Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research
Business Research Methods 1. Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is an informal, subjective, semi systematic research approaches that usually emphasizes words rather than numbers in the collection and analysis of data and that is inductive in nature. In other words it generates theory.
General aims of qualitative research o To add understanding to a phenomenon or the complexities of human behavior o It does not claim to generalize o To generate theory therefore it is inductive rather than deductive 2. Qualitative Research Process
Steps:-
1. Quantitative research starts from the development of research questions that is based on inductive method. 2. At 2nd step the subjects (respondents) and relevant site are selected, which is convenient, safe and supporting of both researcher and the respondents. 3. The 3rd step is the collection of data from the respondents, which should be concise and relevant to the research topic. 4. Step four involves classification (thematic analysis) and organization (stage structure analysis) of data collected in step three.
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Business Research Methods 5. Fifth step reveals the conceptual and theoretical understanding of the data that involves 5.a Refinement and specification of topic 5.b Through repeated data collection and preliminary observations 6. Sixth step involves writing up the finding and conclusion of the entire research just like quantitative research report in a convincing way on the basis of credibility and significance of the outcomes of research process. (Bryman & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, p. 406)
The Preoccupations in Qualitative Research:

Qualitative research tends to be concerned with words rather than numbers, but here are some important points that are particularly noteworthy. Qualitative Research Inductively generates theory through research. Researcher starts out with a broad outline of a concept which is revised and narrowed down during the course of data collection as well as in subsequent researches as per difference in social contents or research questions. Ontologically implies that concepts are outcomes of interactions between individuals through process (sequence of individuals and collective events, actions, and activities unfolding over time in a specific context.) Epistemologically focuses on acquiring knowledge regarding how people see and interpret concepts by participating in their minds face to face. Keep data collection unstructured / less structured supposing to enhance the opportunity of openly and genuinely revealing the perspectives of people under study. (Bryman & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, p. 402,416)
Reliability and Validity

Validity refers to the issues of whether or not an indicator really measures the concept that it is devised to measure whereas Reliability is the stability or the consistency of measurement. Both terms are quantitative in nature. Since measurement is not a major preoccupation among qualitative researches, the issues of validity ad reliability would have little bearing on it and also some alternative terms will be used in qualitative research. (Guba and Lincoln, 1994) Reliability and validity of data in qualitative research is checked through following procedures:
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Business Research Methods Member Checking It is a process in which the researcher provides back each research participant (member) with an account of what he or she has said to the researcher during data collection procedure and verified by him/her the account that the researcher has understood and arrived at. The respondents feedback confirms the credibility of the outcome; credibility refers parallel internal validity (The credibility criteria involve establishing that the results of qualitative research are credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research). Triangulation It is a process of using more than one methods (interview, observation, documentation) or sources of data in research process. It implies that the data collected through one method or strategy is cross checked with data, collected through another method or strategy. Its another type of credibility. Self Reflection and Rich Thick Description It is a process of clarifying all the biases that researcher has brought to the study. It will resonate well with the readers. The researcher also provides rich thick description to convey findings in order to discuss an element of shared experience. This term also called transferability (Transferability refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings), which parallels external validity. External Audit Researchers adopt an auditing approach. This entails ensuring that complete records are kept of all phases of research process problem formation, selection of research participants, fieldwork notes, interview transcripts, data analysis decision and so on in an accessible manner, (Dependability emphasizes the need for the researcher to account for the ever-changing context within which research occurs), which parallel reliability. Authenticity: relates to the degree, to which the research is fair with equal representation of all contrary point of views, researcher should not eliminate any controversies/negative/discriminative statement while reporting the data. Besides this quality can be ensured by providing rich and thick descriptions on findings, clarifying personal biases, sharing both positive and negative information, spending prolong time in the field, debriefing peers and getting external auditors review. (Bryman & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, p. 411) (Creswell (2003), Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed methods Approaches. P. 196).
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Business Research Methods
Qualitative Sampling:
In qualitative research, researcher preferably uses non probability sampling that includes: 1. Convenience sampling 2. Snow ball sampling 3. Quota sampling These concepts are already discussed in last lecture.
Qualitative Methods:
In qualitative research four methods are used for data collection that is as follows: 1. Interview 2. Focus group 3. Document analysis 4. Unstructured observation
Interview:
Interview is an interactive process of listening in and asking questions, between interviewer and interviewee about research topic. OR Interview a person to person interaction or debate between two or more individual with a specific purpose in mind.
Types of interviews:
There are several types of interviews that are as follows 1. Telephone Interview 2. Email Interview 3. Ethnographic Interview 4. One-on-One Interview 5. Group Interview (Gilham B. (2005), Research Interviewing: the range of techniques)
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Type of interview telephone interview Definition It is an interview method in which the researcher conducts interview on telephone in a mutually responsive way in order to get highly productive and quality information from persons at a distant location. It is an interview method in which the researcher conduct interview using email based on internet technology, accessing enormous information in an instant, speedy and flexible way. Advantages Business Research Methods Disadvantages General resistance to nuisance factors i.e. unwanted communications Non-verbal elements missing Duration of interviews limited Responses can be too colloquial for research purposes Responses can be very abbreviated or edited E-mails can accumulate or be ignored
Can combine virtues of survey sampling and in-depth interviewing Has some of the qualities of face-to-face interviewing Interviews not bound by geographical distance Instant communication access worldwide Acceptable to those reluctant to participate in a face-to-face interview Extremely economical on time Response is at interviewees convenience No transcription required High validity: naturalistic, unguarded Can be crossreferenced to other data Gives access to people who could not be interviewed in other ways In-depth exposure to a persons experiences
Email interview
Ethnographic interview
It is an interview method in which the interviewer acts as participant observer and collects data in a natural setting from the respondents.
Expensive on time; Difficult to record responses immediately Only a limited number of questions possible Individual interviews may be personalized Page 5
One-on-one /Individual Interview
It is an exploratory interview method to have deep understanding of the people who come to your site one-
on-one by probing their attitudes, beliefs, desires, and experiences. Business Research Methods More time to discuss Individual topics in detail. interviews are both expensive and time-consuming to conduct. No worry about the group dynamics The individual interview format is Full attention to the susceptible to personality interviewee conflicts between interviewer Customized and interviewee. interviewing style to draw out a shy user or keep another user on topic. Valuable as an initial, Can be exploratory technique difficult to manage May reveal dynamics Particularly through interaction, and issues not apparent challenging to record in individual interviews Data can be Provides early patchy and incomplete indication of a range of views
Group interview
It is an exploratory interview method in which open and unspecific discussion is performed on a research topic by the group members in order to get deep understanding of research topic.
MODES OF INTERVIEW Interviews can be conducted in different modes that are discussed in the following tables Mode of Definition Advantages Interview Structured It is a mode of interview in which questions to Quick to interview be asked, their sequence, and detailed administer information to be gathered are all predetermined; Overco used where maximum consistency across mes disadvantages of interviews and interviewees is needed. postal questionnaires Analysis is straightforward Easy to code and enter More
Disadvantages Restricts coverage Data are often superficial Lacks the free flow of a friendly conversation
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interviews time Semistructured interview It is a mode of interview in which individuals are asked a pre-defined set of question parameters, although still allowing for a degree of flexibility and openness. Prompts are used to keep the interviewee on track and through probing deep insight is gained. Business Research Methods in less
Unstructured interview
Provides Costly in a balance between structure time(interview plus transcription and openness plus analysis plus writing up) With the Question/topic use of prompts, roughly development a lengthy phase equivalent coverage can be Skill. Practice achieved is required to achieve adequate Equival performance ent interview time is allowed in each case Analysis is facilitated by the levels of structure It is a mode of interview in which there is Useful Can be difficult nothing pre-planned; no schedule of questions is as an exploratory to keep going decided and quite open in order to yield techniques Conversely, unexpected material regarding personal Good for can be very long experiences. achieving a narrative Time Minimu consuming m interference from the Both parties interviewer can be diverted Explori ng a topic broadly (Gilham B. (2005), Research Interviewing: the range of techniques)
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Interview Procedure
Interview procedure is a set of sequential interdependent activities that result in collection of comprehensive information regarding the research topic. It consists of following steps: 1. Interview Objectives At first step it is essential to set the objectives of the interview aligned with overall research objectives so that we could evaluate the data collected as per requirements. Example: To explore the Concepts of HRM practices POS, commitment and job satisfaction in Pakistan 2. Methodology At 2nd step decision regarding selection of unstructured, semi-structure and structured mode of interview is made depending upon the Purpose of interview, nature of topic, literature availability, cost and type of respondents. As been mentioned in our exemplary research report Example: I decided to choose semi-structured interview that could be argued as the most important way of conducting a research interview because of its flexibility balanced by structure and the quality of the data so obtained. 3. Interview Composition At 3rd step criteria for selection of interviewees (screener) will be set. Only those persons will be allowed to participate in research who will qualify the composition criteria. Example:
Geographical coverage: Gender: Age: Job Tenure: Positions in organizations Usage Prerequisites: Organization type -Lahore, Karachi, Rawalpindi -Males & Females - 25 plus Minimum 3 years faculty members (minimum lecturer) - 20% Inter level - 30% Bachelors level - 50% Masters level -Private or Public -
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(Private must be affiliated educational institute, college, University(HEC recognized)
4. Interview Schedule The 4th step involves the development of interview schedule- a formal timeline in which researcher and his team do all activities and able to conclude the results on time.
Example:
S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Activity Objective setting and Screener development Approval of objectives and screener Selection of sites and respondents Development of guidelines and arrangements 05- Interviews (Lahore) 05- Interviews (Islamabad) 05- Interviews (Karachi) Transcripts Analysis and Report writing Report submission
Dates 14 Nov 08 15th Nov 08 16th 20th Nov 08 16th 20th Nov 08 22nd 28th Nov' 08 24th 28th Nov' 08 24th 28th Nov' 08 24th 8th Dec 08 15th Dec 08 17th Dec 08
th
5. Recruitment Screener Development At 5th step Recruitment screener a short questionnaire of 6 - 8 questions is developed. Before conducting interviews we ask some necessary questions to see that the person is eligible or not for our research for what we are going to conduct interviews. Example: Sample screener is attached herewith (Annexure A) at the end of the document 6. Deciding about the Ethical Issues The 6th step involves deciding about the ethical standards to be practiced throughout the interview process in order to deal with social and legal bindings. The key ethical aspects to be addressed involves
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Business Research Methods Identifying yourself as researcher Developing respondent consent form defining o the research purposes o types of information required o confidentiality and anonymity statement o surety of security, summary publicity, fair uses of information and wastage of data after due time period
Example: sample consent form is attached herewith (Annexure B) at the end of the document
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7- Discussion Guide: This has a set of questions used in the interview. Discussion guide is developed from the objective of the research. The main strategy to develop discussion guide is: Putting question together according to objective of study Grouping them into the topics they seem to relate Identifying the narrative sequence How questions & Topics lead one into the other Example of (Coca Cola Export Corporation):
Objective: To come up with a concept which will be able to make Coca-Cola an integral part of the Iftar table Question/ Guideline: Introducing Research Company Reassuring the respondents: creating a safe atmosphere Respondents introduction & warm-up
Lets imagine that a foreigner was listening to us who has never visited Pakistan and does not know Pakistanis. He is interested to know about the Ramadan.
What would we tell him about this particular event? How do we feel about it? How is the atmosphere and ambience when its the time of the Ramadan? What role does it play in our lives? What is the main satisfaction that we get out of being part of this time of the year? What are the values associated with the Ramadan? Which are the best possible expressions for this value in our opinion? How do we feel about Pakistans connection to the Ramadan? How do we feel about what it shows to the rest of the world?
Now, lets imagine that the foreigner wishes to know more, he wants to know about carbonated soft drinks and what role do they play in our lives. SAQ: Which one soft drink do we associate with Ramadan? ---------------------------Which soft drink do we associate with Iftar? ----------------------------
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Business Research Methods Thinking of our personal idea of Ramadan that we have just defined and discussed a while ago, which brand of soft drink comes close?
7. Questions Preparation 7th step involves comprehensive process of compiling a set of main questions and subquesions (if necessary) that are generalized, non-directional, and exploratory in nature using literature review, brainstorming or Delphi techniques. Questionnaire finalization goes through following stages 7.1.Pruning and Revising Possible Questions After developing initial set of questions, we revise them through pruning process that involves reducing questions to their essentials and all unnecessary, repeating or irrelevant questions are diminished for being closer to desired purpose. The quality of words and format is also improved through rechecking by peer, senior or expert in the field. 7.2.Trailing After pruning and revising the questions researcher passes through the trialing process that is your first attempt to try out the questions live and face-to-face to persons (two or three maximum) that are involved in your research but not the member of the group to be actually studied. It will enhance your understanding of the actual phenomena and help in reducing topics as well as questions. 7.3.Piloting and Pre-Piloting After pruning restructuring and reorganizing the questions researcher goes through the pre-piloting stage when he conducts interviews from subjects (actual respondents) asking them feedback and comments on interview schedule observing how they responded and how you yourself mange the interview schedule: further adjustments to questions and process will emerge. After pre-piloting adjustments the researcher process a stage further towards piloting stage by recording the interview and transcribing it and carrying out an analysis of contents. This practical exercise will reveal some particular practical problems with some questions to be dealt now otherwise cause regret at final stages. 7.4.Prompts and Probing Pre-Piloting and piloting will not only improve the quality of interview schedule but also it enables researcher develop prompts-something as simple as this (diffidently composed for
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Business Research Methods different contexts) will enable you to get a feel for interviewing and also provided material for self scrutiny resulting in listening with intense concentration. On the other hand this exercise develops interviewing skills like probing in the researcher. Probing is about getting the respondent to tell even the hidden aspects of the concepts which you sense from his answers and to make them going on and on producing in-depth information. Example: Sample questionnaire is attached herewith (Annexure C) at the end of the document 8. Conducting the interview Next step is conducting interview actually. It involves five following stages but before entering this actual interview process researcher must visit the respondent to brief him/her about research purpose, information required from them and getting their consent in signatures. 8.1.Preparation Phase This stage involves preparation of all necessary documents/elements including selection of respondents, place, and time. Besides this making available all required equipment (microphone, tape recorder and clipboard) rooms, and any other thing as per requirement. It also involves the decisions regarding interviewers appearance and dressing as well. Checklist for Preparation Phase 1. Research area office to be in upright condition (illumination, seating arrangement, noise free, etc) 2. Walkman with new batteries (verified twice). 3. Required documents (screener summary sheets) designed and ready 4. Cassettes (new) to be ready with tags and coding 5. Board markers, plain papers, pencils and other stationery items 6. Moderator guidelines printed and set on the table 7. Refreshment for the interviewee 8. Pick and drop facility for the interviewees 9. Gifts for the interviewees as thanks for sparing time 10. Interviewee dress code suitability, matching, colour choice etc 8.2.Initial Contact Phase Initial contact involves welcoming the respondent at interview; introducing him about you as well as making him feel relaxed by offering him some refreshment and asking him about his travelling towards interview place etc. in simple words it is an introduction and warm-up phase
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Business Research Methods Example: Today is 22nd of November 2008; the time is 9:30 am approximately. I am ABC from XYZ institute First of all I would like to welcome you and thank you for giving us your precious time 8.3.Orientation Phase At this stage you will (once again) explain him/her the purpose of interview as well as the purpose of the whole research with respect to the significance of its outcomes making him feel that his contribution is highly valuable. After that rechecking the quality of your taperecorder you will head towards substantive phase. We are working on an international research project regarding HRM practices, POS, Job satisfaction Job commitmentit is very comprehensive research that will let you identify your own status regarding employment while on the other hand it will help employers to redesign their HR policies in order to facilitate their employee grievances 8.4.Substantive Phase After orienting the interviewee you will commence the proper interviewing in easy comfortable language, as an active listener and leaving not even a single cue to probe into the discussion, clarifying the questions where necessary, showing appreciation and nodding to be understood, keeping relevant to the topic through examples and justifications. 8.5.Closure Phase It is a closing phase involving appreciation of what the interviewee has contributed, thanking them for sparing time in an enthusiastic manner, offering them for checking and feedback after transcription and get them off the premises with courtesy. Simply it is a winding up function to departure. 9. Transcribing the Interviews Transcription is the process of producing a valid written record of an interview without losing any feature of speech in a way that it could present the true picture of verbal as well as non verbal clues. Certain transcription formats and symbols must be followed. Basic rules for transcription 1. Do not let the tapes accurate 2. Transcribe as soon as possible after the interview (Ideally transcribe the day after the interview)
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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Business Research Methods Be realistic about the time transcription will take as there is no fast method for transcription Dont spend more than one hour at a time on the transcription. Clearly identify tapes and transcripts through labeling and coding Use standard format (codes, symbols, signs) through out the transcription process Once transcribed interview should be peer reviewed for ensuring accuracy
Example: Sample Transcription format and transcriptions are attached herewith (Annexure D) at the end of the document. 10. Editing and reviewing the interview After transcribing the interview the researcher will review the transcribed material by himself in order to correct the typographical mistakes as well as to get an overall feel for the contents in order to make your mind start working on apparent themes or categories. This transcription can also be rechecked by peers as well as from the interviewees for the feedback and amendments. 11. Reducing Data and Retaining the Meaning After having transcriptions finalized, the researcher goes through the process of reducing the data to minimum words in a way that it retains the meanings as and the essential elements of the original voices expressed by the interviewee. For this purpose the researcher goes through the following analysis. 11.1. First Stage Analysis It is the process of reducing the transcript to perhaps a third of its original length identifying substantive statements and deleting padding and repetition in order to get a valid, accessible approximation to the complete interview. 11.2. Thematic analysis It is a process of breaking up a total narrative into particular themes-a kind of horizontal category, a sub-plot, within the main narrative to have idea of overall structure of narrative. Example: sample thematic analysis is attached herewith (Annexure E) at the end of the document. 11.3. Stage-Structure Analysis
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Business Research Methods It is the process of identifying the stages or levels of the themes while working on the successive interview transcripts, in order to develop the general flow of different stages in the narrative to show the progression. In writing up the analysis, each of these stages is treated as a section within the narrative with exemplar quotations from the interviews and linking interpretive inserts by the researcher. A general commentary and summary conclusion are followed on. Example: sample stage-structure analysis is attached herewith (Annexure F) at the end of the document. 11.4. Categorical Content Analysis It is a process of identifying the main contents (related to certain categories) and discarding (or put to one side) the rest. These contents might be missing due to lack of probing and prompting skills but there will also be elements of discovery- things that were not anticipated but are obtained in the case of semi structured interview. Example: sample categorical content analysis is attached herewith (Annexure G) at the end of the document. 11.5. Categorical Analysis It is the process of grouping together the contents and defining broader generalized categories going through the excerpts and giving them names that describe the character of statements clearly. 12. Coding the Data It is the process of developing a code book for being able to refer to certain respondents words in transcription. In this process the researcher will define codes for each interviewee, category, subcategory, question, and substantive statement. Example: sample code book is attached herewith (Annexure H) at the end of the document. 13. Analysis Grid After having done all the analysis and the code book the researcher will develop an analysis grid (spreadsheet) manually or using Microsoft excel integrating all major categories taking interviewees at one side and the categories at top. Then reviewing all the transcripts the researcher will fill in all the statements with coded reference against each statement. Example: sample Analysis grid is attached herewith (Annexure I) at the end of the document.
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Business Research Methods 14. Writing up Interview Data Finally the researcher will write down a report on the outcomes of the data debating on the key themes, and categories derived from the interview process using analysis grid. Example: sample report format is attached herewith (Annexure J) at the end of this document.
(Research Interviewing, Bill Gillham)
Focus Group
Focus group is the data collection method in which specifically defined groups of individuals (Group composition focus) are interviewed in a discussion format by a moderator regarding a tightly defined topic (content focus) and the accent is upon interaction within the group and the joint construction of meaning. OR A focus group discussion is a tool in which a small group of people (8-10 individuals) engages in a roundtable discussion of selected topics of interest in an informal setting. Focus Group vs. Group Interview Focus groups typically emphasize a specific theme or topic that is explored in depth, whereas group interviews often span very widely. Sometimes group interviews are carried out so that the researcher is able to save time and money by carrying out interviews with a number of individuals simultaneously. However, focus groups are not carried out for this reason. The focus group practitioner is invariably interested in the ways in which individuals discuss a certain issue as members of a group rather than simply as individuals.
Uses of Focus Group Focus Group method is used in following cases when:

Insights are needed in exploratory or preliminary studies. There is a communication or understanding gap between groups or categories of people.
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Business Research Methods The purpose is to uncover factors relating to complex behavior or motivation. You desire ideas to emerge from the group. The researcher needs additional information to prepare for a large-scale study. The clients or intended audience places high value on capturing the open-ended comments of your target audience. (http://www.health.state.mn.us/communityeng/needs/focus.html)
Conducting Focus Groups Following steps are involved in conduct of focus group interviews: 1. Choose a room with few distractions; if possible, limit the size of the group to 8 or less participants; nametags are helpful. 2. Pre test your questions; have only a few questions (maximum 4-5); start from more general toward specific questions. 3. Questions may vary in their levels of structure; from what is your perspective on .. to what would you say are the two most useful.. 4. Most important points need to be addressed early 5. Keep the discussion to less than 2 hours 6. Use flip charts to make recording process as open/visible as possible 7. Consider having tape recording or another researcher taking detailed process notes (if you want to capture comments verbatim) that is subsequently transcribed. 8. You may use different discussion methods (Nominal, Delphi, role playing, story telling, drawing/visualizing, and brainstorming). 1. Research area office to be in upright condition (files, papers neatly in place) 2. New mike cell LR44 in place 3. Essentially checking the recording first thing before the interview 4. Mike to be turned on half-hour before the Interview starts 5. Checking the Speakers sound 6. Screener Summary sheets designed & ready (participants eligibility to be verified thru these sheets before the group starts) 7. Any stimulus material to be used in interview (SAQ to be shown beforehand to the interviewer to help him/her set the flow later) 8. Cassettes to be ready (reject those with broken recording tags), and group names written clearly on both the covers and the cassettes (with pencil). Volume 1 should be of 90 min & Vol 2 of 60 min. Back-up cassettes should be marked as Back-up 1 and Back-up 2.
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Business Research Methods 9. New pencil cells in the walkman for back-up recording, and walkman be placed in the interviewing room (with Back-up 1 cassette inside and Back-up 2 cassette placed aside) 10. Board markers, plain papers, 10 pencils to be kept in the conference room 11. Moderators Guideline printed & set on the table 12. Plain papers in the darkroom for the clients notes-taking along with small sheets for passing notes when moderation is in process 13. Additional: TV (Channel 0 set) with VCR, both with remote controls along with the connecting lead in the conference room. 14. Refreshments for the interviewee to accommodate then. Pick n drop facility if the interviewees don't have transport facility. 15. Gifts for the interviewees as thanks he/she gave time to us. Limitations Less control of researcher over proceedings of the discussion Data is difficult to be analyzed Difficult to organize group of people Transcription is difficult and time consuming Dominance of one speaker Potential for discomfort among members of the group
Sample topic agenda for a small business owner-manager focus group is attached herewith (Annexure K) at the end of this document. (Bryman A. & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, p.511-525)
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Document Analysis
It is a systematic process of gathering analyzing, evaluating and using a very heterogeneous set of documents including: etc) Personal documents (Diaries, letters, and autobiographies etc), Public documents (Public inquiry transcripts, magazines, newspaper, TV programs Organizational documents (Memos, minutes of meeting, daily reports etc)
Steps Involved in Document Analysis

1. At first we decide on the objective of the document analysis i.e. whether it is primary source of data or supporting source for any other data collection method 2. Secondly, we decide on what types of documents are to be used and how to access them. 3. 3rd step involves the acquisition of the desired documents from the concerned sources, and arranging them in a very organizing manner. 4. Fourth step involves conducting content analysis for object extraction and recognition of main categories 5. Fifth step involves the interpretation of the documents. This can be done through following techniques. o Semiotics Semiotics refers to the Science of signs. It is an approach to the analysis of symbols in everyday life, can be employed in relation not only to documentary sources but also to all kinds of other data because of its commitment to treating phenomena as text. It comprises a sign constituting the relationship between the signifier (word, sound, or picture that attracts our attention and communicates a particular message) and the signified (the message or concept itself). o Hermeneutics Hermeneutics refers to an approach that was originally devised in relation to the understanding or interpretation of texts. The central idea behind hermeneutics is that the analyst of a text must seek to bring out the meanings of text from the perspectives of its author. Qualitative content analysis can be hermeneutic when it is sensitive to the context within which texts were produced.
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Business Research Methods Sample document analysis worksheets are attached herewith (Annexure L) at the end of this document. (Bryman A. & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, p.554-575)
Unstructured Observation
Unstructured observation is the unplanned, informal, watching and recording of behaviors as they occur in a natural environment. It is an early phase of the research that may become specific to when and where to observe, what specific aspects of the setting or behavior to observe, and how to make and record observations. How to conduct Take a notebook and pen: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Note down when you see something interesting. Write down theories as you form them. Dont jump to conclusions straight away. Look for more evidence. Ask people to confirm things
Limitations
Needs high level of expertise (preferably by subject matter specialists) Relatively expensive and time consuming Hard to fine grain the observed material
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Data Collection
Definition
Types
Complete participant Researcher is hidden Observer as participant Role of researcher is known Participant as observer Observation role secondary to participant role Complete observer Researcher observes without participating Face to Face interview Ethnographic interview Elite interview Group interview Video interview Distance interview Telephone interview Email interview
Advantages
Limitations
A non-verbal means of obtaining primary data References: watching by and Observation recording behaviors s within a clearly defined area.
Researcher has a Researcher may be Business Research Methods firsthand experience seen as disturbing with participants Private information Researcher can may be observed that the record information as it researcher cannot report is revealed Researcher may not Unusual aspects have good attending and can be noticed during observing skills observation Certain participants Useful in may present special exploring topics that problems in gaining may be uncomfortable rapport for participants to discuss
Interviews
Interview is an interactive process of listening in and asking questions, between interviewer and interviewee about research topic.
Focus Groups
Focus group is the data Group focused collection method in Interview which specifically Several people defined groups of discussed a number of individuals (Group topics composition focus) are Topic Focused interviewed in a interview discussion format Interviewees are selected regarding a tightly because they are known to have a particular defined topic (content situation and asked about focus) and the accent their involvement is upon interaction within the group and the joint construction of meaning.
Useful when Provides indirect participant cannot be information filtered observed directly through the views of interviewees Participants can provide historical Provides information information in designated place rather than the Allows researcher natural field setting control over the line of questioning Researchers presence may bias response Relatively easy to Less control or assemble researcher over inexpensive and proceedings of the flexible in terms of discussion format Data is difficult to Open recording be analyzed allows participants to Difficult to organize confirm their group of people contributions Transcription is Rich data through difficult and time direct interaction consuming Spontaneous, participants not required Dominance of one to answer every question; speaker able to build on one Potential for another's responses discomfort among Help people build members of the group
new connections
Documents It is a systematic Enables a researcher Personal May be protected This document is the property of Superior Group of Colleges and is intended only for the exclusive and confidential use by the addressee. to obtain the language Analysis process of gathering documents information unavailable to Disclosure or copying of this material is unauthorized and prohibited. Page and words of participants analyzing, evaluating public or private access Public documents 22 Can be accessed at a and using a very Requires the time convenient to the heterogeneous set of researcher to search out Organizational researcheran documents. the information in hard-todocument unobtrusive sources of find places
Business Research Methods Bryman A. & Bell E. (2007), Business Research Methods, Oxford University press, New York, America Creswell J. W. (2003), Research Design Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches, Sage Pub., California, USA Gilham B. (2005), Research Interviewing: the range of techniques, Open University press, Berkshire, England
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Business Research Methods 1. Qualitative Research

The Preoccupations in Qualitative Research:

Reliability and Validity

One-on-one /Individual Interview

(Research Interviewing, Bill Gillham)

Steps Involved in Document Analysis

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