Chapter 10

Chapter 10: Language in Context
Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Chapter 10

Chapter 10
Communication
What is communication? What is necessary for communication?

Intent Means Recipient Feedback

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Intent
What is intent of communication?

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Means
By what means do we communicate?

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Recipient
If we communicate with some intent of

influence, why are we receptive to communication?

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Feedback
What is the role of feedback in

communication?

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Communication
Vervets have
words for:
Leopard, eagle, snake, baboon, other, unfamiliar human, dominant monkey, subordinate monkey, watch other monkey, see rival troop

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Communication
Everything we do communicates Sensation is communication Language is just one form Language (Anthropocentric characteristics)
Communicative Arbitrarily symbolic Regularly structured Generative/Productive Dynamic

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Every attempt at formal communication is an interaction between our goals and desires and the goals and desires of others. Our ability to express those goals and desires in a way that can be understood by others is the main determinant of effective communication .

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The search for common ground
Where do children come from?

5 year old 9 year old Teenager Adult

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Pragmatics
Knowing what to say, how to say it,
and when to say it or how to be around other people (Bowen, 2001) The study of discourse and conversational skills The study of the situational determinants of the use of language Schematic mismatch between conversants demands pragmatics

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Pragmatic Skills
Establish common ground Maintaining a topic

Introduce a topic in order for the listener to fully understand Or change topic appropriately Or interrupt politely Not too much staring Not too much looking away
Appropriate eye-contact

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Pragmatic Skills
Distinguishing how to talk and

behave towards different communicative partners
Formal with some, Informal with others
Responding to gestures and nonverbal aspects of language

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Linguistic Relativity
The assertion that the speakers of different languages have differing cognitive systems and that these different cognitive systems influence the ways in which people speaking the various languages think about the world Are language and thought the same?

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Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Strong interpretation
Thoughts and behavior are determined by language More evidence against than for
Milder interpretation
Thoughts and behavior are influenced by language Variety of interesting studies, some for, some against

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Research designs & the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
HA: People that speak different languages

will think about the world differently.
HO: People that speak different languages

will have similar thoughts about the world.
Problems
Language cannot be randomly assigned Therefore we cannot rule out some third variables such as culture.

Chapter 10
Linguistic Relativity Studies

Bilinguals maintain that they think differently in different languages (Wierzbicka, 1985) Carroll & Casagrande (1958)
Noted that Navajo language focused more on form than the English language Tested Navajo & English dominant Navajo children Shown a pair of objects varied in size and form
Yellow rope and blue stick
Children were then asked next to which of the two objects should they place a blue rope?

Chapter 10
Carroll & Casagrande (1958)

70% Navajo dominant selected the yellow rope (thus focusing on form) 40% of English dominant selected the yellow rope
Concluded results support WhorfianSapir hypothesis

Sapir -Whorf Hypothesis: Thoughts and behavior are determined by language

Chapter 10
Carroll & Casagrande (1958)

Also asked white children from Boston, Massachusetts the same question 80% of these children choose the yellow rope (form)
This component of the study goes

against the Whorfian hypothesis

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Labels have been shown to lead to

memory distortion Color Snow Grass Flowers Etc. etc. etc. How does this differ from expertise?

Chapter 10
Hoffman, Lau & Johnson (1986)

Bilinguals fluent in Chinese & English Read story about a worldly experienced, socially skilled person who is devoted to his family, and somewhat reserved written in either English or Chinese
Chinese language has one word to describe

such a person : shi gE
English speakers do not

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Hoffman, Lau & Johnson (1986)

After, participants rated a variety of statements about the characters Some asked about shi gE stereotype If passage was read in Chinese, a greater impact of the stereotype was present

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Labels influence memory Stereotypes influence memory. Both support the Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis Does that mean that the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is correct? Alternative explanation?

Chapter 10
Bilingual Studies
Bilingual
People who can speak two languages
Simultaneous bilingual
Learn two languages from birth
Sequential bilinguals
First learn one language and then another
Additive Bilinguals
Learn a second language without loss to the native language
Subtractive Bilinguals
Learn a second language that interferes with the native language

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Bilingual Studies
Early research argued that learning two

languages was harmful
Problems with early research

Lower class bilinguals were compared to middle class monolinguals IQ and achievement tests were usually in the monolinguists language

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Bilingual Studies
Research showing advantages

Bilinguals acquire more expertise in their own language Bilinguals are sensitive to subtle aspects of language Bilinguals perform better on tests of nonverbal intelligence that require recognition of verbal patterns

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Linguistic Relativity Conclusions

Because of pseudo randomization of participants researchers cannot differentiate between Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Cultural factors Expertise
However, access to object labels does clearly increase ability to remember objects. Shared labels for objects also decrease information loss during communication.

Chapter 10
Utahisms
Oh my heck! What the H! No fetchen way! Whats your favorite?

Heck is the place where people who dont believe in Gosh go.

Chapter 10
Language and Utahisms My experience says, 2 camps:

We all know what you mean why dont you just say it! Hell gets you sent to bed early and without dinner, but heck goes unnoticed!

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What can Psychology add?

Language is arbitrarily symbolic Communication requires a shared understanding Understanding of language is based on experience No two experiences with language use are identical Speakers symbolic understanding will never precisely match the listener
Therefore the symbolic/emotional meaning of a word can never be fully understood by the listener making Hell and Damn very different words for different people.
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Chapter 10
Define Hell? As in hell yeah ! Easy, I put hell before a word and it makes it super intense. Take the word no for example: No + hell = Hell no!
Hell is Hell
Define Hell? UmPurgatory, being separated from God, the abode of the Devil. Often used as an explicative.

Chapter 10
Thats bullocks, you bloody tosser!

Eek!
Yeah So?
Without a shared, common understanding, language impact and significance is lost

Chapter 10
Speaker and listener have a different

understanding To the speaker Hell is Hell, but we can never fully understand how a listener will interpret the emotional and semantic impact of a word Therefore Hell and Heck may or may not be equivalent, depending on the speaker and the listener.
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Chapter 10
Reading
Bottom-up processing
Recognizing letters and words
Top-down processing
Meaning of words Expectations and prior knowledge about material

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Dyslexia
Dys = Abnormal or impaired Lexis = Refers to language or words

Chapter 10
What is dyslexia?
Neurological: Developmental or Genetic Prevalence 4%

(60-80% male)
Surface dyslexia = can sound out letters but cannot read irregular words such as yacht, because they have poor orthographic reading skills (difficulty recognizing words as wholes).
B.U.
T.D.
Phonological dyslexia = cannot sound out words, therefore have difficulty reading non -words such as drup.
B.U.
T.D.
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Chapter 10
DSM-IV criteria for reading disorder
Reading achievement is below expectations, given age, IQ and educational opportunities. Academic and or life disturbance Not sensory related

Chapter 10
Lexical Processes in Reading
Saccades
Eyes pause on individual words or pairs of words Fixations last 1/4 to 1/2 of a second
120-240 per minute

Chapter 10
Carpenter & Just (1983)
Recorded eye-movements 14 college students Asked to read normally 15 short

excerpts from Time and Newsweek Asked to recall what they could of each paragraph after it was finished
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Chapter 10
Carpenter & Just (1983) Results
Found that readers fixated on an average of

67.8 percent of the words time
Content words were fixated on 83% of the Function words were fixated only 38% of
the time
Evidence that the syntactic and semantic

components of words play a role in determining whether fixation occurs
Speed reading
So much to read, so little time... Sounds familiar? And what if you could read all the books you want in the time you have? Learn about the new amazing discoveries on our planet, and in the outer space; find out the deepest secrets of your own mind, bodies, and souls; boost your expertise in your own profession, or just read for the pleasure of it! "I've read a dozen books in 3 hours!" Just the other day I sat in a comfy chair in my favorite bookstore and read about a dozen books on business, marketing and leadership in 3 hours. It is like taking an intense shower of detailed information, grand visions, and captivating stories, followed by an exhilarating flood of new ideas pouring right out of my head -- the result of mixing the mind -invigorating cocktail of all these books at the same time.
Chapter 10
"I've read a dozen books in 3 hours!"
15 lines at a time backwards and forwards." 80-90 pages a minute. Tolstoy's War and Peace 15 minutes

Chapter 10
Speed reading
Limited bandwidth Comprehension suffers 120-240 saccades 300 wpm

Techniques that work
Practice Build vocabulary
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Chapter 10
Kim Peek
Can read two pages simultaneously, one with each eye, with 98% retention. Born without a corpus callosum.

Chapter 10
Lexical Access
Retrieving the meaning of a word from

our lexicon

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Demonstration
Based on Reicher (1969)
On the next several slides, a row of six

letters will appear.
You will then see two letters, one above and

one below a letter that appeared
Guess which of the two letters actually

appeared in the appropriate location
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JBDVLM

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SOKDHR

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FATHER

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CGZIFW

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----FXXXXXX ----G-
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POSTER

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RCHUQV

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STRIPE

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CRATES

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Chapter 10
end

Chapter 10
Word Superiority Effect
Letters are more easily recognized in the

context of a word than alone
Words are also more easily recognized after

processing a sentence
What does this tell us about the role of topdown and bottom-up processing in reading?

Chapter 10
Understanding Discourse
Research focuses on how we obtain the

meaning from stories, lectures, and reading Identify the processes underlying reading and factors that lead to successful comprehension Complex task involving many processes
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Chapter 10
Reading Comprehension Processes
Semantic encoding Acquiring vocabulary Comprehending ideas Creating mental models Impact of context on comprehension Impact of perspective on
comprehension

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Semantic Encoding
The relationship between knowing

what a word means and using that knowledge when processing new material + vocabulary yields + understanding Best way to increase vocab?

Chapter 10
Acquiring Vocabulary
Readers acquire vocabulary in a

variety of ways
Through wide reading From the use of context Through use of the dictionary Direct instruction
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Chapter 10
Kintsch & Keenan (1973)
Participants read different sentences All sentences had the same number of
concepts Sentences differed in terms of the number of propositions contained
The crowded passengers squirmed uncomfortably. (3 propositions) The horse stumbled and broke a leg. (2 propositions)

Chapter 10
Kintsch & Keenan (1973)
The greater the number of

propositions, the longer the reading time Conclusion: propositions, not single words, are the units of comprehension
26

Chapter 10

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Chapter 10: Language in Context

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

What is communication? What is necessary for communication?

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

What is intent of communication?

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

By what means do we communicate?

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

If we communicate with some intent of

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

What is the role of feedback in

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

The search for common ground

Where do children come from?

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Knowing what to say, how to say it,

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Establish common ground Maintaining a topic

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Distinguishing how to talk and

Responding to gestures and nonverbal aspects of language

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Research designs & the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

HA: People that speak different languages

HO: People that speak different languages

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Linguistic Relativity Studies

Yellow rope and blue stick

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Linguistic Relativity Studies

Carroll & Casagrande (1958)

Concluded results support WhorfianSapir hypothesis

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Linguistic Relativity Studies

Carroll & Casagrande (1958)

This component of the study goes

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Linguistic Relativity Studies

Labels have been shown to lead to

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Linguistic Relativity Studies

Hoffman, Lau & Johnson (1986)

Chinese language has one word to describe

English speakers do not

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Linguistic Relativity Studies

Hoffman, Lau & Johnson (1986)

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Early research argued that learning two

Problems with early research

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Research showing advantages

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg

Linguistic Relativity Conclusions

Cognitive Psychology, Fourth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg