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Advances in Applied Science Research, 2011, 2 (2): 303-314

ISSN: 0976-8610 CODEN (USA): AASRFC

Human-Induced Landscape changes in the Carpathian Section of the Arges Catchment (Romania) with a special view to the Vidraru Reservoir Area
Alexandru Nedelea, Laura Comnescu University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography ______________________________________________________________________________ ABSTRACT The Arges corridor lies in the central part of Romania, more exactly in the middle part of the Southern Carpathians range, and consists of three hypsometric steps developing between 1000 and 2500 m. In this area, human activities have induced significant changes beginning with the 19th century. The most important of these are the massive deforestations meant to expand the grasslands realm, the overgrazing, wood harvesting, the creation of the Vidraru reservoir, the extraction of mineral ores, the excessive tourism, as well as the development of new infrastructure elements (the Transfagarasan road). This paper aims at highlighting the multiple effects of the human influence on this mountain space, especially after the creation of the Vidraru reservoir. The Vidraru artificial lake lies in the upper stretch of the Arges River, but it also penetrates the Brezoi -Titesti Depression. It is fed by two important streams that originate in the glacial section of the Fagaras Mts., namely the Buda and Capra. The hydropower plant served by the Vidraru reservoir is called Cetatuia, but in the scientific literature, it also goes by the names of Gheorghe Gheorghiu Dej, 16 February or Corbeni-Arges. Keywords: anthropogenic changes, reservoir, deforestations, ecological restoration, Arges, Fagaras, Vidraru, Romania. ______________________________________________________________________________ INTRODUCTION STUDY AREA The Arges corridor lies in the central-southern part of the Romanian territory, in the middle section of the Southern Carpathians range, near the contact with the Getic Sub-Carpathians. The investigated area stretches out on 1712 in latitude and 1424 in longitude, which explains the homogeneousness of the landscape. However, the local morphological conditions are responsible for a series of specific features. The location of the upper catchment of the Arges River within the Fagaras Mts. also explains the alpine, subalpine and mountain morphology, where the presence of the high steps, whose elevations drop to the south (Fig. 1), catches the eye.

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Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________ The upper catchment of the Arges River stretches out on 200 km2, between the Negoiu and Moldoveanu peaks, on the one hand, and the southern edge of the mountains lying at the contact with the Sub-Carpathians (Arefu-Corbeni Depression), on the other hand. Its conspicuous boundaries follow the watersheds that separate it from the neighboring catchments: the Olt catchment to the north, the Topolog catchment to the west and the Valsan catchment to the east. As far as the southern boundary is concerned, as we have seen previously, it marks the contact with the Sub-Carpathian foothills, following the alignment Arefu-Capataneni-BerindestiPoenari-Turburea-Bradet [5]. The boundaries are clear-cut, being represented by the interfluves that make up the watersheds or by cliffs, as in the case of the southern edge, which mark the contact between the crystalline and sedimentary rocks. Human activities Beginning with the 19th century, human activities have brought about significant changes of the landscape, primarily through the slash and burn practice, aimed at expanding the pastures to the detriment of the forests. At the same time, overgrazing, wood harvesting, dam building and reservoir creation, uncontrolled tourism, as well as the appearance of new infrastructure elements (the Transfagarasan road) have largely contributed in their turn to the emergence of the landscape we are seeing today. The effects of these activities, which over the time have had various intensities, have been the lowering of the upper tree line and the wasting and denudation of slopes under the influence of the contemporary geomorphological processes (the gravitational, fluvial and cryonival ones being prevalent) [3]. The construction of transportation routes, and especially of the Transfagarasan road, which crosses the mountain range, made it necessary that slopes be cut in their lower thirds. These works, combined with the clearing of forest, strongly encouraged slope dynamics (landslides affecting the regolith, rill erosion and torrentiality) and changed the channel morphology (the downcutting decreased, while transport and accumulation became very active). The cart roads and the tracks created by man and animals, which are seen all over the place, have turned themselves into alignments that encourage erosion processes (rill erosion, torrentiality, mudflows), which gradually alter the landscape to a high extent. The building of the Transfagarasan road between 1971 and 1974 entailed considerable anthropogenic alterations. Consolidations were made, bridges and viaducts were thrown over the rivers and gaps, roofs were put into position to protect some sections of the road, and tunnels were dug into the mountains. Incidentally, the Transfagarasan road passes through the longest tunnel in Romania measuring 900 m. Likewise, steel nets were disposed to protect from falling rocks and streams were stabilized by appropriate engineering works. All these changes affected not only the local topography, but also the soil and vegetation. In order to build the road, 3.8 million m3 of rock were excavated, 212,000 m3 of hard rocks were used and 150,000 m3 of embankments were accomplished. Massive deforestations were done in the winding sections of the road, which affected the beech and coniferous forests, as well as the mixed forests, lying in-between. The same phenomenon occurred later in the upper Carpathian level as well, more exactly in the subalpine realm, where the areas formerly occupied by juniper trees, mountain peonies and alder were cleared [3].

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Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________

Fig. 1 General overview on the Arges Transcarpathian corridor

Nowadays, the forest tracks and roads still preserve their importance, inasmuch as they allow people to move from one place to another. Likewise, in order to boost forest exploitation a road network has been created in the Lovistea Depression and along the tributaries of the Capra and Buda streams. In springtime, after heavy rainfalls or sudden snow melting many forest roads become impassable, inasmuch as they are affected by crumbling, falling-ins and torrentiality. The forest roads that follow the main valleys have required over the time a good deal of consolidation works, especially on the sections where cuttings were built in order to penetrate the loose material deposits (screes). If brought to light, these deposits can easily be eroded by gullies and streams, which will undermine the roads and endanger the traffic. 305 Pelagia Research Library

Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________ On the Buda valley, there are three forest roads. The first one is 18 km long and follows the Buda valley as far as the confluence of the Podul Giurgiului and Izvorul Mircea streams. The second one, which is known as Drumul Ciobanilor (The Shepherds Road), begins near the point where the Buda stream flows into the Vidraru reservoir, climbing afterwards on the Naneasa ridge. Finally, the third road is the shortest and follows the Oticul valley. Generally, the roads are built along the streams or climb on the interfluves, thus requiring many improvement works in order to protect them against rock falls and slides. The dams built across the rivers draining the Fagaras Mts. (Vidraru, Cumpana, Valsan, Topolog) and the adjacent reservoirs have led to important landscape alterations, especially induced by the change of local base levels and streams long profiles, which highlight a very active morphodynamics both upstream and downstream these dams. One should not lose sight of the fact, however, that the building of dams was responsible for massive deforestations, slope excavations and cutting of roads or, on the contrary, for reforestations and the building of protection walls, all these having a strong impact on the topography. The hydrotechnical engineering works performed in the Vidraru area impacted differently the vegetation cover, depending both on their type and intensity and on the ecological capacity of the vegetal species to adapt to the new conditions. Wood clearances were imposed by the construction of the dam, by the cutting of access roads, as well as by the building of metal structures for the power lines. On the left side of the Vidraru reservoir in particular, one can note that many ruderal and secondary species have invaded the natural grasslands. But besides these direct changes, vegetation has also experienced indirect changes. Thus, the high volumes of excavated materials and the heavy vehicles traffic have altered the soil profile and induced permanent settlings. At the same time, the growth of forest species has been slowed down. Moreover, the engineering works have largely contributed to the extinction of some valuable species from the scientific point of view, some of them endemic, because the exhaust gas and the newly born reservoirs have suffocated the plants. The presence of crystalline limestones, marble and poly-metallic minerals has led to the opening of quarries and mines shafts. These can be seen at Piscul Negru, on Mount Vulturul, as well as at the foot of the Raiosu-Museteica ridge (exploitations of marble and poly-metallic sulphides). In addition, on the Buda River there are two marble quarries and a small mine shaft for prospecting pyrites, lead glance and blende, but today they are all abandoned. The large-scale pastoral activities with transhumant character carried out on the Arges valley left their imprint on the mountain environment. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the shepherds expanded the grasslands to the detriment of the forest by slash and burn method, in an effort to ensure forage for a growing number of sheep and goats. The strongest impact on the natural vegetation was felt in the upper forest zone, especially at the contact with the subalpine realm. Deforestations reached their climax in 1948, when following an order of the former Agricultural Production Cooperatives, most juniper trees on the southern slopes of the Fagaras Mts. either completely disappeared or were reduced to isolated or scattered patches. Herding is a traditional activity that has continued even after 2009, although the number of animals has dropped. Settlements like Arefu, Capataneni, Turburea, Corbeni, Poienari, Bradet and Gales are still important pastoral centers, even though the traditions have altered under the pressure of other economic activities, such as wood harvesting, hydropower generation, road transport and rural tourism.

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Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________ The drop in the number of animals has been beneficial, inasmuch as no need for new sheepfolds or pastoral tracks has been felt, and the abusive practices have been confined to very small areas. At present, however, for multiple reasons, herding is on the wane. The problems began in the period 1950 1960, when the large estates were expropriated, but the peasants were allocated lands in villages lying far away from their place of birth. Transhumance was the most affected, because as soon as the people were forced to join the collective farms the lands began to be brought under cultivation and consequently the pastures receded. Under the circumstances, the shepherds gave up their traditional occupation and thus the old associations (the shepherds nests) ceased to exist. The great herd owners completely disappeared after 1990, while those who stubbornly persist in keeping the tradition do not posses more than 50 or 60 head of sheep. An important part for the mountain economy was played by the sheepfolds, which were set up near the timberline, where firewood was readily available and water was at hand. In comparison with the northern side of the Fagaras Mts., on the southern slopes the sheepfolds appeared a little bit later, mostly in the catchments of the main streams: Capra, Buda, Valsan and Raul Doamnei. Proper conditions were also offered by the southern and southeastern slopes (the face of the mountain), where sheepfolds climb higher. Most of them are found on the hypsometric step of 1600 1800 m (22 sheepfolds), due to the influence of topography on the pastoral settlements distribution [3]. Overgrazing leads to the destruction of grassy vegetation, which encourages erosion, compaction and soil degradation. The transhumance carried out every year (village mountain village) has induced significant changes to the alpine and subalpine levels: the overgrazing has led to the disappearance of the valuable species, which were replaced by Nardus stricta, a species with low nutritional value (secondary grasslands); the steep slopes lying in the alpine level have suffered intense degradation due to the geomorphological processes encouraged by the lack of vegetal cover (destroyed through overgrazing); in order to expand the pastures the tree line has been lowered through massive cuttings of the beech forests and the burning of the bushes in the alpine zone; some plant and animal species have become extinct (Yew tree Taxus baccata) or have been seriously affected by herding (Chamois Rupicapra rupicapra, Edelweiss Leontopodium alpinum). Because herding is still an important activity, a correct evaluation of the relationship between the herding potential and its capitalization is necessary. The ecological projects developed within the framework of regional planning may emphasize the necessity to expand the natural reserves, which will entail the shrinkage of pastures and the elimination of many sheepfolds. Yet, a proper landscape management would require measures to protect the natural environment, the elements of historical and ethnographic value, which mirror a tradition of more than 300 years, and the local peoples experience regarding the reasonable use of pastoral resources. Deforestations and wood harvesting are the main human actions responsible for blasting the slopes stability and for triggering an active morphodynamics. These actions began as early as the middle of the 18th century and they sought to expand the pastures on the high ridges of the Fagaras Mts. Later on, starting with the end of the 19th century, wood harvesting became a major occupation for the local population. The clearances have affected over the time large areas of the Arges sub-basins. The irrational exploitation and the delay in taking actions to reforest and 307 Pelagia Research Library

Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________ restore the degraded lands have encouraged slope wasting and denudation, with effects that are seen everywhere. Forest harvesting has continued over the last decades as well, especially after 1990, when part of the forest was given back to the former owners. The cutting system practiced by some of them has completely destroyed the forests on large areas in the Modrogazu, Cumpana, Cumpenita, Oticul, Valea cu Pesti, Valea Lupului and Calugarita catchments. More often than not, slope stability was dashed, which triggered landslides, rill erosion and torrentiality. However, the forests have generally kept their boundaries. The quantitative analysis has shown a slight decrease of the percentage of forest cover after 1982, but nevertheless it continues to remain high (70%, that is 243 km2 of forest). The slight increase (1%) that has been noted after 1990 can be put to the account of two factors. On the one hand, the natural regeneration process, especially in the case of the beech forests developing in some remote locations (the Modrogazu, Oticul and Cumpana Mare catchments), and on the other hand the massive reforestations with beech saplings of the windthrow areas (0.3%), as well as of the areas cleared completely in the exploitation process (2%). Likewise, the young and the rare forests existing in 1973 (1.4%) are now full-grown woods, with good density and high productivity (Valea cu Peti, Cumpenia). At the scale of the Forest Services (Mueteti and Suici), protection forests usually account for more than 20%. On the Arges valley, in the mountain area belonging to the Vidraru Forest Service, this kind of forests has a share of more than 30%. They protect the slopes and soil, but also the reservoirs against eutrophication and silting. At the same time, they have recreation and regeneration (seeds dissemination) functions. The spatial analysis has allowed us to estimate the ratio between the natural and artificialized landscapes on the basis of local land use. From this point of view, it is easy to ascertain that forest prevails. At present, it covers about three fourths of the mountain area, a situation that mirrors the reforestation efforts undertaken in the region and the natural regeneration processes (Fig.2). The pastures spread in 30 years from 15 to 21.5% (that is about 6.5% or 23 km2). The explanation lies in the massive cuttings that mostly impacted the tree line. Consequently, the beech forest zone was the most affected, inasmuch as the young forests were cleared on large areas. The massive deforestations that occurred after 1950 were meant to increase the grasslands area. At that time, large areas of juniper trees were cleared off, which encouraged the expansion of alpine and subalpine grasslands. In order to protect the pastures a special attention should be given to the areas prone to sheetflood or gully erosion. People must necessarily give up the practice of burning or slashing the juniper tree associations, because in their absence, screes become mobile and land suffers intense degradation processes. It is therefore wiser to increase the quality of the existing pastures instead of trying to expand them further, inasmuch as juniper trees removal entails the appearance of low quality vegetal species (Nardus stricta, Veratrum album). Likewise, in the aftermath of juniper trees disappearance avalanche chutes come into being and erosion exacerbates. The decline of pastoral activities and the advancement of organized tourism mark the entrance of the mountain area in a new evolution phase. Touristic potential is supported by the existence of some natural and anthropogenic elements, which produce a distinct landscape. In this respect, there are worth mentioning the Arges and the Limpedea gorges, the glacial and periglacial landforms, the Moldoveanu and Negoiu horns, the Transfagarasan road, the Vidraru reservoir, and many other areas (Molivis, Cumpana, Stramba, Piscul Negru), whose beauty attracts many tourists, especially at the end of the weeks. 308 Pelagia Research Library

Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________

Fig.2. The infrastructure and anthropic changes in Vidraru lake area

Tourism development has generated new problems. For instance, the placement of chalets has often disregarded the avalanche risk. From this point of view, neither the Capra nor the Buda valleys are favorable for the development of touristic facilities. More than that, at high elevations the quasi-horizontal surfaces are either missing or inaccessible, and the valleys are strongly entrenched. The settlements lie at the contact with the Sub-Carpathian hills or along the valleys of the Arges and its tributaries (Arefu, Limpedea, and Turburea). They grew in importance and size after 1982, and especially after 1990. Here, one should also include the hotels in the area (Casa 309 Pelagia Research Library

Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________ Argesana, Valea cu Pesti, Cumpana, Piscul Negru and Capra), which came into being after the building of the Transfagarasan road and the creation of the Vidraru reservoir. In the forest zone of the Fagaras Mts., there are no permanent settlements, but only various types of chalets (Fig.2). General data regarding the Vidraru reservoir The Vidraru reservoir lies in the upper stretch of the Arges valley, but it also penetrates the Brezoi Titesti Depression. It is fed by two streams (Buda and Capra) originating in the glacial altitudinal zone of the Fagaras Mts. The hydropower plant served by the Vidraru reservoir is known as Cetatuia, but in the scientific literature, it is also referred to as the mother plant, Gheorghe Gheorghiu Dej, 16 February, and Corbeni-Arges [6].The harnessing of the Arges River for hydropower purposes was done in several stages (Fig.3): the stage between 1942 and 1954, when a vertical break of slope of 178 m was created (from 760 to 581.8 m). In that period, the mean discharge of 7.37 m3/s used for hydropower generation was ensured entirely by the Arges River, without any other extra supply.

Fig. 3 The Vidraru dam hystoric preview

the stage between 1954 and 1960, when the efforts were primarily directed at increasing the mean discharge and the height of the fall by bringing water from the neighboring tributaries. At the same time, the height of the dam was raised from 96 to 166 m [6], and consequently the mean discharge grew to 19.67 m3/s, whereas the waterfall reached 324 m. The site of the dam was chosen based on economic, hydrogeological, morphological and geological factors. The dam is built of concrete and has a boldness coefficient of 5.5. It is embedded in granitic gneisses, resistant and watertight, which ensure the structure a maximum stability and an excellent 310 Pelagia Research Library

Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________ imperviousness. The height of the dam is 166 m, the width is 25 m at the base and 6 m at the top, while the length is 307 m [6]. As far as the Vidraru reservoir is concerned, it is 15 km long and covers an area of 900 ha at the normal retention level, when it can store 465 million m3 of water (accounting for 78% of the annual supply of the Arges River), of which 320 million m3 is the usable volume (Fig.3). The reservoir has mitigated the flood waves and removed the flood risk for 10,000 ha. To ensure a high and relatively steady water volume throughout the year some supply tunnels had to be dug in order to bring water from the adjacent sub-basins: Topolog, Valsan, Raul Doamnei, Valea lui Stan, Limpedea, Cernatul and Dobrogeanul. Because 60% of the occupied area lies on crumbly Miocene sedimentary deposits, the artificial lake experiences an intense silting. Consequently, the thickness of the sediments lying on its bottom grows by 69 to 90 mm every year. Factors controlling the dam-reservoir system. The creation of a local base level has induced changes in slope dynamics, as well as in channel dynamics and morphology, both upstream and downstream the dam. The cascade system regulates the functions of the man-made subsystems, which depend in their turn upon the main control factors at the reservoir scale. Firstly, we should mention here the passive factors, with essential influence on sediment amount and quality (structure, lithology, some morphographic and morphometric terrain features), and secondly, the active, triggering factors (precipitation, which controls discharges and water levels) acting in combination with the morphogenetic potential, which is dependent upon the degree of vegetal covering [2]. Under the circumstances, the whole dynamics of the system is affected, from the triggering, to the dynamics and finally to the evolution of contemporary geomorphological processes. The dam has acted as a geomorphological threshold, which has not interrupted the evolution of processes, but only modified their direction, quality or intensity [1]. Consequently, the channels and slopes have experienced some kind of geomorphological alterations. The creation of the Vidraru reservoir has influenced terrain evolution, because it turned into a new local base level, which has been responsible for the sediment accumulation within the channels, upstream the Capra mouth. At the same time, the water has started to undermine the banks and slopes (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Joint profile on the Capra and Arges valleys in the perimeter of the Vidraru reservoir [4], modified

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Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________

Fig. 5 The Vidraru reservoir area the geomorphological map [4,7], modified

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Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________ As soon as the dam was put into place radical alterations in channel and slope dynamics have been observed. The relation between the liquid and solid flows has changed to the latters advantage. The size of transferred fragments exceeding 200 mm in diameter has reached 15% of the solid flow. The dam can be considered an anthropogenic threshold that has generated a new local base level and induced alterations of erosion and accumulation processes, especially by enhancing the headward erosion. The water stored in the reservoir has percolated and soaked the bank deposits and the river bed generating block detachments, crumbling or landslides, many of them encouraged by the slope gradients exceeding 250 (Fig 5). These processes have negatively impacted the forest road accompanying the right bank of the reservoir. The morphological slope profiles have known significant changes, mirrored especially by the increased gradients due to the new base level. Thus, the mean gradient has grown from 15 to 250 and the vertical relief-dissection increased by 50 m. Likewise, drainage density has grown from 1.7 2 km/km2 (as shown by the topographic map of 1950) to 3.9 4 km/km2 (according to the present topographic maps). The deforestations that occurred in the reservoirs area have encouraged the reactivation of downcutting and sheet erosion, especially on the steep slopes bordering the reservoir, which has led to the formation of rills, gullies and torrential streams [8]. Following the works accomplished in the area (for instance, the road lying on the left bank of the reservoir), the shaping processes have been reactivated (crumbling, landslides) and many anthropogenic landforms have come into being. CONCLUSION The building of the Vidraru dam has entailed major changes of the geomorphological features of the region: the dam may function as a temporary threshold that alters the long profile of the Arges, Valsan, Topolog, Limpedea and other rivers, too; the dam has interrupted the evolution pattern in the long and cross profiles; the dam regulates the discharges, but it also may store water for future emergency uses. In the aftermath of the dam building, several types of geomorphological processes have been identified. Acknowledgements The results in this article are part of the research projects PN II/Idei financed by NURCEvaluarea i monitorizarea riscului la avalane n contextul organizrii i amenajrii spaiului montan. Studiu de caz: Munii Fgra i Piatra Craiului, project manager Alexandru Nedelea. REFERENCES [1] Grecu F, Comunicri de geografie, 1999, III, 3. [2] Ichim I, Rdoane M, Efectul barajelor n dinamica reliefului, Edit. Academiei, Bucureti, 1986, pp 157. [3]. Nedelea A, Valea Argesului in sectorul montan. Studiu geomorfologic, Edit. Universitar, Bucureti, 2006, pp 229. [4]. Nedelcu E; SCGGG- geogr., 1966, XIII, 1. 313 Pelagia Research Library

Alexandru Nedelea et al Adv. Appl. Sci. Res., 2011, 2 (2): 303-314 ______________________________________________________________________________ [5] Paraschiv D, SCGGG- geogr., 1969, XVI, 171. [6] Pop Gr, Romnia. Geografie hidroenergetic, Edit. Presa Univ. Clujean, Cluj-Napoca, 1996, pp. 237. [7] Popescu N, AUB-Geogr, 2000, XLIX, 61. [8] Voiculescu M, Studiul potenialului geoecologic al Masivului Fgra i protecia mediului nconjurtor, Edit. Mirton, Timioara, 2002, pp. 375.

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