COLLEGE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION PHYSICS DEPARTEMENT

UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI - ALSULAYMANIYAH - IRAQ

Heat & Thermodynamics

Second Class Physics Course

Peshwaz Abdulkarim Abdul

2010-2011

UNIVERSITY

OF

SULAIMANI-COLLLEGE OF SCIENCE EDUCATION -PHYSICS DEPARTEMENT

Heat & Thermodynamics

SEP209

2010 2011
Classical thermodynamics ... is the only physical theory of universal content which I am convinced ... will never be overthrown. Albert Einstein Second Class Physics Course College of Educational Science Physics Department Offered every year

Instructor: Peshwaz Abdulkarim Abdul College of Science Physics Department BSc in Physics at Sulaimani University MSc in Plasma Physics at the IPF Center of the Stuttgart University Tell: + 964 (0)771 0248191 Email: peshwaz.abdul@univsul.net Labs: Thermodynamic, College of Science Building, 4th floor

Coordinator: Peshwaz Abdulkarim Abdul College of Science Physics Department BSc in Physics at Sulaimani University MSc in Plasma Physics at the IPF Center of the Stuttgart University Tell: + 964 (0)771 0248191 Email: peshwaz.abdul@univsul.net Labs: Thermodynamic, College of Science Building, 4th floor

Course Website:

http://www.univsul.org/E_U_Mamosta.aspx?Jimare=1356

Course Time & Place:

Sunday: 12:30 2:30 Wednesday: 12:30 1:30

Hall (1) Hall (1)

Consulation Time:

Thermodynamic Lab.-Tuesday 09:00-11:00, or by appointment

Brief Syllabus: Heat, temperature, ideal gas equation of state, laws of thermodynamic, entropy, kinetic theory of gases, thermodynamic potentials & Legendre transformation, Maxwell relations, thermodynamic equilibrium & stability, phase transition, Vander Waal's equation of state and the liquid-gas phase transition; Maxwell's construction.

Prerequisites: Mechanics, calculus, and differential equations

Course Overview: Thermodynamics is the science of the conversions between heat and other forms of energy. It is an experimental science based on small number of principles that are generalization made from experience, and concerned only with macroscopic properties of matter. Thermodynamics is essential to understanding the principles behind engines, refrigerators, and even life itself. This course aims to provide a second year physics major students with an introduction to thermodynamics. The course begins by discussing some basic concepts and definitions and considering a scientific look at heat, temperature and internal energy and with a description of one of the laws of thermodynamics (zeroth law). We then consider the law of conservation of energy as a universal law of nature, and the processes by which energy is transferred. Based on these concepts, the first law of thermodynamics with some of it is important applications will be discussed. The heat engines and their efficiency, and then Carnots work to derive the maximum possibly efficiency of heat engines is presented. We will then look at how this leads to the concept of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics, perhaps one of the most debated laws of physics. In addition, the kinetic theory will be given with an exploring how the various thermodynamic quantities, such as pressure, internal energy and temperature of a gas obeying basic classical physics. To conclude, we will look at some of the concepts such as reversibility, the principle of the maximum entropy and finally thermodynamic potentials, Maxwell relations, thermodynamic equilibrium & stability, phase transition, Vander Waal's equation of state and the Maxwell's construction of the liquid-gas phase transition. The subjects offered in this course are necessary and important and give the students a background and required knowledge which leads directly into the Statistical Physics course (offered for third class physics majors).

Course Objectives: This course is designed to introduce the second year physics-major undergraduate students with thermodynamics through the course lectures, problem-solving practice and discussion, which is counted as one of the most important areas in classic physics. The course objectives can be summarized into the following important points: 1) Students will be familiar with the key concepts and most fundamental principles and their implications, especially the first and second laws of thermodynamics, and kinetic theory. 2) Students will be able to use and apply the basic concepts of such as entropy, energy, heat, work, etc to a range of different thermodynamic systems in their daily life. For instance air conditioner, refrigerator, automobile, power plant, etc. 3) Students will get familiar with the Legendre transformation and it is application in thermodynamics in getting different thermodynamic potentials from entropy and internal energy. 4) This course will provide students with the fundamentals of phase transitions. The term of the phase transition is commonly used to describe transitions between solid, liquid and gaseous states of matter, in rare cases including plasma. Phase transitions are common occurrences observed in nature and many engineering techniques exploit certain types of phase transition.

Course Textbooks: Halliday, Resnick, Walker: Fundamentals of Physics, Chapter 19 22 Herbert B. Callen: Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, 2nd Edition, Part I-General Principles of Classical Thermodynamics. The course divided into two parts: The first part will be given from the beginning of the October till the end of January, and the second part starts from the beginning of February until the end of May. Halliday & Resnick will be used mostly in the first part and Callen in second part of the course.

Recommended References: Zemansky M.W.Dittman R.H., Heat and thermodynamics (McG-H, 1997, 7ed) - A far more technical thermodynamics text but very comprehensive. Yunus A. Cengel & Michael A. Boles, Thermodynamics An Engineering Approach, 5ed - very well explained book that contains some excellent insight into some of the thermodynamic concepts. W. Greiner, L. Niese, H. Stocker, Thermodynamics and Statistical Mechanics

Useful online Class Notes and Video Lectures: http://academicearth.org/lectures/shankar-thermodynamics, which contains free video course on Fundamentals of Physics by Ramamurti Shankar of Yale University. Lectures 21, 22, 23, and 24 are devoted for an introduction to Classical Thermodynamics. http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/chemistry/5-60-thermodynamics-kinetics-spring-2008/index.htm It Contains Free video course and Lecture Notes on Thermodynamics & Kinetics by Prof. Keith A. Nelson and Prof. Moungi Bawendi of MIT taught in Spring 2008. http://www.pas.rochester.edu/~stte/phy418S04/lectures.html. Hand written class notes on Thermodynamics & Statistical Mechanics by Prof. S. Teitel of Rochester University.

Homework: Homework contains three to five problems, some of them have to be solved by the students during the lecture time. The rest of the problems will be used as a quiz material. Every student has to solve at least one problem in the class during the course. Problems with their solutions will be posted online in the course site before the next coming homework.

How to Solve Problems: One of the very effective methods of studying physics is to work problems. To improve your skill in solving problems, it is recommended to follow the step by step proceduer that presented in Chapter 5 of the following text:

How To Study Physics

By Seville Chapman
http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/chapman.htm#7

Evaluation Procedure: The final course grade will be made up as follows:

Homework, Quiz and Attendance: 14%

Exam_1: 12% (Saturday 08 01 2011) Exam_2: 12% (Saturday 02 04 2011) Exam_3: 12% (Saturday 14 05 2011) Final exam: 50% (... 06 2011) The exams will be closed book and taken during class time

Final Grades:

Excellent 90-100, Very Good 80-89, Good 70-79, Adequate 60-69, Acceptable 50-59, Weak/Failure/ Pathetic 0-49.

Attendance Policy: Attendance at classes is obligatory and students have to attend at least 85% of the classes in order to pass the course. Students have to call their instructor if they are not able to be present at classes, and they need to present a medical document or adequate excuse for their absence. The only adequate excuse for missing tests and classes are: Death of family members, illness, religious holiday, or an official university occasion. If you miss the class, it is your duty for the subject offered in the lecture, new homework, and all announcements that have been made while you were absent.

Course Outline: First part of the Course: In this part of the course,
Halliday, Resnick, Walker: Fundamentals of Physics, Chapter 19 22,

will be mostly used

Chapter 1 / Temperature & Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

This chapter starts by discussing some of the basic concepts, looking at three important and fundamental quantities of temperature, heat, and internal energy and with a description of one of the laws of thermodynamics ( zeroth law). We then discuss the three most common temperature scales-Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin. Next, we consider the thermal expansion of the solid and liquid materials. This chapter concludes with a study of ideal gases on the macroscopic scale. Here, we are concerned with the relationships among such quantities as pressure, volume, and temperature. Later on, in Chapter 3, we shall examine gases on a microscopic scale, using a model that represents the components of a gas as small particles.
The content of this chapter can be divided into the following topics:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Basic Concepts and Definitions Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Thermometers and the Celsius Temperature Scale The Constant-Volume Gas Thermometer and the Absolute Temperature Scale Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas

Chapter 2 / Heat and the First Law of Thermodynamics

This chapter focuses on the concept of internal energy, the processes by which energy is transferred, the first law of thermodynamics, and some of the important applications of the first law. The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. It describes systems in which the only energy change is that of internal energy, which is due to transfers of energy by heat or work. Furthermore, the first law makes no distinction between the results of heat and the results of work. According to the first law, a systems internal energy can be changed either by an energy transfer by heat to or from the system or by work done on or by the system.
The content of this chapter can be divided into the following topics:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Heat and Internal Energy Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Latent Heat Work and Heat in Thermodynamic Processes The First Law of Thermodynamics Some Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics Energy Transfer Mechanisms

Chapter 3 / The Kinetic Theory of Gases

In Chapter 1 the properties of an ideal gas has been discussed, using such macroscopic variables as pressure, volume, and temperature. We shall now show that such large-scale properties can be described on a microscopic scale, where matter is treated as a collection of molecules. Newtons laws of motion applied in a statistical manner to a collection of particles provide a reasonable description of thermodynamic processes. In the kinetic theory, gas molecules move about in a random fashion, colliding with the walls of their container and with each other. Perhaps the most important feature of this theory is that it demonstrates that the kinetic energy of molecular motion and the internal energy of a gas system are equivalent. Furthermore, the kinetic theory provides us with a physical basis for our understanding of the concept of temperature.
The content of this chapter can be divided into the following topics:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Molecular Model of an Ideal Gas Molar Specific Heat of an Ideal Gas Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas The Equipartition of Energy The Boltzmann Distribution Law Distribution of Molecular Speeds Mean Free Path

Chapter 4 / Heat Engines, Entropy, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics makes no distinction between processes that occur spontaneously and those that do not. It only contains the concept of the energy conservation. However, we find that only certain types of energy-conversion and energy-transfer processes actually take place. The second law of thermodynamics, which we study in this chapter, establishes which processes do and which do not occur in nature. We will also learn that it is impossible to convert internal energy completely to mechanical energy by taking a substance through a thermodynamic cycle such as in a heat engine, a device we study in this chapter. These concepts will finally leads us to introduce a new and fundumental thermodynamic quantity, which is called entropy.

The content of this chapter can be divided into the following topics:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Heat Engines and the Second Law of Thermodynamics Reversible and Irreversible Processes The Carnot Engine Gasoline and Diesel Engines Heat Pumps and Refrigerators Entropy Entropy Changes in Irreversible Processes Entropy on a Microscopic Scale

Second part of the Course: In this part,

Herbert B. Callen: Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics, 2nd Edition, Part I-General Principles of Classical Thermodynamics,

will be mostly used

Chapter 05 / Postulates of Thermodynamics & Conditions of Equilibrium

The content of this chapter can be divided into the following topics:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Thermodynamics Equilibrium Postulates of Classical Thermodynamics Walls and Constrain The Basic Problem of Thermodynamics The Entropy Maximum Postulates Thermal, Mechanical, and Chemical Equilibrium Euler and Gibbs - Duhem Relations

Chapter 06 / Thermodynamic Potentials

The content of this chapter can be divided into the following topics:

1. Entropy and Energy as Thermodynamic Potentials 2. The Energy Minimum Princeples 3. Legender Transformations 4. The Helmholz and Gibbs Free Energies 5. The Free Enthalpy 6. The Grand Potential 7. The Transformation of All Variables 8. Extremum Principals for Free Energies 9. The Maxwell relations 10. Stability Conditions for Thermodynamic Potentials

Chapter 07 / Phase Transition

The content of this chapter can be divided into the following topics:

1. Introduction and Basic Concepts 2. Classification of the Phase Transition 3. Van der Waal's equation of state and the liquid-gas phase transition; Maxwell's construction

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

First order Phase Transition in Single Component System The Discountinuty in the Entropy-Latent Heat The Slope of Coexistence Curve; The Clapyeron Equation Unstable Isotherms and First Order Phase Transition Critical Phenomena

Expected Questions During This Course: Example -1, without answers:

University of Sulaimani College of Science Education Department of Physics Thermodynamics

Second year Classes Time: 3 hours. Date:

Q1- Fill in the gaps below: 1- A _____ system is a system in which energy but not matter can exchange with the surroundings. An _____ system is a system in which both energy and matter can exchange with the surroundings. 2- _____ Variables are independent of the mass of material. _____ Variables are dependent on the mass of the material. 3- An _____, _____, and _____ processes occur at constant pressure, temperature and entropy respectively. 4- The first law of thermodynamics, an expression of the principle of conservation of energy, states that energy can be transformed (changed from one form to another), but cannot be _____ or _____. 5- Two systems are in thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibrium when their _____, _____, and _____ are the same. 6- According to the _____ statement of the second law of thermodynamics it is impossible to convert heat completely into work in a cyclic process. But the _____ statement says that heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a material at lower temperature to a material at higher temperature. 7- At _____ point the saturated liquid and the saturated vapor states are identical. At _____ point three phases of a pure substance coexist in equilibrium. Q2: A) An ideal gas is confined to a box initially has a temperature . If both the pressure and the volume of the box are doubled, what will be the temperature of the system? B) Use clausius inequality to show that the reversible isentropic processes are identical to the adiabatic processes C) The temperature difference between the inside and the outside of an automobile engine is 450. Express this temperature difference on the (1) Fahrenheit scale and (2) Kelvin scale. D) Gas is contained in an 8.00-L vessel at a temperature of 20.0C and a pressure of 9.00 atm. (1) Determine the number of moles of gas in the vessel. (2) How many molecules of gas are in the vessel? Q3: A) Show that, when an ideal gas undergoes an adiabatic quasi-static change. = constant, where is the ratio of the specific heat capacities ( = / ). B) An ideal gas with = 1.5 is used as the working substance of a Carnot engine. The temperature of the source is 600 K and that of the sink is 300 . The volume of the gas changes from 4 to 1 liter at the low temperature and the pressure at the volume of 4 liters is 1 atmosphere. Calculate the volumes and pressures at the extreme points of the high temperature expansion and also the heat absorbed there. How much heat is given out at the low temperature and what is the thermodynamic efficiency of the engine? Q4: A) A gas is at 0C. If we wish to double the rms speed of the gass molecules, by how much must we raise its temperature?

B) From the Maxwell-Boltzmann speed distribution, show that the most probable speed of a gas

C) Find the total entropy change, or entropy generation, for the transfer of 1000 kJ of heat energy from a heat reservoir at 1000 K to a heat reservoir at 500 K. What happens when the low-temperature reservoir is at 750 K? Explain D) Describe an imaginary process that (1) satisfies the second law but violates the first law of thermodynamics (2) Violates both the first and second law of thermodynamics. Q5: A) In 1873, Vander Waals proposed an equation of state that predicted more precisely the observed behavior of gases: = 2 () Where and are constants that depend on the type of the gas. The molar internal energy and volume are and respectively. The Vander Waals equation of state is also interesting from a theoretical point, because it exhibits a phase transition and a critical point. Below are plotted the isotherms of the Vander Waals equation in the (, ) plane:

molecule is given by =

(1) The critical point, marked , is the inflection point on the critical isotherm. Derive an expression for the temperature , pressure , and volume at the critical point. (2) Show that the Vander Waals equation can be written as 8 3 = 2. 3 1

Fig (): Isotherms of the Vander Waals gases for four different temperatures.

longer appear in the equation of state. What is the significance of this? B) Consider taking the Legendre transform of the energy, E(S, V, N), with respect to S, V, and N, to get a new thermodynamic potential, X (T, P, ). (1) Show that X (T, P, ) is identically zero. (2) From the differential form of X (T, P, ), find and . = . = .

Where the rescaled variables are defined as = , = , = . Note that and no

Note:

= =

Good Luck Peshwaz Abdulkarim Abdul

Example -2, with their answers:

University of Sulaimani College of Science Education Department of Physics Thermodynamics

Second year Classes Time: 3hours Date

Q1- Fill in the gaps below: 1- An isobaric, isochoric, isothermal, and isentropic processes occur at constant _____, _____, _____, and _____ respectively. 2- Two examples for the intensive properties are _____, and _____. And two examples for the extensive properties are _____, and _____. 3- The first law of thermodynamics says that _____ is conserved in any process involving a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. 4- A liquid that is about to vaporize is called _____. A vapor that is about to condense is called _____. The saturation temperature of a pure substance depends on pressure. The higher the pressure the _____ the saturation or boiling temperature. 5- A cording to the Kelvin-Planck statement of the second law of thermodynamics it is impossible to convert _____ completely into _____ in a cyclic process. But the Clausius version state that heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a material at _____ temperature to a material at _____ temperature. 6- The four processes that make up the Carnot cycle are _____, _____, _____, and _____. Q2: A) How much heat in Joule is required to increase the temperature of 4 Kg of water from 15C to 30C? (Note that the specific heat of water is 1.00 cal gm-1 K-1) B) At what temperature are Fahrenheit and Kelvin scales equal? C) Nine particles, each of mass m and have speeds of 5, 8, 12, 12, 12, 14, 14, 17, and 20 m/s. (1) Find the average speed, (2) the rms speed, and (3) the most probable speed of the particles. (4) Find the average kinetic energy per particle. Q3: A) Explain why it is impossible for a small amount of energy to be transferred spontaneously from a large cold object at temperature to a large hot object at temperature . B) Is it possible for two objects to be in thermal equilibrium if they are not in contact with each other? Explain. C) 1-mol sample of an ideal gas is kept at 0C during an expansion from 3L to 10L. (1) How much work is done by the gas during the expansion? (2) How much energy transfer by heat occurs with the surroundings in this process? (3) If the gas is returned to the original volume by means of an isobaric process, how much work is done by the gas? Q4: (A) The energy absorbed by an engine is three times greater than the work is performs. (1) What is its thermal efficiency? (2) What fraction of the energy absorbed is expelled to the cold reservoir? (B) In 1873, Vander Waals proposed an equation of state that predicted more precisely the observed behavior of gases:

Where and are constants that depend on the type of the gas. The molar internal energy and volume are and respectively. The Vander Waals equation of state is also interesting from a theoretical point, because it exhibits a phase transition and a critical point. Below are plotted the isotherms of the Vander Waals equation in the (, ) plane:

()

B A

Fig(): Isotherms of the Vander Waals gases for four different temperatures. Here C is the critical point at which both the first and second derivatives of with respect to are vanishing (holding T).

Q5: Use the Euler and Gibbs-Duhem relations to show that for a monoatomic classical ideal gas A) Total entropy can be written as follows: 2 2 (, , ) = 0 + 0 0 0
3 5

(1) The isotherms in the figure are not labeled. Show from () that the temperature is lowest for the lowest isotherms, and highest for the uppermost one. (2) Explain why the region between the points and is thermodynamically unstable.

Where is the total internal energy, is the total volume, and is the total number of particles. 0 , 0 , 0 , and are constants. B) By taking an appropriate first order derivative of the entropy S (E, V, N), find the familiar equation of state, = . C) Compute the specific heat capacity at constant volume .
R

Note:

= . = . = =

Good Luck Mr. Peshwaz Abdulkarim Abdul

Answers/Example-2: Q11- Pressure, volume, temperature, and entropy. 2- Intensive properties are like Temperature, pressure, chemical potential, etc .. Properties which do not depend on mass or size of the system. Extensive properties are like volume, mass, entropy, internal energy, etc .. Properties which depend on mass or size of the system. 3- Energy. 4- Saturated liquid, saturated vapor, higher. 5- Heat, work, lower, higher. 6- Reversible isothermal expansion, reversible adiabatic expansion, reversible isothermal compression, reversible adiabatic compression.

Q2A) 4 = 4000 , 15 = (15 + 273) = 288, 30 = (30 + 273) = 303 = 1.00 1 1 = = 4,000 1.00 1 1 (303 288) = 60,000 = 251,160 = . 1 4.186 9 = 459.4 5 = 9 = 459.4 5 9 1 = 459.4 5 4 = 459.4 5 = .

B)

C)

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 = = 5 + 8 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 14 + 14 + 17 + 20 9 =1 = 178 = 2 = . 9

5 + 8 + 12 + 12 + 12 + 14 + 14 + 17 + 20 = = 9 =1 = .
9

= = . ()

()

= . () = 178 = = 2 , 3 1.38 1023 = 2 = . 1 3 2 = 2 2

()

Q3-

A) . Q = TL is negative because heat has been the low temperature system, and Q = + TH is positive because heat has been the high temperature system. Q Q = + = + < 0 TH TL The entropy change is negative.

This process obeys the first law. That is, the energy lost by the cold reservoir equals the energy gained by the hot one. But this process never occurs, because this result violates the principle of increasing of entropy, which states that the entropy change is always positive except in the case of the reversible adiabatic processes in which the entropy change is zero. For any processes to be occurred in nature, the following condition should be satisfies: S 0

This is because TH > TL

This is not the case in our example, in which heat transferred spontaneously from a cold to a hot reservoir. Our example violates the Clausius statement Heat generally cannot flow spontaneously from a material at lower temperature to a material at higher temperature. This is equivalent to the Kelvin-Planck statement It is impossible to convert heat completely into work in a cyclic process.
TH> TL

Q
TL< TH

B) Yes it is possible. According to the zeroth law of thermodynamics, which can be expressed as: "If A and C are each in thermal equilibrium with B, A is also in thermal equilibrium with C." This means that if A and C are not in contact with each other, still we can decide whether they are in thermal equilibrium or not by measuring their temperature with a thermometer (system B). If they have the same temperature then they are in thermal equilibrium
A and C are not in contact, but they are in thermal equilibrium A B thermometer C

A and B are in thermal equilibrium

C and B are in thermal equilibrium

C)
P Isothermal T = constant = 273K Isobaric P = constant

(1)

V1 = 3 L, P1

= = =
10 3

10

V2 = 10 L, P1

(2)

= = = (3 10) = 7 = 1 = 2 1 8.314 273 2 = = = 227 2 10

10 10

= = . .
3 3

= 1 8.314 273 [1.204] = . = .

= 1 = 0 + 273 = 273 = 8.314 1 1

3 10 = 3 = [ln(10) ln(3)] =

= = = .

Q4(A)

2)

1)

= 3

= = 3 = 2

1 = = = = %33 3 3

Source

Heat engien

Sink

(B) 2 For a given value of , let us assume that point 1 on the lowest curve has temperature 1 , and pressure 1 and point 2 on the uppermost one has temperature 2 , and pressure 2 . Writing the Vander Waals equation for these two points, one can get the following equations: 1) = 1 2 (1) 2 2 = 2 (2) 1 =

By subtracting the first equation from the second equation, one can get the following: ( ) 2 1 = 2 1 > > . This relation tells us that temperature at point 1 is smaller than the temperature of point 2. This means that the temperature is lowest for the lowest isotherms, and highest for the uppermost one.
2 1 2

2 1

2)

Using Helmholz free energy as a key point, I will explain why the region between points and is thermodynamically unstable. For the system to be thermodynamiclly stable, the helmholtz free energy (, , ) has to be concave (convex) in its intensive (extensive) variables . We consider convexivety of (, , ) with respect to volume . = + = , 2 2 = 0, , , ,

But the region between points A and B has positive slope :

,

Q5: A) The entropy for a classical ideal monoatoimc gas: = 2

3

Ideal gas equation of state: = Internal energy:

If we can find , then we have entropy via =

From the Gibbs-Duhem relation in entropy representation

By using equations (1) and (2), then equation (4) can be rewrite in the following form: 3 1 1 = + 2 3 = 2

1 = + (4)

+ + . . (3)

= 2 = 2
3

. . (1)
3

. . (2)

Integrate to get

Where 0 and 0 arsome refrence state, and is an unknown constant of integration. By substituting this result into equation 3, then one gets =

3 = ln ln 0 2 0 0 + +
0

3 3 / / = + + ln ln 2 0 2 0 /0 0 /0 (, , ) = + ()

Where

B) (1) (, , ) = 1 +

By substitiuting (, , ) from equation 5 into equation 6, one can get ( ) = , () = ,

= () ,

This is the ideal gas equation of state (2)

3 = 2 3 0 = 0 0 2 By substituting the above eqaution, one can rewrite equation 5 in the following form: 2 1 + (, , ) = 0 0 0 0
3

= , 2 =
3 ,

= =

3 () = 2 ,