Introduction to Human Skeletal System:

Skeletal system is the system of bones, associated cartilages and joints of human body. Together these structures form the human skeleton. Skeleton can be defined as the hard framework of human body around which the entire body is built. Almost all the hard parts of human body are components of human skeletal system. Joints are very important because they make the hard and rigid skeleton allow different types of movements at different locations. If the skeleton were without joints, no movement would have taken place and the significance of human body; no more than a stone.

Human Skeleton

Components of Human Skeleton:

Human skeleton is composed of three main components; Bones, Associated cartilages and Joints.

Bones:
Bone is a tough and rigid form of connective tissue. It is the weight bearing organ of human body and it is responsible for almost all strength of human skeleton.

Cartilages:
Cartilage is also a form of connective tissue but is not as tough and rigid as bone. The main difference in the cartilage and bone is the mineralization factor. Bones are highly mineralized with calcium salts while cartilages are not.

Joints:
Joints are important components of human skeleton because they make the human skeleton mobile. A joint occurs between two or more bones, bone and cartilage and cartilage and cartilage.

Divisions of Human Skeleton:

Human skeleton can be divided into two divisions.

Axial Skeleton:
Axial skeleton forms the axis of human body. It consists of Skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage.

Skull: Skull is that part of human skeleton that forms the bony framework of the head. It consists of 22 different bones that are divided into two groups: bones of cranium and bones of face. Vertebral Column: It is a flexible column of vertebrae, connecting the trunk of human body to the skull and appendages. It is composed

of 33 vertebrae which are divided into 5 regions: Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral, and Coccygeal. -Rib Cage: It is a bony cage enclosing vital human organs formed by the sternum and ribs. There are 12 pairs of ribs that are divided into three groups: True ribs, False ribs, and Floating ribs.

Axial Skeleton

Appendicular Skeleton:
It is the skeleton of appendages of human body. It consists of Shoulder girdle, Skeleton of upper limb, Pelvic girdle and Skeleton of lower limb.

Shoulder Girdle: It attaches the upper limb to body trunk and is formed by two bones: clavicle and scapula.Clavicle is a modified long bone and is subcutaneous throughout its position. It is also known as the beauty bone. For more details on clavicle, visit:"Scapula is a pear shaped flat bone that contains the glenoid fossa for the formation of shoulder joint. It possesses three important processes: Spine of scapula, Acromion process and Coracoid process. For more details, visit .

Skeleton of Upper limb: The skeleton of each upper limb consists of 30 bones. These bones are: Humerus, Ulna, Radius, Carpals (8), Metacarpals (5), Phalanges (14).Click on the name of any bone for more details. Pelvic Girdle: There are two pelvic girdles (one for each lower limb) but unlike the pectoral girdles, they are jointed with each other at symphysis pubis. Each pelvic girdle is a single bone in adults and is made up of three components: Ileum, Ischium and Pubis. For more details, visit Hip Bone. Skeleton of Lower limb: The skeleton of each lower limb consists of 30 bones. These bones are; Femur, Tibia, Patella, Tarsals (7), Metatarsals (5), Phalanges (14).Click on the name of any bone for more details.

Appendicular Skeleton Sex-based differences

There are many differences between the male and female human skeletons. Most prominent is the difference in the pelvis, owing to characteristics required for the processes of childbirth. The shape of a female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger to allow the head of a fetus to pass. A male's pelvis is about 90 degrees or less of angle, whereas a woman's is 100 degrees or more. Also, the coccyx of a female's pelvis is oriented more inferiorly whereas the man's coccyx is usually oriented more anteriorly. This difference allows more room for a developing fetus. Men tend to have slightly thicker and longer limbs and digit bones (phalanges), while women tend to have narrower rib cages, smaller teeth, less angular mandibles, less pronounced cranial features such as the brow ridges and external occipital protuberance (the small bump at the back of the skull), and the carrying angle of the forearm is more pronounced in females. Females also tend to have more rounded shoulder blades.

PARTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Front View (Anterior)

Back View(Posterior)

BONE NAME Cranium Maxilla (Upper Jaw) Mandible (Lower Jaw) Cervical vertebra Clavicle (Collar Bone) Humerus

EXPLANATION Cranium, also known as the braincase (or sometimes skull), protects the brain from injury. It serves as the framework for the head. Maxilla is the upper jaw bone. It is somewhat pyramidal in shape and has a large cavity called the maxillary sinus. Mandible forms the lower jaw. Mandible is the largest and the strongest facial bone. Cervical vertebrae are located at the back of the neck region. There are 7 cervical vertebrae. Atlas is the first cervical vertebra. Clavicle is also known as the collar bone. Clavicle is a slender rod shaped bone located in the collar region. Humerus is located in the upper arm. The head of the humerus fits into the glenoid cavity of the pectoral girdle to form a ball and socket joint.

Sternum is located at the centre of the thorax, i.e., the chest. Sternum It is a dagger-shaped bone that along with the ribs forms (Breast Bone) the rib cage. Rib There are 12 pairs of ribs. The last pair of ribs is called as the floating ribs because they are not attached to the sternum. Radius is the bone located at the lateral side of the forearm. It extends from the elbow to the wrist. Radius along with Ulna constitutes the forearm. Ulna is the bone in the forearm that is aligned with the little finger. Ulna along with Radius constitutes the forearm. Pelvic girdle is a bony ring located at the base of the spine.

Radius

Ulna Pelvic girdle

(Hip Bone)

It is composed of 2 hip bones which support the lower limbs. There are 4 caudal vertebrae at the end of the vertebral column. Caudal vertebrae are separate at birth, but in the later years they fuse together to form one single bone called coccyx (representing remnant of tail).

Coccyx (Tailbone)

Carpals are located in the wrist region. Carpals (Wrist There are 8 nodule-like bones called carpals in the wrist bones) region. Metacarpals Phalanges Metacarpals are 5 small rod-shaped bones located in the palm region. There are 14 phalanges in the fingers. The thumb has 2 phalanges whereas other fingers have 3 phalanges each.

Femur is located in the thigh region. The head of the femur fits into the acetabulum of the pelvic Femur (Thigh girdle to form a ball and socket joint. bone) It is the longest and the heaviest bone. It supports the weight of the body. Patella (Kneecap) Fibula Tibia Patella is located in front of the knee joint. It is commonly known as the kneecap. It protects and covers the knee joint. Fibula is located in the calf region of the leg. Fibula along with Tibia constitutes the lower leg. Tibia is located in the shin region of the leg. Tibia along with Fibula constitutes the lower leg. Tibia is the larger of the two bones. There are 7 tarsal bones in the ankle. Calcaneus is the largest tarsal bone which constitutes the heel. Metatarsals are 5 long rod-shaped bones. They are located between the tarsals and the phalanges. Metacarpals of hand are analogous to metatarsals of foot. There are 14 phalanges in the toes. The big toe has two phalanges whereas other toes have three phalanges each.

Tarsals

Metatarsals

Phalanges

Functions of human skeleton:

Human skeleton performs some important functions that are necessary for survival of human beings.

Support
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis and associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the ribs, costal cartilages, the intercostal muscles and the heart would collapse.

Movement
The joints between bones permit movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.

Protection
The skeleton protects many vital organs:

The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner ears. The vertebrae protects the spinal cord. The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels. The clavicle and scapula protect the shoulder. The ilium and spine protect the digestive and urogenital systems and the hip. The patella and the ulna protect the knee and the elbow respectively. The carpals and tarsals protect the wrist and ankle respectively.

Blood cell production

The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, which takes place in red bone marrow.

Storage
Bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium,but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone.

Endocrine regulation
Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulinproducing cells and reducing stores of fat.[7]

Diseases and Disorders

Leukemia The cause of most human leukemia is unknown. It is a kind of cancer in which abnormal white blood cells multiply in an uncontrolled manner. they interfere with the production of normal white blood cells. Leukemia affects the production of red blood cells. Bursitis Bursitis is a disorder that causes pain in the body's joints. It most commonly affects the shoulder and hip joints. It is caused by an inflammation of the bursa, small fluid-filled bags that act as lubricating surfaces for muscles to move over bones. This inflammation usually results from overactivity of an arm or leg. Osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a disease resulting in the loss of bone tissue. In osteoporosis, the cancellous bone loses calcium, becomes thinner, and may disappear altogether. Sprains A sprain is an injury to a ligament or to the tissue that covers a joint. Most sprains result from a sudden wrench that stretches or tears the tissues of the ligaments. A sprain is usually extremely painful. The injured part often swells and turns black and blue. Fractures A fracture is a broken bone. These are some common kinds of

fractures: Spina bifida Spina bifida is a spinal defect that is present at birth. In spina bifida, the spinal cord does not form properly and the vertebrae and skin cannot form around it. Spina bifida results from an error in the development of the embryo that occurs about a month after a woman becomes pregnant. This error may have various causes, including the use of alcohol or certain

medications by the pregnant woman or exposure to extreme heat. Genetic factors appear to be very important. Scurvy Scurvy is a disease caused by lack of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in the diet. If a person does not get enough vitamin C, any wound he or she might have heals poorly. The person also bruises easily. The mouth and gums become sore. The gums bleed, and the teeth may become loose. Patients lose their appetite, their joints become sore, and they become restless. Arthritis There are more than 100 diseases of the joints referred to as arthritis. Victims of arthritis suffer pain, stiffness, and swelling in their joints. Osteoarthritis, also called degenerative joint disease, occurs when a joint wears out. Many elderly people have osteoarthritis, and the disease may also occur if a joint has been injured many times. The joints most frequently affected are those of the hands, hips, knees, lower back, and neck. Scoliosis Scoliosis is a side-to-side curve of the spine. This condition becomes apparent during adolescence. It is unknown why Scoliosis affects more girls than boys. Talipes equinovarus Talipes equinovarus, often called clubfoot is an abnormal condition of the foot, usually present at birth. The foot is bent downward and inward so that the person can walk only on the toes and on the outside of the foot. Sometimes the foot is bent upward and outward so that the person can use only the heel for walking. Tendinitis Tendinitis is a disorder involving stiffness or pain in the muscles or joints. It is often called rheumatism.

Kyphosis Kyphosis, also called hunchback is a forward bending of the spine. Kyphosis is caused by any condition that deforms the bones of the upper part of the spine so that the person is bent forward. Diseases that cause kyphosis include tuberculosis, syphilis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Poliomyelitis Poliomyelitis, also called polio, is a serious infection caused by a virus. A polio virus may attack the nerve cells of the brain and spinal cord, causing paralysis. Some patients show only mild symptoms, such as fever, headache, sore throat, and vomiting. Symptoms may disappear after about a day.