Sulfur or sulphur (pronounced /slf/, see spelling below) is the chemical element that has the atomic number

16. It is denoted with the symbol S. It is an abundant multivalent non-metal. Sulfur, in its native form, is a yellow crystalline solid. In nature, it can be found as the pure element and as sulfide and sulfate minerals. It is an essential element for life and is found in two amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Its commercial uses are primarily in fertilizers, but it is also widely used in black gunpowder, matches, insecticides and fungicides. Elemental sulfur crystals are commonly sought after by mineral collectors for their brightly colored polyhedron shapes. In nonscientific context it can also be referred to as brimstone.

Contents
[hide]

1 History o 1.1 Spelling and etymology 2 Characteristics o 2.1 Allotropes o 2.2 Isotopes o 2.3 Occurrence 3 Extraction and production o 3.1 Extraction from natural resources o 3.2 Production from hydrogen sulfide 3.2.1 Chemically 3.2.2 Biologically 4 Chemistry o 4.1 Inorganic compounds o 4.2 Organic compounds 5 Applications o 5.1 Specialized applications o 5.2 Historical applications o 5.3 Fungicide o 5.4 Insecticide 6 Biological role o 6.1 Traditional medical role for elemental sulfur 7 Precautions o 7.1 Environmental impact 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

[edit] History
This section requires

expansion.

Rough sulfur crystal

Sulfur crystal from Agrigento, Sicily. Sulfur (Sanskrit, sulvari; Latin sulfur or sulpur) was known in ancient times, and is referred to in the Biblical Pentateuch (Genesis). English translations of the Bible commonly referred to sulfur as "brimstone", giving rise to the name of 'fire and brimstone' sermons, in which listeners are reminded of the fate of eternal damnation that await the unbelieving and unrepentant. It is from this part of the Bible that Hell is implied to "smell of sulfur", although sulfur, in itself, is in fact odorless. The "smell of sulfur" usually refers to either the odor of hydrogen sulfide, e.g. from rotten egg, or of burning sulfur, which produces sulfur dioxide, the smell associated with burnt matches. The smell emanating from raw sulfur originates from a slow oxidation in the presence of air. Hydrogen sulfide is the principal odor of untreated sewage and is one of several unpleasant smelling sulfur-containing components of flatulence (along with sulfur-containing mercaptans). Sulfur was known in China since the 6th century BC, in a natural form that the Chinese had called 'brimstone', or shiliuhuang that was found in Hanzhong.[1] By the 3rd century, the Chinese discovered that sulfur could be extracted from pyrite.[1] Chinese Daoists were interested in sulfur's flammability and its reactivity with certain metals, yet its earliest practical uses were found in traditional Chinese medicine.[1] A Song Dynasty military treatise of 1044 AD described different formulas for Chinese black powder, which is a mixture of potassium nitrate (KNO3), charcoal, and sulfur. Early alchemists gave sulfur its own alchemical symbol which was a triangle at the top of a cross. In 1777 Antoine Lavoisier helped convince the scientific community that sulfur was an element and not a compound. In 1867, sulfur was discovered in underground deposits in Louisiana and Texas. The overlying layer of earth was quicksand, prohibiting ordinary mining operations, therefore the Frasch process was developed.

[edit] Spelling and etymology

The element has traditionally been spelled sulphur in the United Kingdom (since the 14th Century)[2], most of the Commonwealth including India, Malaysia, South Africa, and Hong Kong, along with the rest of the Caribbean and Ireland, but sulfur in the United States, while both spellings are used in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the Philippines. IUPAC adopted the spelling sulfur in 1990, as did the Royal Society of Chemistry Nomenclature Committee in 1992[3] and the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority for England and Wales recommended its use in 2000.[4] In Latin, the word is variously written sulpur, sulphur, and sulfur (the Oxford Latin Dictionary lists the spellings in this order). It means brimstone. It is an original Latin name and not a Classical Greek loan, so the ph variant does not denote the Greek letter . Sulfur in Greek is thion (), whence comes the prefix thio-. The simplification of the Latin word's p or ph to an f appears to have taken place towards the end of the classical period, with the f spelling becoming dominant in the medieval period.[5][6]

[edit] Characteristics
At room temperature, sulfur is a soft, bright-yellow solid. Elemental sulfur has only a faint odor, similar to that of matches. The odor associated with rotten eggs is due to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and organic sulfur compounds rather than elemental sulfur. Sulfur burns with a blue flame that emits sulfur dioxide, notable for its peculiar suffocating odor due to dissolving in the mucosa to form dilute sulfurous acid. Sulfur itself is insoluble in water, but soluble in carbon disulfide and to a lesser extent in other non-polar organic solvents such as benzene and toluene. Common oxidation states of sulfur include 2, +2, +4 and +6. Sulfur forms stable compounds with all elements except the noble gases. Sulfur in the solid state ordinarily exists as cyclic crown-shaped S8 molecules. The crystallography of sulfur is complex. Depending on the specific conditions, the sulfur allotropes form several distinct crystal structures, with rhombic and monoclinic S8 best known. A noteworthy property of sulfur is that its viscosity in its molten state, unlike most other liquids, increases above temperatures of 200 C due to the formation of polymers. The molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above this temperature. At higher temperatures, however, the viscosity is decreased as depolymerization occurs. Amorphous or "plastic" sulfur can be produced through the rapid cooling of molten sulfur. X-ray crystallography studies show that the amorphous form may have a helical structure with eight atoms per turn. This form is metastable at room temperature and gradually reverts back to crystalline form. This process happens within a matter of hours to days but can be rapidly catalyzed.

[edit] Allotropes

The structure of the cyclooctasulfur molecule, S8. Main article: Allotropes of sulfur
Sulfur forms more than 30 solid allotropes, more than any other element.[7] Besides S8, several other rings are known.[8] Removing one atom from the crown gives S7, which is more deeply yellow than S8. HPLC analysis of "elemental sulfur" reveals an equilibrium mixture of mainly S8, but also S7 and small amounts of S6.[9] Larger rings have been prepared, including S12 and S18.[10][11] By contrast, sulfur's lighter neighbor oxygen only exists in two states of allotropic significance: O2 and O3. Selenium, the heavier analogue of sulfur, can form rings but is more often found as a polymer chain.

[edit] Isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of sulfur

Sulfur has 18 isotopes, four of which are stable: 32S (95.02%), 33S (0.75%), 34S (4.21%), and 36S (0.02%). Other than 35S, the radioactive isotopes of sulfur are all short lived. 35S is formed from cosmic ray spallation of 40argon in the atmosphere. It has a half-life of 87 days. When sulfide minerals are precipitated, isotopic equilibration among solids and liquid may cause small differences in the S-34 values of co-genetic minerals. The differences between minerals can be used to estimate the temperature of equilibration. The C-13 and S-34 of coexisting carbonates and sulfides can be used to determine the pH and oxygen fugacity of the ore-bearing fluid during ore formation. In most forest ecosystems, sulfate is derived mostly from the atmosphere; weathering of ore minerals and evaporites also contribute some sulfur. Sulfur with a distinctive isotopic composition has been used to identify pollution sources, and enriched sulfur has been added as a tracer in hydrologic studies. Differences in the natural abundances can also be used in systems where there is sufficient variation in the 34S of ecosystem components. Rocky Mountain lakes thought to be dominated by atmospheric sources of sulfate have been found to have different S34 values from lakes believed to be dominated by watershed sources of sulfate.

[edit] Occurrence

Sulfur crystallites at Waiotapu hot springs, New Zealand

Elemental sulfur can be found near hot springs and volcanic regions in many parts of the world, especially along the Pacific Ring of Fire. Such volcanic deposits are currently mined in Indonesia, Chile, and Japan. Sicily is also famous for its sulfur mines. Significant deposits of elemental sulfur also exist in salt domes along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and in evaporites in eastern Europe and western Asia. The sulfur in these deposits is believed to come from the action of anaerobic bacteria on sulfate minerals, especially gypsum, although apparently native sulfur may be produced by geological processes alone, without the aid of living organisms (see below). However, fossil-based sulfur deposits from salt domes are the basis for commercial production in the United States, Poland, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Ukraine.

Sulfur recovered from hydrocarbons in Alberta, stockpiled for shipment at Vancouver, B.C.
Sulfur production through hydrodesulfurization of oil, gas, and the Athabasca Oil Sands has produced a surplus - huge stockpiles of sulfur now exist throughout Alberta, Canada. Common naturally occurring sulfur compounds include the sulfide minerals, such as pyrite (iron sulfide), cinnabar (mercury sulfide), galena (lead sulfide), sphalerite (zinc sulfide) and stibnite (antimony sulfide); and the sulfates, such as gypsum (calcium sulfate), alunite (potassium aluminium sulfate), and barite (barium sulfate). It occurs naturally in volcanic emissions, such as from hydrothermal vents, and from bacterial action on decaying sulfur-containing organic matter.

The distinctive colors of Jupiter's volcanic moon, Io, are from various forms of molten, solid and gaseous sulfur. There is also a dark area near the Lunar crater Aristarchus that may be a sulfur deposit. Sulfur is present in many types of meteorites. Ordinary chondrites contain on average 2.1% sulfur, and carbonaceous chondrites may contain as much as 6.6%. Sulfur in meteorites is normally present entirely as troilite (FeS), but other sulfides are found in some meteorites, and carbonaceous chondrites contain free sulfur, sulfates, and possibly other sulfur compounds.[12]

[edit] Extraction and production

[edit] Extraction from natural resources
Sulfur is extracted by mainly two processes: the Sicilian process and the Frasch process. The Sicilian process, which was first used in Sicily, was used in ancient times to get sulfur from rocks present in volcanic regions. In this process, the sulfur deposits are piled and stacked in brick kilns built on sloping hillsides, and with airspaces between them. Then powdered sulfur is put on top of the sulfur deposit and ignited. As the sulfur burns, the heat melts the sulfur deposits, causing the molten sulfur to flow down the sloping hillside. The molten sulfur can then be collected in wooden buckets. The second process used to obtain sulfur is the Frasch process. In this method, three concentric pipes are used: the outermost pipe contains superheated water, which melts the sulfur, and the innermost pipe is filled with hot compressed air, which serves to create foam and pressure. The resulting sulfur foam is then expelled through the middle pipe.[13] The Frasch process produces sulfur with a 99.5% purity content, and which needs no further purification. The sulfur produced by the Sicilian process must be purified by distillation.

[edit] Production from hydrogen sulfide

[edit] Chemically
The Claus process is used to extract elemental sulfur from hydrogen sulfide produced in hydrodesulfurization of petroleum or from natural gas.

[edit] Biologically
In the biological route, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from natural gas or refinery gas is absorbed with a slight alkaline solution in a wet scrubber. Or the sulfide is produced by biological sulfate reduction. In the subsequent process step, the dissolved sulfide is biologically converted to elemental sulfur. This solid sulfur is removed from the reactor. This process has been built on commercial scale. The main advantages of this process are:

Sulphur
Molecular chains, rubber and salt domes are prominent in the lore of sulphur

Contents

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi.

Introduction Physical Properties of Sulphur Chemical Properties of Sulphur Mineralogy of Sulphur Uses of Sulphur References

Introduction
Sulphur was known in antiquity. In Latin, it was called sulpur, and in Greek, . It was considered the embodiment of fire, and related to lightning. The Greek name, indeed, also means "divinity" and was derived from s, which referred to Zeus, who is often shown with a handful of lightning bolts. In Christian mythology, it is the fuel of Hell. A "p" in Latin was used to represent in words borrowed from Greek in the times when it was pronounced with a puff of air, but was not yet the "f" sound. Asparagus, in fact, should be aspharagus. Later, when the "f" sound was used, the p often changed to ph in Latin words of Greek origin. Although "sulpur" had no Greek roots, it was attracted into the form "sulphur" in late classical Latin. The spelling was altered in medieval times to "sulfur," which is the spelling that usually appears in Latin dictionaries. The English word is taken directly from Latin, traditionally in the form "sulphur." The American Chemical Society, at a time when spelling simplification was in vogue, decreed that "sulfur" was to be the accepted form in the United States. Although resisted by technical users, this form is now general in the United States, though sulphur is still occasionally seen. In the rest of the world, it is still sulphur. I shall use this spelling here in the interests of tradition and universality. In German, sulphur is known as Schwefel, in Dutch, as zwavel. In Welsh, it is sylffur, which is simply the Welsh spelling of the sound of the English word. In French, it is soufre, in Italian zolfo, and in Spanish azufre. Sulphate is solfato in Italian, and sulfato in Spanish, where phosphorus is fsforo, since Spanish orthography tries to represent the spoken sound accurately. The old name brimstone is from "burning stone," from the Middle English brinnen, "burn." In German, however, Bernstein, with a similar etymology, means "amber," not "sulphur." "Schwefel" comes from roots expressing "slow-burning." The chemical symbol for sulphur is S, and is the same in all languages. Dalton's symbol is shown in the heading.

Physical Properties of Sulphur

Sulphur is one of the chalcogenides, or "ore-formers," oxygen O, sulphur S, selenium Se and tellurium Te, that occupy column VIA of the periodic table. All are nonmetals, and their oxides form acidic solutions in water. The atomic number of sulphur is 16, its atomic weight 32.07, and its electron configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p4, with six valence electrons outside a neon core. The first ionization potential of the atom is 10.357 V, the second 23.405 V, so the atom holds its electrons quite strongly. It is the 15th element in order of abundance in the lithosphere, to the amount of 0.052%. Selenium and tellurium are much scarcer, while oxygen, of course, is very abundant. The electronic structure of S has an important effect on the forms in which it exists. If a neutral atom gains two electrons, it completes the stable argonic structure. The sulphur ion S-- is stable in aqueous solution, where the polar water reduces the energy penalty of the charge. Two sulphur atoms can make a "coordinate covalent" single bond, and this S2 molecule is found in the vapor at high temperatures. Sulphur does not form S2 with a double bond, as oxygen does. If two electrons are added to this molecule, the result is the disulphide ion, S2--, which is also stable in aqueous solution. Both these ions form salts with metals that are disposed to furnish the two electrons. Lewis electron diagrams are shown for sulphur in the diagram. Sulphur atoms can aggregate further, each one sharing one of its electron pairs with the preceding atoms, and form long chains. The end atom is always in an awkward position, but if possible can acquire two electrons for an argonic structure. In the diagram, the electron distribution makes one end polar and the other negative, so combining ends would attract one another. If one electron is transferred from one end to the other, the ends are alike but still act like free radicals. Silicon forms chains with intermediate oxygen atoms, -Si-O-Si-O-, and carbon forms chains if hydrogen satisfies the extra valences, -(CH2)n-. However, left to their own devices, each of these atoms prefers a 3-dimensional structure. Sulphur naturally forms chains if left to itself. One result of this are the polysulfide ions Sx-- that are easily made. The bond angles in these structures are expected to be 90, since p orbitals are involved. There is free rotation about a bond. To a lesser degree, selenium also can make chains, but chain-forming is one of the outstanding peculiarities of sulphur. It is clear that a sulphur chain could bite its own tail and become a ring. This would solve the problems of the terminal atoms, and produce a stable structure. The smallest ring that has no strains consists of 8 atoms. It forms a crown-shaped molecule with 4 atoms on top and 4 atoms on the bottom, rotated relatively by 45. The Lewis diagram suggests this, schematically. There is a little steric interaction between nonbonded atoms, so the bond angle is stretched to 102, and the bond length is 0.208 nm. This shows that the size of the covalent sulphur atom is close to 0.1 nm. There is also a less-stable ring of 6 atoms. In any sample of sulphur, thermal agitation is constantly breaking and reassembling chains, so they gradually assume the most stable state for the particular temperature. The yellow color of sulphur is probably due to a small number of thermally-generated unterminated chains.

The S8 molecule is stable, and exists in solid, liquid and gaseous sulphur. Two crystalline forms compete, orthorhombic -sulphur and monoclinic -sulphur. A specimen of crystalline orthorhombic sulphur is shown at the right ( Amethyst Galleries). Below 96, the orthorhombic form is more stable, but it is a fairly narrow thing, and conversions between the two forms are slow. -S has a density of 2.07 and melts at 113C. -S has a density of 1.97 and melts at 119C. Each melts to a straw-yellow liquid of density 1.808 called -sulphur. If the liquid is cooled slowly, needle-like monoclinic crystals form. When the temperature falls below 96, these crystals slowly change to orthorhombic microcrystals, which is shown by their becoming cloudy. If the liquid is heated further, at about 200C it darkens to a reddish color and becomes viscous. The S8 rings are thermally broken, and recombine to form long chains, called -sulphur. The dark color is due to the free valences at the ends of the chains. If this dark sulphur is suddenly cooled by being poured into water, it becomes a rubbery mass of tangled chains. This was called amorphous sulphur, but is really a kind of glass. On standing, it eventually reverts to S8 and crystallizes. S6 molecules make rhombohedral crystals, which is called (I think) -sulphur. There is apparently also an S12 molecule. Sulphur is the best electrical insulating material known, with a resistivity of about 2 x 1023 cm. It is not easy to measure resistivities this large. The reason for this large resistivity is probably the electron traps produced by thermal breaking of S8 rings, which means that electronattracting terminal atoms are always present. This may also be the explanation of the yellow color of sulphur. Balls of sulphur were the preferred material for static electricity generators. They were introduced by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg, I believe. Later, glass was used, but it is much more conductive than sulphur, and adsorbs moisture more readily. The coefficient of thermal expansion of -S is 64 x 10-6 per C. The thermal conductivity of -S is 0.277 J/m-s-K, and of -S, 0.156 J/m-s-K. These are low figures for materials of equivalent density (122 lb/cu.ft. and 129 lb/cu.ft., respectively), and especially compared with metals. The low values are consistent with the low electrical conductivity. Sulphur, however, is not generally best for thermal insulation. The specific heat of -S is 5.40 cal/mol,

Sulphur
Sulphur, S, is a yellow nonmetallic main group element belonging to the Group VIb of the periodic table.

Atomic Number : 16 Relative Atomic Mass : 32.06 Melting Point : 112.8 degC Boiling Point : 444.667 degC Relative Density : 2.07

Although sulphur is in the same group in the periodic table as oxygen, there are more differences in the chemical characteristics of these elements than

there are similarities. Thus, while oxygen always displays a valency of two, sulphur displays valences of four (in sulphur dioxide, SO2), six (in thionyl chloride, socl2) and eight (in sulphur hexafluoride, SF8).
In the elemental state, sulphur exists in polymeric forms. Sulphur is an essential element for living organisms, and is present in some amino-acids.

Discovery

Sulphur has been known since the beginning of history, and is described in the Bible. Sulphur has been used by the Greeks and Romans as a fumigant and disinfectant.

Occurrence

Sulphur is widely distributed as the free element and combined in compounds. Sulphur is found near volcanoes, where it is formed by the reaction of sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide which are associated with the volcanoes. Sulphur also occurs in many metal ores, including o gelena, PbS, o zinc blende, ZnS, o cinnebar, HgS, o stibnite, Sb2S3, o copper pyrites, Cu2S.Fe2S3, and o iron pyrites, Fe2S. The important sulphate ores include o gypsum, CaSO4, and o heavy spar, BaSO4.

Extraction

Sulphur is separated from the minerals in its ores by heating, when the liquid sulphur drains from the ore body. Normally, part of the sulphur in the ore is burned and the heat used to melt the remaining sulphur so that it leaches from the hot mass. This extraction procedure called the Gill Process, and it is widely used in Sicily. Sulphur is extracted from underground ore bodies in the United States using the Frasch Process, where superheated water is pumped underground to melt the sulphur which is then forces to the surface.

Preparation

Properties
Sulphur occurs in a large number of allotropic forms in the solid state. Several liquid forms are also known.
Rhombic Sulphur

Rhombic Sulphur which is also known as Octahedral Sulphur or alphaSulphur, is a yellow crystalline solid, which crystallises from a solution in carbon disulphide. X-ray investigation shows this form to consist of eight sulphur atoms in the molecule in a ring structure.
Monoclinic Sulphur

Monoclinic Sulphur which is also known as Prismatic Sulphur or betaSulphur, is a yellow crystalline solid, which is obtained by allowing molten sulphur to solidify, when long prismatic needles form on the walls of the container that can be separated from the still molten liquid by pouring off the latter. X-ray investigation shows this form to consist of eight sulphur atoms in the molecule in a ring structure, but arranged within the crystal in a different manner to that in rhombic sulphur.
Plastic Sulphur

Plastic Sulphur which is also known as gamma-Sulphur, is a tough elastic substance that is formed when molten sulphur is poured into cold water. On standing it slowly crystallises.
Amorphous Sulphur

Amorphous Sulphur is the insoluble white amorphous solid that remains when flowers of sulphur are extracted with carbon disulphide.
Colloidal Sulphur

Colloidal Sulphur which is also known as delta-Sulphur, is a yellow crystalline solid.

Reactions

Sulphur burns readily in air forming sulphur dioxide.

S + O2 ==> SO2 Sulphur reacts with hydrogen gas when the latter is bubbles through molten sulphur near its boiling point.

H2

==>

H2S

Sulphur dissolves in caustic alkali solutions forming sulphides and thiosulphates.

4 S + 6 NaOH ==> Na2S2O3 + 2 Na2S + 3 H2O

Uses
Sulphur is an important industrial raw material which is used

in the manufacture of sulphuric acid,

in the manufacture of sulphur dioxide and sodium sulphite which are used for bleaching straw and wood fibers, and for removing lignin from wood pulp for the paper industry, and in the manufacture of organic chemicals which contain sulphur.

Start of Hypertext .... Elements .... Compounds .... Index

Hypertext Copyright (c) 2000 Donal O'Leary. All Rights Reserved. Atomic number Atomic mass Electronegativity according to Pauling Density Melting point Boiling point Vanderwaals radius Ionic radius Isotopes Electronic shell Energy of first ionisation
Energy of second ionisation Energy of tird ionisation

16 32.06 g.mol -1 2.5 2.07 g.cm -3 at 20 C 113 C 445 C 0.127 nm 0.184 (-2) nm ; 0.029 (+6) 5 [Ne] 3s23p4 999.3 kJ.mol -1
2252 kJ.mol -1 3357 kJ.mol-1

Standard potential Discovered by

- 0.51 V The ancients

Sulphur
Sulphur is a multivalent non-metal, abundant, tasteless and and odorless. In its native form sulphur is a yellow crystalline solid. In nature it occurs as the pure element or as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Although sulphur is infamous for its smell, frequently compare to rotten eggs, that odor is actually characteristic of hydrogen sulphide (H2S). The crystallography of sulphur is complex. Depending on the specific

conditions, sulphur allotropes form several distinct crystal structures. Applications The major derivative of sulphur is sulphuric acid (H2SO4), one of the most important elements used as an industrial raw material. Sulphur is also used in batteries, detergents, fungicides, manufacture of fertilizers, gun power, matches and fireworks. Other applications are making corrosion-resistant concrete which has great strength and is forst resistant, for solvents and in a host of other products of the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. Sulphur in the environment Life on Earth may have been possible because of sulphur. Conditions in the early seas were such that simple chemical reactions could have generate the range of amino acids that are the building blocks of life. Sulphur occurs naturally near volcanoes. Native sulphur occurs naturally as massive deposits in Texas and Louisiana in the USA. Many sulphide minerals are known: pyrite and marcaiste are iron sulphide ; stibnite is antimony sulphide; galena is lead sulphide; cinnabar is mercury sulphide and sphalerite is zinc sulphide. Other, more important, sulphide ores are chalcopyrite, bornite, penlandite, millerite and molybdenite. The chief source of sulphur for industry is the hydrogen sulphide of natural gas, Canada is the main producer.

Health effects of sulphur

All living things need sulphur. It is especially important for humans because it is part of the amino acid methionine, which is an absolute dietary requirement for us. The amino acid cysteine also contains sulphur. The average person takes in around 900 mg of sulphur per day, mainly in the form of protein. Elemental sulphur is not toxic, but many simple sulphur derivates are, such as sulphur dioxide (SO2) and hydrogen sulfide. Sulfur can be found commonly in nature as sulphides. During several processes sulfur bonds are added to the environment that are damaging to animals, as well as humans. These damaging sulphur bonds are also shaped in nature during various reactions, mostly when substances

that are not naturally present have already been added. They are unwanted because of their unpleasant smells and are often highly toxic. Globally sulphuric substances can have the following effects on human health: - Neurological effects and behavioural changes - Disturbance of blood circulation - Heart damage - Effects on eyes and eyesight - Reproductive failure - Damage to immune systems - Stomach and gastrointestinal disorder - Damage to liver and kidney functions - Hearing defects - Disturbance of the hormonal metabolism - Dermatological effects - Suffocation and lung embolism

Effects of sulphur on the environment

Sulfur can be found in the air in many different forms. It can cause irritations of the eyes and the throat with animals, when the uptake takes place through inhalation of sulfur in the gaseous phase. Sulfur is applied in industries widely and emitted to air, due to the limited possibilities of destruction of the sulfur bonds that are applied. The damaging effects of sulfur with animals are mostly brain damage, through malfunctioning of the hypothalamus, and damage to the nervous system. Laboratory tests with test animals have indicated that sulfur can cause serious vascular damage in veins of the brains, the heart and the kidneys. These tests have also indicated that certain forms of sulfur can cause foetal damage and congenital effects. Mothers can even carry sulfur poisoning over to their children through mother milk.

Finally, sulfur can damage the internal enzyme systems of animals