Tectonic Evolution of The Bristol Channel Borderlands Chapter 4

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands
4. LATE PALAEOZOIC STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION OF SOUTH WALES
'Searching for Coal'

'I hung the lamp back in its place as I watched Zorba working. He gave his all in his work, he had nothing else on his mind, he became one with the earth, with the pick-axe, with the coal. The hammer, the nails were as if they had become part of his body and he wrestled with the wood, he wrestled with the roof of the drive which had formed a belly; he wrestled with the whole mountain and he wanted to take its coal and leave.'
Based on
4.1 AIMS The aim of this chapter is to summarise the Late Palaeozoic tectonism of South Wales with emphasis on the main faulting events that have affected the region. It is intended to show that reactivation was an essential element in the structural evolution of South Wales in terms of the style of deformation in a foreland basin. A brief summary is presented of the documented structural controls on Devonian and Carboniferous facies transitions in South Wales as a means of identifying the age and kinematics of the regional reactivation events. Detailed studies are then made of the composite fault history and style of deformation (1) in the Devonian of Llanstephan, SW Dyfed (2) in the Carboniferous Limestone of South Wales and (3) within the opencast coal sites of the South Wales Coalfield (OCCS). Comparisons are drawn with the reactivation history and structural style of deformation in North Devon (Chapter 3) and the effects of reactivation within different coalfield structural environments and on coal distribution are discussed. 4.2 THE PRE-LATE PALAEOZOIC FRAMEWORK OF SOUTH WALES Introduction Theoretical considerations of the structural limits to reactivation (Chapter 1) were applied to the pre-Variscan fault framework of SW Wales. After examining the orientation of preVariscan faults the likelihood of reactivation became evident. In light of the structural trends observed in SW Dyfed, the origins of coalfield disturbances other than the major Swansea and Neath Valley Faults could be questioned in terms of Caledonian origins. A suitable example from SW Dyfed of a fault of pre-Variscan origin is the Carreg Cennen Fault. It has a Caledonoid trend but also clearly separates the Lower Palaeozoic Welsh Basin facies of SW Dyfed from the Midland Platform facies of the Welsh Borderlands, where it has a pre-Caledonian movement history. Late Caledonian uplift of the Welsh Basin must have been accommodated by the Carreg Cennen Fault since Devonian sediment was shed towards the south and south-east across the fault. The regional movement history during Devonian times has been outlined in Chapter 3 and in section 4.3.2 below. It is unclear whether the Carreg Cennen Fault had a Devonian movement history but during an Early Devonian N-S extensional regime (Powell, 1987) the Carreg Cennen Fault would be expected to show
'The Life and Times of Alexis Zorbas'

by: NIKOS KAZANTZAKIS.
SW DYFED, CARMARTHEN, SOUTH WALES COALFIELD Page 4-0
an oblique normal sense of movement. Cope (1979) however stated that Devonian strata to the north of the Carreg Cennen - Llandyfaelog Disturbance have been thrust southwards. Structural evidence such as this has recently been interpreted by Woodcock (1988) and Woodcock & Gibbons (1988) to represent Early-Mid Devonian Acadian deformation, i.e. the entire Devonian may not have involved a continuous extensional phase. During Dinantian and Namurian times, however, it is likely that thickness variations and facies transitions from the main coalfield into SW Dyfed (Owen, 1974) were caused by fault movement (Fig. 4.1). St. David's Examination of geological maps of the St. David's area (Green, 1908; BGS 1:50 000 sheet 209 St. David's) followed by field investigation revealed a number of pre-Variscan structural trends: a NE-SW and NNE-SSW fault trend and a predominant ENE-WSW Caledonoid fold trend (Fig. 4.2).
It is suggested here that the rejuvenation of St. George's Land during Early Namurian times (Kelling, 1988) was accommodated by the extensional reactivation of the Carreg Cennen Fault i.e. the superposition of an extensional regime of the Namurian peripheral upwarp on the pre-existing Early Carboniferous extensional fault template (in contrast to the regional Late Carboniferous structural setting: section 4.3.2). This would have been the latest phase of movement prior to the main phase Variscan positive inversion and thrusting recorded in the Devonian strata of Llanstephan (south of the Carreg Cennen Fault). (It is likely however that any extension associated with peripheral upwarping is local in extent and time so that Namurian sedimentation probably records the onset of compressional tectonism). Most significantly the Carreg Cennen fault generally subdivides Lower and Upper Palaeozoic stratigraphy and Caledonian and Variscan structure. The exact subdivision could be attempted on comparing Devonian geology on either side of the disturbance. Conjugate tension gashes, found in the Fishguard area, trending NE-SW and NW-SE are assigned a Variscan age (based on comparisons with the trend of conjugate Variscan faults in North Devon, Fig. 4.3). It is however uncertain whether these structures are due to pristine Variscan tectonism. Conversely if NW trending structures are pre-Variscan then other larger NW trending structures of the coalfield, the cross faults may also have pre-Variscan roots. This trend was investigated as a means of establishing an analogue for 'anomalously' trending disturbances in the coalfield.
This leads to the interpretation of ENE-WSW and even E-W trending disturbances within the South Wales Coalfield (as well as the NE-SW trending disturbances) as structures related to underlying pre-Variscan faults eg the Trimsaran Disturbance trending E-W (Archer, 1968) and the Llannon Disturbance trending ENE-WSW. Thus SW Dyfed contains structures which represent candidates for pre-Variscan faults which are taken to be analogues of 'root faults' for some of the more anomalously trending disturbances within the coalfield.
This district does contain the pre-Variscan NE-SW Caledonoid trend anticipated to have been involved during Variscan reactivation of faults within the coalfield. However the local ENEWSW trend in SW Dyfed clearly deviates from the regional NE-SW trend of the Welsh Basin (BGS sheet United Kingdom, south, scale 1:625 000, & Fig. 4.4). The ENE-WSW trend may either be a primary feature of the Caledonian belt or a modification brought about by Variscan compression. The lack of evidence for intense straining which would be expected in a Variscan change of strike involving about 23 clockwise rotation of a Caledonian terrane suggests that the ENE trend in SW Dyfed is a primary feature of Caledonian tectonism. Conversely it can be argued that the trend in SW Dyfed is uncharacteristic of the Caledonian trend and that in fact the regional NE-SW trend of basement structures extends beneath central South Wales as far as the Usk and Malvern axes and that disturbances in the coalfield striking other than NE-SW are pristine Variscan structures. Fig. 4.5 illustrates the possible hypothetical Palaeozoic movement histories of anomalously trending disturbances in relation to north-westerly disturbances.
4.3 REGIONAL EVIDENCE FOR FAULT REACTIVATION DURING THE LATE PALAEOZOIC HISTORY OF SOUTH WALES. 4.3.1 INTRODUCTION The Carboniferous strata mainly overlie Devonian Old Red Sandstone (ORS) apart from A synopsis of the coalfield stratigraphy of South Wales is given below. It emphasises published evidence for synsedimentary fault movement and identifies Late Palaeozoic reactivation events additional to the main positive inversion of Devonoid faults during Variscan thrusting (Le Gall, 1991). Nb the term reactivation, here is also taken to infer the general episodes of renewed movement along groups of faults within South Wales. In this sense positive basin inversion can be correlated with regional uplift and may be the mechanism involved. The three coalfields around South Wales: Forest of Dean & Bristol, Central South Wales, SW Dyfed are erosional remnants of the Variscan foreland basin, defined in Chapter 2. The South Wales Coalfield is the largest component outlier of the foreland basin set on the northern outer arc of the Variscan orogenic belt (Fig. 4.6). It is 95km long and 30km wide and contains rocks ranging in age from Early to Late Carboniferous (Stephanian).
SW DYFED, CARMARTHEN, SOUTH WALES COALFIELD Page 4-6 SW DYFED, CARMARTHEN, SOUTH WALES COALFIELD Page 4-7
areas such as SW Dyfed where they overstep older strata (BGS 1:50 000 sheet 228 Haverfordwest) and are overlain by an unconformable veneer of post-Variscan Mesozoic strata, eg, in the Vale of Glamorgan (BGS 1:50 000 sheet 261/262 Bridgend). It is bordered to the north-west by the Devonian of the Brecon Beacons (BGS 1:50 000 sheet 213 Brecon), to the east by the Malvernoid Usk axis deforming mainly Lower Palaeozoic strata (BGS 1:250 000 Bristol Channel sheet 51N - 04W), and to the south by the Cowbridge Anticline which folds outcropping Devonian conglomerates and Carboniferous Limestone of the Vale of Glamorgan (BGS 1:50 000 sheet 261/262 Bridgend). The South Wales Coalfield displays excellent examples of Variscan structures on all its outcropping margins and within the opencast sites. As discussed below, previous studies of the stratigraphy of the South Wales Coalfield demonstrate that many Variscan faults in the South Wales Coalfield have composite movement histories.
4.3.2 STRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE FOR REGIONAL FAULT REACTIVATION ORS of South Wales Extensive literature describes the ORS of South Wales. The detailed sedimentology of the ORS was studied by Ball et al (1961), Allen (1962, 1964, 1965a&b), Pick (1964), Allen & Tarlo (1963) and the stratigraphy of the ORS was studied by Dixon (1921), Williams (1971), Sanzen-Baker (1972) in SW Dyfed, by King (1925, 1934) in the Welsh Borderlands, by Straw (1930, 1953), and Potter & Price (1965) in south-central Wales and by Pringle & George (1948) who include descriptions on the ORS of the Vale of Glamorgan.
Clearly the local occurrence of polymict conglomerates in the Vale of Glamorgan, SW Dyfed and the Mendips and the Middle Devonian unconformity in central South Wales (Fig. 4.8) are good evidence for the formation and denudation of local uplands in the Bristol Channel area.
It is suggested here (after Tunbridge, 1986) that the distribution and composition of the Middle Devonian conglomerates are related to Devonian fault activity in the Bristol Channel area. However this fault activity is more likely to be associated with extension than with end Caledonian or early Variscan compression. This is likely because the conglomerates and Middle Devonian unconformity in South Wales (Fig. 4.8) could have been formed in response to footwall uplift of South Wales and St. George's Land. (This model assumes little or no Mid Devonian movement along the Carreg Cennen Fault and classes 'Acadian' structures of N Llanstephan to be Variscan structures) (Fig. 4.9). The following cases represent four hypothetical Devonian movement histories for the Carreg Cennen Fault (Fig. 4.10). Emphasis is placed here on the contrast in Devonian facies across the Bristol Channel and especially on Middle Devonian stratigraphy (Fig. 4.7). The regional differences in facies are attributable to broad palaeoenvironmental patterns, whilst local Mid Devonian facies transitions are due to fault movement (Chapter 3) which may have involved partial reactivation of Early Devonian extensional faults. The entire Devonian tectonic history of the Bristol Channel Borderlands may have been set in an extensional regime. This is in agreement with the character of a passive margin environment as reflected by the sedimentology of North Devon. This would indicate a large scale extensional environment since North Devon would have been at a much greater distance form South Wales prior to Variscan thrusting.
Conversely if the scale of Mid Devonian uplift in South Wales is considered (affecting the whole of St. George's Land), a separate structural phase could be inferred i.e. Acadian deformation may have affected pre-existing Caledonoid and Devonoid faults in an unrelated compressional sense. Carboniferous Limestone The stratigraphy of the Carboniferous Limestone has been studied extensively (eg Vaughan, 1905; Dixon & Vaughan, 1911; George, 1950, 1970; Ramsbottom, 1970, 1973, 1979). In general the Carboniferous Limestone consists of oolitic, skeletal and dolomitic limestones and undergoes major dramatic thickness variation across the South Wales Coalfield, from 1500m on Gower to 100m on the North and East Crops. Further local thickness variations have already been attributed to synsedimentary deformation eg in the Gower area (George, 1927, 1958, 1970) (Ramsay pers. com. 1991). Facies transitions grade into disconformities across major faults in the coalfield suggesting that Caledonoid and Malvernoid trending structures were active during the Dinantian eg (Blundell, 1952). Recent studies by Ramsay (pers. com. 1991) provide detailed stratigraphic evidence for intra-Dinantian fault-block movements. There is further evidence for extensional fault-controlled sedimentation from SW Dyfed (Sullivan, 1964) which points to an extensional movement along east-west trending faults from Late Devonian to Dinantian times. This would represent a reactivation event rather than an inversion event as long as movement was not continuous between the different phases of the same senses of movement. Other detailed studies of eg the Caninia Zone by Sullivan (1964) have shown distinct facies transitions and thickness changes across the Ritec Fault pointing to Mid Dinantian extensional movement. Millstone Grit Extensive literature exists on the Namurian Millstone Grit and on the unconformable nature of its contact with the underlying Carboniferous Limestone (eg Dixey & Sibley, 1918; Dixon & Pringle, 1927; George, 1927, 1956; Evans & Jones, 1929; Robertson & George, 1929; Ware, 1939; Blundell, 1952; Jones & Owen, 1966). The Millstone Grit exhibits major changes of thickness and facies across South Wales (eg Strachan, 1909; Robertson, 1927; Moore, 1945, 1948; George, 1956b). Eg Gower East Crop North Crop shale, marine bands quartz arenite & quartz conglomerate quartz arenite & quartz conglomerate black shales; marine bands.
Similarly to the Carboniferous Limestone, the Millstone Grit thins regionally to the northeast. George (1970) used facies transitions and thickness variations to construct the palaeogeography of the Namurian in light of biostratigraphic studies by Evans & Jones (1929); Dix (1933); Ware (1939); Moore (1948) and demonstrated the northerly derivation of Namurian sediment (Fig. 4.11). The lithostratigraphic boundaries within the Millstone Grit were also found to be diachronous (eg Pringle & George, 1948).
Coal Measures The conformable contact between the Millstone Grit and the succeeding fluviatile Westphalian Coal Measures was described by Evans & Jones (1929) and the constituent sequences of the Coal Measures were described by Trueman (1947), Woodland & Evans (1964), Archer (1968), Squirrel & Downing (1969), George (1970), Thomas (1974). The conformity between most of the Coal Measures and underlying strata points to a continuation of a similar tectonic regime from Namurian times as does the fact that the Coal Measures are also found to thin eastwards towards the Usk axis (Fig. 4.12) (eg Blundell, 1952). The Coal Measures have a maximum thickness of 3000m in the Swansea area and thin to about 500m in the North Crop and East Crop. Seam splits also occur on passing westwards from the East Crop which suggests that the same positive tectonic feature to the north and east of the basin affected both Namurian and Westphalian sedimentation. In agreement with Kelling (1988), the regional change in thickness of Westphalian sediments is attributed to the formation of a positive feature to the north and east of the basin and to the enhanced subsidence in the south in response to Variscan tectonic loading (Fig. 4.13). Furthermore it is suggested here that the exact locations of the structural rise and the deepest part of the basin were controlled by basement lineaments such as the Usk Axis, Carreg Cennen Fault and possibly the basement roots of north-westerly trending cross faults (see section 4.9 for details).
The observations above can be interpreted in terms of a tectonic control on Namurian sedimentation as well as Dinantian sedimentation but the nature of the causal structural environment is in question. According to Kelling (1988) it is likely that the onset of siliciclastic sedimentation in South Wales during the Late Dinantian - Early Namurian was a response to initial Variscan tectonic loading. It is suggested here that previous extensional fault controls were due to an unrelated structural environment inherited in South Wales from Late Devonian times. In agreement with Kelling (1988) a regional positive inversion event is thought to have occurred during Early Namurian times in which an extensional carbonate platform was replaced by a compressional siliciclastic basin sourced by a rejuvenated landmass St. George's Land to the north and east, i.e. the converse and more likely alternative to the hypothesis stated in section 4.2 on extensional deformation associated with peripheral upwarping. Namurian sedimentation therefore represent the regional onset of Variscan compression in South Wales and also a regional inversion event.
Thickness variations (Fig. 4.14) in the Upper Coal Measures, the Pennant Measures of Strachan (1899) and Woodland et al (1957) are distributed similarly to the Millstone Grit and earlier Coal Measures which suggests that basement faults were active throughout the Late Carboniferous. However the diachronous onset of Pennant-type sedimentation also reflects an episode of renewed Variscan thrusting (see Chapter 2) following the deformation of the Culm Basin (Chapter 3). It would consequently be expected that the effects of basement fault reactivation would be shadowed by the main phase thrusting during Pennant sedimentation.
Palaeocurrent data from the Pennant Measures (Jones, 1989, 1991) suggest that early Variscan folds caused the observed deflections in fluvial current direction from the regional northerly flow whilst major main-phase thrusts were developing to the south and were uplifting the South Crop.
4.4 A CASE STUDY OF COMPOSITE VARISCAN DEFORMATION IN DEVONIAN STRATA OF LLANSTEPHAN, SW DYFED. 4.4.1 INTRODUCTION Llanstephan lies near the intersection of the Carreg Cennen Fault with the South Wales coast (Fig. 4.15a & b). Along this coastal section there is good exposure of Devonian fluviatile and lacustrine red sandstones both rich in calcareous deposits. The section is shortened by folds and thrusts (in a similar style to that observed along the Foreland Point section).These structures were investigated in relation to the regional trend of the Carreg Cennen Fault.
In summary, the stratigraphy of the South Wales Coalfield reveals good evidence for a variety of structural settings during the Late Palaeozoic, with the implication of reactivation of major regional structures.
Furthermore the origin of the early thrusts and late folds was considered in terms of the regional history of the Bristol Channel Borderlands. It remains partly unsolved as to whether the early thrust/late fold field relationship represents the effects of firstly reactivating the Carreg Cennen Fault at depth followed secondly by the generation of new structures at shallower levels. Two sets of structures were observed: 1. early thrusts and tension gashes 2. folding and late mesoscale thrusts
4.4.2 EARLY THRUSTS AND TENSION GASHES Early east-west trending thrusts show decimetre to metre scale displacements and strike lengths of around 10m. Transport directions are towards the north and south (Fig. 4.16) with slickenside lineations displaying a down-dip slip vector and plunging at various angles (gentle-steep) depending on the folded geometry of the thrust planes (Fig. 4.17). East-west trending tension gash arrays display a dextral shear sense (Fig. 4.18).
The above structures are compatible with sinistral strike-slip reactivation of the Carreg Cennen Fault (Fig. 4.19).
I.e. the thrusts and tension gashes represent structural components of the strike-slip movement.
4.4.3 LATE FOLDS AND THRUSTS The later anticlinal fold has a wavelength of about 3km and an open to moderate profile; it faces towards the NNW and plunges gently towards the east and west. The axial plane dips steeply towards the SSE (see Fig. 4.20). The fold rotates the early thrusts about its ENE axis by up to 50 towards the north and 10 towards the south. The fold is in turn deformed by gently dipping southward transporting mesoscale thrusts (Fig. 4.21) which are the latest structures observed along the section.
4.4.4 INFERENCES These observations strongly support a bipartite structural evolution of the area. Even if the Nb the interpretation of thrusts as being pre- or post-folding depends on the angle of dip of the thrust planes in relation to the dip of bedding and the transportation direction of the thrusts in relation to their structural position on the fold (Fig. 4.22). early thrusts and tension gashes represent local structural components accommodating early strike-slip movement along the Carreg Cennen Fault, compartmentalisation of the early deformation has occurred in a different manner to that in other areas close to disturbances eg Cribarth in the Swansea Valley and Gilfach Iago near the Caerbryn Disturbance (see below). The main difference is that the early thrusts do not follow the trend of the Carreg Cennen Fault to compartmentalise the early deformation in the following manner (Fig. 4.23a & b): The transport direction of the early thrusts at Llanstephan represents the regional 1 principal compressive stress rather than the n normal stress to the Carreg Cennen Fault during fault reactivation at depth. The late thrusts are taken to represent pristine Variscan structures similar to the back thrusts along the south crop of the coalfield and in opencast sites such as Ffos Las (see section 4.5.5). The local evidence suggests that back thrusting post dates large scale folding. Either one progressive phase of deformation can be invoked or the early thrusting and late folding can be attributed to a fault reactivation event and the later back thrusts to buttressing against
St. George's Land during Variscan deformation unrelated to basement faulting. This latter interpretation places regional significance on the mesoscale thrusts recognising that throughout the Bristol Channel Borderlands the early thrust/late fold field relationship is widespread. This suggests that to include folding of the Llanstephan section as being related to fault reactivation may not be coherent with the regional structural style (nb a similar problem arises in the interpretation of Gilfach Iago section 4.5.7). An obvious beneficial result of this investigation is that the mesoscale structural style associated with fault reactivation along a major fault has been described. 4.5 VARISCAN STRUCTURES IN THE OPENCAST COAL SITES (OCCS) OF THE SOUTH WALES COALFIELD.
(iv) mesoscopic, near-planar, gently dipping isolated thrusts within lower-middle sections of the MCM. The thrust assemblage is thought to have formed either by progressive deformation or in relation to the regional events involving fault reactivation or the generation of new structures. (2) North-south and NW-SE trending normal faults termed cross faults. (3) Contractional faults accommodating folding. (4) East - west trending normal strike-faults termed lag faults.
Overview Field surveys were undertaken to investigate variations in structural style and relative age of faults and folds within the opencast coal sites, mainly along the north crop of the South Wales Coalfield foreland basin. The surveys identified fault types recognised previously within the basin:
Examination of the sites reveals variation in structural style related to geographic and stratigraphic position. Deformation is greatest in terms of shortening in western sites reaching its maximum in the anthracite field. Stratigraphically, deformation predominates in the Westphalian B, within lower-middle sections of the MCM. The geographic control on structural style across the basin has previously been attributed to
(1) East-west trending strike-thrusts: (a) early, decametre-scale, folded thrusts (b) late, southward dipping, northward directed fore-thrusts with maximum displacements of 1km (c) northward dipping, southward directed break-back thrusts. The dominant thrusting styles are thought to be: (i) in-sequence, foreland-propagating, leading imbricate fans (ii) out-of-sequence, trailing imbricate fans which can cut down section, northwards, through early in-sequence sets (iii) mesoscopic, northward directed duplexes within coal seams and mudrocks in lower sections of the Middle Coal Measures (MCM)
differences in proximity to: (1) 'Disturbances': (a) east-west trending zones of intense folding and thrusting active during Variscan deformation eg, the Trimsaran Disturbance (Frodsham, 1990). (b) NE-SW trending zones related to basement faults which contain normal cross-faults and north-south striking, eastward directed thrusts (thrust cross faults) eg, the Swansea Valley and Neath Valley Disturbances (Owen, 1954). (2) The southern orogenic hinterland and the north-western cratonic landmass. The stratigraphic control on structural style is attributable to differences in the rheology of the Coal Measures (Cole et al, 1991). Particular coals in the lower sections of the MCM,
however controlled the geometry and development of strike-thrusts at various scales in a similar fashion in different sites across the coalfield. The relative ages of the structural classes are discernible only within sites. Previous work has shown that synsedimentary tectonics occurred on east-west trending faults and folds (Jones, 1991). Sedimentary growth sequences across NW-SE oriented normal cross-faults also indicate active extension during sedimentation (Hartley, pers. com., 1990). However, many cross-faults post-date strike-thrusts and show no synsedimentary growth features at least in the MCM. Most strike-thrusts are also entirely post-depositional (Cole et al, 1991). The surveys clearly reveal the significant structural control on the location and concentration of coal within the South Wales Coalfield.
Opencast coal sites (OCCS): Benward's Field Derlwyn East Pit Extension Ffos Las Ffyndaff Additional Garnant Gilfach Iago Nant Helen Park Slip Extension Pen Bryn Oer
Structures at each site are described in terms of their position in relevance to the regional 4.5.1 LIST OF SURVEYED OPENCAST COAL SITES The fault history and structural style will be described in each of the following opencast coal sites of the South Wales Coalfield located in (Fig. 4.24): The stratigraphy adopted for the opencast coal sites of South Wales is that constructed by Mr R. Thewlis of British Coal who has correlated coal seams and numbered cyclothemic sequences across the South Wales Coalfield. Most of the coal seams observed in the opencast sites occur within the middle part of the MCM between the Amman and Cefn Coed Marine Bands (the Vanderbeckei and Aegiranum Marine Bands). Each seam within the opencast sites may contain various types of repetitions which are either identified on passing up sequence using sequential letters or numbers as suffixes or denoted to be below by the term Lower or above a given seam by the terms Upper or Rider. Most of the sites contain seams that have been repeated a number of times by thrusting so that the apparently simple stratigraphy given for each site is complicated by sub-seam names. The structure of each seam will be described as a unit for all sites. nb a correlation of coals of the OCCS is given in Appendix 4.1. 4.5.3 STRUCTURAL HISTORY Examinations of the Variscan structures in the opencast coal sites of the South Wales Coalfield has revealed a structural history more complex than those previously described (eg, Jones, 1989). The general structure is however found to be in agreement with the evolution proposed by Jones (op cit), namely: 1. extension; 2. early folding; 3. main compression; 4. extension.
structural picture. 4.5.2 STRATIGRAPHIC STANDARD FOR THE OPENCAST SITES
This structural history is investigated below: 1. There is evidence for early synsedimentary extension in a number of sites. Non-tectonic synsedimentary extension has been previously described eg (Hartley & Gillespie, 1990; Cole et al, 1991). The present study cites new evidence from the coalfield for early tectonic extension. 2. & 3. Previous work by Jones (1989) has demonstrated an early folding event and a main compressional event. The present study includes observations of early thrusts and folds deformed by major folding as evidence for two compression phases. 4. The late cross faulting, characteristic of the South Wales Coalfield (and North Devon), represents a late extensional phase in South Wales. New examples of this phase are cited from the opencast sites. It is important to note that Jones (1989) basis for the bipartite compression (2 & 3) is different from that of the present study. As stated in Section 4.3.2 (Coal Measures) Jones used palaeocurrent data from the Pennant Measures as evidence for the early folding event (2) (which may have been related to basement fault reactivation) and deep mine and opencast data for the late compressional event (3). The present study provides direct structural evidence from the opencast sites for the early thrust/late fold field observation to demonstrate that the early compressional event (2) was overprinted by a late main compressional event (3) as above. The same question arises, as in Llanstephan and North Devon, as to whether the early structures equate to fault reactivation and the late structures to the onset of Variscan thrusting unrelated to old faults. The present study shows that some faults eg cross faults, had long movement histories which spanned the various structural episodes from 1 to 4. It needs to be considered whether such faults provide evidence that the compressional deformation in the South Wales Coalfield was progressive and in the style of PEST (Frodsham, 1990) or conversely, that it was composite and dominated by reactivation events (this study). Observation of the structures, especially in the western part of the coalfield where shortening is greatest, shows that deformation close to disturbances produced cross cutting relationships far more numerous than would a simple bipartite compression, eg Llanstephan and Cribarth. Each opencast site is described in detail with emphasis being placed on observations supporting the structural evolution outlined above (Fig. 4.25).
Inferences on the regional structure are also made by drawing comparisons with adjacent areas eg, Gower, Vale of Glamorgan, SW Dyfed.
4.5.4 PARK SLIP EXTENSION Overview of a mature site Park Slip Extension, which has now been back-filled, showed in its later stages of development a gentle to moderate dip of bedding corresponding to the regional northerly dip of the south crop of the coalfield. Investigations were made into the structural history of the site and the origin of the regional moderate northerly dip of the south crop of the South Wales Coalfield. The east-west striking northern high wall, buried by back-filling during the winter of 1989, showed a horizontal dip of strata due to the section being sub parallel to the strike, with no distinct cross faulting. In uppermost eastern parts of the high wall, metre scale southward directed thrusts were observed in oblique section. In contrast the south-eastern benched wall contained beds dipping locally at 50 towards the north. Cross faulting was observed during visits prior to the present study (Gayer pers. com. 1990).
Stratigraphy The following stratigraphy for the site has been adopted from British Coal extraction sections: Stratigraphy Coal Seam Rider No.1 Lantern 2ft 9" Upper 4ft Lower 4ft 6ft Northern high wall Continuous decimetre to metre coal seams and sandstone beds extended east-west along strike across the high wall with sandstone beds showing thickening towards the east. Evidence was therefore sought for synsedimentary fault activity from British Coal survey extraction sections, which were used to construct composite stratigraphic sections for the excavated sequence across the portion of the site remaining exposed until 8th December 1989. These sections show that coal seams and intervening sequences have been thickened at different levels across the site and to variable extents on passing up sequence. The changes may be ascribed to either synsedimentary or late tectonic effects. Extraction sections were examined from the site to obtain information on the style of structure encountered during earlier excavation. The north-south striking extraction sections were spaced at 25m intervals across the site. Section 1: Section 1, along the western side of the site, reveals beds dipping northwards at a moderate angle eg: Seam 4ft B 6ft D Dip 42N 45N The Lower 4ft B is continuous down to lower bench levels but has been affected by southward verging thrusts (Fig. 4.26b). The Lower 4ft seam in middle mine levels shows a distinct thickening which increases down dip to around 1m. The Upper 4ft seam dips 35N with repetitions occurring at lower and middle mine levels. The seams above the 4ft seam show a consistent northerly dip. Section 4: Passing 125m eastwards from the western edge of the site there are obvious structures on the extraction sections. On traversing northwards seam dips reduce progressively: 45N, 3942N, 31N to 30-31N. The most evident repetitions occur in the 6ft D and 6ft C seams. A The lower 4ft seam shows a dramatic thickening at middle levels in the centre of the exposed site but the seam does not split and the thickening is therefore ascribed to a tectonic origin. Section 2: Passing 25m eastwards, lower seams are present on the section. The Lower 6ft D seam and 6ft D seam show metre scale repetitions. In the northern part of the section, the 6ft D seam is offset by a thrust with a metre displacement.
In contrast the 6ft D Rider is continuous across the section, however the thickness of the intervening strata between the 6ft seams increases on passing northwards. The 6ft B seams shows repetition, whilst the 6ft B Rider is continuous showing a moderate northerly dip and minor thickness variations. The 4ft B seam splits at the base of the site and on passing northwards down dip, the separation between the leaves increases. The Lower 4ft seam shows thickness variations with moderate metre-scale repetitions occurring in the Upper 4ft seam. The 2ft 9" seam also splits. The Lantern and Rider No.1 seams are continuous across the section dipping moderately to the north. From this section it is apparent that thickness variations are concentrated within levels of the site occupied by the 6ft and 4ft seams. Section 3: Passing eastwards 50m from the western edge of the site, the overall dip of bedding increases to 52N. There is evidence for northward directed thrusting (Fig. 4.26a). At the base of the site there is significant seam repetition continuing to middle and upper levels.
Westphalian B Middle Coal Measures
major decametre anticline faces northwards in the 6ft B Rider seam. The seam is repeated at least three times and where it is continuous shows a change in thickness pointing to further intra-seam shortening. Fig. 4.26c illustrates the structure of the 6ft D Rider seam. In summary northward verging and downward facing folds are evident as well as southward verging thrusts and folds as indicated in sections through the Lower 4ft B seam.
4.5.4.1 INFERENCES The composite stratigraphic sections show that coal seams and intervening strata are thickened differentially on passing up sequence. This may be due either to the concentration of thrusting at certain horizons in the stratigraphy resulting from a rheological control, or to synsedimentary controls on the thickness of the sequence and subsequent controls on the proportion and distribution of competent sandstone to incompetent mudstone. Observations by Elliott & Lapido (1981) and Gayer (pers. com. 1990) that synsedimentary faults were well developed in Park Slip Extension suggest a synsedimentary origin for the thickness variations (Fig. 4.27) but the evidence above from the extraction sections suggests a tectonic control.
Section 5: 225m eastwards from the western edge of the site, the first major structure is observed. A decimetre to metre wavelength anticline in the 6ft B seam increases in wavelength 25m eastwards in lower mine levels. On passing eastwards the hinge point apparently moves in section to upper levels of the mine and from south to north indicating that the fold is plunging towards the west south-west. A major southward verging syncline occurs to the south of the anticline. Beds are planar and continuous above these folds. Some thrusting is involved with the folding, and coal repetition occurs in the northern part of the anticline-syncline fold pair. Section 6: In the eastern-most section, 325m eastwards from the edge of the site, the deformation increases in intensity. Bedding appears overturned and anticlines are truncated by gently northward dipping beds (Fig. 4.26d). Synclinal folding continues to upper mine levels in the south of the site. Distinct repetition by southward verging thrusts occurs mainly in the 6ft Rider and above in the Lower 4ft. Seams above the 4ft seam dip moderately to the north and appear much thinner than the 6ft seams in lower mine levels.
The main structural history obtained from the site (apart from early synsedimentary deformation is that early north verging thrusts and folds were tilted towards the north by late uplift and associated major southward verging thrusting. However this bipartite subdivision of deformation may be apparent in the site but indeed could represent two different events form those identified in North Devon.
For example the early fore thrusting event (V1) could be correlated with either or neither of the North Devon phases. The late back thrusting event (V2) affecting Park Slip Extension and the remaining south crop of the coalfield is clearly not developed to the same degree in North Devon unless the Rusey Fault Zone of North Cornwall far to the South is considered. Therefore it is difficult to correlate the major back thrusting event with Variscan structural events of North Devon. The former suggestion however can still be made on the basis of the recognition of two sets of compressional tectonic structures and on the basis of the co-eval relationship between back thrusting and Vo fore thrusting in Ffos Las (see below). Clearly there is a problem in correlating structures when considering a probable progressive migrating deformation. However the following structural history is postulated (based partly on Chapter 3) (Fig. 4.28):
Detailed research has been carried out in this site by Frodsham (1990) and by Frodsham & Gayer (1991) who have identified a characteristic style of deformation in the MCM of Ffos Las named Progressive Easy Slip Thrusting (PEST). It was therefore intended to identify the regional significance of the structural deformation in Ffos Las in relation to the evolution of the south crop and the Gower area. This was intended to develop into the detailed analysis of the late regional back thrusting V2 phase of South Wales. Current research on mesoscale and microscopic coal structure is being carried out by I. Harris Later visits revealed a developed picture of the structure. In May and June 1990 the east wall revealed a nearly complete section of structures (Fig. 4.29a,{b, c & d}) which controlled the distribution of the Big Vein seam (see below). However a complete section was never seen as the site does not extend southwards or downwards sufficiently to expose the footwall cut off the main structure. These have been described in the light of the Progressive Easy Slip Thrusting and in comparison with other structurally complex sites such as Ffyndaff Additional (Section 4.5.6).
4.5.5 FFOS LAS Ffos Las opencast site was initially visited during August 1988. An overview of the main structure was obtained and some details of the structure of the east face were observed. However a satisfactory overview of the structure could not be obtained due to the lack of maturity of the site. Only its complexity was evident. The stratigraphy of Ffos Las is given in Fig. 4.29e in relation to the proven stratigraphy of neighbouring collieries Carway and Trimsaran.
General structural results Early surveys of August 1988 (Fig. 4.30) revealed the scale and the intensity of deformation affecting the Big Vein seam along a section across the east face. The main northward facing synform and antiform in the section is complicated by decametre northward directed thrusts and earlier downward verging and folded thrusts cut by northward directed thrusts. Figs. 4.31a & b show an example of a folded thrust with a hangingwall anticline and footwall syncline tightened by a later folding event. Further evidence for the dominance of this form of structure was sought in the later surveys of May 1990.
Details of the structure observed in the Big E seam on passing further northwards on the lowest bench level show that intense north facing folds and thrusting in mudrocks are dominant. These occur below a northward facing fold with distinct shearing occurring below its hinge within the mudrocks. The main antiform plunges eastwards. The structure within the Big E seam contains high planar cleat i.e. a centimetre pervasive fracture fabric which is almost perpendicular to bedding; pyrite banding parallel to bedding; polished surfaces with minor slickenside lineations developed; larger sets of lineations on shiny grey-lead grey coal surfaces; and minor kink bands on a decametre scale nearly perpendicular to bedding (Fig. 4.32). In the footwall to the main northward directed thrust associated with the folding in the east face, below the Big Rock, buckling and shear structures occur on a centimetre scale. Associated quartz vein sets indicate shearing whilst injection structures of shale were protruded into fractures along the base of the arenaceous beds possibly due to shale over pressuring as a result of the presence of fluids, (Gayer et al, 1991). There is good evidence for the occurrence of various types of fluids in the MCM. Work has presently been completed by S. White on the thermal evolution of the South Wales Coalfield and further research is being carried out on cleat mineralization by R. Gayer investigating the nature of the fluids which have traversed through the succession. Present inspection of many of the sites including Ffos Las reveals the presence of methane gas rising from excavated coal seams submerged in rain water. Lower mine levels showed smaller metre scale northward facing structures in the Big E vein to those seen in the east wall. In the Big C vein fold axes plunge gently towards the west south-west (Fig. 4.33). Oblique fabrics occur in the coal in relation to the fold axial planes. Buckling in the coal on a centimetre scale reflects the main fold orientation in the area. In the north wall at uppermost mine levels the general dip of bedding is towards the north
Large scale decametre northward facing folds dominate the mature east face of the site which shows a regional southerly dip. An anticline was discovered to have downward facing structures on its northern limb. Traversing northwards from the southern edge of the high wall the southern limb of the syncline, to the south of the main anticline, (Fig. 4.29a), is overturned. Accommodation thrusts pass into the accompanying anticline. Downward verging thrusts on the northern limb are folded. To the north, bedding within thick coarse sandstone units representing the Big Rock is flat and is associated with flat thrusts. Thinner units above the Big Rock show over folding.
north-east. Mainly horizontal bedding is undisturbed. However isolated thrust structures with metre displacements verge towards the north (Fig. 4.34). The size of the folding is smaller but still northward facing. At the level of the Mole and Mole Rider seams, northward directed thrusting may be accompanied by decametre scale underthrusting to preserve the gentle dip of strata higher up in the sequence (Fig. 4.29a). Following the confirmation of the northward facing structures and possible polyphase or progressive deformation associated with the thrusting, measurements of the orientation and
complexity of the structure show that repetition occurs at a metre scale within each sub-seam of the Big Vein seam. At the crest of the main antiform, previously identified in the east wall, the Big Vein seam is repeated twice on a decimetre scale. In the first repetition, cleat dips steeply towards the south-east; cleavage within duplexes in mud rocks dips steeply towards the north north-east. The friability of the coal is variable but is very high in zones suffering a sinuous pervasive cleavage. The seat earth behaves in a more ductile fashion and shows folding. In the second repetition, further cleavage duplexes are associated with intersecting polished surfaces dipping steeply towards the south-west showing the development of slickenside lineations plunging 22 to 146.
Fig. 4.35 represents a synopsis of the major structure observed in the eastern face of the site. The major structure is confirmed to plunge towards the east. A shear zone passing northwards below the Big Rock is a possible northward extension of the main thrust of the duplex structure immediately to the south. The Big Rock is folded to the north above the thrust. Lower in the structure along the Green seam further northward facing decametre structures occur. At higher levels in the Kings seam and further to the Graigog seam, decimetre fold structures pass laterally in to the Kings seam. The Graigog shows back thrusting over northward directed thrusts, which emphasises the discontinuity of some metre fore thrusts. The relation between the main structure in the eastern high wall and the higher seams is illustrated in Fig. 4.29a.
The main thrust climbs northwards up sequence to the Kings seam to produce decimetre to metre folds, possibly folding an earlier flat lying thrust, which contains the Green seam in the hangingwall. Thrust flats are dominant in the structure, apart from areas of imbricate thrusting in the Big Vein seam.
4.5.5.2 REGIONAL IMPLICATIONS The structural history of the site may be explained in terms of the two compressional phases (of North Devon) in which deformation may initially have been concentrated along the Trimsaran and Llannon Disturbances during a reactivation phase and then greatly accentuated during later Variscan thrusting to produce the complex thrust relations within the MCM. The complexity of Variscan thrusting makes the two-fold history less apparent in Ffos Las than in other sites. It is also possible that an analogy can be made between Ffos Las and the structure of the south crop (Jones, 1991) in that a dramatically shortened sequence is observed beneath an underthrust (discussed in Chapter 5). However the presence of distinct north-westerly faults and Caledonoid structures between Ffos Las and the eastern Vale area both count against any direct correlation. This is also implied by the rapidly changing structural style on passing laterally through the coalfield sites and vertically through the succession. For example, Ffos Las shows little resemblance to closer structural areas such as the Gower or Porthcawl unless localities such as Caswell Bay are considered (Fig. 4.36).
4.5.5.1 INFERENCES The site shows evidence for many cross cutting relationships possibly produced by progressive thrust development. From the section through the Big Vein seam to the Kings seam and the overthrust Green seam it can be seen that thrusting may not only be out-ofsequence but also cuts through into older strata from lower horizons as one phase of insequence thrusting is dissected by a later phase of out-of-sequence thrusting and reoriented by associated folding. All structures observed were originally northward directed so that a polyphase or progressive northward translocation is inferred for the Ffos Las sequence. This could point to an allochthonous origin with major displacements inferred on local disturbances such as the Trimsaran and Llannon Disturbances. The only distinct evidence of back thrusting cutting the northward directed structures occurs higher in the sequence at Graigog seam levels. Underthrusting of the highly repeated sequence below the Graigog seam may have prevented the same style of shortening from passing to higher stratigraphic levels. This suggests that the main repetition and translocation of seams occurs in the middle section of the MCM at decametre to (100m) thicknesses above the Amman Marine Band in this section of the coalfield. In terms of the regional appraisal of the structure of Ffos Las, it may represent a good site to study the effects of both regional deformation phases affecting the Bristol Channel Borderlands.
Furthermore, the change in direction of thrusting on passing up sequence in Ffos Las makes the site a candidate for obtaining the relationship between the major fore thrusting and the back thrusting of the south crop of the coalfield. Present structural sections from Ffos Las could point to a coeval relationship between these phases. 4.5.6 FFYNDAFF ADDITIONAL Introduction Ffyndaff Additional was visited during November and December 1989 and July 1990. The site approached the limits and depth of excavation in July 1990 but further interesting structures were expected to be exposed during August 1990. The site exposed the following seams and structure: 2ft 9" 4ft 6ft Red 2 9ft Bute
Overturned folding was associated with early thrusting in the Upper 6ft leaf with no such equivalent structures in the Lower 6ft leaf. At middle levels, towards the west of the site there were metre to decametre southward facing folds associated with southward verging back thrusts and also northward verging fore thrusts.
In November 1989, the developing high wall revealed an oblique section through the structure and exposed mesoscopic thrusts verging towards the north. The 6ft seam and the overlying 4ft seam were exposed in the wall. Folds and thrusts deforming the 6ft seam were positioned closely to decametre extensional faults (Fig. 4.37) which also affected the 4ft seam above. In lower mine levels, towards the centre of the site the 6ft seam showed 2 leaves with a metre separation, each leaf being up to 2m thick. Details of the 6ft seam showed that rashings were abundant above the Lower 6ft leaf. The rashings contained a centimetre pervasive, wavy sinuous cleavage striking east south-east and dipping moderately towards the south south-west. Convoluted cleavage fabrics were also developed. Together with these microfabrics, discrete metre to decimetre spaced NNW-SSE striking slip surfaces occurred in the 6ft seam showing moderately plunging slickenside lineations directed towards the east north-east. Silty mudrocks above the roof of the Upper 6ft leaf contained north-east to east north-east facing, metre scale, tight rounded folds (Fig. 4.38). Further folds were noted to have an anomalous facing direction, with hinge lines plunging 21 towards 116.
The planar bedded sequence down to the Red 2 seam, 30m below the 6ft seam, had a regional, gentle to moderate south-easterly dip. The Red 2 seam was affected by a southward facing syncline with a moderate dipping northern limb and gently dipping southern limb. In the southern face at upper mine levels (above the 6ft seam and the 4ft seam) the 2ft 9" seam had been thickened by northward verging thrusts (Fig. 4.39). An oblique section through these structures displays a tip fold above one of the thrusts. Measurements of the orientations of the structures in the site were obtained from a detailed survey in December 1989. Beds generally dip moderately towards the south. Locally east north-east striking beds dip moderately towards the north and contain mudrocks with polished planar surfaces showing pyritic strain fabrics pitching moderately from the west (Fig. 4.40). Thrusts clearly show a northward directed transportation direction based on the associated fold geometry and the presence of slickenside lineations which plunge steeply towards the south.
East north-east facing folds probably represent lateral structures related to the main northward verging thrusts and southward facing folds are probably related to back thrusts. In this site, extensional faults probably associated with the seam splits show an unclear relation to the compressional structures.
An east north-easterly high planar cleavage i.e. a cleavage developed at a steep angle to bedding is also associated with the thrusting. Metre scale folds plunge gently towards the east south-east and west south-west. They are northward facing moderate to tight rounded folds related to the thrusts within the Lower 6ft seam.
4.5.6.1 OBSERVATIONS 1990
OF STRUCTURE EXPOSED DURING RECENT MINE DEVELOPMENTS, JULY
The southern high wall of Ffyndaff Additional was excavated down to the Lower 6ft seam exposing more of the distinct northward directed thrusts. Structures below a mud/coal lens (observed previously) were also exposed. Fig. 4.41a shows an outline of a linked northward directed thrust system interpreted from the structure across the face. Fig. 4.41b shows a view of the high wall. The Lower 6ft occurs at the base of the section and reappears midway up the face as the Upper 6ft seam in the hangingwall of a main thrust causing a decametre-scale displacement. The hangingwall is affected by 3 main decametre-length thrusts, partly repeating the 6ft seam. Tight folding and minor back thrusting and downward facing thrusting occurs along with the main thrusting. The Upper 6ft seam shows distinct repetition by thrusts with long flats and very short metre scale gentle to moderate southward dipping ramps (Fig. In summary, the Ffyndaff Additional site contains many northward verging thrusts showing various age relationships eg early mesoscale thrusts have been reoriented by folding above late thrusts. Folding is directly associated with the thrusts. Decametre folds have been observed in the east of the site and metre folds in the west.
4.42a & b). Most of the deformation is located below the Upper 6ft seam, with tight tip folds and possible isolated thrusts occurring within and below the 4ft seam respectively. However thrusting may pass up from the top of the Upper 6ft into the 4ft seam towards the southwestern limit of the section.
A synopsis and photograph of the structure is shown in Fig. 4.43a & b. Thrusting is localised along coal seams, thin carbonaceous shales and rashings with a well developed cleavage. Bed parallel movement is a dominant compressional style.
Fig. 4.45 summarises the synoptic structure of Ffyndaff Additional and shows the concentration of the thrusting within the 6ft seam below the 4ft seam. The fold details between the Upper and Lower 6ft seams show that northward directed thrusts have been folded by later structures and suggest a multiphase northward directed thrusting event. This event is possibly synchronous with southward directed events within the site and possibly with the back thrusting along the south crop (in agreement with observations from Ffos Las). The folded thrusts may subsequently represent an early compressional event. However such early thrusts are limited in number and scale so that an origin due to progressive late thrust deformation is favoured in this instance. 4.5.7 GILFACH IAGO An overview of the site was carried out in December 1989 to examine the details of local disturbances and the effects of reactivation on the structural style in the coalfield. During July 1990 a survey of the structure was undertaken to investigate consistency of structural trend at various detailed scales. This survey would show the relative pervasiveness of the Variscan overprinting event of thrusting in relation to deformation associated with reactivation of the
4.5.6.2 INFERENCES The initial detailed mesoscopic survey of the site revealed anomalous lateral structures as well as extensional faulting. However, with lower levels exposed the main northward directed thrusting characteristic of the north crop became evident. It is clear that thrusting does occur at 9ft seam levels below the 6ft seam and also up to the 4ft seam. However from the second survey it was clear that the main repetitions have occurred within the 6ft seam. A minimum kilometre-scale displacement is inferred from the synoptic sketch of the thrust sequence. This may point to out-of-sequence thrusting, where the repetition of the 9ft seam occurred before the main repetitions of the 6ft seam in its hangingwall, followed by the northward propagation of the decametre thrusts observed within the Upper 6ft seam eg Fig. 4.44. Another point of importance is that the localisation of deformation to below the 4ft seam may indicate disharmonic deformation of the Coal Measure multilayer possibly analogous to the contrast in deformation observed between the Lower and MCM of the site and the gently dipping Pennant Measures observed to the south. Another possibility is that deformational intensity is directly related to the height of each seam, in the hangingwall sequence above a thrust (Fig. 4.43 above).
local disturbances. The following seams are exposed at Gilfach Iago: Rock (Big of Ffos Las, 4ft Group of Park Slip) Green Ddugaled Hwch (2ft of Ffos Las) Stanllyd Middle Pumpquart Upper Trichwart Charcoal Braslyd Fach Saron Brynlloi
In December 1989, at lower levels in the eastern section of the site, major decametre folds, an anticline, syncline, anticline set, dominated the structure. The cores of the folds were intensely deformed. At middle mine levels towards the north a decametre anticline was associated with the inferred extrapolation of the Caerbryn Disturbance.
The associated structure was a tight, rounded anticline asymmetric to the north-west with a moderate south-eastward dipping axial plane.
4.5.7.1 INFERENCES Thrusts associated with highly strained cores of folds are interpreted here as accommodation structures. Bed parallel shear inferred from dip slip lineations in conjunction with the accommodation structures represent a fold tightening event. This shortening is most apparent along the incompetent coal seams and associated rashings which contain cleavage duplexes on various scales. The microstructures may therefore reflect the main folding event associated with the Caerbryn Disturbance. Many models can be proposed to explain the structural relationships observed in this site: 1. One continuous north-westerly Variscan compressional phase 2. A bipartite thrust/fold compressional event. 3. A complex thrust/fold/fold tightening event.
In lower site levels towards the east, the core of the main syncline within the fold set contained tight north-westward facing structures associated with a gently south-eastward dipping thrust plane. Thrusting was mainly directed towards the north-west along bedding in northern parts of the structure (Fig. 4.46a & b). In middle sections along the southern face of the site, a metre to decametre fold showed vertical changes in wavelength and amplitude. This unlike the previous structure is probably isolated to higher positions within the sequence. In July 1990, the main syncline was well exposed further to the west, away from back fill in the east north-east section of the site. It was represented well within the Trichwart seam. Northward directed thrusting was evident on a decametre scale, accompanying the north-westward fold asymmetry. Details of the Trichwart seam showed that intense shearing had occurred along the coal/rashings contacts and also within the rashings. Tectonised stratigraphic contacts showed that the Trichwart seam has been repeated twice on a metre scale. Further minor repetitions of each thrust slice were also found. In conjunction with shearing, deformation within the Trichwart seam amounts to a repetition of at least seven times (on a decimetre scale). Accounting for disruption by shearing and cleavage formation the Trichwart seam is up to four times its original compacted thickness. The seat earth immediately beneath the Trichwart seam had been sheared intensely and in some decimetre repetition units was consequently absent. Cleavage duplexes occur on a centimetre-decimetre scale and reflect the duplex thickening of the coal seam on the north-western limb of the syncline.
4. North-south compressive reactivation of the Caerbryn Disturbance followed by later compression and associated thrusting. 5. Polyphase deformation or PEST. Analysis 1. Gilfach Iago could have been affected by north-west - south-east Variscan compression which produced the main north-east/south-west trending folds. In later stages of this compression, the accommodation structures could have developed together with coal seam thrusting, cleavage formation and bed parallel shearing. 2. It is unclear from local structure whether thrusting within the Trichwart seam pre- or postdates the folding (Fig. 4.46c). The asymmetry and facing of duplexes within this seam is one line of evidence which can be used to infer a late tightening event during one main compressional phase, as in (1) above. However the large amount of repetition of the seam and its lateral continuity does point to the thrusting continuing across the fold hinge and thus being earlier than the folding event, with the present orientation of the microstructures and thrusts being produced during a later fold tightening event. This evolution therefore suggests an early event of main thrusting was succeeded by the folding event.
3. Combining models (1) and (2) would result in a late fold tightening and shearing event of deformation following early thrusting and main folding events. Model 3 may account for the smaller scale repetitions of the Trichwart seam slices and their structural orientation in relation to the folding. The exact age and origin of the main folding event is questioned here in relation to the regional structure and in the light of further observations of major structures in Gilfach Iago. These have yielded new structural data on the age relationships within the site and a further model for the origin of the folds: 4. In agreement with Cole et al (1991) folding in Gilfach Iago is attributed to the reactivation of the Caerbryn Disturbance. The folding and mesoscale structures on the limbs of the major anticline close to the disturbance (Fig. 4.47) reflect the compartmentalisation of a regional north-south principal compressive stress into a NW/SE compressive stress and NE/SW shear stress (in relation to the disturbance) (Fig. 4.48). Considering (2) above, this suggests that thrusting also occurred prior to the reactivation phase. An excellent example of a major thrust folded by an anticline related to the disturbance is evidence for this inference (Fig. 4.49).
Further observations show that Gilfach Iago contains decametre scale thrusts and possible duplex (Fig. 4.50) which appear to cut through bedding regardless of dip which suggests that these thrusts post-date the folding related to reactivation of the disturbance and may therefore represent late Variscan structures.
I.e. Gilfach Iago contains structures reflecting a composite deformation history. One further model (5) can be suggested in that this composite deformation history could have been produced by PEST eg PEST could account for thrusts developing at high levels being deformed by tip folds at lower levels. 4.5.8 EAST PIT EXTENSION Introduction to Variscan structures post-dating Variscan thrusts East Pit Extension was examined to show the effects of Late Variscan extensional faulting on older structures and on the detailed coal structure within the site. East Pit Extension is ideal for this survey (together with Nant Helen, Derlwyn and Benward's Field) because the structure of the site is dominated by an eastward facing monocline which is positioned above the buried eastward dipping cross fault - the Cwm Teg Fault (proved in deep mines). This high level monocline is observed in the east-west striking high wall of the site to be related to westward dipping extensional faults conjugate to the Cwm Teg Fault below. In order to examine the style of faulting and its relation to the earlier thrusts this faulting was examined in the high wall and traced laterally across the site. East Pit Extension exposed the following coal sequence: Black Band Soap Penny Pieces Stwrin (Upper White) White 4ft Upper Black Pencraig Harnlo Big
However in middle to upper mine levels in the northern benched face (opposite the high wall) decimetre micro folds asymmetric to the north-west were associated with bed parallel decametre-length thrusting found at the base of a competent sandstone. The asymmetry of the micro folds in the footwall to the thrust and the general younging direction inferred from the footwall sequence suggest the thrust were clearly cutting down sequence. This is good evidence for pre-monocline thrusting in the site.
In May 1990, the three dimensional geometry of the monocline was examined. It was traced northwards across the site where its effects on coal structure were examined. In the southern section of the site, the Big Vein seam was folded by the monocline. Tracing this particular horizon across the site showed that the wavelength of the monocline increased on passing northwards. This indicates that the structure plunged towards the south.
In December 1989, close inspection of the east-west trending high wall showed that it formed an oblique section to the east north-east facing monocline. Investigation of the faulting related to the monocline showed that there were minor extensional faults, fracture cleavage and jointing which dipped steeply towards the west south-west (Fig. 4.51). Larger faults had a distinct ramp-flat geometry and passed westwards into parallel fracture cleavage. All these structures had a very similar trend to the monocline and appeared unfolded which suggests that they were also late structures.
The late faults related to the monocline had obvious effects on coal structure. In upper mine levels of the southern section of the site there was clear evidence for extensional faulting. Low angle faults and shear zones had listric geometries and showed mainly normal drag. The faults clearly displaced the Middle Soap seam but displayed an unclear basal detachment beneath this seam. In one instance a listric fault had a base coinciding with a south-westward directed flat of a decametre ramp/flat thrust (Fig. 4.52) 15m beneath the Middle Soap seam. The scale of listric faulting varied from decametre to metre scale. There was no evidence for synsedimentary growth along these faults.
Further evidence was sought from seams to the north of the site for similar detailed effects of the late structure on coal geology. Details of the Middle Soap seam showed that ductile deformation had occurred in the coal possibly in response to the monoclinal folding. Similarly at Upper White seam levels northward directed cleavage duplexes were developed in muddy coal bands, whilst more competent horizons showed metre folds with fold axes plunging moderately due south. (These may however represent early lateral structures). In either case these minor folds followed the trend of the monocline. Other structures within the Upper White seam also represented an earlier compressional deformation causing major thrust repetition of seams within the site. Conclusive evidence that the cross faulting post-dates the early compressional structures also occurred within the Upper White seam in which thrust related folds were cross cut by late extensional faults. I.e. Observations of the general structure and detailed coal geology suggest that the monoclinal folding and cross faulting was a late post-compressional event.
In terms of the level of thrusting, seams equivalent to the upper part of the sequence of Ffos Las are generally undeformed in East Pit Extension from which it could be concluded that the level of thrusting in this section of the coalfield is concentrated to Harnlo levels, below horizons in which thrusting is dominant further west. The presence of synsedimentary tectonic extension was also investigated. The relative importance of extension during the evolution of the South Wales Coalfield was examined in East Pit Extension with no result. Other sites containing cross faults were also examined. 4.5.9 NANT HELEN AND THE CRIBARTH DISTURBANCE Nant Helen opencast site lies close to the Swansea Valley Disturbance. The Swansea Valley Disturbance extends north-eastwards through the north crop and is found to fold the Carboniferous Limestone. The following map (Fig. 4.54a, b & c) illustrates the geometry of the south-western section of the anticlinal fold representing the expression of the Swansea Valley - Cribarth Disturbance in the limestone:
Recent exposure at deep levels of the eastern part of the site, revealed good evidence for NNE transporting thrusts, eg Fig. 4.53a & Fig. 4.53b, between the Big seam and the Harnlo seam. Hangingwall anticlines above the thrusts plunged at about 10 towards the ESE which compares well to the gentle easterly dip due to the major monocline. This is taken as further evidence suggesting that the monoclinal folding post-dated the thrusting i.e. the amount of plunge on the folds is directly related to the dip due to monoclinal folding.
The anticline trends NE-SW and is associated with a complex of tension gashes and slickenside lineations (Fig. 4.55b & c) which may indicate the compartmentalisation of a Variscan N-S maximum compressive stress in to a NW directed normal stress and a NE directed shear stress (Weaver, 1975) (Fig. 4.55a).
The following section describes the structure of the Nant Helen site. Nant Helen contains early synsedimentary structures (Hartley & Gillespie, 1990), late thrusts (Gillespie, 1991) and is transected by a major cross fault, the Pwllau Bach Fault (mentioned above). This points to Nant Helen being an ideal site for the investigation of major cross cutting relationships. The site exposes the following coal seams: It is likely that the structure of Nant Helen is related to the Cribarth Disturbance. In particular the Pwllau Bach Fault in the site has a long extensional movement history part of which may be equivalent to the formation of N-S trending extensional tension gashes which are prolific in the Cribarth area. Rider Soap Penny pieces (2ft 9") Stwrin (Driver) White 4ft (Upper 4ft) Black (Lower 4ft) Cornish (Red Vein) Harnlo (6ft) 9ft Brass (Bute)
(Derlwyn Site): Lower Brass (Yard) Bluers (7ft) Rhyd (5ft) Grey New (Gellideg)
The site was investigated for evidence for synsedimentary deformation. Initial inspection of the site in upper levels revealed granular conglomeratic to medium grained quartz wackes with a poorly sorted immature sedimentary texture. The sandstones contained decametre to metre scale cross beds with decimetre bedded cosets. An approximate north-westerly palaeocurrent direction was obtained from the cross beds. These sandstones occupied the same stratigraphic horizon (Stwrin Sandstone) as the fault-controlled channel sandstones described by Hartley & Gillespie (1990). However no further evidence for early synsedimentary deformation was observed. Only north-south metre spaced joints with a N/S cross fault trend occurred in upper mine levels.
Evidence was therefore sought for Late Variscan structures and cross faulting in lower mine levels. The Pwllau Bach Fault was found to be excellently exposed during later surveys of March and July, 1991 in middle levels.
4.5.9.1 INFERENCES ON STRUCTURAL HISTORY The Pwllau Bach Fault was exposed in the east of the site where it consisted of a 7m wide fault zone striking NNW-SSE and dipping moderately towards the west (Fig. 4.56). A major fault plane within the zone displayed slickenside lineations plunging moderately towards the west (268, 281). From site extraction sections the Pwllau Bach Fault has a westerly downthrow of 80m. Recent observations of the fault plane revealed dextral strike-slip slickenside lineations on planes oblique to the Pwllau Bach Fault. The strike-slip lineations pre-date the larger dip slip sets. In the hangingwall of the fault there were eastward verging thrusts deforming the Harnlo and Cornish seams but not the Soap Rider seam. Displacements of about 6m and 27m were measured along these thrusts. The thrusts striked 355 to 340 and dipped gently (15) to moderately (45) towards the west. Bedding dipped about 10 towards the west so that the thrusts appeared to be low-angle ramps. The ramps climbed eastwards to Black seam levels where flat thrusting and cleavage duplexing within this seam accommodated for the shortening. This Black seam flat may have linked to another ramp in the hangingwall of the Pwllau Bach Fault to the east (Fig. 4.57). Case A (1) Synsedimentary extension along growth faults and active east-west extension along the Pwllau Bach Fault. (2) north-south compression causing further extension along the Pwllau Bach Fault. (3) further north-south compression causing strike-slip faulting and east-directed thrusts. (4) cross faulting i.e. late extension along the Pwllau Bach Fault.
Nant Helen reveals good structural evidence for the various coalfield structural phases. Local synsedimentary extension clearly predates the thrusting and cross faulting. However the relation between the latter two is unclear. Furthermore as stated previously in this chapter Hartley (pers. comm., 1990) has demonstrated that the Pwllau Bach Fault had a long movement history which began with synsedimentary extension. This contradicts the model that cross faulting was solely a post-thrusting event. i.e. though on first inspection Nant Helen appears to contain a cross section of the structural population produced during phases 1 to 4 i.e. early extension, reactivation, late thrusting and late extension in reality the structures may represent various structural histories, eg:
Case B (1) Synsedimentary faulting. (2) Main compression forming east-verging thrusts which may not be ascribed to a general Variscan compression. (3) Late cross faulting. Case C (from site evidence) (1) Synsedimentary Extension. (2) Strike-slip (3) Eastward directed thrusting and extensional cross faulting. In conclusion Nant Helen reveals eastward directed thrusting (very similar to that observed along the east crop and in Garnant) which is difficult to correlate with a two-fold compressional event. Secondly it is likely that the Pwllau Bach Fault was reactivated prior to the late extension. The relation between the OCCS and the local Swansea Valley Disturbance (SVD) is unsolved. However if the Pwllau Bach Fault of Nant Helen had a long movement history similar to the SVD then they should have been kinematically linked. Weaver (1975) postulated sinistral strike-slip movement on the SVD due to north-south compression. Early extension along the Pwllau Bach Fault may have been related to a phase of east-west tension due to the north-south compression. Later thrusting in the site may have been reoriented by further strike-slip movement along the SVD or may represent a compartmentalisation of NESW sinistral strike-slip into E-W compression and N-S dextral strike-slip. This may explain the occurrence of the dextral strike-slip slickensides. The consequence of this latter interpretation is that the SVD and Pwllau Bach Fault bounded a wedge which may have been transported to the NNE along oblique and lateral ramps, i.e. SVD and the Pwllau Bach Fault respectively. Argument against this model can be well founded on the observation of little disturbance-related deformation in a neighbouring site (Derlwyn). This site only contains evidence for layer parallel shearing along coal seams and normal cross-faulting (Fig. 4.58). If reactivation and fault linkage was a dominant deformation style then thrusting would have been expected even below Brass seam levels. In contrast, thrusting appears to be dominant much higher in the sequence at Harnlo and Cornish levels. This suggests that the only likely link between the movement history of the SVD and the Pwllau Bach Fault was the late E-W extension, well defined in the Cribarth area by the prolific N-S trending tension gashes. 4.5.10 BENWARD'S FIELD Benward's Field is a small privately operated site near the east crop which exposes a section of stratigraphy close to the Amman Marine band (Fig. 4.59). The site exposes the following coal seams: Black (worked out) Bydylog (equivalent to Upper Bute) Amman Marine Band Meadow (Yard) 5ft (Old Gellideg)
At the base of the site there is the old Gellideg adit in levels equivalent to the 5ft seam.
Structurally the site reveals evidence for 1. lag faulting; 2. thrusting; 3. cross faulting. Lag Faulting and Thrusting: Folds and thrusts directed towards the north-west with slickenside lineations plunging towards the south-west (Fig. 4.60) either point to an anomalous structural trend or possibly compressional structures developed later upon an early south-easterly directed synsedimentary extensional fault or late lag fault. The complexity of the structure favours a composite history.
Coal tends to be sheared downwards along the fault plane as an incompetent lubricating horizon. Later investigations during May 1991 showed that normal faulting cross cuts the Bydylog seam with a trend of 294, a dip of 64N and a normal downthrow of 2m.
Benward's Field therefore reveals good evidence for limited thrusting in Lower Coal Measure levels and for late cross faulting. 4.5.11 GARNANT Garnant contains a variety of structures within two sections of the site, areas A & B. Coal Stratigraphy Cross Faulting: A north-westerly cross fault transects the southern wall of the site. The fault consists of a narrow zone of shearing in which bedding blocks have been rotated in a normal sense (Fig. 4.61). Models for the movement associated with the fault are given in Fig. 4.62. Small scale evidence for normal faulting occurs in the Meadow seam. Further investigation during April 1991 revealed a series of extensional faults. A particular fault in this set has a downthrow which increases on passing south-eastwards; others have a low angle of dip (Fig. 4.63) and a downthrow of about 10m.
Stwrin (Driver) Upper White Upper Black Upper Pencraig (above 3 equivalent to 4ft) Harnlo (6ft) Big Lower Black Peacock (above 3 equivalent to 9ft) Trigloin (Bute)
The structure in area A contains the Lower Black seam and is dominated by mesoscale thrusting. eg The original thickness of the Lower Black seam is about 60cm. Thrust repetition of this seam has increased its mineable thickness to 4m. Sigmoidal cleavage is associated with the thrusting. Cleavage duplexes in the rashings and early thrusts are deformed by early folding and are cut by late layer parallel thrusting. The Lower Black seam also contains numerous slip surfaces. On a larger scale, upper levels of the north-eastern wall of the site contain the Upper Black seam deformed by north-eastward verging folds and thrusts which may cut down sequence. In the south, the high wall of the site reveals further decametre north-eastward facing anticlinal folding whilst in the west the Upper Black seam is succeeded by gently dipping planar bedded siltstones. Area B contains the high quality Peacock seam and seams from the Lower Black to the Pencraig. In the south, east north-eastward directed decametre scale thrusts occur below the Big Vein seam and extend up to the Pencraig seam which is folded by a structure verging towards the south most probably concealing a back thrust at depth. A regional southerly dip dominates this area.
Structurally fold hinges trend 330 with fold asymmetry being predominantly towards northeast. Associated thrust transport is towards 060. The Harnlo seam outlines this major system in the high wall (Fig. 4.65a). Fig. 4.65b represents a high wall section of thrust repeated sandstones. At lower bench levels towards the middle of the site, the Lower Black seam here is heavily sheared and contains minor folds plunging 18 towards 303. A top to the north-east shear is observed in this seam. (91cm of the upper section of the Lower Black seam is sheared whilst 134cm of the seam is unsheared) (Fig. 4.65c). Model: It is possible that the layer parallel thrusting observed in the Lower Black seam is cross-cut by the ramp thrusts observed in the Harnlo seam, whilst flats above the Harnlo seam remain unaffected.
4.5.11.1 INFERENCES Re-examination of area A during April 1991 revealed in the south-eastern section of the area a possible tip fold above a reactivated extensional fault (Fig. 4.64). Sandstones are observed to thicken across the fold towards the north. Another possibility is that the folding above a thrust took place syndepositionally to affect the thickness of the sandstone. Further inspection may point to thickness variations across thrust faults being due to the deformation of a channelshaped sandstone.
Garnant reveals good evidence for further north-easterly verging thrusts (similar to Nant Helen). It is also possible as in the above model that polyphase thrusting and folding affected the site in a primitive PEST style. Furthermore after observations of sandstone thickness variations across structures it is likely that some of the deformation was early; eg reactivation related folding and/or extension followed by late phase north-easterly directed thrusting.
i.e. though Garnant contains anomalously trending thrusts the structural style is similar to other sites such as Ffyndaff Additional. 4.5.12 PEN BRYN OER The general character of Pen Bryn Oer is one of far less deformation than sites in the west. The stratigraphy is also condensed: Stratigraphy Elled Rider Elled (2ft 9") Big (equivalent to 6ft & 4ft)
The 4ft seam, forming the upper part of the Big seam, consists of two leaves: an Upper 4ft leaf separated from a Lower 4ft leaf by a mudrock parting varying in thickness from 10 to 40cm. The 4ft leaves thicken towards the east of the site and together with the 6ft seam form a Big seam about 7m thick. Both the 4ft and the 6ft leaves of the Big seam show bed parallel shear with slickenside lineations plunging 16 towards 135. Investigations during April 1991 concentrated on channel-like lenses above the Big seam showing discordant bases (Fig. 4.66). These channels trend approximately north-south similar to the cross faulting and are filled with fine grained homogeneous sandy siltstone. At upper mine levels the Elled and three Elled Rider leaves dip gently towards the south. Cross faulting in the site trends 353 and dips 90. An unusual sense of movement is observed along the strike of the fault. Passing southwards towards the high wall of the site the fault downthrows 40cm to west. On passing northwards, the fault downthrows 1m to east (Fig. 4.67). This cross fault is described here as a scissors fault. 4.5.12.1 INFERENCES The dominant style of deformation in this site, probably associated with late compression, is bed parallel shear within the Big seam leaves.
An earlier phase of synsedimentary tectonic movement can be inferred on two grounds: (1) the condensed Coal Measure sequence of the Big seam in comparison with the sequence of eg Ffyndaff (6ft & 4ft) i.e. restricted subsidence; and (2) the trend of channels probably associated with early cross faulting. The metre scale torsional scissors movement on the cross fault in Pen Bryn Oer represents the latest Variscan movement in the site and is probably of the late extensional phase. 4.6 DISCUSSION ON THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OBSERVED IN THE OCCS The structures observed in the OCCS have been described and related to particular phases of Variscan deformation. As indicated by the numerous cross cutting relationships observed, the phases of deformation are not distinct within the coalfield. In fact the deformation, eg as observed in Ffos Las and Gilfach Iago, points to many events of Variscan compression. Furthermore various fault movements eg in Nant Helen, point to a long structurally diachronous and variable history. Other sites such as Benward's Field and Pen Bryn Oer, in the east, record only local evidence for structural deformation such as layer parallel shearing and do not contain any evidence for discrete cross cutting relationships.
Thus it can be argued strongly that the deformation in the coalfield was variable, progressive and involved basement lineaments at various times during the Variscan compression rather than during a discrete reactivation phase. Conversely it can be argued for the occurrence of two-fold deformation if the likelihood of reactivation taking place in the foreland of the main orogen is taken in to account. Consider the following: fault movement due to reactivation (Vr) would be expected to occur prior to the shift of the orogenic front in to an area and hence prior to the accompanied formation of new faults (Vo) for the following reason: the criteria below (outlined in Chapter 1) have been met in the South Wales Coalfield: 1. favourable stress orientations 2. favourable fault dips in relation to (1) above 3. lowered cohesive strength of the faulted rock 4. favourable coefficient of friction 5. presence of fluids eg (E/W) Devonoid normal faults and (NE/SW) Caledonoid Disturbances have been reactivated in a (N/S) Variscan compressive regime. Fluids were present in the coalfield which would have assisted with (4) above. i.e. since there is good evidence that reactivation has taken place and that the criteria for reactivation were established early in coalfield history then its likely occurrence - prior to the onset of main compression - should also be expected. A modification of this model can be proposed in relation to faulting observed in the coalfield: that reactivation is likely to occur firstly in a foreland area but is also likely to continue as the orogenic front migrates forelandwards. An evolution dominated by reactivation grading into orogenic overprinting and structural complexity and diastrophism would thus be expected. 4.7 DISCUSSION ON REGIONAL STRUCTURE IN RELATION TO THE STRUCTURES OBSERVED WITH THE OCCS Observations of the stratigraphic horizons in which thrusting has taken place gives an indication of the geographic variation in the level at which main-phase Variscan thrusting took place. Sites such as Park Slip Extension and deep mine workings on the south crop (Jones, 1989) point to back thrusting occurring from Lower Coal Measure levels to the 6ft
seam in the MCM and up to Pennant Measures. However, on the north crop, back thrusting occurs in Ffos Las at Graigog levels of the MCM. In other sites on the north crop, such as Ffyndaff and Nant Helen, fore thrusting generally occurs from 9ft to 2ft 9" levels (Harnlo to Stwrin levels) and not below Lower Brass levels of eg Derlwyn OCCS near Nant Helen. However immediately south of the coalfield thrusting is imaged on seismic sections to occur within Lower Palaeozoic strata (Chapter 5). This points to a rise in the stratigraphic level of thrusting on passing northwards through the coalfield and also on passing westwards. This indicates that the highest stratigraphic level of thrusting in the MCM would be expected to be found in the north western section of the coalfield (in which coal rank is highest). The change in stratigraphic level of thrusting may have been brought about by lateral structures such as the basement continuation (root structures) of the north-westerly trending cross faults. These may separate areas of high level thrusting from areas of low level thrusting. Jones (1989) stated that the level of fore thrusting is also stratigraphically located beneath the Pennant Measures and inferred major underthrusting beneath the south crop. This is possibly equivalent to back thrusting observed in upper parts of the Ffos Las section. i.e. It is possible that the structure immediately south of the coalfield in the Vale of Glamorgan is a deep level structural equivalent to the structure of the western part of the coalfield (see section 4.8 below). An alternative interpretation of the Variscan structure beneath the Vale of Glamorgan is given in Chapter 5. The overall change in stratigraphic level of thrusting could have been caused by a raising effect of elevated basement (Hillier, 1992) on Variscan thrusting in the western part of the coalfield. The deeper basement to the east would allow thrusts to develop freely at lower stratigraphic levels. Two possibilities exist to explain the rise in level of thrusting: 1. thrusting ramped upwards along a steep buried fault plane bounding the southern flank of the basement topographic high (Fig. 4.68a); 2. thrusting used the weakest horizon draped over a smooth incline up to the topographic high. In this case thrusting would be in a flat style in relation to bedding but would revert to a ramp and climb up sequence as the dip of strata changed to horizontal above the basement topographic high (Fig. 4.68b). i.e. Basement topography could account for the level of sole thrusting throughout the coalfield. Furthermore the shortening effects of underthrusting (Jones, 1991) beneath the
south crop and to the west in Ffos Las could account for roof thrusting in upper levels of the MCM and also up to the Pennant Measures. This feature may also have been due to basement topography, in this case buttressing against a south-dipping basement incline beneath the south crop.
Area C This area is localised around the anomalous deformation associated with the E-W trending extensional S-downthrowing Moel Gulau Fault which separates Area B from Area A. Folding in this area is E-W trending.
Area D This area lies between the Neath and Swansea Valley Disturbance and thus represents a natural segment of the coalfield bounded by Caledonoid structures. It contains N-S trending 4.8 COALFIELD STRUCTURAL ENVIRONMENTS It has been demonstrated in section 4.5.4-12 that the coalfield contains thrusts, extensional faults and some strike-slip deformation. The OCCS investigations show that these structural styles co-exist and show variable age relationships. However it is interesting to note that even though the South Wales Coalfield shows a complex structural framework it can be subdivided into a number of areas or structural environments in which a predominant structural style exists. The following map (Fig. 4.69) illustrates this point. Area A The eastern section of the coalfield is dominated by predominantly westward downthrowing, NW-trending, extensional, cross faults, NE-directed thrusts and NE-trending folds. Area B The area along the south crop (south of the Pontypridd Anticline) is dominated by E-W trending strike thrusts which are generally S-directed back thrusts. Cross faulting is limited in this area.
cross faults which occasionally extend southwards in to Area C and marks the change from westward downthrowing cross faulting to generally eastward downthrowing cross faulting. This area also contains anomalous fold trends along the north crop which includes NE & Edirected thrusting and NE trending folds. Area E This area forms the western part of the coalfield and contains NNW-trending cross faults which mainly downthrow to the east and folds which trend E-W to ENE-WSW. The area consists of two distinct sub-areas E1 and E2: E1 is the southern section and is structurally similar to Area B whilst E2 is the northern section and it contains structures similar to the north crop of Area D. E1 and E2 may represent a similar subdivision of the coalfield as in Areas A & B. E1 contains fore thrusts trending approximately E-W whilst E2 contains disturbances trending ENE-WSW similar to the neighbouring Carreg Cennen Disturbance. Thus it is likely that E1 contains mainly pristine Variscan structures whilst E2 contains reactivated disturbances.
Area F This area consists of the Pembrokeshire coalfield. Deformation along the Littlehaven to Broadhaven coastal section (Hancock et al, 1982) was examined during September 1988 and revealed a series of N-directed major thrusts and related folds (Figs. 4.70) which are similar to the more complex of folds observed in the western part of the main coalfield. (Structural deformation along this section is attributed to high level thrusting within the Coal Measures and is thus correlated with Sub-area E1). It is likely that the South Wales foreland basin to the north was affected by faulting to the south to a degree similar to that caused by reactivated faults actually beneath the basin. It is postulated here that the BCT and GMT beneath the Bristol Channel formed the northern extent of a composite landmass extending southwards into Cornwall which had a local loading affect on the southern margin of the basin (Chapter 2) even though it would be expected that the effect of flexural rigidity of the foreland would result in widespread loading. In support of this hypothesis the deepest part of the foreland basin lies immediately to the north of the BCT and GMT. i.e. the GMT may have caused a large local uplift to produce a topographic high significant enough to cause a preferential deepening of the basin north of the Gower. Since the Millstone Grit also thickens towards the south crop, fault movement along the BCT and GMT probably occurred as early as Namurian times. 4.10 TIMING OF VARISCAN MOVEMENT ALONG THE BCT AND GMT Definite evidence for the movement of the BCT and GMT comes from the southerly derivation of the Westphalian C Pennant Measures (Gayer & Jones, 1989). Petrographic lithic clast studies of the Pennant Sandstone would give an indication of the lithic source types to the south and an indication of the age of uplift. Previous petrographic studies have concentrated on diagenetic aspects of the Pennant Sandtsone eg (Khalaf, 1980). A source area investigation however could reveal good evidence for the extent of uplift in the hinterland during the Westphalian C using a knowledge of the petrographic characteristics of the formations of North Devon. Another line of investigation which could be followed, to date the Variscan movement along the BCT and GMT, would be to examine the unconformable relationships within the Bristol Coalfield to the east. 4.9 FORELAND BASIN DEVELOPMENT RELATED TO FAULT MOVEMENT IN THE BRISTOL CHANNEL (THE BCT & GMT) The above subdivision of the South Wales Coalfield into structural environments can be extended southwards into the Bristol Channel, beneath which a compressional Late Palaeozoic structural environment is expected (Chapter 6): a structural environment dominated by ESE-trending thrusts formed by reactivation of Devonian extensional faults in a similar structural style to SW Dyfed. Examination of BGS maps of the area reveals an overstep of the Pennant Measures onto Lower Coal Measures and older strata. This indicates an episode of movement between the Westphalian B and lower part of the Westphalian C. However the thickness of the Millstone Grit in the Bristol area is much thinner than along the south crop which could point to an earlier phase of marginal uplift in a similar style to the east crop. i.e. in light of the composite movement histories observed in the South Wales Coalfield it is likely that faults beneath the Bristol Channel also moved prior to the onset of the main Vo Variscan compression.
4.11 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
The examination of the opencast coal sites reveals structural styles and structural age relationships clearly showing that Late Palaeozoic tectonism involved a number of movement phases which involved reactivation and affected the regional stratigraphy of the South Wales area. Examination of disturbances within the coalfield points to an early Variscan reactivation Vr phase being overprinted by a main compressional Vo phase. Overprinting in some instances obliterates the bi-partite structural record. 4.12 APPLIED COAL GEOLOGICAL RESULTS The investigation of the opencast sites has revealed a number of characteristics of the South Wales coalfield which can been exploited for the benefit of coal mining in the area. Firstly observation of the style of faulting in the opencast sites allows the formation of a template with which structural data from the whole coalfield can be interpreted. Secondly the subdivision of the coalfield in to structural environments could assist in the drawing of realistic cross sections through a prospective area, i.e. sections agreeable with the local geology. Thirdly a knowledge and the prediction of the stratigraphic level of thrusting would assist in the mining industry since mines positioned above thrusted horizons would contain the greatest repetitions of coal seams. This would be a hindrance to underground mining but would be beneficial to opencast mining.
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FIGURE CAPTIONS
Fig. 4.1 Isopach map of the Namurian sequence (George, 1970) showing contrasting distributions of thickness in SW Dyfed and the main coalfield.
Fig. 4.2 Structural sketch map of the St David's area showing general structural trends and hypothetical directions of slip along the main faults. (Based on Green, 1908).
Fig. 4.3 Prolific conjugate tension gashes found at Fishguard, showing the same structural trend as conjugate faults of North Devon of Variscan age.
Fig. 4.4 Deviation of Caledonian structural trend from NE-SW, as found in Mid Wales, to ENE-WSW as in SW Dyfed. (Figure from Rast, 1969).
Walmsley, V.G. & Bassett, M.G., 1976. Biostratigraphy and correlation of the Coralliferous Group and Gray Sandstone Group (Silurian) of Pembrokeshire, Wales. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 87, pp. 191-220.
Woodcock, N.H., 1990. Sequence stratigraphy of the Welsh Basin. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 147, pp. 537-547.
Fig. 4.5 Hypothetical movement history for anomalously trending disturbances. Key: Ex, Extension; Co, Compression; Horizontal shift in plot indicates inversion has taken place; Vertical shift indicates reactivation. Vertical axis, time.
Woodcock, N.H. & Gibbons, W., 1988. Is the Welsh Borderland Fault Ware, W.D., 1939. The Millstone Grit of Carmarthenshire. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, London, 50, pp. 168-204. System a terrane boundary? Journal of the Geological Society of London, Vol.145, pp. 915-923.
Fig. 4.6 Regional location of the South Wales Coal Basin. Key to coalfields: P, Pembrokeshire; SW, South Wales; FoD, Forest of Dean; SB, Somerset and Bristol; OB, Oxfordshire and Berkshire; K, Kent; N, Namur; L, Lige; A, Aachen; R, Ruhr. Key to map: 1, coal bearing foreland basins; 2, Lower Palaeozoic massifs; 3, major Variscan thrusts marking the hinterland limits of the foreland basins; 4, hypothetical southern margin of the Dinantian carbonate platform.
Williams, B.P.J., 1971. Sedimentary features of the Old Red Sandstone and Lower Limestone Shales of south Pembrokeshire, south of the Ritec Fault. pp. 222-239. In: Bassett, D.A. & Bassett, M.G. (eds.), Geological Excursions in South Wales and the Forest of Dean. Geologists' Association, South Wales Group, Cardiff.
Woodland, A.W., & Evans, W.B., 1964. The Geology of the South Wales Coalfield, Part IV. The country around Pontypridd and Maesteg. Memoir of the Geological Survey of Great Britain.
Fig. 4.7 Chronostratigraphic diagram emphasising the contrast in Devonian stratigraphy in S Wales and N Devon (Allen, 1974).
Fig. 4.8 Correlation chart for Old Red Sandstone formations in Wales and the Welsh Borderlands by (Allen, 1974) showing
Woodland, A.W., Evans. W.B. & Stephens, J.V., 1957. Classification of the Coal Measures of South Wales with special
the regional nature of the Mid Devonian unconformity.
Williams, A., Strachan, I., Bassett, D.A., Dean, W.T., Ingham, J.K., Wright, A.D. & Whittington, H.B., 1972. A correlation of Ordovician rocks in the British Isles. Geological Society Special Report, no. 3.
reference to the Upper Coal Measures. Bulletin of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, 13, pp. 6-13.
Fig. 4.9 Synoptic sketch map and section of 'Acadian' structures north of the Carreg Cennen Disturbance (Cope, 1979). Stratigraphic key: Pc, Precambrian; C, Cambrian; T, Tremadocian; A, Arenigian; Ll, Llandoverian; ors, Old Red Sandstone; D, Dolerite.
Ziegler, A.M., McKerrow, W.S., Burne, R.V. & Baker, P.E., 1969. Correlation and environmental setting of the Skomer
Fig. 4.10 Hypothetical movement histories for the Carreg Cennen Fault. Key: Ex, Extension; Co, Compression. a. Mid Devonian compression associated with Late Caledonian tectonism. b. Mid Devonian compression associated with earliest Variscan tectonism. c. Mid Devonian quiescence. d. Separate Mid Devonian Acadian compressional event.
Wilson, D., Davies, J.R., Fletcher, C.J.N. & Smith, M., 1990. Geologists' Association, 80, pp. 409-439.
Volcanic Group, Pembrokeshire. Proceedings of the

Fig. 4.11 Map of the northerly derivation of the Namurian of the South Wales Coalfield (George,1970) with a recent version by Hartley showing local southerly sources.

b. Simple kinematic diagram showing the compartmentalisation of 1 (N-S) into n (NNW-SSE) and (ENEWSW) to form the NE trending folding observed on the section. (nb Further measurements are required to support the ENE dextral shear predicted by this model).
Fig. 4.12 Early isopach maps for the Coal Measures of the South Wales Coalfield by Thomas (1974). Fig. 4.24 Sketch map of the South Wales Coalfield. Key: small circular ornament, Devonian ORS; block-work ornament, Fig. 4.13 Map showing the southerly derivation of sediment during Late Westphalian times (Kelling, 1974) due to uplift in the hinterland and subsequent loading and infill of the foreland basin. Carboniferous Limestone; speckled grey ornament, Millstone Grit; plain white ornament, Lower and Middle Coal Measures; tightly packed pebble ornament, Pennant Measures. Towns: A, Aberdare; S, Swansea. Opencast coal sites: Ps, Park Slip Extension; FfL, Ffos Las; GI, Gilfach Iago; Gn, Garnant; EP, East Pit Extension; NH, Nant Helen; D, Derlwyn; FfA, Fig. 4.14 Recent isopach maps for the Coal Measures of the South Wales Coalfield by Hartley & Hillier (1992). Ffyndaff Additional; PBO, Pen Bryn Oer; BF, Benward's Field.
Fig. 4.15 a. Location of Llanstephan in South Wales and of the coastal section studied. Key: CCD, Carreg Cennen Disturbance; Cs, Carboniferous; Dv Devonian; Sn, Silurian; Ov, Ordovician. b. Structural sketch map of the Carmarthen area based on BGS 1:50,000 series, Carmarthen sheet.
Fig. 4.25 Reactivation history of major faults with various structural trends in the South Wales area.
Fig. 4.26 a-d. Developed version of a section through Park Slip Extension (based on Jones, 1989) showing seam splitting, back thrusting and decametre-scale complex folding and thrusting as illustrated in the accompanying photograph.
Fig. 4.16
North and south verging thrusts of metre-decametre scale lengths along the Llanstephan coastal section. Fig. 4.27 Clear examples of synsedimentary extension in Park Slip Extension, (though larger scale thickness variations may be due to later Variscan tectonism).
Southwards verging metre-scale thrusts face gently downwards towards the south.
Fig. 4.17 A variety of lineation trends: north verging, downward facing folded thrusts with associated steeply plunging slickenside lineations and sub horizontal thrust planes with N-S trending sub horizontally plunging lineations. Fig. 4.28 Hypothetical structural history plot for SW Britain tentatively correlating similar types of deformation phases, eg reactivation dominated or main phase thrust-dominated phases, as a means of showing the local structural effects of an Fig. 4.18 E-W trending tension gash arrays indicating dextral shear. advancing orogenic front through time.
Fig. 4.19 A likely kinematic diagram showing a NNW-SSE trending 1 causing N-S thrusting and E-W shear due to NESW strike-slip reactivation of the CCD. Key: 1, maximum principal compressive stress; CCD, Carreg Cennen Disturbance.
Fig. 4.29 a. Structural section of the southern part of the eastern high wall of Ffos Las (Gayer pers. com., 1992) showing about 70% shortening of the Big Rock Sandstone. Accessible areas have been outlined in this figure and illustrated by the accompanying photographs of Fig. 4.29b.
Fig. 4.20 Structural sketch map of Llanstephan and stereographic projection of the structure. The accompanying photograph shows the open geometry of the fold (near its crest). Fig. 4.29 c. The stratigraphy of Ffos Las (Frodsham, 1990 after R. Thewlis - British Coal S Wales coal seam correlation chart). Fig. 4.21 Late, mesoscale, south verging, back thrusts. Fig. 4.30 Synoptic sketch of the east face of Ffos Las OCCS and accompanying photograph to illustrate the general structure Fig. 4.22 Hypothetical pre- and post-fold thrust geometries in relation to bedding as a basis for interpreting the Llanstephan structural section. Fig. 4.31 a. Synoptic section showing the folded nature of thrusts in the core of the Fig. 4.23 a. Hypothetical kinematic diagram showing the minor E-W dextral shear brought about by sinistral strike-slip on the CCD and N-S thrusting due to a N-S trending 1. Key: 1 maximum principal compressive stress; CCD, Carreg Cennen Disturbance. folds at Ffos Las. b. Diagram of a tightly folded thrust plane and photograph showing examples of other tight folds and folded thrusts at Ffos Las. further.

Fig. 4.32 Structural details of a repetition of the Big Vein seam showing the development of cleat perpendicular to bedding (B) and a cleavage duplex (Cl) associated with intra-seam shearing.

Fig. 4.43 a. Repetition of the 6ft seam in to Lower and Upper seams with further probable thrust repetition of the Upper 6ft seam at Ffyndaff Additional. The accompanying photograph illustrates a pop-up structure associated with back thrusting at Upper 6ft levels.
Fig. 4.33 Folding associated with the Big C Vein. Fig. 4.44 Schematic cross section through Ffyndaff Additional OCCS illustrating a hypothetical case of out-of-sequence Fig. 4.34 North verging thrusts at high levels in the Ffos Las site and a sketch of north directed folding and thrusting in the Green and Kings seams. Fig. 4.45 Latest, developed section from a mature high wall of Ffyndaff Additional showing the concentration of thrusting at Fig. 4.35 Sketch section and accompanying photograph of the main structure observed in the lower part of the east face of Ffos Las located in Fig. 4.29a. Key: sst, sandstone; sh, shale; c, coal. Fig. 4.46 Accommodation structures at Gilfach Iago. Fig. 4.36 Sketch map of the Gower Peninsula showing the general structure and localities containing good examples of thrusts: CB, Caswell Bay; PEyB, Port Eynon Bay; RhB, Rhossili Bay. a. Thrusting developed in the core of the syncline ("a valley of coal - mined at Gilfach Iago"). b. Sketch of the syncline and details of the accommodation structure. Fig. 4.46 c. Thrusting in the Trichwart seam, unrelated to accommodation. Fig. 4.37 Early section of the high wall at Ffyndaff Additional displaying an extensional fault displacing the 6ft and 4ft seams. Fig. 4.47 Sketch and photograph of the major anticline close to the Caer Bryn Disturbance (Glyn-Hir Anticline). 6ft levels, below the 4ft seam. thrusting and lesser in-sequence thrusting at 6ft levels.
Fig. 4.38 NE to ENE facing tight rounded fold above the roof of the Upper 6ft. The facing direction is anomalous for this site.
Fig. 4.48 Map and kinematics diagram to show the compartmentalisation of the 1 maximum principal compressive stress into n normal stress and shear stress to form the Glyn Hir Anticline (GHA). Key continued: CFF, Cwm Fferws Fault; MP, Middle Pumpquart; S, Stanllyd.
Fig. 4.39 Oblique section through the 2ft 9" seam which is thickened by north verging thrusts. A distinct lens-shaped outcrop is evident in the 2ft 9" seam. Fig. 4.49 Sketch and photograph of decametre length northward directed folded thrust as evidence for early thrusting.
Fig. 4.40 Stereographic projection of a bedding plane containing the pyrite strain fabric. The fabric indicates a probable dextral shear along its pitch upon the bedding surface.
Fig. 4.50 Sketch and photograph of late thrusting (a duplex) cutting into the north-western limb of the anticline.
Fig. 4.51 Sketch and photograph of the ENE facing monocline at East Pit Extension. The monocline is a high level Fig. 4.41 a. Outline of a linked northward transporting thrust system interpreted from the high wall of Ffyndaff Additional. Key: 1-2-3-4 One possible explanation of the sequence of thrusting; Shc, sheared shaley coal horizon. b. Panoramic view of the high wall at Ffyndaff Additional with excavation taking place at Lower 6ft levels. The view shows the basis for Fig. 4.41a. Fig. 4.53 a. Recent exposures at deep levels in East Pit Extension showing clear evidence for NNE directed thrusting Fig. 4.42 a. Section through the 6ft seam showing thrust repetition by short ramps and long flats exploiting the weakest horizons. b. Photographs illustrating the Lower and Upper 6ft seams and fractures and cleavage within the Lower 6ft seam as a possible indication of layer parallel shearing near the thrust. affecting the Big seam and Harnlo seam. Thrusting climbs up sequence northwards though it is unclear as to whether the compressional structure in 4.53b below is directly related. Fig. 4.52 Listric extensional faults at East Pit Extension OCCS represented by line drawings in Fig. 4.51. expression of a west dipping fault which is conjugate to the buried east dipping Cwm Teg Fault.

Fig. 4.54 1:10,000 scale geological maps of selected areas along the Cribarth Disturbance showing the following: a. The NE-SW trending major fold deforming the Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit across the SW extent of the Cribarth Disturbance. b. Map of the NE extent of the Cribarth Disturbance where folded Carboniferous Limestone CMOo & SOol is faulted against Devonian ORS to the NW. c. Map of a river section through the most north-eastern extent of the Cribarth Disturbance within Lower and Upper Old Red Sandstone showing a change in strike across the probable NE extent of the Swansea Valley Fault Zone.

Fig. 4.61 Sketch and detailed photograph of a section of an extensional fault at Benward's Field with minor faults and bedding blocks arranged in an array along the fault plane.
Fig. 4.62 Kinematic models to explain the orientation of bedding blocks and minor faults in relation to normal faulting. Key: Rl Sh, Riedel Shear.
Fig. 4.63 Extensional fault showing low angle of dip and slip located along the coal seam base at Benward's Field.
Key: ORS, Devonian Old Red Sandstone. Visean Limestone: CMOo, Calcareous Mudstone and Oolite Formation; SOol, Skeletal Oolite Formation; CM, Calcareous Mudstone Unit; BCP, Black Cherty Packstone Formation; SOo & CP, Skeletal Oolite and Cherty Packstone; CQW, Calcareous Quartz Wacke Unit. Upper Carboniferous: MG, Millstone Grit quartz conglomerate. Key to map symbols: 1. geological boundary; 2. fold axial trace; 3. dip measurement; 4. minor strike-slip fault; 5. minor dipslip fault; 6. cleavage measurement; 7. major fault line.
Fig. 4.64 An unclear case as to whether sandstone thickening occurred across a section of a fold due to synsedimentary folding and faulting or due to post-depositional tectonic repetition.
Fig. 4.65 a. Thrust repetition of the Harnlo seam at Garnant, with thrusts verging towards the north-east. b. Developed and mature high wall of Garnant showing a clear section of thrust repeated channel sandstone beds also showing sedimentological lateral variations in bedding thickness. c. Photograph of the Black seam showing a sheared top layer and intact lower layer. A sketch shows the reverse
Fig. 4.55 a. Sketch map of the major Caledonoid Disturbances in South Wales showing the compartmentalisation of an early Variscan stress system (after Weaver, 1975). b. Kinematics diagram relating the small-scale structure in the Cribarth area to the compartmentalised stress model of Weaver (1975). Key: CCD, Carreg Cennen Disturbance; SVD, Swansea Valley Disturbance; NVD, Neath Valley Disturbance. Vn, E-W extensional vein; SS, slickenside lineations; 1, maximum principal compressive stress; , shear stress; n, normal stress. c. Stereographic projection of the Cribarth structure to qualify the kinematics diagram and possibly Weaver's model.
case where chevron folds containing pyrite saddle reefs overlie a cleavage duplex. The lower photograph shows further intraseam thrusting and folding.
Fig. 4.66 Stacked sandy siltstone-filled channels with no apparent cross bedding structure, located between the Big seam (64ft seams) and the Elled seam (2ft 9" seam). The channels occur above a cross fault.
Fig. 4.67 Scissors fault affecting the Big Vein showing an anticlockwise torsional movement on looking westwards. Displacement is on a metre scale.
Fig. 4.56 Photograph and sketch of the Pwllau Bach Fault (PBF) at Nant Helen, with details of thrusting and possible synsedimentary faulting in the hangingwall of the PBF.
Fig. 4.68 a. Model for a basal thrust climbing from beneath the South Wales Coalfield and in to the Middle Coal Measures. A sole thrust may climb up a basement fault and reach the Middle Coal Measures due to the shallow depth to basement further north (Hillier, 1992).
Fig. 4.57 Thrusting at Nant Helen ramping from Harnlo levels to White Levels with intense layer parallel shearing in the Black seam. Details of small scale ramps affecting White 4ft to Stwrin levels are given in the Upper part of the section. The Pwllau Bach Fault downthrows 80m to the west, faulting the White 4ft against the Brass to the east.
b. An alternative case in which a thrust climbs up a gentle basement incline as a flat and continues to climb as a ramp, at the same angle as the incline below, into Middle Coal Measures. This occurs because the beds above the incline would lose their dip on passing northwards onto the basement high.
Fig. 4.58 Extensional cross faulting bounding the Derlwyn site, displacing the Bluers against the Gnapiog.
Fig. 4.69 Structural sketch map of South Wales showing a practical subdivision of the South Wales Coalfields into structural environments A-F.
Fig. 4.59 Photograph of the Amman Marine Band above the Meadow seam at Benward's Field OCCS. Fig. 4.70 Sketches of structures observed in SW Dyfed Pembrokeshire Coalfield which emphasise the complexity of folding Fig. 4.60 Sketch map of a part of the Benward's Field OCCS showing NE-SW trending folding possibly related to synsedimentary deformation or related to a combination of thrusting and lag faulting. and thrusting and the similarity of the structure of SW Dyfed with that of the western part of the main coalfield. Sketches are of structures from Little Haven, Broad Haven, Saundersfoot, Amroth and Monkstone Point. Marios Miliorizos 11th June 2006 File name PhD Chapter 4 Four

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CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

4. LATE PALAEOZOIC STRUCTURAL EVOLUTION OF SOUTH WALES

'Searching for Coal'

'The Life and Times of Alexis Zorbas'

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CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

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CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

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CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

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CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

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CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

structural picture. 4.5.2 STRATIGRAPHIC STANDARD FOR THE OPENCAST SITES

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

Westphalian B Middle Coal Measures

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

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CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

4.5.6.1 OBSERVATIONS 1990

OF STRUCTURE EXPOSED DURING RECENT MINE DEVELOPMENTS, JULY

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

CHAPTER FOUR Tectonic Evolution of the Bristol Channel borderlands

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