write-ups

TO VERIFY THE LAW OF MOMENT BY USING BELL CRANK LEVER

MOMENTS
A moment is a turning force

Law of Moments or Law of Levers To be totally in balance ( in equilibrium ) both sides of the lever will be still. Then the clock wise movement will equal the anticlockwise movement

OBJECTIVE: To verify the law of moment by using bell crank lever APPARATUS: Bell crank lever, slotted weight, spring balance etc. THEORY: According to law of moments the moment of a force about an axis is equal to the sum of its components about same axis. Here in this experiment we have to check the moment of the force about the various point on the lever and that moment must be equal to the spring force multiplied by the fixed distance d. The distance d in this experiment is fixed and is equal to 7 inch. So we have to verify MOMENT M=W*D=S*d

Where W =force applied on lever D =varying distance on lever S =spring force d =fixed distance (7*2.54=17.78 cm) PROCEDURE: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Engage the chain of spring balance with the lever. Hang the weight on the end point marked on the lever. Check the pointer to match with the mark made on the lever. If point is not matching then adjust the weight to get the correct reading. Note down the spring reading. change the position of weight to be hanged on the lever and repeat the above steps. Take at least 6 readings.

OBSERVATIONS: WEIGHT OF HANGER = 258.30 grams

WEIGHT OF THE SUPPORT = 35 grams

OBSERVATION TABLE:

% ERROR S NO. WEIGHT Wg DISTANCE D cm MOMENT M=W*D SPRING FORCE S

CALCULATED

VALUE OF S S1= W*D d .6496 .6564 .6342 .6350 .6274 .6440

S1-S *100 S1 .061 1.275 2.49 2.36 3.60 .93

1 2 3 4 5 6

379 419 444 494 549 644

30.48 27.94 25.4 22.86 20.32 17.78

11.551 11.706 11.277 11.292 11.155 11.450

0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65

CALCULATIONS: Mean percentage error = .061+1.275+2.49+2.36+3.60+.93 6 = 1.775 % RESULT: As the observed value of force is nearby equal to the calculated value within the experimental error of 1.775 % hence the law of moment has been verified.

DISCUSSION:
Main aspect: HANDLING OF MOMEMTS DUE TO OTHER PARTS

AND ACCURACY V/S USE OF HEAVY LOADS

The important point to be noted in this experiment is that we take the readings of spring balance only when the pointer becomes parallel to the vertical part of hook on which the spring is attached , even though the for the weight and the spring is balanced at any moment . This is because the when the perpendicular hook becomes vertical the moment due to its weight is 0, as the perpendicular distance of the weight from the central axis is zero, this is not in case of any other angle. Now, as far as the moment of horizontal part of hook (where the weight is suspended) is concerned it is automatically balanced by the special hook given on its opposite side. In this experiment also the much heavier weights should not be used so that spring does not cross its elastic limit. But still using heavier weights to a limit should be used in order to have more accurate results, as the smaller weights of any other part of the apparatus, if involved in the moments calculation will be negligible, in presence of heavy weights.

To find the Mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of a simple screw jack

A jackscrew mechanism uses a long threaded rod used to position a matching nut at any position along its length. Unlike hydraulic actuators that require continual pressure to remain in a locked position, forces acting on the nut along the length of the rod do not appreciably affect the rotation of the rod so the mechanism self-locks. Jackscrews commonly use an Acme thread along the threaded rod. This pattern is very strong and can resist the large loads

imposed on most jackscrews while not being dramatically weakened by wear over many rotations. Most jackscrews are lubricated with grease. More-sophisticated screw mechanisms may use a recirculating-ball nut to minimize friction and prolong the life of the screw threads, but such jackscrews are usually not considered self-locking. As shown in the photo, jackscrews are commonly used in carjacks. The jackscrew figured prominently in the classic Robinson Crusoe. It was also featured in a recent show [History channel] as the saving tool of the Pilgrims' voyage; the main cross beam (a key to the entire structural integrity) of their small ship, cracked during a severe storm. A farmer's jackscrew secured the damage until landfall.

OBJECTIVE

To find the Mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of a simple screw jack and plot the graph between
Efficiency v/s Load

Effort v/s Load

APPARATUS

Screw jack apparatus,Slotted weights,String,Outside caliper

THEORY
A screw jack is a mechanical lifting device that is used to lift heavy loads with the application of a small effort. Screw Jacks have long been accepted as reliable tools for a variety of jobs. Their sturdy, simple design makes them ideal for supporting machinery, construction, structural moving and general maintenance. PARTS: A screw jack consists of the following parts :
1. Screw threads : It consists of threads that may be square or V in shape.

However square threads are more efficient than V threads and are used for power transmission. 2. Head : The screw has a head on its upper end on which the load W rests.

3. Nut : In the case of a screw jack, the threads of the screw will slide around

upon the fixed threads of the nut fixed in the frame and which generally forms a part of the body of the screw jack. PITCH : The axial distance between the corresponding points on two consecutive threads is known as pitch of the screw. Let this pitch be p. Weight on the table = W g Let D be the diameter of the flanged table on which the load W is to be placed and lifted.

Number of starts of the screw = n = 2 P = Total effort in the two hanger including the weight of the hangers. = P1 + P2

Let the table turn through one revolution LEAD : The lead is the axial distance through which the screw advances in one turn. Load risen in one revolution = Lead of the screw jack = l = n * pitch

l=2*p
Effort moved in one revolution = D V.R. = velocity ratio V.R. = Distance moved by the effort Distance moved by the load

D l

V.R.

D 2 * p

M.A. = Mechanical Advantage

M.A. = W/P

Percent efficiency = %

% = M.A. * 100 V.R.

PROCEDURE

1. Wrap the string round the circumference of the flanged table and pass it over one pulley. Similarly wrap another string over the flanged table and take it over the second pulley. The free ends of both the strings are tied to two hangers where the weights are to be hanged. 2. Measure the pitch of the thread with the help of vernier caliper. 3. Place the load W on the screw head and some weight on the hangers so that the load W is just lifted, the effort P is equal to the sum of the weights hanged in two hangers. 4. Increase the loads and find the corresponding efforts applied for the consecutive readings. Take at least six to seven readings. 5. Calculate mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency in each case. 6. Plot the graph between efficiency v/s load, effort v/s load.

OBSERVATION
Pitch = 6 mm Weight of screw jack system = 5.875 kg Diameter = 127 mm Circumference of the table = 2 * * radius = D = 398.976 mm Lead of the screw = l = 2 * p = 2 * 6 = 12 mm

S.No. LOAD EFFORT MECHANICAL (W) (P) ADVANTAGE=(w/p (in kg) (P1+P2) ) (in kg) 1. 5.875 .503 11.67 2. 6.833 .563 12.13 3. 7.322 .583 12.55 4. 7.835 .613 12.78 5. 8.271 .633 13.06 6. 8.808 .658 13.38 Mean
V.R. = velocity ratio = 33.23

%=(M.A/V.R)*100

12.595

35.11 36.52 37.79 38.46 39.31 40.26 37.90

PRECAUTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Use both the pulleys to find the values of effort P to avoid the side thrust. The load and effort should move slowly. Add weights in hangers gently. Lubricate the screw to decrease friction. The string should not overlap. There should be no knot in the string. See that both the pans should move downwards.

RESULT
The mechanical advantage of the screw jack system is : 12.595 The velocity ratio of the screw jack system is : 33.23 The percent efficiency of the screw jack system is : 37.90%

DISCUSSIONS
If we increase the diameter D of the flanged table we would require less effort to raise the same load by the same distance . It is because torque required to raise the load will be constant. But TORQUE = FORCE * DISTANCE So if we increase the diameter(i.e. distance) so we have to apply less force to raise the same load by the same distance. But we cant increase the diameter to greater extent because we cant neglect the weight of the flanged table and that will give inaccurate results.

6.1 Objective: To find the mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of worm and worm wheel and plot a graph of: 1. Efficiency Vs Load 2. Effort Vs Load 6.2 Apparatus: Worm and worm wheel apparatus, string, meter rod, outside caliper, pan etc. 6.3 Theory:

The worm is shown with the worm above the worm wheel. The gear set can also be arranged with the worm below the worm wheel. Other alignments are used less frequently. A worm gear is used when a large speed reduction ratio is required between crossed axis shafts which do not intersect. A basic helical gear can be used but the power, which can be transmitted, is low. A worm drive consists of a large diameter worm wheel with a worm screw meshing with teeth on the periphery of the worm wheel. The worm is similar to a screw and the worm wheel is similar to a section of a nut. As the worm is rotated the worm wheel is caused to rotate due to the screw like action of the worm. The size of the worm gear set is generally based on the centre distance between the worm and the worm wheel. If the worm gears are machined basically as crossed helical gears the result is a highly stress point contact gear. However normally the worm wheel is cut with a concave as opposed to a straight width. This is called a single envelope worm gear set. If the worm is machined with a concave profile to effectively wrap around the worm wheel the gear set is called a double enveloping worm gear set and has the highest power capacity for the size. Single enveloping gear sets require accurate alignment of the worm wheel to ensure full line tooth contact. Double enveloping gear sets require accurate alignment of both the worm and the worm wheel to obtain maximum face contact.

Worm teeth Profile The sketch below shows the normal (not axial) worm tooth profile as indicated in BS 721-2 for unit module (m = 1mm) other module teeth are in proportion e.g. 2mm module teeth are 2 times larger

Initial sizing of worm gear... (Thermal) Worm gears are often limited not by the strength of the teeth but by the heat generated by the low efficiency. It is necessary therefore to determine the heat generated by the gears = (Input power - Output power). The worm gearbox must have lubricant to remove the heat from the teeth in contact and sufficient area on the external surfaces to distribute the generated heat to the local environment. This requires completing an approximate heat transfer calculation. If the heat lost to the environment is insufficient then the gears should be adjusted (more starts, larger gears) or the box geometry should be adjusted, or the worm shaft could include a fan to induced forced air flow heat loss. Formulae

Friction Coefficient Cast Iron and Phosphor Bronze... Table x 1, 15 Cast Iron and Cast Iron... Table x 1, 33 Quenched Steel and Aluminum Alloy. Table x 1, 33 Steel and Steel. Table x 2

Friction coefficients - For Case Hardened Steel Worm / PHs Bros Wheel Sliding Friction Sliding Friction Speed Coefficient Speed Coefficient m/s m/s 0 0,001 0,01 0,05 0,1 0,2 0,5 1 0,145 0,12 0,11 0,09 0,08 0,07 0,055 0,044 1,5 2 5 8 10 15 20 30 0,038 0,033 0,023 0,02 0,018 0,017 0,016 0,016

The picture to the right is a typical set-up for a motor and worm gear system. As the worm revolves the worm wheel (spur gear) also revolves but the rotary motion is transmitted through a ninety-degree angle. The gear ratio of a worm gear is worked out through the following formula: Number of teeth on worm wheel Number of teeth on worm The worm acts as a single toothed gear so the ratio is; Number of teeth on worm wheel

1 A double-action worm gear set - so called because the worm has both rotational and longitudinal degrees of freedom - has been invented primarily for use in a motorized spacecraft hinge. This paper presents an analysis of the mechanical efficiency of the double-action worm gear set, together with preliminary test results. Results of analysis and test show that the double-action feature of the worm makes it possible to control the forward and backward driving efficiency of the gear set. Compared to a standard worm gear set, the double-action worm gear set has the advantages of the ability to absorb small applied displacements to the worm wheel shaft in an unlocked position, the ability to be non-back drivable with a high degree of certainty when locked against an end stop and the ability to maintain a specific preload in a locked position. In working out the problems on levers, belts and pulleys, inclined planes and so forth, we have not taken account of friction or other sources of energy loss. In other words, we have supposed them to be perfect, when in fact they are not. To measure the performance of a machine, we often find its efficiency, which is defined as

(2-4) Where The efficiency of a machine, Win = the input work to a machine, and Out = the output work of a machine. Gear Ratios: It is important when working with gears to know what number of teeth the gears should have so that they can mesh properly in a gear train. The size of the teeth for connecting gears must be match properly. The Mechanical Advantage of a machine is the ratio of Force being moved W to the Effort F Mechanical Advantage = W /F The Velocity Ratio of a machine is the ratio of the distance moved by the Effort and the distance moved by the Force being overcome. Velocity Ratio = Distance moved by Effort/ distance moved by force In the ideal frictionless/weightless machine Velocity Ratio = Mechanical Advantage The efficiency of a simple machine Efficiency = Work done by the machine / Work supplied to machine

The only parameter that can be determined from the machine dimensions is the velocity ratio. Machines generally follow the linear rule... F = a + b. W The worm gear combines the inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder with the lever in the form of a gear. The linear pitch of the worm gear, the distance between teeth, must match the linear pitch of the spur gear. The teeth on the spur gear must be inclined at the pitch angle of the worm. Each turn of the worm advances the gear by one tooth, so the velocity ratio is N: 1. Worm gears can be made with multiple threads, so that in one revolution of the worm the gear moves a space of n teeth, giving a velocity ratio of N: n. Worm gears are a good way to get large velocity ratios, and also prevent the mechanism from driving in the reverse direction, something desired in steering mechanisms, Mechanical Advantage: The ratio, load/effort is called mechanical advantage of a machine. The mechanical advantage should be greater than one. If, in a machine, the ratio is less than one, it would be more accurate to call is mechanical disadvantage.

Velocity Ratio: The ratio

Is called the velocity ratio of a machine. The two distances are moved in the same interval of time, so they are proportional to the velocities of the effort and load. Pd1 = Wd2 in a perfect machine. Or

Where d1 and are d2 are the distances moved by effort P and load W respectively. Hence, in a perfect machine the mechanical advantage is equal to velocity ratio.

Top Efficiency of Machine: In all machines some work is always wasted friction. The result of it is that the work done by the effort in a given time, called total work or work input (= p d1) is always greater than the work done on the load (= W d2) called useful work or work output. The difference of the latter from the former = lost work (Pd1-Wd2). The ratio Is called efficiency of machine. It is also defined as the ratio

In any actual machine the efficiency is always less than one but in a perfect or ideal machine in where there is no friction at all the efficiency is equal to unity.

Or Mechanical advantage = Efficiency velocity ratio I.e. M.A. =Velocity Ratio

The apparatus consists of toothed wheel fixed with a drum on it. The worm meshes with the toothed wheel. The worm is fixed on a metallic spindle. The spindle carries a pulley from which a string hangs for application of effort. Another string passes on the drum for carrying the weight to be lifted. D = diameter of the pulley to worm.

D = diameter of drum fixed on the wheel. T = number of teeth on the worm. If one revolution is given to the pulley two teeth of the worm wheel moves of the worm threads are of single start. Displacement of effort p = ad Displacement of load w = 2d T U.R = dot = DT 2d 2d M.A = W/p = M.A/U.R = 2wd x 100 Pet Diameter of effort pulley=122mm Diameter of load pulley=186mm No. of teeth=95 Hook weight(load side)=30gm Hook weight(effort side)=25gm 6.4 Procedure: (1) Measure the circumference of the drum and the pulley with the help of outside Calipers. (2) Wrap the string around the pulley for effort and also wrap another string around The drum to carry the load. (3) Suspend some load to the string and go on adding weights. In the pan hanging (4) From the pulley till the load w just starts moving upwards.
(5) Note down the weights in the effort arm.

(6) Repeat the experiment with different loads.

6.5 OBSERVATION TABLE: Snow. Load Total M.A.=w/p suspended effort p w (g ) (g) 80 120 170 200 275 60 65 70 75 85 1.33 1.85 2.43 2.67 3.235 V.R.=dt/2d %=M.A.*100

1 2 3 4 5

62.31 62.31 62.31 62.31 62.31

2.13 2.97 3.90 4.29 5.19

6.6 Result: The mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency of worm and worm wheel have been found out and graph of: 1 Efficiency Vs Load 2 Effort Vs Load Has been plotted. Mechanical advantage of worm wheel =2.303 Velocity ratio of worm wheel =62.31 Efficiency of worm wheel=3.696% 6.7 Precaution:

(1) Lubricate the bearing of the worm and teeth of the worm wheel to decrease Friction. (2) Weight should be gently put in the effort arm. (3) The string should not overlap on the pulley or on the drum. (4) The pan weighing the weights shouldnt touch the wall. (5) Load and effort should move slowly. (6) There should be no knot in the string.

6.8 Improvements on the experiment:

(1) The string sometimes overlaps on the pulley or on the drum. (2) The weights used in the experiment may not be exact due to mishandling by students. (3) The weights should have been put gently on the pan.

6.9 CONCLUSION:
1. The worm and worm wheel set up is an apparatus used to lift a given load by using effort having a value much less than the load. 2. The worm wheel apparatus is used to calculate efficiency, mechanical advantage and velocity ratio of a pulley system. It is a better method than screw jack apparatus as there is only one effort point. However, if used after a long interval or not lubricated properly, extra effort is required due to internal stiffness. 3. The mechanical advantage, i.e., the ratio of load to effort remains almost constant with load applied. The graph between effort and load is found to be a straight line. The graph between load and efficiency is a carve that becomes constant after a certain value of load.

6.10 References(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

www.wikipedia.org www.cs.cmu.edu www.eformulae.com/engineering/machines.php - 100k www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/machines/machines. www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Worm_Gears.html www.technologystudent.com/gears1

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the effort required to lift a load and efficiency of lifting by wheel and differential axle.

APPARATUS:
Wheel and differential axle, weights, scale

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION:
Wheel and Differential Axle The model demonstrates the conditions of equilibrium on a differential pulley block. Three pulleys of different diameter are fitted to a shaft mounted on ball bearings. The forces act, on the one hand, directly on the peripheral of the largest pulley, on the other hand, via a roller on two smaller pulleys. Easy to interchange weights permit the load to be varied such that equilibrium is obtained. The model is intended for wall mounting. A wheel of 194 mm diameter is integral with a differential axle of 91 and 51 mm diameters. The shaft runs in metal bearings in a sturdy wall mounting bracket. The necessary cords and load hangers are provided and weights are included. An additional load hanger is supplied to enable the simple wheel and axle experiment.

THEORY:
Axle: - Axle is a steel shaft on which the locomotive wheels are mounted. The axle not only holds the wheels to gauge, but also transmits the load from the axle-boxes to the wheels. In some cases the axle is fixed in position with a bearing inside the hole in the wheel or gear to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. In other cases the wheel or gear may be fixed to the axle, with bearings provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported.

Types - There are several types of axle Transaxle - The most common type, which encases an automatic or manual transmission and a differential. The main purpose is the gear changing capabilities of a transmission. Drive Axle - Also called live axle, which contains the differentials. It provides the torque transfer capabilities of a differential. Straight Axle - A straight beam that connects the wheels together, but has no differentials. It helps to support the weight of the vehicle and serves as an attachment point for the wheels. Wheel: A wheel is a circular device capable of rotating on its axis, facilitating movement or transportation or performing labour in machines. A wheel together with an axle overcomes friction by facilitating motion by rolling. A differential is a device that sends power from a drive shaft to both sides of an axle. The rotational torque from a drive shaft is generally laid out horizontally down the length of the vehicle (typical RWD). But the wheels need to be turned at a 90-degree angle from the position of the drive shaft. The axle driving the wheels is split into two parts and the inner ends of both sides are connected to the differential. The differential is made up of a series of gears that can direct the rotational power from the drive shaft to 90-degree angles and turn both sides of the axle. Differential can also be used between the front and rear axles on a four-wheel-drive or all-wheel-system by splitting power between both axles and ultimately driving all four wheels. A wheel and differential axle is a simple lifting machine, which is employed to lift a larger load W at a point by employing a smaller force P at some other point. During the process the distance y moved by the effort may be much more than the distance x moved by the load. Work input in the machine = P * y Work output in the machine = W * x Efficiency of the machine = = W * x = W / P = Mechanical Advantage P * y y / x Velocity ratio Mechanical advantage (MA) - is the factor by which a mechanism multiplies the force put into it. It is the ratio of the force exerted by a machine (the output) to the force exerted on the machine, usually by an operator (the input). The theoretical mechanical advantage of a system is the ratio of the force that performs the useful work to the force applied, assuming there is no friction in the system. In practice, the actual mechanical advantage will be less than the theoretical value by an amount determined by the amount of friction.

Therefore, Mechanical advantage=W/P Therefore Percentage Efficiency: % = Mechanical advantage * 100 Velocity Ratio Mechanical advantage stands for the ratio of load to effort applied to lift the load at a constant velocity. Velocity ratio stands for the ratio of the distance moved by the effort to the distance moved by the load. Conventionally the load must be lifted vertically up and the point of application of effort is moved vertically down. The heavier the load the greater is the effort required. While the effort applied to lift a given load at a constant velocity is recorded. by measurement, the velocity ratio is determined from a consideration of the distance moved by the points of application of the load and effort. For wheel and differential axle, the distance moved by the effort is *D while the load is lifted by a distance (d1 - d2) where D is the diameter of the wheel and d1 and d2 are the diameters of the axles on which the string is wound in the opposite directions. Velocity ratio = *D = 2D 1/2 (d1 - d2 ) d1 d2 Ideal Machines: The maximum efficiency of a machine can be equal to 100% if there are no losses, thus giving an output equal to input. Such a machine is termed as an ideal machine. Such machines also called as frictionless machine. In most machines a large resistance is overcome or a load is lifted by a comparatively small effort, so the mechanical advantage is greater than original. Since the efficiency is the ratio of mechanical advantage to the velocity ratio, so the velocity ratio is also greater than one thus the mechanical advantage of any simple machine is always less than the mechanical advantage of its ideal model. But the velocity ratio of any machine and the velocity ratio of an ideal model are always equal. However the efficiency of an actual machine is always less than one or the output is less than input. It is so because of losses largely due to friction. Thus we can write, Output = Input friction losses Reversibility of machines: In the case of a reversible machine the load comes down when the effort is removed. While a non-reversible machine cannot do any work in reversed direction when the effort is removed. For a machine to be reversible, the output of the machine resulting from the action of the load W should atleast be able to overcome the frictional resistance of the machine.

Let W be the resistance overcome through distance d. P be the effort applied through a distance D. Losses due to friction = Input Output =P*DW*d When the machine is doing work under the action of load W above (ie P = 0) then, W * D > frictional losses W*D>P*DW*d W*D>1 P*D 2 Or Mechanical Advantage > 1 Velocity Ratio 2 Thus for a machine to be reversible, its efficiency should be more than 50%. The efficiency of a self locking machine will be less than 50%. A wheel and differential axle is a simple machine and is used to lift heavy loads. It has a wheel of larger radius (R) and an axle of smaller radius (r) fixed on the same shaft. Wheel and axle are free to rotate about its shaft. Mechanical advantage of wheel and differential axle: The effort is applied to the rim of the wheel and the load is raised by a rope wound around the axle. In one rotation wheel covers a distance of 2pR In one rotation load is raised by a distance of 2pr If we neglect force of friction, Output = input W x 2pr = P x 2pR W/P = 2pR/2pr W/P = R/r Since [W/P = M.A.] M.A. = R/r Or M.A. = radius of wheel / radius of axle This expression indicates that in order to increase the mechanical advantage Radius of :wheel must have a large value. Radius of axle must be smaller than that of wheel.

PROCEDURE:
1. Wrap the string around the wheel and the axle. 2. Put same weight in one of the pulleys (denoted as load) and for each value of load put weights in other axles such that it starts moving. 3. Change the value of load and repeat step -2. 4. Note down the diameters of wheel and axles and calculate the velocity ratio. 5. Calculate the mechanical advantage. 6. A plot of Load Vs Effort and Effort Vs efficiency is drawn

OBSERVATIONS: Diameter of pulley and axle : D = 194mm d1 = 91 mm d2 = 51 mm Weight of hook on effort side = 50 gms Weight of hook on load side = 0.5 gms

OBSERVATION TABLE:S.No . Load (W) (gm) Effor t (P) (gm) Distanc Distanc e e moved moved by by load effort (x) (y) (cm) (cm) 7.058 48.1 5.1 W/P (M.A .) Velocit y Ratio (VR) = y/x 9.43 Efficien cy =(M.A) V.R 0.727

1)

175

25.5

2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

215 255 285 355 450

30.5 35.5 40.5 45.5 55.5

7.049 7.283 7.037 7.802 8.108

48.1 48.1 48.1 48.1 48.1

5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1

9.43 9.43 9.43 9.43 9.43

0.726 0.751 0.725 0.804 0.836

CALCULATIONS:Mean of Velocity Ratio = (9.43+9.43+9.43+9.43+9.43+9.43)/6 = 9.43 Mean of efficiency = (0.727+0.726+0.751+0.725+0.804+0.836)/6 = 4.569/6 = 0.762

RESULT: The velocity ratio found out is 9.43 The percent efficiency is 76.20%.

CONCLUSIONS:The wheel and differential axle apparatus shows that for different loads and efforts that the graph between effort and load is a straight line whereas that between efficiency v/s load is a parabola that becomes constant for a particular load. The efficiency of the wheel and differential apparatus is greater than 50% as it is a reversible machine.

PRECAUTIONS:1. The readings must be taken and noted down carefully. 2. The load and effort should move slowly.

3. Weights must be added gently. 4. Any overlapping of the string must be avoided. 5. There should be no knot in the string. 6. This is a light-loading machine and thus only lightweights must be used during the course of experiment.

SOURCES OF ERROR:1. The friction offered by wheel is bound to introduce some error in the readings. No matter what amount of lubrication is done, wheel can never be made completely frictionless. 2. Friction due to the wheel may also introduce error. 3. If the string is not inextensible or if it overlaps or if there is a knot in the string, then it will result in error. 4. Weights in the hook may be added forcefully. This should not happen, as this will introduce the impulse causing an error. 5. Human error may creep in while performing the experiment.

REFERENCES: www.google.com www.wikipedia.org Applied Mechanics A.K.Tayal Write-ups

AIM:
To verify the reactions at the supports of a simply supported beam.

APPARATUS:
A graduated wooden beam, two compression spring balance, slotted weights etc.

THEORY:

Simply supported beam A horizontal bar supported at the two ends by two spring-loaded vertical supports can be idealized as a simply supported beam.

A simply supported beam has only two supports and supports multiple loads either applied external loads or loads from other beams. A horizontal bar supported at the two ends by two spring loaded vertical supports can be idealized as a simply supported beam. The distance b/w the two supports is said to be the span of the beam. The specific characteristics of an individual beam are: 1) length of the beam 2) number of point loads on the beam. 3) the positions and values of the reaction. One end of the beam can rotate slightly around a support with a hinge joint, called the fixed node. The other end rests on some sort of roller or bearing surface, called the rolling node. Although the fixed node allows that end of the beam to rotate slightly it cannot move vertically or horizontally. The rolling node allows the other end to move horizontally and rotate slightly but it cannot move vertically. Examples of simply supported beams include beam bridges, truss bridges, gangways, etc. The load is seen to impart a bending moment to the beam that subjects its upper edge to compressive stresses that tend to shorten it and subjects its lower edge to tensile stresses that tend to lengthen it. In between there is a gradual shift from compressive to tensile stresses. In figure, the purple line passing through the middle of the beam, called the neutral axis, remains the same length, which indicates the absence of these stresses there. The shift in stresses from compression to tension causes the upper section of the beam to tend to slide past the lower section. This induces another simply supported beam stress in the beam called shear. This horizontal shear stress is greatest along the neutral axis. Solid beams have very high shear strengths. Therefore shear stress is not a major factor in beam design except for very tall, thin beams. The importance of providing a rolling node for one end of the beam as that end of the beam moves in and out when the load is applied and removed. If that end is not allowed to move additional stresses are placed on the beam and it will no longer behave as a simply supported beam. Moment of Force The SI unit for moment is the newton meter (Nm). Moment = Magnitude of force X perpendicular distance to the pivot We have to make use of law of equilibrium, which states that: 1. The algebraic sum of vertical forces must be zero. i.e. FY = 0 2. The algebraic sum of horizontal forces must be zero. i.e. FX = 0 3. The algebraic sum of moments about a point must be zero. i.e. MA = 0

Free Body Diagram of Beam Therefore, total load applied = total reaction at the ends of the beam

R + R =W +W +W
A B 1 2

- (i)

By taking moment about A

R =
B

Wl + W l + W l l
1 1 2 2

3 3

- (ii)

From the selected values of l 1, l2 & l3 & W1 ,W2 Percentage error :

& W determine R & R .

3

R ' R 100 R '

A A A

&

R ' R 100 R'

B B B

Experimentally and compare these values with exact value given by above relation.

PROCEDURE:
1) The two springs were calibrated, as they are not accurate. On each of these spring dead weight of 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 kgf was put and corresponding to each load the reading at all the points were taken. 2) The beam was placed and the initial reading of both the spring balances was taken, as this is to be deducted from all the readings to take care of mass-less beam. 3) The weights were suspended at different points of the beam. 4) The spring reading was noted and the distance of weights from one end of the beam was measured. 5) At least five readings were taken by keeping the weight at different points of the beam. 6) Equation 1 & 2 were used to calculate RA & RB. 7) From the calibration curve the actual load was found out for the observed load reading at all the points. 8) Finally the %error in RA & RB, between the calculated load and calibrated load was calculated.

ASSUMPTIONS :
The following are the key assumptions that are used to simplify the experiment. 1) The centre of gravity of the beam coincides with the geometric centre. 2) The weights and reaction lie in the same vertical plane. 3) There are only two supports for the beam. 4) There are no external moments. 5) There are no external applied loads except the loads we have taken under consideration. 6) The deflection of beam is negligibly small. 7) The curvature of beam due to loading is negligibly small.

OBSESRVATIONS:
1. Initial reading of left spring = 1.4 kgf 2. Initial reading of right spring = 1.4 kgf 3. Hence weight of the beam = 2.8 kgf 4. Total length of the beam = 100cm WEIGHT 450 900 1350 1800

RA 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

RB 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6

S. No

Load in Kg

Distanc e from A L1 25 15 30 10 35 40 L2 75 85 70 90 65 60

Observed Load RA1 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8 RB1 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 2.8

Calculated Reaction from (i) & (ii) RA 1.35 1.75 1.90 2.15 2.70 3.10 RB 1.35 1.75 1.90 2.15 2.70 3.10

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

W1 1.35 0 1.75 0 1.90 0 2.15 0 2.70 0 3.10 0

W2 1.350 1.750 1.900 2.150 2.700 3.100

Calibrated Reaction from Calibration Curve RA' RB' 1.52 1.52 1.97 2.14 2.42 3.04 3.49 1.97 2.14 2.42 3.04 3.49

%Error

in RA 11.05 11.57 11.63 11.55 11.59 11.58

in RB 11.05 11.57 11.63 11.55 11.59 11.58

Result:
The supports of simply supported beam are nearly equal to the calculated reactions. The percentage errors are as follows:

Average % error in RA = 11.495% Average % error in RB = 11.495%

Precautions:

1. Note down the distances to the exact mm. 2. Note down the zero error at the spring balances. 3. Wooden beam should be horizontal. 4. Knife edges at the spring balances must be set perpendicular to the axis of the beam.

Sources of Error:
a. Slotted weights may not be calibrated accurately. b. If the reactions are different, wooden beam may not remain horizontal due to uneven compression of springs in spring balances. c. Inaccuracy in the measurement of distances. d. Inaccuracy in the readings of reactions at spring balance

References:

Write-ups www.wikipedia.com

3.1 AIM : To determine the coefficient of static friction between two given material surfaces. 3.2 APPARATUS REQUIRED : 1- Adjustable inclined plane. 2- Frictinless pulley. 3- wooden box. 4- inextensible string. 5- Hanger with pan . 6- Standard weights.

Normal Force Frictional resistance forces are typically proportional to the force which presses the surfaces together. This force which will affect frictional resistance is the component of applied force which acts perpendicular or "normal" to the surfaces which are in contact and is typically referred to as the normal force. In many common situations, the normal force is just the weight of the object which is sitting on some surface, but if an object is on an incline or has components of applied force perpendicular to the surface, then it is not equal to the weight.

The above cases are the commonly encountered situations for objects at rest or in straight line motion. For curved motion, there are cases like a car on a banked curve where the normal force is determined by the dynamics of the situation. In that case, the normal force depends upon the speed of the car as well as the angle of the bank.

3.3 Theory: The force of friction is a common but complex force. The exact method by which friction works is still a topic of great scientific interest but we can make some general statements about it. We do know that it arises from the electromagnetic forces between atoms and molecules at the surfaces of objects.

Friction and Surface Roughness

In general, the coefficients of friction for static and kinetic friction are different. Like all simple statements about friction, this picture of friction is too simplistic. Saying that rougher surfaces experience more friction sounds safe enough - two pieces of coarse sandpaper will obviously be harder to move relative to each other than two pieces of fine sandpaper. But if two pieces of flat metal are made progressively smoother, we will reach a point where the resistance to relative movement increases. If we make them very flat and smooth, and remove all surface contaminants in a vacuum, the smooth flat surfaces will actually adhere to each other, making what is called a "cold weld". Once we reach a certain degree of mechanical smoothness, the frictional resistance is found to depend on the nature of the molecular forces in the area of contact, so that substances of comparable "smoothness" can have significantly different coefficients of friction. An easily observed counterexample to the idea that rougher surfaces exhibit more friction is that of ground glass versus smooth glass .Smooth glass plates in contact exhibit much more frictional resistance to relative motion than the rougher ground glass.

We can build a simple model of the friction force that is useful in many situations. The model friction force has the following properties: There are two types of frictional force. The force of static friction and the force of kinetic friction. The direction of the static frictional force is along the contact surface and opposite in direction of any applied force. The magnitude of the static friction force is given by

The direction of the kinetic frictional force is opposite the direction of motion of the object it acts on. The magnitude of the kinetic friction force is given by

The coefficients of friction depend on the nature of the surface. The frictional force is nearly independent of the contact area between the objects. The kinetic friction force is usually less than the maximum static friction force.

A free-body diagram of a block resting on a rough inclined plane, with its weight (W), normal force (N) and friction (F) shown. The plot below of the frictional force vs. the applied force illustrates some of the features of the frictional force.

Note that the frictional force equals the applied force (in magnitude) until it reaches the maximum possible value usN. Then the object begins to move as the applied force exceeds the maximum frictional force. When the object is moving the frictional force is kinetic and roughly constant at the value ukN which is below the maximum static friction force. The table below summarizes the main characteristics of the frictional force. Static Friction Kinetic Friction Symbol fs fk opposite direction of opposite direction of Direction applied force object's motion Magnitude <usN ukN

Force of Friction * When the surface of one object slides across the surface of another object and some other force is pressing the surfaces together, a drag force is created between the two surfaces that is parallel to the surfaces. For Objects at Rest: Static Friction f <= us n fmax = us n f = Force of Friction. SI: N us = Coefficient of static friction. SI: Dimensionless: Table n = The normal force pressing the surfaces together. SI: N The coefficient of static friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces. The coefficient of static friction does not depend upon contact surface area, provided the two surfaces are made of dissimilar enough material so that any cohesive force between the two surfaces is small. The force of static friction (like the normal force) is a reaction force in that its value depends upon the magnitude of some external force trying to push the object along the surface.

The force of friction is always opposite to direction of the other forces imposed. The force of static friction increases up to a maximum value, after which the object "breaks loose" and begins to start moving. For Objects in Motion: Kinetic Friction f = ukn f = Force of Friction. SI: N uk = Coefficient of kinetic friction. SI: Dimensionless n = The normal force pressing the surfaces together. SI: N The coefficient of kinetic friction (like the static coefficient) depends upon the roughness of the surfaces. However it is generally smaller in value than the static coefficient. < s k For relative velocities in the range of cm/s to m/s (typical ranges we will encounter) the coefficient of kinetic friction is approximately constant.

The coefficients for static and kinetic friction are listed in some reference tables. The coefficient of static friction is usually a little bit higher than coefficient of kinetic friction for the same two surfaces. When coefficients are listed they must be given for one surface on another surface (ie wood-onasphalt). The higher the coefficient, the greater the force of friction. Typical values might be: Material Steel on steel Waxed ski on snow Rubber on concrete Coefficient of kinetic friction 0.6 0.05 about 1 Coefficient of static friction 0.7 0.1 about 1

Reducing friction Devices Devices such as wheels, ball bearings or rollers can change sliding friction into much smaller rolling friction. Techniques One technique used by railroad engineers is to back up the train to create slack in the linkages between cars. This allows the train to pull forward and only take on the static friction of one car at a time, instead of all cars at once, thus spreading the static frictional force out over time. Generally, when moving an object over a distance: To minimize work against static friction, the movement is performed in a single interval, if possible. To minimize work against kinetic friction, the movement is performed at the lowest velocity that's practical. This also minimizes frictional stress.

Lubricants A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil or water, which is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives. Superlubricity, a recently-discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels (a very small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated). Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant. Energy of friction According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed from other forms into heat. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest due to friction as its kinetic energy changes into heat. Since heat quickly dissipates, many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a driving force. When an object is pushed along a surface, the energy converted to heat is given by: where N is the normal force, k is the coefficient of kinetic friction, x is the coordinate along which the object transverses. Physical deformation is associated with friction. While this can be beneficial, as in polishing, it is often a problem, as the materials are worn away, and may no longer hold the specified tolerances. The work done by friction can translate into deformation and heat that in the long run may affect the surface's specification and the coefficient of friction itself. Friction can in some cases cause solid materials to melt. Summary: Friction is a measure of the force pressing the two objects together. We can measure friction in terms of a coefficient of friction; the ratio of the force needed to move two objects in contact with one another and the force holding the two objects together. Friction can be useful Friction can be reduced by using lubricants, ball bearings, air-cushions and by streamlining Friction reduces the efficiency of machines Friction produces heat Friction results in wear and tear.

3.4 PROCEDURE: 1-A particular angle of inclination was set. 2-The box was put on the inclined plane . 3-The box was attached to a thread and passed over a

pulley. 4-Some weights were put in a pan and the weight was checked to have the motion of the box. 5- For same reading on same angle, put some weight in box and repeat procedure 3 for motion. 6-Take atleast three to four readings on same angle. 7- Change inclination and repeat above procedure. 8- Take average of the values of the friction for same materials. 9- Repeat above procedure for different surfaces in cotact and compare their friction with each other. 3.5 OBSERVATION TABLE : TABLE 1: WOOD AND WOOD Weight of wooden box=84.15 gm s.no . 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. Inclination () 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 20 m (gm.) 84.15 89.15 94.15 99.15 84.15 89.15 94.15 99.15 mean =.5208 M(wt. In pan) (gm) 86.17 93.17 98.17 103.17 63.17 65.17 67.17 71.17 Sin .5 .5 .5 .5 .342 .342 .342 .342 Cos .866 .866 .866 .866 .939 .939 .939 .939 .605 .630 .626 .624 .435 .450 .396 .400

TABLE 2: WOOD AND GI SHEET

mean =.329 s.no . 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. 4. Inclination () 30 30 30 30 20 20 20 20 m (gm.) 84.15 89.15 94.15 99.15 84.15 89.15 94.15 99.15 M(wt. In pan)(gm) 68.17 75.17 79.17 83.17 50.17 52.17 57.17 60.17 Sin .5 .5 .5 .5 .342 .342 .342 .342 Cos .866 .866 .866 .866 .939 .939 .939 .939 .358 .396 .393 .391 .270 .259 .282 .282

3.6 PRECAUTIONS: 1-The pulley should be well lubricated. 2-String should be inextensible. 3-Angle of inclined plane should be accurately measured and inclined plane should be steady. 4-Condition under which the block just slides is arbitrarily determined, hence care should be taken that it is almost same for all observation. 5-The inclined plane may not be smooth all over .Hence coefficient of friction varies from place to place. 3.7 RESULT :
Average value of coefficient of friction for following surfaces are : wood and GI sheet = 0.329 wood and wood =0.5208

3.8 CONCLUSION:
1-In the experiment ,we are finding coefficient of static friction between two surfaces .when the block just slides ,frictional force acting on it is maxmimum. 2-We observe that coefficient of static friction between wood and wood is greater than wood and aluminum sheet. 3-The difference in values of coefficient of static friction for the same material is due to non uniform roughness of the whole surface.

3.9 REFERENCES :
1. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction 2. www.fearofphysics.com/Friction/frintro.html 3. hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/frict.html 4. www.thinkingfountain.org/f/friction/friction.html

5. U.C.JINDAL 6. A.K.TAYAL

Aim
Construct the following: 1) Simple roof truss 2) Roof truss with angled tie rod And find the forces in each member of the truss.

Apparatus
Stands and cross bars, hinges, hinge holder hooks, member rods, loading rod with platform, spring balances, and slotted weights.

Theory
A truss is a structure consisting of straight members connected at their extremities only. The members being slender and unable to support lateral loads, all the loads must be applied at the joints; a truss may thus be assumed to consist of pins and two-force members. A truss can be thought of as a Beam (structure) where the web consists of a series of separate members instead of a continuous plate. In the truss, the lower horizontal member (the bottom chord) and the upper horizontal member (the top chord) carry Tension and Physical compression, fulfilling the same function as the Flange of an I-beam. Which chord carries tension and which carries compression depends on the overall direction of Bending. In the truss pictured above right, the bottom chord is in tension, and the top chord in compression.

RIGID OR PERFECT TRUSS:- If the truss follows the following relation then it is said to be a rigid truss or a non collapsible truss, i.e. it has a great strength. M=2j-3 Where, M= no. of members of the truss J= no. of joints in the truss If M>2j-3 then the truss is called to be statically indeterminate truss.

If M<2j-3 then the truss is called to be a collapsible truss, it does have much strength and can break easily by application of load. There are some assumptions kept in mind while determining the forces in the members of the truss:(I) The loads on the truss are assumed to be applied at joints only. (II) The members of the truss are assumed to be massless. (III) The truss is statically determinate. The various methods of determining the axial forces in the members of the truss are: Method of joints Method of sections Graphical Method.

The method of joints: This method uses the free-body-diagram of joints in the structure to determine the forces in each member. For example, in the above structure we have 5 joints each having a free body diagram as follows F1 B FAB FAB A A FAE FBC FBE FBE FAE E F3 FBC C F2 D Dx Dy

FEC FCD FEC FCD FED FED

Note how Newtons third law controls how one introduces FAB on the joints A and on the joint B. For each joint one can write two equations ( Fx = 0, Fy = 0 ). The moment equation is trivially satisfied since all forces on a joint pass through the joint. For example, for the above truss we have 5 joints, therefore we can write 10 equations of equilibrium (two for each joint). In the above example there are seven unknown member forces (FAB, FBC, FCD, FED, FEC, FBE, FAE) plus

three unknown support reactions (A, Dx, Dy), giving a total of 10 unknowns to solve for using the 10 equations obtained from equilibrium. The method of sections: This method uses free-body-diagrams of sections of the truss to obtain unknown forces. For example, if one needs only to find the force in BC, it is possible to do this by only writing two equations. First, draw the free body diagram of the full truss and solve for the reaction at A by taking moments about D. Next draw the free body diagram of the section shown and take moments about E to find the force in BC. F1 FBC B FEC A E F3 A FED

In the method of sections one can write three equations for each freebody-diagram (two components of force and one moment equation).

W L2 B

L1

Consider the equilibrium of TRUSS:F=0,

-W + R1 + R2 =0 Taking moment about A : Ma = 0 R2 . L1 W .L2 =0 R2 = (W . L2) / L1 After solving above equations we can find the value of R1 & R2 L2 W1 A

1
B R1

C W2 L1

2
D R2

Procedure
1) First of all, all the materials required to make the truss were brought together. 2) Then the simple roof truss was made by putting the material together. 3) The truss was hanged in such a manner so that the hooks on the bar were parallel to the truss. 4) Spring balances were hanged onto the chain parallel to the truss. 5) Some weight was putted onto the upper part of the truss. 6) The corresponding readings on the two spring balances were noted.

7) Then this truss was removed and it was made in the shape of roof truss with angled tie rod. 8) The above steps were being repeated for this truss. 9) At least four readings were noted for each type of truss.

Observations
For Simple Roof Truss Initial value of R1= 0.8 kgf Initial value of R2=0.75 kgf Length of Rod A= 44.5 inches Length of Rod E= 24 inches S.N o. 1 . 2. 3. Weig ht (kg.) (W) 410 820 1715 Spring reading R1 R2 1 1.20 1.65 0.95 1.15 1.6 Calculate d reading R1 R2 0.20 5 0.41 0.86 0.20 5 0.41 0.86 Percentag e error R1 R2 2.75 2.5 1.3 2.75 2.5 1.3 Forces in members AB BC AC 0.54 1.08 2.30 0.54 1.08 2.30 0.50 1.00 2.13

For Roof Truss with Angled Rod Initial Value of R1= 1.15 kgf Initial Value of R2= 1.1 kgf Length of C= 31 inches Length of D= 26 inches Length of H= 10 inches

Weight(kg) S.N o. 1. 2. 3. W1 upp er 430 910 1332 W2 Low er 430 840 1285

Final spring reading R1 R2 1.6 2.0 5 2.4 5 1.5 5 2 2.4

Calculat ed reading R1 R2 0.4 3 0.8 8 1.3 1 0.4 3 0.8 8 1.3 1

Percent age error R1 R2 4.4 2.3 1.0 4.4 2.3 1.0

Forces in members AB 0.6 5 1.4 5 2.1 0 AD 0.6 5 1.4 5 2.1 0 BD 0.6 2 1.3 8 2.0 0 BC 0.6 2 1.3 8 2.0 0 DC 0.6 1 1.3 7 1.9 9

Result
Hence the simple roof truss and roof truss with angled rod is successively constructed and forces in members was found.

Precautions
1) All connections of the truss should be tight. All the screws should be tightened, so that members do not fall off when the load is applied. 2) Enough space should be left for introducing the weights. However the central limb of the truss (with which it is attached to the upper horizontal rod) should not be made to hang from its extreme end as this will make it fall when appreciable force is applied. 3) The truss should be hung parallel to the upper rod. 4) While making the truss, appropriate rods should be taken ( as certain rods to be put are of equal length). 5) Readings in spring balance should be measured correctly.

Sources of Error

1) The screw may not be properly tightened. This may change the angles between different members of the truss when the load is applied. Hence, the internal forces developed in the members would change and cause error. 2) High least count of the spring balance introduces the error in calculation. 3) The spring balance used to measure the reactions at the ends of the truss may not be calibrated properly. 4) Human errors may creep in. The readings may not be taken properly or parallax may occur while taking the readings.

References
www.google.com www.wikipedia.com Write-ups

OBJECTIVE:
To determine the forces in the members of a loaded shear legs space frame experimentally, vectorially and graphically.

APPARATUS:
Shear legs apparatus consisting of two rigid bars AB and AC and a tie bar AD together with a provision for loading at A as shown in figure, metre rod, spring balances and standard weights.

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION:
The shear consists of two rigid rods joined at a point and a tie-bar joined from the joints to a fixed support. The shear legs apparatus provides a method to extensively study the action of various forces in space, not even coplanar. The apparatus is loaded at the joint. It is used to lift the load. As the weight is distributed in the three arms of the legs, hence, heavy weights can be suspended. Shear legs are often used to make temporary cranes. In this experiment the ideas developed in experiments with several forces in one plane are extended to

three dimensions. The double shear legs are mounted on rollers, which run on a round bar. Compression forces in the legs are measured with integral spring balances, and restraint is by an adjustable tie chain. The backstay is adjustable and is also fitted with a spring balance. Loading is by a weight hung from the apex. Clarity of thought is encouraged, since there are both compressive and tensile forces present.

THEORY:
The forces may be of three types: 1. Compression 2. Tension 3. Shear Force Out of the above three forces tension and shear force are more dangerous. Compression:- Compression has many implications in material science, physics and structural engineering, for compression yields noticeable amounts of stress and tension. By inducing compression, mechanical properties such as compressive strength or modulus of elasticity, can be measured. Scientists may utilize press machines to induce compression Tension:- Tension is a reaction force applied by a stretched string (rope or a similar object) on the objects which stretch it. The direction of the force of tension is parallel to the string, towards the string. Tension exists also inside the string itself: if the string is considered to be composed of two parts, tension is the force which the two parts of the string apply on each other Shear Force:- Shear strength in reference to soil is a term used to describe the maximum strength of soil at which point significant plastic deformation or yielding occurs due to an applied shear stress.

There is no definitive 'shear strength' of a soil, as it depends on a number of factors affecting the soil at any given time and on the frame of reference, in particular the rate at which the shearing occurs. Since the frame is in equilibrium, every point and sub part of the frame must also be in equilibrium. Consider the joint A. The forces that act A to keep it in equilibrium are the known loads acting vertically downward and the forces along AB, AC & AD. The direction of AB, AC & AD are determined from co-ordinate geometry only the magnitude of forces are unknown, which may be obtained, experimentally by reading the spring balances installed in the members. Basic principle: Every point on the frame is in equilibrium. Hence the forces acting at a point add to zero. The forces are the load-weight and the forces along the arms AB, AC and AD. The directions of FAB, FAC and FAD are obtained by measuring the coordinates of A,B,C,D and fixing one point as origin. Procedure:

The experimental values of forces are obtained by the readings offspring balances. We can also obtain their values graphically. Vectorially: let the origin be taken at O. The coordinates of A be xA i + zA k and of B be -yB j and of C be yC and D be -xD i . j Therefore, j AB =-yB -xA i -zA k
2 2 2 AB = x A + y B + z A

therefore, unit vector=

AB AB
=

xA AB

yB AB

zA AB

similarly, AD =-(xA + xD) i - zA k j AC =-xA i + yC - zA k Let the unknown forces be F1, F2 and F3 in AB, AC and AD respectively. By equilibrium of A we have, FA=0 Solving the above vector equation, we obtain the values of F1.F2 and F3.. These are the theoretical values. Graphically: Assume that the net effect of AB and AC is obtained by replacing them by pseudo member AO. Hence, joint A is under equilibrium under two forces AO and OD. Now we can construct a force triangle with appropriate scales. Now another triangle with AE as the side representing the weight load and AO and OE parallel to AD and in the triangle drawn with pseudo member AO when joint A was unloaded. Now, AO represents the resultant of AB and AC. Therefore draw triangle ABC and at A draw AO. Hence complete the parallelogram to find the values of AB and AC.

PROCEDURE:
1.Note the lengths of unloaded arms and readings in the spring balances. 2.Now, load the 1 kg weight and note the lengths of AB, AC and the coordinates of xA and zA of A. 3.Now note the readings in the spring balances. 4.Using collected data, obtain the readings of various arms, experimentally, vetorially and graphically.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.No. 1 2 3 F1 (kg) 2.1 3 3.5 F2 (kg) 2.1 3 3.5 F3 (kg) 2.3 3.8 4.9 W (kg) 1.9 2.8 3.3 A 44.5i + 97k 47.5i + 92k 52i + 92k B -33j -33j -33j C 33j 33j 33j D -77i -77i -77i OA (cm) 100 100 99.5 AD (cm) 146 148 150 OD (cm) 77 77 77

RESULT:
The forces in the members of a loaded shear leg space frame has been calculated experimentally, vectorially and graphically within the limits of experimental errors.

PRECAUTIONS:
1) The compression in the beams should be noted carefully. 2) The load applied should not be too heavy. 3) Before taking the reading of forces see that all beams are properly fixed in their position. 4) Measurements of the respective lengths of the beams should be made carefully. 5) The weight hanging should be vertical without oscillating.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1) The measurement of different lengths of beam may not be correct. 2) The weights might be oscillating while experiment is being performed. 3) Some friction may also be present in the beams while they are being compressed. 4) The weight should be vertical so that the force is acting vertically downwards.

REFERENCES:

www.google.com www.wikipedia.org Write-ups