Urban Forests and Trees

41BL17_Pages_lim 07-07-2005 10:20 Pagina 1
COST
European cooperation in the field of scientific and technical research
COST Action E12 Forests and forestry products
Urban forests and trees
Proceedings No 2
Edited by
C. C. Konijnendijk, J. Schipperijn, K. Nilsson
2005
EUR 21524 EN
Legal notice by the COST Office Neither the COST Office nor any person acting on its behalf is responsible for the use which might be made of the information contained in this publication. The COST Office is not responsible for the external websites referred to in this publication.
Europe Direct is a service to help you find answers to your questions about the European Union Freephone number (*):
00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11
(*) Certain mobile telephone operators do not allow access to 00 800 numbers or these calls may be billed.
A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int). Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2005 ISBN 92-898-0009-7 COST Office, 2005 No permission to reproduce or utilise the contents of this book by any means is necessary, other than in the case of images, diagrams or other material from other copyright holders. In such cases, permission of the copyright holders is required. This book may be cited as: COST Action E12 Urban forests and trees Proceedings No 2. Printed in Belgium PRINTED
ON WHITE CHLORINE-FREE PAPER
Preface
COST (European Cooperation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research) is a framework for the co-ordination of national research at European Level. The COST Action E12 Urban Forests and Trees was started in June 1997 and ended in June 2002. The aim of the action was to coordinate and promote research on urban forests and urban trees in Europe. More than 100 experts in urban trees, parks and woodlands, representing 22 European countries and 70 institutions, have evaluated the built-up areas of Europe and they also have developed innovative approaches for maintaining and developing sustainable and multi-functional benefits of urban forests and trees. The main results of the action include the first comparative overviews of research and educational capacities in European urban forestry, and the development of a strong European network. The COST support was crucial in the development of the network, which has already let to various spin-offs, e.g. a new scientific journal (Urban Forestry & Urban Greening1), the launch of the European Urban Forestry Research and Information Centre (EUFORIC2) and various international projects. These proceedings are the 2nd of two, the first were issued in 2002. In these proceedings selected papers presented at the COST E12 seminars in Florence, Ljubljana, Thessalonki and Bruges, as well as the research conference The Changing Role of Forestry in Europe, between Urbanization and rural Development, are included. This conference was organised jointly with the EU-FAIR Multifor.RD project and Wageningen University and Research Centre. Detailed programmes of the meetings can be found in the appendix. The papers illustrate the broad range of topics within urban forestry that has been covered throughout the existence of the Action. The first chapter deals with policymaking, planning and design for urban forests and trees. Urban afforestation is one of main challenges in forest-poor, highly urbanised north-western Europe, as studies in Belgium and the Netherlands show. Chapter 2 focuses on functions and benefits of urban forests. Multi-functionality seems to be crucial when managing limited urban forest resources for a demanding urban society. It also seems crucial to have a better
1 2
http://www.elsevier.de/ufug/ http://www.sl.kvl.dk/euforic/
assessment of benefits and costs. Chapter 3 continues with some of the threats to urban forest sustainability. Pests and diseases are problematic across Europe, e.g. the wild fires as primary challenge for Mediterranean urban foresters. Management of urban forests to maintain a healthy and multifunctional resource is the topic of chapter 4. And finally, chapter 5 describes urban forestry as a challenging field. Urban forest resources in high-pressure urban environments require extensive partnerships to be successful. Not only different professionals and political support, but also the involvement of the private sector, interest groups and the public at large. Some successful examples of how to generate partnerships for urban forestry are given. The COST Action E12 succeeded in establishing a good basis for co-ordinated European research in the field of urban forests and trees. The challenge for the coming years will be to continue along the set path and to further expand both the European co-operation and the research within the field. Finally we would like to thank all authors for their contributions, Nelli Leth and Jette Alsing Larsen at Forest & Landscape Denmark for the layout and all national experts that participated in COST E12 activities. Cecil C. Konijnendijk, Jasper Schipperijn and Kjell Nilsson, Editors Forest & Landscape Denmark
Contents
Preface Chapter 1 Cost Action E12 Urban Forests and Trees Linking together research on urban forests and trees in Europe
Kjell Nilsson and Cecil Konijnendijk COST E12 Final Declaration Werner Pillmann and other experts of COST Action E12
31
Chapter 2 Policy-making, planning and design for urban forests and trees
Urban forestry and open space in the urbanised context of western Europe: a policy point of view Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Bruges, June 13th, 2002 Peter Janssens Realising urban forests in Flanders: a policy perspective Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Bruges, June 13th, 2002 Jeroen Nachtergaele, Rik De Vreese, Raoul Vanhaeren & Jos Van Slycken Planning new forests in The Netherlands Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Ljubljana, June 28 , 2001 Rien van den Berg The design of urban woodlands in the Netherlands: development of a polder forest Presented at the Symposium The changing role of forestry in Europe; between urbanization and rural development in Wageningen, November 13th, 2001 Dominique Blom A historical case of peri-urban forestry: the Sotos Historicos of Aranjuez, Spain Presented at the Symposium The changing role of forestry in Europe; between urbanization and rural development in Wageningen, November 13th, 2001 Jos Luis Garcia-Valdecantos & Maria-Luisa Tello
th
33 35
47
55
65
89
Chapter 3 Functions and benefits of urban forests and trees

Multifunctionality in urban forestry Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Ljubljana, June 28 , 2001 Janes Pirnat
th
99 101
Results of changing social demands in Istanbul Bahcekoy Forest Enterprise: a case study Presented at the Symposium The changing role of forestry in Europe; between urbanization and rural development in Wageningen, November 13th, 2001 mer Eker & Kenan Ok Cost-benefit analysis of urban forests from a research point of view Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Bruges, June 13 , 2002 Ellen Moons
th
119
133
Chapter 4 Threats to urban forests and trees

Analysis of the wildland-urban interface fire problem of Greece Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Thessaloniki, April 11 , 2002 Alexandros Dimitrakopoulos Pests and diseases of urban forests in Greece Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Thessaloniki, April 11th, 2002 Helen Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos Threats to urban green areas - case study: Mexico City Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Thessaloniki, April 11 , 2002 Alicia Chacalo, Jaime Grabinsky, Hector Javier Vazquez & Alejandro Aldama
th th
155 157
165
177
Chapter 5 Management of urban forests and trees

Weed control in the urban environment in Denmark Presented at the Symposium The changing role of forestry in Europe; between urbanization and rural development in Wageningen, November 13th, 2001 Palle Kristoffersen & Camilla Lophaven Urban forests of Thessaloniki: Post-fire (1997) restoration perspectives Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Thessaloniki, April 11 , 2002 Christos Tourlakidis Arboricultural research of trees in City of Ljubljana and instructions for their care Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Ljubljana, June 28th, 2001 Primoz Oven Managing forest fires near urban areas in Mediterranean countries Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Thessaloniki, April 11 , 2002 Ramon Vallejo, Susana Bautista, Jaime Baeza & J.Antonio Alloza
th th
189 191
205
217
225
Chapter 6 Partnerships for urban forestry

The White Rose Forest - A catalyst for the regeneration of a region Presented at the Symposium The changing role of forestry in Europe; between urbanization and rural development in Wageningen, November 13th, 2001 Alan Simson Challenges of neighbourhood participation in city-scale urban green-space planning Presented at the Symposium The changing role of forestry in Europe; between urbanization and rural development in Wageningen, November 13th, 2001 Ann Van Herzele Urban forestry in India and Nepal Presented at the COST E12 Plenary Session in Thessaloniki, April 11th, 2002 Klaus Seeland Informing the public about the ecological impact of different methods for road and pavement winter maintenance in Vienna Presented at the Symposium The changing role of forestry in Europe; between urbanization and rural development in Wageningen, November 13th, 2001 Monika Sieghardt & Martin Wresowar
235 237
249
261
269
Appendix Programmes of meetings in Florence, Ljubljana, Wageningen, Thessaloniki & Bruges List of participants in the 5 meetings
281
283
291
Chapter 1
COST Action E12 Urban Forests & Trees Linking together research on urban forests and trees in Europe together
COST Action E12 Urban Forests & Trees Linking together research on urban forests and trees in Europe
Kjell Nilsson (Chairman COST E12) & Cecil Konijnendijk (Coordinator COST E12) Forest & Landscape Denmark Rolighedsvej 23, DK 1958 Frederiksberg, Denmark
Introduction
COST was set up in 1971 as an intergovernmental framework for European cooperation in science and technology. The goal of COST is to ensure that Europe holds a strong position in the field of scientific and technical research for peaceful purposes, by increasing European co-operation and interaction in this field. It is based on so-called Actions, which are networks of co-ordinated national research projects in fields that are of interest to a minimum number of participants (at least 5) from different member states. The Actions are defined by a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed by the Governments of the COST states wishing to participate in the Action. One of the 19 domains within the COST organisation is that of Forests and Forestry Products (FFP). Forestry represents the greatest single land use within Europe, involving some 10 million forest owners. Forest product manufacturing employs an estimated two million people, making forests an invaluable resource for economic development. Europe is a highly urban continent, with soon 75 % of its population residing in urban areas. In the urban landscape, trees and woodlands are probably the most important biological elements. They are essential contributors to a high quality of urban life and environment. Planning and management of urban forests and trees are essential to encourage production, leisure, and sustainability for future generations. The need to advance research and development activities on urban forests and trees in Europe by means of international cooperation led to the establishment of COST Action E12 Urban Forests and Trees within the COST FFP domain.
Objectives
COST Action E12s main objective was to improve the knowledge base needed for better planning, design, establishment and management of urban forests and urban
11
trees in Europe, and, by doing this, to establish urban forests and urban trees as a scientific domain in Europe. The Action aimed to improve this knowledge base through the establishment of a comprehensive description of the state of the art on urban forests and trees. This description would include available relevant European research resources and ongoing work. It aimed to create a lasting European, multi-disciplinary research network on urban forests and trees and identification and promotion of interactions with relevant other international networks would be made. COST Action E12 set out to establish new research tasks and make priorities for urban forests and trees and propose new research projects, all at the European level. This was expected to raise awareness of the benefits of urban forests and trees and concerns in the population at large. Furthermore the Action would: - Improve the methods of valuation of the benefits and costs of urban forests and trees. - Improve the methods of establishment of urban trees, as well as of plant selection methods. - Improve the methods of management for urban forests and trees. Additionally, the Action aimed to establish interactions with other COST Actions and international organisations as the topics of urban forests and trees are related to many aspects of the environment and to human behaviour. COST Action E12 would facilitate the transfer of research results and existing technology. It wanted to lead to new approaches and management techniques of urban forests throughout Europe.
Technical description and implementation

The scientists and professionals working under this Action originated from many different backgrounds as researchers within forestry, biology, geography, sociology, urban planning, horticulture, arboriculture and landscape architecture are all dealing with urban forests and urban trees. This multidisciplinary character of the research field needed to be recognised and strengthened. Moreover, the Action aimed to highlight the European dimension of research issues with regards to urban forests and urban trees. Traditionally, much of the research in the field had taken place at a local or regional scale, with a limited exchange of experiences. The scientific programme for the Action was arranged via three Working Groups, each of which composed a key element of the Action. In the Working Groups, new research tasks were formulated and national pilot studies were initiated. In this way, Working Group coordination elucidated the variation between the participating
12
countries but also facilitated the formulation of new research tasks. The following list presents the three Working Groups; for each, specific research tasks are mentioned. 1. Objectives and functions of urban forests and urban trees: Assessment of urban forest benefits which includes peoples valuation of their living environment. Planning and design of urban forests and trees that incorporate a stand of uneven structured and aged trees, with amenity values. Design of urban tree planting with respect to the infrastructure in order to secure optimum growing conditions for the trees. Development of models for strategic planting of street trees.
2. Establishment of trees for urban uses, including identification and selection of species, provenances and cultivars: Establishment methods of urban forests and urban trees which are superior in the harsh urban growing mediums. Selection of urban tree cultivars against new environmental constraints such as de-icing salts. Selection of trees with good survivability as alternatives to Elm trees (Ulmus spp.) in Northern Europe and Plane trees (Platanus spp.) in Southern Europe. Use of provenance selection for urban purposes (collection of propagation material from different geographical locations). 3. Management of urban forests and urban trees: Development of a management method which can produce a multi-functional, biodiverse and sustainable urban forest. Development of methods to predict weak and hazardous trees in order to determine the vitality of street trees. Exchange of pruning and thinning techniques, supplemented with regional silvicultural practices throughout Europe. Development and exchange of basic knowledge of the pathogens that affect trees in order to systematise this subject. Development of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as a planning and management system related to urban forests and trees. Development of management methods that ensure optimal coordination between aesthetics, infrastructure and growth rates for street trees. Scientific tasks for each of the groups were developed and pilot studies were initiated (see the next section). All pilot-study trails were or will be presented in publications containing (i) national results and (ii) a summary of the European dimension within the topic. The pilot studies were primarily carried out on a national basis but
13
coordinated by the Working Groups and eventually by the Management Committee. On the basis of the national (but highly coordinated) pilot studies, new international and multi-disciplinary research programs have been formulated. The daily coordination of COST Action E12 was in the hands of the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, where the Actions secretariat was located. Steering of the Action was done by the Management Committee and its representative, the Core Group. This core group consisted of the chairman and vice-chair of the Action, the three WG-leaders, and the Actions coordinator, in some cases supplemented with a local organiser of a seminar and meeting.
Activities and results

State of the art and pilot studies During 1998 and the first half of 1999, the national experts prepared state-of-the-art reports on research on urban forests and urban trees in their respective countries. These reports were standardised, edited and compiled into the report COST Action E12 Research and Development in Urban Forestry in Europe, published by the European Commission at the end of 1999 (see list of publications). The book includes national reports from 20 countries and lists over 400 research projects. It is the first overview publication of research on urban forests and urban trees in Europe. With the publication of this book, one of the main objectives of COST E12 i.e. providing an overview of recent and ongoing urban forestry research in Europe has been met. Within COST E12, a review on the state-of-the-art of urban forestry research and education was carried out. This study was started through the state-of-the-art inventory of research mentioned above. From March 1999 onwards, the review was granted special funding and extended to include additional countries and analysis, as well as a review of higher education on urban forests and trees in Europe. The project was completed in spring 2001, with E12s coordinator as main researcher, assisted by a research assistant at the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute. An overview of higher education on urban forests and urban trees in Europe was compiled by means of a questionnaire. The final report of this work, with 28 country reports on higher education on urban forests and trees was published in March 2002 by the European Communities Printing Office. One of the other aims of COST E12 was the initiation of pilot studies. These studies had the intention to enlarge the knowledge base within a certain field, and/or to act as a stepping stone towards new research. Various pilot studies were carried out starting
14
from 1999. Below, the studies are briefly presented for each of E12s working groups. National experts coordinated these studies, with the assistance of the Working Group leaders. Pilot study within WG 1 Benefits and functions,
Study nr. 1 Objective and activities The aim was to identify urban forest resources and their planning and management in larger European cities. By means of a questionnaire, two of the largest cities for each country involved (ca. 20) were studied. Coordination by national experts. Description An overview of urban forests and urban forestry in selected, larger European cities based on which e.g. research & development needs could be identified. Among the study areas were: Resource information (e.g. green area in and near city, division over diverse types of green space; ownership, trends). Information on use of green areas. Planning and management (plans, practices, responsibilities, participation). Problems, issues and needs. To be included in the COST E12 urban forestry reference book. Outputs Publication submitted to scientific journal (Urban Forestry & Urban Greening) as well as national journals. Study also provided input to the COST E12 reference book on urban forests and trees.
The aim to was to provide a first overview of recent and ongoing research on public attitudes and perceptions towards urban forests and trees in Europe.
Material from different countries was compiled for the COST E12 reference book on urban forestry.
Pilot studies within WG 2 Selection and establishment,

Study nr. 1 Objective and activities Inventory of selection criteria for breeding new plant material. Inventory by means of a questionnaire, distributed via national experts. Tests of Dutch hybrid Elms. Inventory of state-of-the-art by means of a questionnaire sent to relevant research capacities. Criteria for establishment of urban trees. Questionnaire, to be distributed among local authorities, via national experts. Description An overview of selection criteria used in Europe, by means of a questionnaire. Outputs The results were compiled and provide an important input to the COST E12 reference book on urban forests and trees.
Identifying to present location and condition of hybrid Elms, bred in the Netherlands in early 1980s. Assessing the resistance against Dutch Elm Disease. An overview of establishment criteria as used in European cities.
Study was concluded and a final meeting was held in Belgium in 2001. The selection work has resulted in a new, resistant cultivar now on the market. Study was finalised and results were presented at the COST E12 Wageningen conference. A scientific article was prepared and submitted to a scientific journal (Urban Forestry & Urban Greening). The Dutch media presented some of the studys results after the conference in Wageningen. Moreover, the study provided input to several chapters of the COST E12 reference book.
15
Pilot studies within WG 3 Management,

Study nr. 1 Objective and activities To identify the most important pests and diseases on common European urban trees. By means of a questionnaire, completed by national experts. To identify the computer systems used to manage and assess urban forests and trees in Europe. By means of a questionnaire, distributed among local authorities, by national experts. Tentative overview of sustainable development of (peri)urban woodlands in Europe. Description An overview of pests and diseases relevant on common urban trees in Europe. Outputs Overview publication under preparation, while input was also provided to the chapter on biotic stresses for the COST E12 reference book. Results were submitted as a paper to a conference on information technologies in natural resource management in be held in Vienna management to Vienna 2002. during 2002.
An overview of computer systems for urban forest and tree management and assessment.
Literature review, expert knowledge compiled.
Several papers under preparation. Pilot project also provided input to the woodland management chapter of the COST E12 reference book.
COST E12 reference book on urban forestry in Europe One of the main activities within COST E12 during 2001-02 has been the preparation of the first European reference book on urban forestry. This process started in October 2000. The book will include all main, relevant aspects of urban forestry science and practice, with focus on the European dimension. Springer has agreed to publish the book in 2004. Other activities Presentations about COST E12 and its activities were given at several occasions. These included the AREA Arboriculture and Urban Forestry Symposium for researchers and educators in Chicago, USA (November 1997), IUFRO European Forum on Urban Forestry in Aarhus, Denmark (May 1999), the International Society of Arboriculture Annual Congress in Stamford, USA (August 1999), the UK Urban Forestry research meeting in Birmingham, UK (August 1998), and the 21st IUFRO World Congress (August 2000), among others. Results of the Action were also presented at various national meetings and workshops. Articles about E12 appeared in a number of magazines, journals and newsletters across Europe. Several scientific papers related to COST E12 were published in peer-reviewed, scientific journals (see list of publications). COST E12 stood at the basis of various EU applications, primarily to the Fifth Framework Programme (The Quality of Life and Living Resources, mainly). Two of these applications, URGE (City of Tomorrow and Cultural Heritage) and
16
NeighbourWoods (Quality of Life and Management of Living Resources) were successful under the EUs Fifth Framework Programme; the projects were started in 2001. Through its networking function, researchers from across Europe have had the opportunity to meet each other and coordinate their research activities. At the time of concluding the Action, an Expression of Interest (NoI) for a Network of Excellence on Urban Forestry & Urban Greening had been submitted under the EUs Sixth Framework Programme. Although the establishment of such a project seemed unlikely by the time of the first call under the programme, several opportunities for urban forestry elements in new research have emerged. New activities will be firmly based on the existing COST E12 network, but includes additional partners in the form of scientists as well as end users from e.g. local authorities.
Dissemination of results
Publications and reports
During its existence, COST Action E12 was the topic and/or initiator of a wide range of scientific and professional publications. Here, only those publications are listed that have been directly linked to the Action. Overall, it is estimated that the national experts involved in COST E12 issued at least 800-1000 scientific and popular publications on various aspects of urban forests and trees.
Conferences and workshops
Two research conferences were organised within the frame of the Action. In June 1999, the conference Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture was held in Copenhagen, Denmark, in collaboration with the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA), the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO), the International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA), and local Danish organisers. 150 experts from 34 countries, both European and other, participated in the event. The research symposium The changing role of forestry in Europe, between urbanization and rural development attracted about 130 experts from approx. 30 countries. The event was organised together with EU/FAIR-project Multifor.RD that studies the changing role of rural forests in Europe. Local organiser was Wageningen University and Research Centre. In addition to the research conferences in Copenhagen and Wageningen, COST E12 seminars were held in Vienna, Leeds, Madrid, Dublin, Reykjavik, Florence, Ljubljana, Thessaloniki, and Bruges.
17
Web site
A COST E12 web site based at the DFLRIs server, has been operative since March 2000 at www.fsl.dk/cost_e12. Its main functions have been to enhance communication and the exchange of documents among the E12 experts, as well as to provide information on the Action to those not participating in it. The website was updated on a regular basis by the coordinators and will remain online in the near future. Although the Action has ended, the website will be maintained linked to the website of the European Urban Forestry Research & Information Centre (EUFORIC, www.sl.kvl.dk/ euforic).
Scientific and technical cooperation
Cooperation Throughout the year, regular contacts were maintained with relevant institutions outside the Action, such as the International Society of Arboriculture, and the International Federation of Landscape Architects. The joint organisation of the two research symposiums was a concrete example of cooperation. Regular contacts between E12 and other COST Actions (such as C3) were maintained. The coordinator of COST Action E12 was also elected as coordinator of IUFROs urban forestry unit (6.14.00) in August 2000, a position held by the Actions chairman earlier. During the second part of the Action, close cooperation was also established with COST Action C11 on Green Structures and Urban Planning. Some of COST E12s experts became active in that Action and some joint activities were undertaken. Short Term Scientific Missions 20 STSMs were approved within the framework of the Action, of which 1 had to be cancelled because of personal reasons of the applicant. The first 9 STSMs were carried out with funding under a 1997 grant; 9 have been carried out under the 1999 grant. The final mission was provisionally approved (together with 2 additional proposals). When COST informed the coordinators that no new grant could be awarded because of budget limitations, mission no. 19 was about to start. The coordinators therefore decided to finance this mission from their own means. 1. Vladimir Kusan, Croatia (April-May 1998): Mr. Kusan travelled to Germany (Munich) to study methods of photogrammetry and remote sensing to be used in urban forestry. 2. Stephan Pauleit, Germany (April-May 1998): In his own research, Stephan Pauleit aims to identify promising tree species for large urban areas. Tree health status and environmental site conditions have proven to be closely related. A comparison of tree stock in different cities and towns therefore is very useful. Mr. Pauleit visited Ljubjana, Zagreb, Budapest and Sopron to learn more about the local situation.
18
3. Primoz Oven, Slovenia (August-September 1998): Primoz Oven visited arboricultural institutions in Hamburg. During his visited, his knowledge on techniques and methods used for tree control (e.g. diagnosis of tree health, assessment of tree safety and decay) was enhanced. 4. Minna Komulainen, Finland (August 1998): Ms. Komulainen visited the United Kingdom and was hosted by the Forestry Commission. The aim of her mission was to compare Finnish and British community woodland policies and design. 5. Horst Stobbe, Germany (October 1998): Horst Stobbe specialises in the study and development of tree care and pruning methods. As both France and Germany are considered to be leading countries in this field, he decided to visit France and learn from French experiences. Mr. Stobbe studied the differences in aspects of tree and came to an exchange of experiences with French experts. 6. Cristina Redondo Casero, Spain (June 1999): Ms. Redondo Casero visited Padua and Florence to compare decay processes in urban trees in some species frequently used in Spain and Italy. 7. Horst Stobbe, Germany (August-September 1999): Following Mr. Ovens visit to Hamburg, Horst Stobbe visited Slovenia to elaborate further on the exchange of information and experiences between Slovenia and Germany. He studied differences of wound response in xylem, cambium and bark, as specialisation of the researchers in Ljubljana. 8. Joanna Schnenberger, Switzerland (November-December 1999): Ms. Joanna Schnenberger visited researchers at the European Forest Institute, Finland, specialised in tools for forest and land use planning. Moreover, she interviewed a number of Finnish urban forestry researchers at a range of institutions. During her stay, she learnt more about land use planning methodologies. 9. Cecil Konijnendijk, Netherlands/Denmark (March 2000): Mr. Cecil Konijnendijk visited England to get more familiar with developments in (peri)urban woodland development. By field visits, discussion with local planners, experts and other stakeholders, and attending a seminar, he became more familiar with integrated planning, design and the financing of urban woodlands in England. 10.Zelimir Borzan, Croatia (March 2000): Mr. Zelimir Borzan, an expert of e.g. tree dendrology and arboriculture, visited Germany to study and discuss urban forestry standards in gardening, arboriculture and landscaping. 11.Massimo Pilotti, Italy (April 2000): Mr. Massimo Pilotti of the Plant Pathology Research Institute (ISPAVE) of Rome visited INRA in Montpellier. Together with French experts, Mr. Pilotti studied insects and pathogens of plane trees and ways of improving their resistance to these. 12.Carlo M. Marini, Italy (August-September 2000): Mr. Carlo Marini of the Municipality of Florence, DG Environment, visited two institutions in France to identify ways of improving tree management techniques for the urban environment, as well as to study ways of fighting canker stain disease of Platanus.
19
13.Art McCormack, Ireland (September 2000): Mr. McCormack visited Finland to study the planning, design and aesthetics with regards to forests in the built environment. 14.Penny Edwards, United Kingom (October 2000): Ms. Edwards, an expert working with the Central Scottish Countryside Trust, travelled to Austria, Denmark, Norway and the Netherlands to study urban & community forestry, with emphasis on small-scale forestry, policies and structures, the role of the local community, markets, etc. 15.Ann Van Herzele, Belgium (November 2000): Ms. Van Herzele visited England (e.g. Community Forests) and Scotland (Central Scotland Forest) to learn from experiences with incorporating peoples perceptions into urban forest planning. 16.Marcello Biocca, Italy (January 2001): Mr. Biocca travelled to Germany (Institute of Arboriculture) to study and discuss tree assessment methods. 17.Antje Wohlers, Germany (February 2001): Study of pests and diseases; support to WG 3 pilot study on pests and diseases, both in Italy. 18.Jasbinder Gagh, United Kingdom (May 2001): Ms. Gagh, a graduate student in urban and community forestry, will visit Austria, Switzerland and the Netherlands to look at forest policy and planning at the urban fringe. 19.Danko Diminic, Croatia (September-October 2001): Mr. Diminic visited Spain to study diseases on plane trees in urban areas. N.B. this STSM was not funded by COST but by the Action Coordinators.
Transfer of results
Apart from a range of scientific and popular publications, the main outputs of the Action could be considered the state-of-the-art reports on urban forestry research and higher education in Europe, issued by the European Commission. In this way, contacts between E12 and the Commission have been acknowledged. COST E12 also issued four proceedings of its seminars, as well as three special issues of scientific journals. Another major output will be the European reference book on urban forestry. By means of these publications, the Action has disseminated substantial information and knowledge on urban forests and trees to researchers, educators, policy-makers and end users in Europe. In order to safeguard a proper transfer of the Actions findings, contacts have been established with a wide range of relevant institutions. These include networks of urban forestry scientists and practitioners, such as the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA), the International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO), the European Forest Institute (EFI) and the International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA). The collaboration e.g. encompassed the joint organisation of research symposiums. The 2001 event in Wageningen was a joint activity with EU/ FAIR-project Multifor.RD. The national experts, moreover, have been very active in establishing contacts with scientists, practitioners and policy-makers in their respective
20
countries. In Italy, the UK and Switzerland, for example, national COST E12 meetings were held. EFI recognised the importance of urban forestry and the role the Action and its Coordinator played by establishing a Regional Project Centre on urban forestry based at the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute in 2001. This centre, named the European Urban Forestry Research and Information Centre (EUFORIC), will ensure sustainability of the Actions network. It has also provided the bases for an Expression of Interest in establishing a Network of Excellence on urban forestry and urban greening under the EUs Sixth Framework Programme. A recent cooperation was established with FAOs staff involved with urban and periurban forestry. The forest resources division of FAO participated in the Florence meeting. The former and current coordinator of E12 then became involved in the preparation of a new strategy for urban and peri-urban forestry for FAO. The development of this strategy was started at the end of 2001. North-South networking was enhanced by having the theme Threats to urban forests and trees: the NorthSouth dimension as theme for the meeting in Thessaloniki. The former and current coordinator of COST E12 were asked by Urban & Fischer Publishers to set up a new scientific journal called Urban Forestry & Urban Greening (www.urbanfischer.de/journals/ufug). The first issue of this journal was published in August 2002.
Evaluation
The main framework for evaluating COST Actions is the Memorandum of Understanding prepared and signed at the outset of each Action. In the case of COST E12, the experts feel that the Action succeeded in meeting its main objective, i.e. to improve the knowledge base needed for better planning, design, establishment and management of urban forests and urban trees in Europe, and, by doing so, to establish urban forests and urban trees as a scientific domain in Europe. Through its networking and coordinating activities, and wide range of publications, COST E12 established urban forests and urban trees as a pan-European research domain with a large potential for further development. Moreover, the state-of-art and pilot studies undertaken and disseminated provide a sound basis for future research, development, education and implementation at the pan-European as well as national and local level. It is believed that a lasting network was created, and also that new research was stimulated.
21
The success of COST E12 can be derived from, for example: - The high number of countries (22), institutions (79; universities, research institutes as well as end users) and individual experts (close to 100) that participated in the Action. - The success of the pilot studies as well as the review of research and knowledge on urban forests and urban trees in Europe. - The quality and quantity of the publications issued by the Action. - The preparation of a first European reference book on urban forests and urban trees in Europe. - The success of the two research conferences organised by the Action. - The interest of e.g. high-level local and national politicians as well as the media during COST E12 seminars. - The successful networking with other institutions involved in urban forestry and urban greening, such as other COST Actions and EU-funded initiatives, FAO, ISA, IUFRO, EFI, and other. - The submission of an Expression of Interest to establish a Network of Excellence on urban forestry and urban greening, based on the COST E12 network and experience. - The establishment of an EFI Regional Project Centre on urban forestry during the Action. - The setting up of a new scientific journal specifically on urban forestry (Urban Forestry & Urban Greening) by the Action Coordinators and network. The experts also feel that the Action could have been more successful in some matters, for example: - Due to funding restrictions, a number of meetings within the Action could have a limited participation of experts only, thus limiting the networking and activity of the Action. - The number of STSMs carried out. E.g. due to lack of interest at the outset of the Action and later funding restrictions, the number of STSMs was limited to 19. - Although some new, pan-European research projects were set up, the COST E12 network had hoped to be more successful especially in attracting EU-funding for R&D projects. New activities are undertaken to mend this situation within the 6th Framework Programme. - Due to the wide scope and limited resources involved in a COST Action, some research topics could not be explored in full depth. The Action has, however, provided a sound basis for further detailed R&D during the years to come.
22
List of publications
COST E12 books issued by COST/EU or major publishers: Forrest M, Konijnendijk CC & Randrup TB (Eds.) (1999).
COST Action E12 - Research and development in urban forestry in Europe. European Commission, Luxembourg. (Includes 20 country reports prepared by the Actions national experts.)
Konijnendijk CC, Schipperijn J & Nilsson K (2003).
COST Action E12 Urban Forests and Trees Proceedings No. 2. Printing Office of the European Communities, Luxembourg. (Includes approx. 20 papers presented at various COST E12 conferences and seminars.)
Nilsson K, Randrup TB & Konijnendijk CC (Eds.) (in prep).
Urban forests and trees in Europe. Reference book on European urban forestry. Springer Academic Publishers.
Randrup TB, Konijnendijk CC & Andersen F (2001).
Review of higher education on urban forestry in Europe. Report of COST Action E12 Urban Forests and Trees. Printing Office of the European Communities, Brussels. (Includes 28 country reports on the status of higher education on urban forests and trees.)
Randrup TB, Konijnendijk CC, Christophersen T & Nilsson K (Eds.) (2002).
COST Action E12 Urban Forests and Trees - Proceedings No. 1. Printing Office of the European Communities, Luxembourg. (Includes approx. 20 papers presented at various COST E12 conferences and seminars.)
Proceedings and reports of COST E12 seminars and conferences: Collins K & Konijnendijk CC (Eds.) (2001).
Planting the idea - the role of education in urban forestry. Proceedings of COST Action E12 Urban Forests and Trees seminar, Dublin, 23 March, 2000. The Tree Council of Ireland et al., Dublin.
Randrup TB (Ed.) (1999).
Proceedings from the Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture research symposium. The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 23-25, 1999. Proceedings No. 2. Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, Hoersholm.
Special issues of peer-reviewed scientific journals:
Journal of Arboriculture (2000). Papers from the COST E12 research symposium Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture, edited by Randrup TB:
23
Pedersen LB, Randrup TB & Ingerslev M
Effects of road distance and protective measures on deicing NaCl deposition and soil solution chemistry in planted median strips.
Tello ML, Redondo C & Mateo-Sagaste E
Health status of Plane trees (Platanus spp.) in Spain.

Sb A & Johnsen J
Growth and morphology differ between wind-exposed families of Sorbus aucuparia (L.)
Drnou C
Pruning trees: the problem of forks.

Stobbe H, Dujesiefken D & Schrder K
Tree crown stabilization with the double-belt system Osnabruck.

Galvin MF, Wilson B & Honeczy M
Marylands Forest Conservation Act: a process of urban greenspace protection during the development process.
Landscape and Urban Planning (Volume 52(2-3) (2000)), with papers presented at the research symposium Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture, edited by Randrup TB and Konijnendijk CC: Randrup TB & Konijnendijk CC
Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture. Prepared on the basis of the Research Symposium on Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture, Copenhagen, Denmark, June 1999.
Fukamachi K, Oku H, Kumagi Y & Shimomura A
Changes in landscape planning and land management in Arashiyama National Forest in Kyoto.
Konijnendijk CC
Adapting forestry to urban demands - role of communication in urban forestry in Europe.

Florgrd C
Long-term changes in indigenous vegetation preserved in urban areas.

Jensen MB, Persson B, Guldager S, Reeh U & Nilsson K
Green structure and sustainability - developing a tool for local planning.
24
Pirnat J
Conservation and management of forest patches and corridors in suburban landscapes.

Attwell K
Urban land resources and urban planting - case studies from Denmark.
Oguz D
User surveys of Ankaras urban parks.

Millard A
The potential role of natural colonisation as a design tool for urban forestry - a pilot study.
Coles RW & Bussey SC
Urban forest landscapes in the UK - progressing the social agenda.

Simson AJ
The post-romantic landscape of Telford New Town. Selected papers from the research symposium in Wageningen were included in the new scientific journal Urban Forestry & Urban Greening (Vol. 1, issue 1).
Jnssen A & Gustavsson R
Management styles and knowledge cultures, past present and future, related to multiple-use and urban woodlands.
Ode & Fry G
Visual aspects in urban woodland management.

Samyn J & Vos B De
The assessment of mulch sheets to inhibit competitive vegetation in tree plantations in urban and natural environment.
Seeland K, Moser K, Scheuthle H & Kaiser FG
Public acceptance of restrictions imposed on recreational activities in the peri-urban nature reserve Sihlwald in Switzerland.
Vries S de & Goossen M
Modelling recreational visits to forests and nature areas.

Other international, peer-reviewed articles: Andersen F, Konijnendijk CC & Randrup TB (2002).
Higher education on urban forestry in Europe: An overview. Forestry 75(5): 501-511.
25
Konijnendijk CC, Randrup TB & Nilsson K (2000).
Urban Forestry research in Europe: An overview. Journal of Arboriculture 26(3): 152161.

Ottitsch A (in review)
Urban forest policies: Objectives and functions, trend and developments. Results from a comparative European study. Submitted to Urban Forestry & Urban Greening.
Pauleit S, Jones N, Garcia-Marin G, Garcia-Valdecantos GL, Rivire LM, Vidal-Beaudet L, Bodson M & Randrup TB (2002).
Tree selection and establishment practices in Europe - results from a European survey. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 1(2).
Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1998).
Research note: Co-ordination of European research on urban forests and trees. Arboricultural Journal 22(2): 173-177.
Other publications: Andersen F & Randrup TB (2001).
Plantning og pleje af bytrer i Europa. Grnt Milj 2001(7): 44-47. (In Danish.)
Bianchi M, de Rogatis A, Motta E, Mutto Accordi S & Salbitano F (1998).
Per una rete di richerche europee sugli alberi e le foreste in citt: lazione COST E12 Urban forests and trees. In: Atti del nono seminario dellInternational Association for Environmental Design La citt sostenible. IAED, Roma. (In Italian.)
Bouter H (2001).
Stedelingen maken van bos een topattractie. WB 15/11/01. (In Dutch.)

Collins KD & Konijnendijk CC (2000).
COST Action E12, Urban Forests and Trees, comes to Ireland. Arborist News, June 2000: 45-46.
Couenberg E (2002).
Symposium Wageningen 2001: interessante ontwikkelingen in het stedelijk groen. KPB Nieuwsbrief 5(11): 8-9. (In Dutch.)
Dansk Trplejeforening (2000).
Beskring af trer - European Tree Pruning Guide. Copenhagen. (In Danish.)

Duhme F & Dujesiefken D (1998).
COST Action E12 Wlder und Bume im stdtischen Raum (Urban Forests and Trees). Stadt und Grn 1998(1): 10-11. (In German.)
26
Dujesiefken D & Duhme F (1999).
Eine neue europische Zusammenarbeit zur Pflege und zum Erhalt von Bumen im urbanen Bereich (COST Aktion E 12). In: Dujesiefken, D. and Kockerbeck, P. (eds.). Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 1999. Verlag Thalacker Medien, Braunschweig. Pp. 260-261. (In German.)
Dujesiefken D, Konijnendijk CC, Randrup TB & Nilsson K (2000).
Forschung in Europa ber Bume in urbanen Gebieten. Stadt & Grn, 2000(13), Sonderheft (special issue): 21-22. (In German.)
Dujesiefken D, Konijnendijk CC, Randrup TB & Nilsson K (2000).
Review of research and knowledge on urban forests and urban trees in Europe. In: Backhaus GF, Balder H, Idczak E (Eds.) International Symposium on Plant Health in Urban Horticulture, Braunschweig, Germany, from May 22 to May 25, 2000: 1922. Mitteilungen aus der Biologischen Bundesanstalt fr Land- und Forstwirtschaft Berlin-Dahlem, Heft 370.
Embo T (1998).
COST E12: Urban Forests and Trees. De Boskrant 28(4): 96. (In Dutch.)
Garca-Martn G & Garca-Valdecantos JL (2001).
El arbolado urbano en las ciudades espaolas. In: Montes para la sociedad del nueve milenio, III Congreso Forestal Espaol, Granada, 25-28 septiembre 2001: 467-474. (In Spanish.)
Gundersen V & Sb A (2001).
Bynrt skogbruk - behov for utvikling og kunnskap. Norsk Skogbruk 2001(10): 2425. (In Norwegian.)
Konijnendijk CC (1999).
Greener European cities: A COST review of research and knowledge on Europes urban forests. European Arborist News June 1999, supplement to Arborist News 8(3).
Skove som lftestang for bedre lokalomrdet. Park og Landskab Videnblade 3.1-26. Based upon a COST E12 STSM. Skov og Landskab, Hrsholm. (In Danish.)
Konijnendijk CC & Simson A (2000).
Community Forest, Jaguarbos en Faith Wood - nieuwe bosbouw, English style. Nederlands Bosbouwtijdschrift 72(6): 240-246. (In Dutch.)
The urban face of forestry. EFI-News: 3-6.
27
Lfstrm I & Tyrvinen L (1997).
Kunnat tarvitsevat viheralueohjelmat (vieraskyn-artikkeli). Helsingin Sanomat. (In Finnish.)

Suomi mukana COST -hankkeessa. Viherymprist 1. (In Finnish.)

Maisemalliset ja ekologiset arvot taajamametsien vuorovaikutteisessa suunnittelussa. Julkaisussa: Virtanen, E., Saarinen, J. & Raivo, P. (Eds.). Mets, Harju ja Jrvi: suomalainen maisematutkimus ja -suunnittelu uuden vuosituhannen kynnyksell: 8. Abstract, pp. 8. (In Finnish.)
Nilsson K (1998).
Presentation of COST Action E12 Urban Forests and Trees. In: Krott, M. and K. Nilsson (eds.). Multiple-use of town forests in international comparison. Proceedings of the first European Forum on Urban Forestry, Wuppertal, May 1998: 101-105. IUFRO, etc.
Nilsson K, Konijnendijk CC & Randrup TB (2000).
State-of-the-art of research and knowledge on urban forests and trees in Europe. Abstract. In: Forests and society: the role of research. Volume 2: abstracts of group discussions. Proceedings of the XXI IUFRO World Congress, Kuala Lumpur, 7-12 August 2000: Kuala Lumpur. Pp. 270-271.
Urban forestry: where people meet trees. In: Community Forestry - a change for the better. Conference Proceedings: 28-31. 7-8 December 1999, London. Forestry Commission & Countryside Agency. Pp. 28-31
Linnanmetsandus - Euroopa perspektiiv. Linnanmetsad ja linnanmetsandus Eestis. Akadeemilise Metsaseltsi toimetised XVI: 17-24. Forest Research Institute of EAU, Tartu. Pp. 17-24. (In Estonian.)
Nilsson K & Randrup TB (1997a).
Urban and periurban forestry. In: Forest and tree resources. Proceedings of the XI World Forestry Congress, 13-22 October 1997, Antalya. Volume 1: 97-110. Antalya.
Nilsson K & Randrup TB (1997b).
What is urban forestry? BUFPRA Newsletter 1(2): 2.

Nilsson K & Randrup TB (1998).
Internationell fokus p parker och parkforskning. Utemilj 1998(4): 33-38. (In Swedish.)
28
Oven P (2000).
Kaj pravzaprav je arboristika. (Actually, what is arboriculture, English abstract). Proteus 63(2): 78-81. (In Slovenian.)
Pauleit S (1999).
Study in Southeastern Central Europe identifies need for urban forestry approach. European Arborist News, August 1999, supplement to Arborist News 8(4): 43.
Pillmann W (2002).
Tree preservation legislation in European cities. Results of a COST E12 pilot study. Unpublished manuscript. (In German.)
Randrup TB & Konijnendijk CC (1999).
Urban Greening - Research symposium Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture, Denmark, June 23-25, 1999, IUFRO 6.14.00. IUFRO News 28(3): 7.
Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1997a).
Fokus p bytrer i europisk samarbejde. Grnt Milj 1997(6): 72-75. (In Danish.)
Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1997b).
Research on urban trees in Europe. In: ISA. Proceedings of the III: Europischer Baumpflege-Kongress, Merano, 14-16 May 1997. Pp. 133-141.
Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1999a).
Co-ordination of European research: Urban Forests and Trees. EFI News 7(1): 3.
Randrup TB & Nilsson K (1999b).
Internationalt forskertrf om byskove og bytrr- Holdes i Kbenhavn til juni som led i verdenskongres for landskabere. Grnt Milj 1999(1): 54. (In Danish.)
Sander H (1999).
Symposium Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture Research. Baltic Forestry 5(2): 75.
Seeland K (1999).
Die sozialintegrativen Wirkungen von Parks und Wldern als gestaltete Naturrume. Erste Ergebnisse zweier Untersuchungen in der Schweiz und in Deutschland. (Results of Swiss COST E12 study.) Schweizerische Zeitschrift fr Forstwesen 10: 362-369. (In German.)
Seeland K (1999).
Peri-urbane Natur im Spiegel zuknfstiger Nutzungsbedrfnsse. In: Eidg. Forschungsanstalt fr Wald, Schnee und Landschaft, Forum fr Wissen 1: 7-11.
29
Seeland K & Nicol S (1999).
Studio sulle potentialit dintegrazione sociale offerte da spazi naturali. Due essempi di progetti con persone disabili in Svizzera e Germania. (Results of Swiss COST E12 study.) Forstwissenschaftliche Beitrge der Forstprofessur Forstpolitik und Forstkonomi 22. 140 p. (In Italian.)
Seeland K, Chiari Ch & Nicol S (2000).
Gardino per tutti. Sociale negli spazi naturali. (Results of Swiss COST E12 study.) Architettura del paessaggio 5: 4-7. (In Italian.)
Simson A (1999).
The three net/works. Landlines July 1999: 6.

Siwecki R, Szyper L & Rosiak S (2000).
Management and protection of urban forests and urban trees in Kolberg. In: Backhaus GF, Balder H, Idczak E (Eds.). International Symposium on Plant Health in Urban Horticulture, Braunschweig, Germany, from May 22 to May 25, 2000: 224230. Mitteilungen aus der Biologischen Bundesanstalt fr Land- und Forstwirtschaft Berlin-Dahlem, Heft 370. Pp. 224-230.
Steidle-Schwahn A (1999).
Urban Greening and Landscape Architecture - Forschungssymposium vom 23.-25. Juni 1999 in Kopenhagen. Stadt und Grn 11(1999): 742-744. (In German.)
Sb A & PA Pedersen (2002).
For f treslag brukt langs gater og veier. Trepleie 2002(1): 13-15. (In Norwegian.)
Smith K & Oven P (2000).
Arboriculture in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Arborist news 9(4): 43-45.

Broeck A Van den (2001).
Inheemse olmen behoeden voor uitsterven - Internationale bijeenkomst van wetenschappers. Groenkontakt 2001(6): 23-24. (In Dutch.)
30
COST E12 Final Declaration, Brugges 2002 Green Health of Cities

This text was prepared by the experts of COST E12 under the coordination of Werner Pillmann BIG Austrian Health Institute, Stubenring 6, A-1010 Vienna, Austria. Urbanisation
Urbanisation continues to take place throughout Europe. As more and more people live in towns and cities, the quality of the urban living environment becomes ever more important. Green areas are a vital part of any urban infrastructure, contributing environmental, social and economic benefits. Trees in parks and woodlands, streets and gardens are the most important elements of such green areas, yet their benefits are often overlooked and their proper care neglected.
The group of concerned experts

After five years of work, the most comprehensive study URBAN FORESTS AND TREES was concluded. We - 100 experts in urban trees, parks and woodlands and representing 22 European countries and 70 institutions - was evaluated the built-up areas of Europe. We was developed innovative approaches for maintaining and developing the sustainable and multi-functional benefits of urban forests, trees and open areas. We was studied the whole spectrum of green space and how it is influenced by administrative, political and economic factors, and also ways to involve communities in decision-making processes affecting the local environment.
Green space: an asset - not a liability

There are tremendous benefits to be gained from a high quality green environment. However, green space is continually under threat, due to a wide range of reasons: political and economic dominance of land use planning, poor growing conditions (soil, water, growing space, pollution), pests and diseases, damage during building and road construction, and excavation for cables and supply networks. These problems are heightened by the fragmentation of administrative responsibilities for planning, implementation and management of green space.
Tasks for local governments

Street trees are frequently expected to grow in inadequate rooting space and in soil lacking sufficient water, nutrients or structure. Technical solutions for most of these
31
problems was brought together by the group during the course of the COST Action2 and are highly advisable for implementation. Spatial considerations of trees and green space should be an increasing aspect of design and landuse planning. The monitoring, design and management of urban greenery have to be fully integrated throughout all aspects of city administration.
Tasks within Europe

There is a real need to strengthen legislation designed to protect urban greenery. A consistent approach to tree preservation within and between European countries would be advisable. Good practices should be introduced at all stages. We call upon local and national politicians in all European countries to develop sound policies for the appropriate planning, management, funding and long-term administration of urban green areas. Properly managed forests and trees are essential for underpinning the quality of urban life, enabling European towns and cities to develop as sustainable and enjoyable places for people to live, work, recreate and play.
COST: European Cooperation in the field of Scientific and Technical Research, Action E12 Urban Forests and Trees
32
Chapter 2
Policy-making, planning and design for urban forests and trees
33
Urban Forestry and Open Space in the Urbanised Context of Western Europe: A policy Point of View
Peter Janssens Secretariat General of the Benelux Regentschapsstraat 39, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium
Introduction
This contribution deals with the role and the function of open spaces, and more specifically urban forestry, in the development of a spatial policy for Western Europe in general and for the Benelux countries more specifically.
The spatial context

Western Europe can be characterised as a very urbanised area in the European Spatial context. The study on the Central and Capital Cities and Regions (the so-called CCC study), one of the studies in the framework of the program Europe 2000+ of the European Commission in the beginning of the 1990s, dealt with the spatial developments in the area covering the southeast of the United Kingdom, the western, southern and eastern parts of the Netherlands, the whole of Belgium and Luxembourg, the northern part of France, and the western part of Germany. The northern part of the area is characterised by population densities of more than 500 inhabitants/km while in the southern parts 145 is the average. The CCC study estimated that 66,5 % of the CCC population lives in urban areas, which is much higher than the EU average of 55,7 %. About 54 % of the CCC population lives in urban areas of more than 50,000 inhabitants; more specifically 39,3 % is living within the six metropolitan systems (London, Paris, Rhine-Ruhr, Rhine-Main Randstad and ABG-stad (Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent)). 14.8% lives in urban areas of more than 50,000 inhabitants outside these six metropolitan systems. In contrast to that, 74,3 % of the CCC area is considered as non-urban and is populated by 33,5 % of the CCCpopulation (see Figure 1). This study was aimed at exploring and defining the issues relevant for a transnational spatial policy. The study had a so-called prospective character and defined a macrospatial structure as well as making a comparison between two spatial development scenarios. The first was a trend scenario based on the assumption that each region and estate continues to develop their own spatial policy, trying to develop their practical answers to the issues and problems that arise (see Figure 2). The second, policy
35
Figure 1. Population density in the CCC area.
scenario, however demonstrates the impact and rule of the more coherent and commonly developed transnational spatial policy (see Figure 3). Together with a wide range of issues the environmental issues demonstrated some transnational and commonly recognised problems all over the CCC area. Some of them, relevant in relation to forestry, dealt with the over-exploitation and the lowering of the groundwater level, a problem which seems to be intensively related to the presence of large population numbers in the urbanised neighbouring regions. Other issues dealt with pollution of ground water and surface water reserves e.g. by pesticide leaching. The wood production in the CCC area was estimated to be 21,5 million m while the consumption was estimated at 66,5 million m. This means that annually 45 million m has to be imported. In the development and comparison of the two spatial development scenarios, two separate but important aspects of forestry in this very urbanised context became visible. The first issue was the recognition of the very important role of forests in the heads of the river basins. As one can observe the most urbanised areas and the large population concentration are situated in the lower parts of the main rivers, such as the Rhine, the Meuse and the Scheldt. The water provision to these population masses is
36
Demography: Urban growth Stationary or recovering Dominant patterns of decline Urbanization in progress Urban areas: Metropolitan areas Cities Inner-city decline Urban and semi-urban reconversion areas Rural areas: Intensively used by agriculture facing economic threats With limited agriculture Under urban pressure Main woodland Areas with rural tourism
Coastal areas: Coastal areas with concentrations of human activity Natural and semi-natural coastal areas Infrastructure: Eurocorridors in formation Airports Seaports Congestion in air traffic Barriers to integration Environmental issues: Consentration of urban environmental problems Consentration of safety risks (nuclear, Seveso, ...) Main rivers Most polluted rivers Coastal pollution
Trend scenario
Figure 2. Trend scenario for the CCC area.
served directly by the rivers, but indirectly also by feeding the groundwater reserves. This means that upstream parts of the river basins play a role as regulator of the quantity and quality of water, in relation to the lower situated and densely populated areas. Especially woodlands are very important in playing this role. In the CCC study this double role was described as the Sponge and the Filter function of woodlands. Forests, as they are very present in for example the Ardennes, the Eiffel, and Saarland,
37
Metropolitan cooperation and connectivity to be improved Eurocorridors to be developed Existing metropolitan areas, need: internal restructuring quality improvement reduced congestion Potential for crossborder metropolitan development to be planned Cluster of urban areas for coordinated planning Urban areas with different development characteristics near a metropolitan system freestanding urban areas in econversion areas in coastal areas
in border areas Rural areas with agriculture to be regenerated Environmental issues Improvement of urban environment recommended Green Belt strategy Environmental sanitation in rural areas Tentative main ecological structure Increased inter-regional water management Accelerated economic restructuring necessary
Development possibilities
Figure 3. Policy scenario for the CCC area.
therefore have a crucial role to play in relation to the quantity and also the quality of these water reserves. Beside that, the forests play a crucial role in what planners often call spatial quality. More specifically, in their role as a counterweight for the very urbanised areas, woodlands constitute building stones for rural areas or open spaces. This is true on two levels: on the transnational level, the green areas of the Ardennes, Eiffel, Saarland and the northern part of Luxembourg were considered as very important counter weights for the lack of openness and the high population densities in the urbanised metropolitan systems. The growth of different kinds of rural tourism,
38
and the increase of short holidays, demonstrates this role and the tourist potential becomes a very important issue in the spatial policies of these areas. Secondly, on a more regional or local level, forests play a very important role in structuring the developments of the urban fringes. The CCC study also demonstrated the need for a common application of the so-called Green Belt strategies for the surroundings of the large urban areas. This is necessary, not only to maintain the contrast between urban and non-urban areas but also to structure the urban development and avoid unstructured and space consuming sub urban developments, which hampers dynamic and attractive urban development. An attractive urban and suburban environment was even considered sometimes as a prerequisite for attracting important economic functions, as demonstrated by the case of Frankfurt, where the concentration of financial business is (partly) explained by the presence of attractive woodlands in the neighbourhood. In the development of the different variations of these kind of greenbelt strategies, the development of common spatial patrimony, recognised and given a high symbolic value by the urban people, is considered as very important for the protection for these open areas. Public recognition and the public symbolic value can best be demonstrated by means of urban forests, in a harmonised balance with non-forest landscapes with a high cultural value. They contribute to the spatial qualities of urban areas and urban fringes.
Policy answers
The CCC study was a study with a high political character that demonstrated the common aspects of spatial policies in the north-western European context. Since the beginning of the 1990s, several efforts have been attempted towards the development of spatial policies on a transnational level.
Second outline for the Benelux
A first political fact relevant in this context is the development of the Second Structural Outline of the Benelux. This second structural outline is a commonly developed point of view and a basis for the Benelux partners (the Netherlands, the Belgian regions Flanders, Wallonia and Brussels and the Grand Duch Luxembourg) for transnational spatial policy. The document was accepted by the Ministers of spatial planning of the five partners in 1997 and ultimately approved in 2000. The Second Outline starts from the aim to at improve spatial quality as the main principle. The document recognises the presence and the importance of the metropolitan systems, in this document called urban networks, as basic building
39
stones in the transnational spatial policy. Not only the known urban networks, such as the Central Belgian Network or the Dutch Randstad (actually called the Delta metropolis) but also the cross border networks such as MHAL and the French Belgian metropolis (encompassing amongst others Lille, Tournai Kortrijk) are recognised. The role of open areas in the surroundings of the urban areas on the macro level as well as on the micro level is recognised and the interrelation between regions dealing with the common water issues also demonstrated. Especially the concept of a Network of open areas in the central and strongly urbanised Benelux Delta is very relevant in this context (see Figure 4). This network of open areas is supposed to play a role as a buffer in relationship to the development of the urban areas.
Figure 4. Main principles of the Second Structural Outline of the Benelux.
40
The second structural outline is the common basis of the Benelux partners in common positioning of the points of view towards European spatial planning, for the development of their proper spatial policy and for the cross border co-operation. The outline has also proved to be a common building block in the development of the European Spatial Development perspective and several Interreg1 development projects.
The European Spatial Development Perspective
Another important fact in this context is the acceptance (in Potsdam 1999) of the European Spatial Development perspective (ESDP). In this document, the result of a long term intergovernmental process (1993-1999) and basically the product of the member states together with the European Commission, the issues identified in the CCC study are more or less confirmed as important. The ESDP also stresses the need for a well-considered and balanced development of the urban fringes and the negative effects of an unstructured and chaotic urbanisation
Grens overschrijdende (Stedelijke) Netwerken Toplocaties in stedelijke knooppunten en netwerken Pilcotproject landschapspark Kempen-Zeelan Stedelijke Knooppunten Stedelijk gebied Internationaal stedelijk netwerk Grensoverschrijdend stedelijke netwerken Rijn Scheide Delta contactzone Bestuurlijke hoofdstad Belangrijke relatie
Rseaux (Urbains) Transfrontaliers Localisations prfrentielles dans les noeuds et rseaux urbains Projet pilote parc paysager Kempen-Zeeland Noeuds urbains
Zone urbaine Rseau urbain International Rseau urbain transfrontalier Zone de contact du Delta Rhin-Escaul Capitale administrative Relation Importante
1 2 3 4 5 GPCICOPIT Sarlorlux MHAL ANKE HEG
Randstad Holland Reseau urbain central belge/ centraal Belgisch stedelijk netwerk Rhein-Ruhr Ile de France - Bassin Porssien Greater London Lille-Kortrijk Mouscron-leper Roeselare Scarland-Lorraine-Luxembourg Maastricht-Heerlen Hassellt/Genk-Aachen-Liege Arnhem/Nijmegen-Kleve-Emmerich Hengelo/Enschede-Gronau
Figure 5. Cross-border urban networks
A programme to strengthen collaboration between the regions of the European Union.
41
process. Moreover, it recommends the development of partnerships and intense interrelations between urban and rural areas in order to safeguard their specific spatial development and manage the interdependencies. Also the role of woodlands in the general policy of the transnational water management is (again) underlined.
Interreg IIC and IIIB
A third important aspect of the Transnational Policy evolution is the development of the Interreg Program. The Interreg IIc program (1999-2001) and the Interreg IIIb program (2002-2006) are supporting several transnational projects aimed at developing several aspects of the transnational spatial policy. Regional and/or local partners elaborate these projects and some of them deal specifically with the issues of open areas in relationship to the urbanised context, as described above. One relevant project, called Sustainable Open Space (S.O.S.), dealt with open spaces in the urbanised context. The outcome of it can be basically described as the exchange of points of view and experiences, but also a platform for strengthening the importance and the political awareness for open areas. Forestry is recognised as an important building stone in this context. Another project, called Network of Cross Border Urban Networks, was also a platform of commonly developed new research, exchange of experience and a political platform for cross-border urban networks. Amongst others, the importance of open areas policy in the development of the new cross border networks in the European spatial, domain is demonstrated (Figure 5). The Interreg IIIb program has not yet been fully developed in order to point the relevant issues and projects in relation to the issue of this paper, but it can be expected that some projects will also deal with the issues of open areas. Also others projects in the Interreg IIc program, such as Eurbanet dealing with the development of the international Urban Networks, have partly paid attention to spatial quality and the role of nearby open areas.
National and regional spatial planning
Beside the development of common transnational policy documents and projects, it is remarkable that the internal spatial policy within nations and regions and the awareness of the alignment of the urban developments become very important but sensitive elements. In the Flemish region for example the alignment processes of urban areas are an important priority. Also in the Netherlands, with the recently developed Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning, the alignment process (called
42
Contourenbeleid) has become very important. In the spatial policy of other Benelux partners, such as the Walloon and the Brussels region, and Luxembourg, the urban fringes and specifically the woodlands become very important issues as well. Interesting is the case of the so called Zoninwoud, a large woodland in the southeast of the Brussels region. This forest fully plays the role of urban forest for the Brussels urban area, but also crossing the borders with the Flemish and the Walloon region. The so-called Walloon axe, the urban network connecting the main urban areas in Wallonia from the west to the east, is in the south bordered by a string of urban forests, playing their role as a counterpart. The urban fringe of Luxembourg as well is characterised by the presence of urban forests. It can be assumed that these issues are now commonly accepted as very relevant issues in national and regional spatial policies.
General conclusion
In none of the issues described above, urban forests are considered as the only relevant issue in the spatial policy of these urban areas and urban fringes. But on the other hand, urban forests are commonly considered as very important building stones for the development of an active open space policy, as counterbalance for the urban areas. More specifically it is assumed that urban forestry has an important role to play in an integrated spatial policy and therefore spatial planners expect urban forestry to provide a real contribution to the general aim at the improvement of the spatial quality. The decreasing role of the agricultural sector creates a challenge to create new and active functions in order to exploit the specific spatial potentials of these open spaces in the urban context and to maintain and improve the general spatial qualities. It is within this context that spatial planning and urban forestry become objective partners in creating spatial quality. The specific spatial condition of Northwest Europe can in this context be considered a very interesting challenge. This observation also implies an invitation towards the urban forestry sector to take up this challenge, in order to demonstrate the specific role of urban forestry in the general aim for a better spatial quality and thereby the sustainable spatial development in general and in West Europe more specifically.
Literature used
De Boe Ph, Vanhecke E & Janssens P(2000).
Spatial Integration. Study Report on European Spatial Planning. Final Report. Nordregio.
43
DHondt F & De Boe Ph (2002).
Benelux & Interreg: van visie naar inter-actie. Adviesnota voor de Bijzondere Commissie voor de Ruimtelijke Ordening van de Benelux Economische Unie.
Europe 2000+ (1994).
Coopration pour lamnagement du territoire europen. Commission Europenne DG16, Brussels.

European Commission (1999).
European Spatial Development Perspective, Op weg naar een evenwichtige en duurzame ontwikkeling van het grondgebied van de EU. Brussels.
Ipenburg D & Lambregts B (2001).
Polynuclear urban regions in North West Europa. A survey of key actor views. Report of the Eurbanet project. Housing and Urban policy studies. OTB Research Institute for housing, urban and moblity studies. Delft Univerity of Technology, Delft.
Janssens P (1994).
Regios in Noord-West Europa: ontwikkelingen en beleid. Presentatie voor de Planologische Discusssiedagen te Eindhoven op 30 mei 1994. Published in Stedebouw en Volkshuisvesting.
Janssens P (1998).
Over het bos en de bomen. De relatie tussen het EROP, Europa 2000+, Interreg IIC en de Tweede Structuurschets voor de Benelux. Janssens, P. In: EROP Katern: Er op of Er onder. Planologisch Nieuws 18(3).
Janssens P & Dhondt F (1999).
Europese en transnationale ruimtelijke planning. Een discussie waard! TROS (Tijdschrift voor Ruimtelijke ordening en Stedenbouw.), Die Keure.
Janssens P (2001).
De actuele en potentile betekenis van gentegreerd transnationaal en Europees ruimtelijk beleid in (open) ruimten onder verstedelijkingsdruk, Symposium Open Ruimtefuncties onder Verstedelijkingsdruk. Proceedings. Flemish Ministry of Environment and Agriculture, Brussels.
Joint Operational Programme for the North-Western Metropolitan(XXXX).
Area. Interreg IIC Community Initiative Programme 1997-1999.

Prospects for the development of het central and capital cities and regions (1996).
European Commission Directorate General 16, Brussels.
44
Rseau de rseaux (Urbains) Transfrontaliers (2001).
Laboratoire de cooperation Transfrontalire. Rapport final du projet Interreg IIc Reseau de rseaux (urbains) transfrontaliers. Secretariat Gnral de Benelux et Ministre de la Rgion Wallonne.
Tweede Benelux Structuurschets. Concept . Ruimte voor Samenwerking. (1996).
Secretariaat-Generaal voor de Benelux, Brussels.

Tweede Benelux Structuurschets. Beslisnota. Ruimte voor Samenwerking. (1996).
Secretariaat-Generaal voor de Benelux, Brussels.

Sustainable Open Spaces. Report of the Workshops (2001).
(co-financed by Interreg IIc).
45
Realising Urban Forests in Flanders: A Policy Perspective

Jeroen Nachtergaele1, Rik De Vreese2, Raoul Vanhaeren1 and Jos Van Slycken3
1 2 3
Ministry of the Flemish Community, Forest and Green Areas Division, Brussels, Belgium Flemish Forest Organisation, Gontrode, Belgium The Institute of Forestry and Game Management, Geraardsbergen, Belgium
Abstract
Flanders (Belgium) has a low and spatially unequally distributed forest cover with extremely fragmented forests both in terms of space and property. To cope with this a forest expansion programme has been set up in order to reinforce the Flemish forest structure and to establish large-scale urban forests near cities and in low-forested areas. Within a highly urbanised region such as Flanders, land pressure and spatial claims in the vicinity of cities are very high. Therefore the realisation of urban forests in Flanders is a complex issue, requiring a well-thought-out scenario. Thus the Forest and Green Areas Division of Flanders has developed a three-step process in cooperation with the Spatial Planning Division, each step answering an elementary question: 1) Localisation phase Where should urban forest be localised? 2) Concept phase What should urban forest look like? 3) Implementation phase How can the desired urban forest be realised on the selected location? The strength and importance of this three-step approach has two elements. First, it guarantees an equal distribution of money and means over the respective aspects of the realisation process and allows for specific partnerships and participation schemes to be made for each of the steps. Furthermore, the decision making process is spread out over three steps. Given the often-controversial nature of the idea of realising an urban forest, it is more likely for politicians to accept such an idea gradually.
Key words: urban forests, realisation scheme, localisation, design, implementation.
Introduction
The latest forest inventory reveals that Flanders has a forest cover of 10.8%, which is amongst the lowest in Europe. Within Flanders, the forest index varies from 2.3 % in the most westerly province, to 20.6 % in the most easterly province (Figure 1).
47
16.2% 2.3% 5.6% 12.0% 20.6%
Figure 1. Forest indices in Flanders per province. The average forest index for Flanders is 10.8%.
Besides the problem of a low and spatially unequally distributed forest cover, forests in Flanders are also extremely fragmented both in terms of space and property. With respect to the spatial fragmentation Embo (2001) stated that more than half of the Flemish forests are smaller than 100 ha and circa 25% are even smaller than 40 ha. Fragmentation of property in Flemish forests was illustrated by the latest forest inventory that revealed that circa 70% of the Flemish forests are private property, while 13% is owned by the Flemish government and 17% by other public owners. Evidently, the relatively small area of public forests in Flanders has been experiencing substantial (recreational) pressure. Therefore scientists emphasised the need to reinforce the existing Flemish forest structure, and to establish large-scale urban forests in the vicinity of densely populated areas and areas short of forest (Embo 2001).
Forest expansion programme in Flanders

The forest expansion programme in Flanders is embedded in the Spatial Structure Plan for Flanders (SSPF). In order to face the spatial challenges within Flanders the Flemish government has (since 1992) been working on a spatial policy based on a new planning methodology called structure planning. Structure planning is characterised by a coherent approach of the spatial claims by various economic and social activities. The law on spatial planning of July 24th of 1996 has provided the legal basis for structure planning. Since this law the Flemish region, provinces and municipalities have the authority to develop their own spatial policy, with the principle of subsidiarity as an essential framework for task separation between the three administrative levels. The SSPF contains essential options for the spatial development of Flanders and hence provides a frame for the preparation, assessment and execution of all decisions with spatial impact for the next ten years.
48
With respect to forest expansion, the SSPF states that by the year 2007, 10,000 ha of new forest will be needed to meet social demand in Flanders. The Flemish forest expansion programme comprises the creation of 10,000 ha of forest (expansion) areas in zoning plans (plan expansion, PE) and the creation of 10,000 ha of new forest (effective expansion; EE). Evidently, the PE and the EE will overlap to a large extent. Yet, it is important to distinguish between PE and EE as to prevent the Flemish forest expansion programme from remaining a simple desktop exercise. In other words, the Flemish forest expansion programme requires the actual implementation of the spatial options taken in zoning plans. The Forest and Green Area Division of the Ministry of the Flemish Community has subdivided the 10,000 ha of PE for Flanders over its five provinces, hereby aiming at compensating the actual inequality of forest distribution in Flanders (Figure 2). Figures for the EE (Figure 2) show that 13,665 ha, rather than 10,000 ha have to be realised. The difference between both figures is explained by a net deforestation between 1994, the SSPF reference year, and 2000, the start of the Flemish forest expansion programme. This observation emphasises the importance of the Flemish forest expansion programme, since the programme not only aim to create new forests, but it first has to reverse the existing trend of deforestation. With respect to the latter, the Flemish government has installed a moratorium on any form of
Planned Expansion 1500 2500 3000 1500 1500 total = 10 000 ha
Effective expansion
(situation 2000, reference 1994)
3184
(-1684)
2441
(+59)
3416
(-416)
2739
(-1239)
1885
(-385)
total = 13 665 ha
Figure 2. Planned and effective forest expansion in Flanders figures given per province.
49
deforestation, while for forest expansion the Flemish government has installed a special forest expansion unit (consisting of 8 persons in total) within its Forest and the Green Areas Division. The Flemish government aims to acquire 1000 ha of new forest per year. Moreover, partnerships with local authorities and private individuals should lead to the realisation of the required 13,665 ha of new forest. Priorities within the Flemish forest expansion programme have been defined as: - De-fragmentation of existing (public) forests; - creation of large multifunctional forests; and - creation of recreational forest complexes nearby urbanised areas (urban forests). Within this priority list, one of the major challenges is the realisation of urban forests within the direct neighbourhood of Flanders major cities. Within a highly urbanised region such as Flanders, land pressure and spatial claims in the vicinity of cities are very high. Therefore the realisation of urban forests in Flanders is a complex issue, requiring a well-thought-out scenario. The Forest and Green Areas Division has, in cooperation with the Spatial Planning Division, developed a three-step process. From idea to realization of an urban forest, three phases are considered, each of them answering an elementary question: Where should urban forest be localised? Localisation phase Concept phase What should urban forest look like? Implementation phase How can the desired urban forest be realised in the selected location?
Localisation phase
A first step in the creation of an urban forest consists of finding a location that is both suitable and feasible. Van Elegem et al. (2002) have developed a multicriteria analysis to select such locations. Essentially, the methodology of Van Elegem et al. (2002) considers three phases (Figure 3): (1) The excluding phase, where exclusive criteria are used to select a number of locations potentially suitable for the creation of an urban forest. (2) The ordering (or ranking) phase, when the potential locations from the excluding phase are tested for their suitability. This leads to the selection and ranking of a limited number of most suitable locations. Criteria used for this selection can be subdivided into three groups: (a) criteria related to functional elements, (b) criteria related to structural strengthening of the landscape, and (c) criteria related to ecological quality. (3) Phase 2 is followed by feasibility phase, when the most suitable locations are tested for their feasibility. This last phase should guarantee the realisation of an urban forest within a relatively short term.
50
A more elaborate overview of the methodology to select the best locations for new urban forests using multicriteria analysis can be found in Van Elegem et al. (2002).
Search Area
Parts of the search area
filter
1 Excluding phase
excluding criteria
Examine against the desired profile of the urban forest
Functional elements Structural elements Ecological elements
Potential locations Most suitable locations Most suitable and feasible locations
2 Ordering phase 3 Feasibility phase
Figure 3. Scheme for the localisation phase of the Flemish forest expansion programme (after Van Elegem et al. 2002).
The concept phase

After having selected a suitable and feasible location for the creation of an urban woodland (localisation phase), the next question to be addressed is What should the forest look like? The second phase, which is called the concept phase, concentrates on the optimal lay out of the urban forest to be created. In order to reach this optimal lay out, a two-step approach is followed. Step 1: inventory An inventory of the area selected for the future urban forest should reveal (a) the historic and current land use, (b) the current biotic and a-biotic characteristics, (c) the judicial context (zoning, property, protected areas, etc.) and (d) the actual functional and spatial organisation of the area (internal as well as external). Through such an inventory both the pull and push factors of the area can be mapped out, which, in turn, serves as a basis for step 2: the development of the urban forests future design. Step 2: conceptual framework The development of a conceptual framework for the future urban forest is the result of a continuous exchange of information between the meso- and micro-scale. While in a first stage the most ideal design for the urban forest is developed at the meso-scale, a
51
Figure 4. Example of the output of the concept phase for the planned urban forest in Ghent (Studiegroep Omgeving et al. 2001).
second stage with a feedback between this ideal design and the actual situation (step 1: inventory) is required at the micro-scale. Eventually, the confrontation between mesoand micro-scale should lead to the optimal design. The final output of the concept phase is a plan showing the desired layout of the urban forest at the meso-scale (Figure 4). This plan contains all the elements, with their relative position and dimension, forming part of the future urban forest. Yet, this plan requires no decisions at parcel level.
52
parcel ID
actual situation
owner zone landuse maintenance owner
desired situation
zone landuse maintenance
private
agriculture
forest
economic
public
forest
forest
sustainble recreation
actions to be taken
owner zone land use maintenance
buy
change zone
forest
transformation
Figure 5. Output of the implementation phase, consisting of a table listing the actions to be taken to go from the actual to the desired (designed) situation for each parcel of the selected area.
The implementation phase

Once the design for the urban forest to be developed is available, a scenario to transform the actual situation into the designed situation has to be worked out. This transformation process is subject of the third phase, called the implementation phase. This implementation phase should guarantee that plans made in phase 2 would actually be executed in the field.
Conclusions
In conclusion of this paper dealing with the policy perspective on realising urban forests in Flanders: the Forest and Green Areas Division wants to stress both the strength and the importance of their three-step approach. First, splitting up the process from idea to realisation of an urban forest in three separate, well-defined steps guarantees that the input of money and means is equally distributed over the respective aspects of the realisation process, with no chance of
53
neglecting or omitting any of the process steps. Furthermore, the three-step process enables specific partnerships and participation schemes to be made for each of the steps. Moreover, not only the realisation process but also the decision making process is spread out over three steps. It is much more likely for politicians to gradually accept a controversial idea such as an urban forest. When using the three-step process, politicians first deal with general interests: do the inhabitants of my city or community want to have an urban forest? If yes, where should it be located and what should it look like (step 1&2)? Only after having reached a consensus amongst decision makers on the first two steps, the implementation phase, where personal interests are involved, is started. During this implementation phase (step 3) decisions such as what to do with this single farmer, or that local amateur football club within the perimeter of the urban forest have to be made. Through lobbying personal interests may have a strong impact on decision making, and by splitting up the decision making process, one can avoid that personal interests clash/interfere with general interests, which, and this is the most important, increases the realisation chances of the urban forest project.
References
Embo T (2001).
Finding public and political support for (new) urban forests. In: Konijnendijk, C.C. and Flemish Forest Organisation (Eds.) Communicating and financing urban woodlands in Europe. Proceedings of the 2nd and 3rd IUFRO European Forum on Urban Forestry. Aarhus, Denmark, 4-6 May, 1999 & Gyarmatpuszta, Budapest, Hungary, 9-12 May, 2000: 18-21.
Elegem B Van, Embo T, Muys B & Lust N (2002).
A methodology to select the best locations for new urban forests using multicriteria analysis. Forestry 75 (1): 13-23.
Studiegroep Omgeving, Econnection and Bulck Consultants International (2001).
Gewestelijk RUP voor bosontwikkeling en bedrijvigheid ontwerp eindrapport (Regional Spatial Executive Plan for forest development and economic activity draft final report.) Under the authority of Ministry of the Flemish Community, AROHM Planning Department (ARP).
54
Planning New Forests in the Netherlands
Rien van den Berg Department of Innovation and Knowledge Management, Government Service for Land and Water Use. P.O. Box 20021, NL-3502 LA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
Abstract
The forest area in the Netherlands is rather limited: forests cover about 8% of the total land area. Most of the cities are situated in areas with little forest and people must drive 50 kilometres or more to reach a landscape rich of forests. The lack of forests is felt the most near the big cities and especially in the Randstad, the metropolitan area in the western part of the Netherlands. Since the 1960s a national policy to plan and realise new forests has been developed. In the Randstad the Randstad Green Structure became an important planning objective in national and regional planning schemes. The policy for new forests has been rather successful. Although the planned hectares will not be fully realised, the location of new forests greatly attracted the attention of professionals in spatial-planning and land-use-planning. New forests emerged like mushrooms on the planners maps and the size of the largest forests grew from a few hundred hectares (Bieslandse Bos) to a few thousand hectares (Horsterwold and Bentwoud). With the growing size of new forests the problems of planning and realisation also increased. These include booming land prices, opposing farmers, traversing roads and railways and local politics. Especially the Bentwoud in the province of Zuid-Holland (South-Holland) illustrates the actual threats and challenges. The land in the new polders, where the Horsterwold lays, has from the early beginning been owned by the state. This has made it easier to develop a forest of this size. Key words: afforestation, urban areas, planning.
Introduction
The topic of this paper are the landscape planning aspects of new forests. In the Netherlands a long tradition exists of using forests as a tool for improving and enhancing landscape qualities. The flat country makes trees and forests strong instruments in shaping the landscape. Planting forests is not always seen as an improvement. It can disturb the open scenery and wide views typical for the landscape of the polders. But a
55
forest has an inner side, creates its own environment that offers people natural values, forest landscapes, fresh air and all kind of other experiences. A forest is a mystery that people need in our technical era. Research shows that 60% of the Dutch people think they do not have enough forest in their neighbourhood. Most of the forests in the Netherlands, like in many other countries, belonged to the poor side of the landscape and not to the rich front. Only the very poor soils, unsuitable for agriculture were used for forests. The forest-rich areas lay remote from the cities in the western, most urbanised part of our country. People in the cities need more than grass between the paving stones one of the great advocates for nature conservation and landscape planning (Cleyndert) said to politicians about sixty years ago. One of the first examples of new forests near the cities was the forest near Amsterdam, established in the 1930s. The 900 ha Bosplan was in fact based on a park concept with one-third grass, one-third water and one-third forest. The dominant influence of trees and forest in its appearance gives it the character of a forest. The Amsterdamse Bos was an initiative of the city. At that time no national policy existed. Following the Second World War landscape planners experimented with new forests in land consolidation plans. Examples are the rehabilitation of beautiful landscapes (Walcheren) in the province of Zeeland which were destroyed by floods after the Second World War and in 1953. Another example is the creation of complete new landscapes in the IJsselmeer polders, land established at the site of a former sea in the middle of the country. In these experimental phase timber production and recreation were important functions but structuring the landscape was the leading principle in the design. Land development plans often provided the legal framework for the mentioned forests. These plans facilitate the availability of land on the right place, budgets, an integrated planning approach and the organisation of the implementation. This approach covers about one third of the total land area of the Netherlands.
Need for policy development

In the 1960s ideas came up for a systematic approach for new forests near the cities. People from the State Forest Service took the initiative to plan new forests and give them a place on spatial planning maps. A specific policy was needed because of the spatial dynamic environments around the cities, with intensive land use and constant urban pressure. Forests need time to develop their values and need to be protected against sudden land use changes. Investments in new forests are worthless if after thirty years the whole forest is cut in order to establish an airport or a settlement. Little changes at the edges of a forest, new spatial relations with other natural or even urban areas are another story. They often enhance the diversity of the landscape. Since the 1960s many planning studies for new forests were executed and pilot projects and design competitions undertaken. But without a coherent policy, a strong set of instru-
56
ments and budgets, the purposes will not be achieved. It started with the objective of 30,000 ha of new forests mentioned in the long-term forestry plan of 1975. Then the target was raised to 75,000 ha of new forests in the forestry policy report of 1992. This paper will focus on the urban forestry part of this policy.
A green structure for the Randstad

In the 1970s a structural foundation was laid for the realisation of 30,000 ha of new forests in the governmental Report for the rural areas. The establishment of a green
Figure 1. Search-area for new strategic Green Projects in the Randstad.
57
structure for the Randstad, the most urbanised part of the country, with 10,000 ha of new forest became one of the main objectives of this policy report. The creation of new state forests was an important instrument. The main functions in the beginning were recreation, structuring the urban landscape and timber production. Later on, nature functions became more important. People need real forests, not just trees and forests as green curtains for recreation areas. The difference with green projects especially for recreation was clearly expressed by the percentage of forest and the costs per ha. One third of the area in recreation projects and 90% of the area in State forests should be forested. The costs for the State forests were about one third of the costs for recreation projects. That was an important argument for politicians: natural forests were much cheaper. Ideas and plans for new forests emerged. Provincial governments and municipalities took initiatives for location studies for new forests. State forest projects and land development projects offered the main planning and organisational framework and created the confidence for professional realisation and sustainable management. In 1992, six Strategic Green Projects for forests and nature were added to the Randstad Green Structure (see Figure 1).
Bieslandse Bos and Balij

One of the most profound projects from that first period is the Bieslandse Bos and the Balij, a new forest east of the government town of The Hague. This project involves a forest area with a total area of 1000 ha, including 100 ha of water and agricultural land. The need to create a strong landscape structure for the expected development of urban settlements and greenhouses was the main motive. In this project experience was gained with how to use unexpected developments like the Floriade exposition, were 25 ha of new state forest was one of the exposition objects. These 25 ha were used as bridgehead for the Balij, which connected the Bieslandse Bos with Zoetermeer, the main New Town in this part of Holland. The two forest plans together made a really interesting forest area in the middle of existing and planned urban settlements (see Figure 2).
58
Figure 2. Location of new forest areas north of Rotterdam.
Horsterwold
The IJsselmeer Polders show a developing land use concept from traditional agricultural polders in the early beginning to the modern Southern Flevoland with its four functional zones. In this last reclaimed polder - the planned fifth polder Markerwaard was cancelled - extensive areas are allocated for nature (the famous new nature reserve Oostvaardersplassen), agriculture, a new city (Almere) for more than 300,000 inhabitants and a new forest (Horsterwold). During the early 1970s, when the first drafts for this polder were prepared, landscape planners from the State Forest Ser
59
vice introduced the idea of a large broadleaf forest of 4,000 ha, i.e. a landscape type not existing in the Netherlands and which is rare even in Western Europe. The forest was to be established near the new expanding city and not far from Amsterdam, Utrecht and the urbanised Gooi area. A visionary idea and although the land was owned by the state it took persuasion and endurance to keep the full forest plan on the map. The whole forest plan is executed now, the last stage being a silent nature core in the middle of the forest. A zoning plan was made with multifunctional forest, mixed with recreation and agriculture at the edges, and a silent core of natural forest in the middle (see Figure 3 and 4).
Figure 3. Zoning in the Hosterwold, with the silent core in the middle left.
Bentwoud
In 1984, when the Randstad green structure plan was in full implementation, the question arose how the new forest plans could contribute to ecological values. The idea of ecological core forests and optimal connections with other ecological hot spots came up. East of Zoetermeer and north of Rotterdam there remains an agricultural area with very good soils and a large-scale landscape, i.e. an area with a great potential for a new forest of a few thousand hectares. On the basis of ecological research the Province of Zuid-Holland initiated a planning study. The province chose a compact model for the new forest, with connections to other recreational and natural areas in the region, like a spider in a web. A bold and fascinating plan was born. Provincial politicians became enthusiastic and adopted it. In the first plan the core forest was about 2,000 ha. But the farmers resisted strongly against the forest plan. Over a few hundred years generations of farmers had had a good living in this area. They feared the end of agriculture in the whole region because of the forest. At the end of the regional planning procedure, the core forest will consist of 1,000 ha with another 1,000 ha of connection zones. There is an option for another 300 ha in a second phase. Farmers objected to the plan up to the highest court, the Council of State, but lost because the plan had followed a democratic procedure. Also the importance of a forest to society was a strong argument. This is a signal for the diminishing role of agriculture in urban areas in the Netherlands.
60
Figure 4. Recreation mixed with forests in the Hosterwold.
The Bentwoud project with its connection zones is now part of a larger integrated land development project. The future forestland must be acquired on a voluntary base. And that is a weak point in the plan. Farmers do not want to sell their land. They try to prevent colleagues from selling. Land prices are raised because of urbanisation, intensive land use and speculation. Only one hundred ha has been acquired to date. People from the Government Service for Land and Water Use, who are assigned to the project, think that without expropriation there will be no possibility to realise the whole forest. To keep faith in the forest plan the planting of the first acquired hectares has started. There is a clear zoning plan with a natural core of grazed forest in the middle (see Figure 5).
Main questions for forest realisation

A number of questions remain for forest realisation: - How to execute parts of the plan separately and still contribute to the planned larger forest as a whole in the future? - How to hold the interest of politicians and the public when only small fragments are realised and the qualities of the whole forest are not yet visible?
61
Figure 5. Layout of first part of the Bentwound.
- How to keep the area free of all kinds of local land use and urban initiatives which are detrimental to the new forest? - How to create an exciting forest were nature values and recreation go together? - How to take advantage of the large scale of the open area while transforming it in a forest landscape?
Co-operation with artists

One of the new aspects in working on this forest project is the co-operation with artists. From the ideas of ten artists, four were chosen to contribute to the forest plan. The artists were selected because of their ideas about the contribution of the design process to the concept of the whole forest. Isolated ideas with a land-art character were not desirable in this stage of development of the forest. In design workshops the forest planners and landscape architects worked together with the artists to elaborate their ideas. This also provided answers to some of the questions mentioned above. One artist concentrated on communication and acted as the forester of the still not
62
existing forest. He stimulated children of schools in the surrounding area to draw their perfect trees and forest. People started to think about the forest and it already represents a value. Another artist challenged the planners to create a really exciting forest and to find innovative tools for the development of natural values, for example by using the earth-shaping function of streaming water, and to create a certain danger so that people can loose their way during long walks. Yet another artist concentrated on the function of the whole forest as a clean cell in an urban and technical environment. He stressed enhancing the clean qualities. The fourth artist is a Frenchman. He brought in the idea to see the forest as a supermarket, a place where all kind of recreational functions have their logical place and offer a complete manmade natural park north of Rotterdam. The Bentwoud plan is still in a developing stage. The first 50 ha was planted one year ago (in 2000). We try to put facts for the people in this area. Models are made for the greater land development project. One model pays more attention to blue-green elements for the inhabitants of the cities, while another model focuses on the rural functions. The water aspect raises troubling questions because the designed creeks will cause upward streaming brackish water from the underground. The future size of the forest is still subject to discussion and at the edges land use conflicts often arise.
Evaluation
The implementation of the objectives of forest policy are monitored yearly and evaluated every fourth year. The results are not bad, although the pace is decreasing the last years. The average result is 73% realisation. In the Randstad, the realisation remains behind target.
Final comment
For new forests in urbanised areas appealing plans are needed. People have to adopt these plans and must protect them against all kind of interfering activities to be expected in crowded areas. The forest must first be born in the fantasy of the planners and then in the fantasy of politicians and of the people who will use it in the future. In the beginning there is often resistance because loss of existing values. As soon as the forest has its own identity it can protect itself. The growing internal values can embrace people and convince them to protect and strengthen them.
63
The Design of Urban Woodlands in the Netherlands: Development of a Polder Forest

Dominique Blom Technical University Delft, Faculty of Architecture, Berlageweg 1, 2628 CR Delft
Abstract
The paper provides insight into some main findings of a Ph.D.-study carried out at the Technical University of Delft from 1996-2001. The studys objective was to give an overview and analysis of 20th century urban woodland plans in the western part of the Netherlands. It shows the influence of modernism on urban woodland design and the adaptation of these designs to the Dutch polder landscape. In this way a unique style developed in Dutch urban woodland design in the 20th century. In the urbanised western part of the Netherlands, the Randstad, a considerable number of new woodlands was planned and designed during the 20th century. As most woodlands in this area had disappeared during the Middle Ages this meant a substantial transformation of the open polder landscape. In addition, it led to a new development in urban green planning. Developing new urban woodlands was unique in Europe at that time. In most countries remains of ancient forests near cities, like the Bois de Boulogne in Paris, gradually evolved into urban woodlands. In the early 20th century the first urban woodlands were projected on the cities outskirts, anticipating expansion of the urban area. These woodland designs were mainly based on the English landscape style. Later that century larger woodlands, even as large as thousands of hectares, were planned further away from the city. All of these new urban woodlands were situated in the lowlands, and were meant for recreation and nature development, this in contrast to most historical woodlands that were planted on sand soil, and intended for wood production and hunting. The study presented here study showed that during the 20th century a new kind of landscape feature was established in the western part of the Netherlands: an urban woodland closely linked to the Dutch polder landscape.
Key words: urban woodland design, landscape architecture, modernism, polder landscape.
65
Introduction
In the 20th century several urban woodlands were laidout in the Randstad, the urbanised western part of the Netherlands. This was a new and unique phenomenon, as most urban woodlands in Europe developed from existing, historical woodlands that were adapted to an urban setting and use. In the western part of the Netherlands however, there were hardly any woodlands left around 1900. Even those few left were all planted by man at some time in history. It was also unique that the new woodlands were planned in polder landscape, an open and flat landscape, while most Dutch forests are located on sandy soils with more relief. These forests also determine the traditional image most people have of forests: a closed, irregular, mysterious landscape. The designers and planners of the new urban woodlands in the Randstad had to meet the challenge to create attractive urban woodlands for recreation in this polder landscape, but also for nature and timber production.
Key aspects of urban woodlands in the Netherlands

In the study three key aspects were used to study the urban woodlands planned and laid-out in the Randstad during the 20th century: planning, design and forest image. During the 20th century these issues changed significantly. Planning Before World War II (WWII), urban woodlands were more like large city parks with a local function, planned by local governments. After WWII the layout of urban woodlands became part of the national policy on physical planning. These woodlands were larger and had a more regional function, e.g. functioning as physical barrier to keep two cities separated, or as woodland for the whole region. Design The first urban woodlands were designed in a romantic style, inspired by the English landscape style, although they were laid-out in a polder landscape. The design of the latest ones has evolved into a kind of polder-style. Visual appearance of the forest Urban woodland is built-up with open space and forested areas; these forested areas have their own spatial characteristics, depending on the planted species, pattern, age structure, and so forth. The use of a standard mixture of tree species has developed into more creative use of tree species and mixtures. These issues will be dealt with in this paper, using examples of urban forest plans from three periods in the 20h century: before WWII, between WWII and 1975 and from 1975 until today.
66
Background
In the early Middle Ages there was a lot of woodland in the Netherlands. Even a large part of Holland, the Western part of the Netherlands, was covered in forest. The population increased considerably however, and more and more forests disappeared to make room for agricultural land. The forested area decreased rapidly until at the end of the Middle Ages very little woodland was left in Holland. This remained the same until the 19th century; in 1900 there remained only about 35,000 ha of forest in the Netherlands (Al & Kuiper 2000), of which most was located outside Holland. In the 19th century new forests were planted again to meet the demands of increasing industrialisation, but of course these were mainly used for timber production. Meanwhile industrialisation led to urbanisation and to bad living standards in the cities. Cities turned into unhealthy and unpleasant places due to pollution and crowding; there was hardly any green space left. To improve this situation parks were laid out in the cities in the 19th century. Still there was a lack of green space outside the cities. As reaction against the bad health and environmental situation in the cities an anti-urban feeling developed in these cities at the start of the 20th century. People wanted to
Figure 1. New urban woodlands as a national policy (Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting en Ruimtelijke Ordening 1960).
67
get back to nature. A cutback in working hours, due to an economical crisis, allowed people to spend leisure time outside the cities in the fresh air. Possibilities were very limited, however, as uncultivated land disappeared in the rural area due to cultivation. To protect the few remaining uncultivated areas the first nature protection organisations were founded. But protecting existing green was not enough, as there also was a need for green areas close to or in the cities. Local governments took the first initiatives to lay out large green areas or forests near cities at the start of the 20th century. The city of Rotterdam was the first to develop a plan for a large green area, the Kralingse Bos1, soon after followed by the well-known Amsterdamse Bos. After WWII national planning developed and as part of the First National Policy Document on Spatial Planning in 1960, a plan was presented for 11 new green areas near large cities, for day recreation and nature (see Figure 1). Most of these were planned in the urbanised part of Holland, the Randstad. Later National Policy Documents on this subject continued this policy of planning new large green areas near cities. Even the last note, the Fifth National Policy Document on Spatial Planning acknowledges a need for more green, especially in the Randstad (Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieu 2001). Unfortunately only a few of the planned urban woodlands were planted so far; a few more are being realised right now.
Before WWII: the first urban woodlands in the Randstad

Planning for the future
As mentioned before, the first urban woodlands were laid-out near Amsterdam and Rotterdam. As urbanisation continued to grow, local governments became aware that it was necessary to make a plan for the future in order to control unrestricted growth. The two urban woodlands, Amsterdamse Bos and Kralingse Bos, were planned at the cities outskirts anticipating further growth of the city but also - especially in the case of the Kralingse Bos - to function as a future outer boundary for the city (see Figures 2 and 3). The cities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam did not just want to make a park, but rather a green area that would be large enough to be a pleasure resort for our entire, numerous population as the city of Rotterdam described it in 1909. This was completely different from the urban parks that were laid out in the cities in the 19th century. These
The Dutch word bos means forest or woodland.
68
parks were just for walking and were supposed to be uplifting for the ordinary urban dweller who could look at nature there. It was more about what people were supposed to want than what they really wanted. But influenced by the Volkspark2 movement in Germany and by developments in architecture and art that led to modernism3, planners started thinking about the real needs of people. Strangely enough, a stimulating factor in planning these new green areas was the economical crisis. There was a lot of unemployment, and planting forest was seen as a good way to give these people an opportunity to work.
Figure 2. General Development Plan Amsterdam (AUP), 1932 (Rossem 1993).
In Germany a need was felt to go beyond the 19th century concept of the urban park as a place for the self-representation of the metropolitan bourgeoisie, just for walking. The Volkspark was to be a place for activities and feelings that would lead man back to his/her natural roots and to improve the self-esteem of the German people. On the one hand collective activity, on the other hand contact with nature. Architects wanted to improve the living conditions for the not so wealthy. Their ideal was a healthy environment for everyone, hygienic, with lots of light and fresh air. Living needs and demands should be central, buildings should be functional.
69
Figure 3. Location of the Kralingse Bos near Rotterdam (Palmboom 1995).
Designing the first urban woodlands
In the design of the new green areas the influence of modernism and the Volkspark movement was visible as well. Especially the ideas behind these movements were important: functionality and meeting the needs of the people, e.g. providing facilities for active recreation. In the Kralingse Bos, the ongoing design discussion is visible by studying the planning process. The first plan was designed in the romantic landscape style, still used by traditional park architects at that time. A group of city planners however, did not agree with this plan and came up with an alternative, more rational plan. This plan was strongly influenced by modernistic ideas that had already found foothold in city planning and architecture. After a long planning process with many designs and many designers involved the final plan ended up being a kind of compromise with both rational and romantic elements (see Figure 4). In the Amsterdamse Bos the influence of modernism led to the conviction that the social character related to use should determine the plan. Planners wanted to achieve a good balance between open and wooded parts in the area (Figures 6 and 7), leading to a natural and harmonic landscape (Graaf 1937). In the end a rather rational planning principal was used to reach this goal: 1/3rd of the total area of 900 ha was water, 1/3rd open space and 1/3rd forested.
70
Figure 4. Plans for the Kralingse Bos (1911, 1920, 1951) (Oldenburger-Ebbers 1998).
71
In spite of modernistic influences the Amsterdamse Bos (see Figure 5, 6 & 7) was laid out in a romantic style. This might be due to a lack of more rational or modern examples of landscape design that could be used as reference. Furthermore, the planners of the Amsterdamse Bos visited several more traditional woodlands in England, Belgium and Germany to serve as examples for the new green area. In the end the woodland was designed in a way that was most familiar for park designers at that time: a romantic style referring to English landscape parks, including elevations. This design had no relation whatsoever with the polder landscape. Rolling meadows, clumps of trees, winding paths and water ponds referred to the English cultural landscape instead of the Dutch polder landscape. The curved lines were not as elegant as in the English landscape style; they were more rational, with even some straight lines. Some areas were left unchanged however. At the edges of the former polder there were some remnants of old peat left the way they were, namely the areas bordering the two lakes De Nieuwe Meer and De Poel (see Figure 8). They were considered to have natural values, as they showed the rich flora and fauna of the original Dutch bog-peat (Graaf 1937). These areas with their wetlands and some fields are still very different from the rest of the Amsterdamse Bos. From the start of its construction the Amsterdamse Bos was a popular area with the inhabitants of the city, and it is still intensively used. Even on a rainy Sunday many people spend time there with activities such as horseback riding, walking, running, having childrens birthday parties, and so forth.
Visual appearance of the forest
Although the designers did have different forest types in mind when they made the plan for the Amsterdamse Bos, most of the forest was planted with a standard mixture of trees and shrubs that was used wherever shrubbery or forest patches were planted in public areas. Most of the trees are even-aged now, and although there are differences in tree species in some areas, the visual appearance of the forest in the Amsterdamse Bos could be more interesting. Besides that there is little variety in undergrowth, and most tree species do not regenerate spontaneously. Fortunately there is some attention for this problem now, and in some of the forested areas trees are cut to create open spaces where new trees can regenerate.
72
Figure 5. Amsterdamse Bos (Daalder 1999).
73
Figures 6 and 7. Open spaces in the Amsterdamse Bos.
5 WWII-1975: the first polder forest

Planning regional woodlands
After WWII a national policy on spatial planning was developed. This was partly due to the influences of modernism, since the wellbeing of the public became more important. The national government started to realise that green areas were needed in the urbanised west of the Netherlands. For this purpose, several large green areas were planned in the Randstad, but further away from the city than the earlier Amsterdamse and Kralingse Bos. The planned urban woodlands were meant to serve more than one city and thus have a more regional function. One of these woodlands was Spaarnwoude, an urban woodland situated between Amsterdam and Haarlem. This area was supposed to act as a buffer between these two cities, in order to keep them separated. Like the first urban woodlands these new ones were also planned for recreation. Besides that, natural values were seen as important and the forest had to contribute to the national timber production, which meant that about 70% of the planted trees had to be poplar. So although these green areas were planned near cities and for the people, as multifunctional forests they had to serve multiple purposes. Quite a large forest was planned in the early 1970s in the new Flevopolder: the Horsterwold with a size of 4,000 ha. This woodland was situated next to the town of Zeewolde and part of the general plan for the new Flevopolder (see Figure 9). This plan envisaged a robust green structure as a base for future developments in the polder. Within the region, the Horsterwold could be used as a recreation area by people from Amsterdam, Almere and Utrecht.
74
Figure 8. The peat area in the Amsterdamse bos.
The first polder elements in urban woodland design
The Horsterwold is the first urban woodland that shows a strong influence of the polder landscape in its design. The earlier Spaarnwoude started this development with occasionally adopting some polder features in the design. In the Horsterwold this was done more thoroughly. In the first place the allotment pattern of the polder, separation of areas by drainage ditches (see Figure 12), was used in the forest. The ditches serve as the drainage system, so this approach embodies not just being more aware of the qualities of the polder landscape but also a pragmatic choice as it is the cheapest and simplest solution. The ditches create a basic, rational pattern. Paths, open spaces and forest patches were designed on top of this basic pattern. Walking through the forest the drainage ditches are a constant, regular element that provide views into the forest. The long straight lines make it possible to preserve a characteristic feature of the polder landscape: that of vista. The second element that shows the relation with the polder landscape consists of the open spaces in the south-western corner of the area. Agricultural areas are incorporated into the forest creating large open spaces that relate to the large-scale landscape of the polder. A kind of transition area was created between the open agricultural area and the closed forest.
75
Figure 9. The location of the Horsterwold in the southern Flevopolder (Arnoldussen 1996).Figure 10. The plan of the Horsterwold (Arnoldussen 1996).
While the plan for the Horsterwold (see Figure 10) was developed, modernism was on its return and designers started to appreciate historical styles again. This has become known as post-modernism. In the Horsterwold this is visible as well. There are several classical elements, e.g. an axis from the town of Zeewolde into the forest, geometrical elements, and long avenues that remind of Baroque estates. All have been used without their original symbolic meaning but translated or transformed to the current situation. History became a source of inspiration for designers again, while in modernism historical styles were denied or at least not used.
76
Figure 10. The plan of the Horsterwold (Arnoldussen 1996).
77
To provide possibilities for multiple use of the forest, the area was divided into zones. At the eastern, northern and southern edges more facilities for active recreation were situated, close to respectively Zeewolde, the canal and the so-called edge lakes4. At the western side, next to open agricultural land, a core with higher nature values was planned to create a more quiet area. The area in between made a transition possible from peaceful nature in the west to increasing human activity, especially near Zeewolde in the east, but also to the northern and southern sides. This zoning concept was incorporated into the spatial structure of the forest, with a closed and quiet core, and an outer zone with more open spaces and a park-like character. Especially near Zeewolde the landscape is diverse, small-scaled and transparent (see Figures 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15). The design of the nature core was a long process, involving different designers. During this period ideas about nature changed from leaving nature develop itself to constructing nature. In the end the nature core of the Horsterwold was constructed using earthworks, which resulted in small-scale relief and some ponds with irregular shapes giving way to a more romantic nature idea. This design breaks with the basic polder pattern in the rest of the forest, breaking the unity of the forest as well.
Instead of planting the Horsterwold with mixed forest, the forest was divided into small stands with different tree species in every stand. Among these species a large proportion consists of poplar, since the forest had to meet the productivity, demand using 70% poplar. In general mainly deciduous broadleaf trees were planted in the forest, also because there is too much chalk in most of the soil to plant coniferous trees. The rich clay soil makes the development of vital high productive deciduous broadleaf woodland possible. The structure of small forest patches with different tree types is isually attractive. Although the trees are quite young it already provides variation.
These lakes, in Dutch randmeren, separate the Flevopolder from the mainland.
78
Figure 11. The nature core of the Horsterwold (Arnoldussen 1996).
79
Figure 12. Draining ditch in the Horsterwold.
Figure 13. Open agricultural space.
80
Figure 14. Axis from Zeewolde into the Horsterwolde forest.
Figure 15. Forest stands with poplar and beech.
81
End of the 20th century: increasing influence of history

Multifunctional planning
After about 1975 attention for the environment started to increase. Environmental problems, nature conservation and recreation were seen as important issues in the rural area, while agriculture lost its self-evident priority; people became aware that agriculture could sometimes harm the environment. Especially in the Randstad with its high urban pressure it became easier to discuss other uses. People became more aware of the different interests in the rural area. In this atmosphere more urban woodlands were planned, although these were still based on the ideas of the first two National Policy Documents on Spatial Planning. During the last 25 years of the 20th century only one urban woodland was realised, the Balij/Bieslandse Bos, and another one is currently being realised. Both these woodlands are situated in the so-called south-wing of the Randstad. In this area, the cities of Rotterdam, Den Haag, Delft and Zoetermeer and several small towns are rapidly growing together. The urbanised landscape becomes very complex, as landscapes get increasingly fragmented and borders between urban and rural areas fade. There are fast changes and many different interests. In the Balij/Bieslandse Bos at first only the Bieslandse Bos was planned as a rather small urban woodland near Delft. However, due to the fast growth of towns in the area and the planning of the Floriade5 near Zoetermeer, the planners decided to extend it all the way to Zoetermeer with the Balij, to prevent the towns from growing together (see Figures 16 and 17). The Bentwoud was planned as woodland between Zoetermeer and Boskoop but as farmers are not obliged to sell their land to the government, most land still has to be acquired and only a few lots were planted with trees. This urban woodland is situated at the edge of the South-wing of the Randstad (see Figure 18).
A garden show held on different locations every 10 years.
82
Figure 16. Plan of the Balij / Bieslandse Bos (Dienst Landelijk Gebied, 1997).
Figure 17. Landscape pattern around 1900; area of the Balij/Bielandse Bos.
83
Figure 18. Plan of the Bentwoud (Stuurgroep Bentwoud 1996).
Design with historic perspective
The development, visible in the Horsterwold, to use elements of the original landscape in woodland design was incorporated in the new plans. Planners and designers distinguish different landscape types and acknowledge the specific characteristics of these landscapes. There is a growing awareness of the fact that the landscape reflects the natural genesis, the use of the landscape by man and the occupation history. Identity of the landscape, often derived from its history, becomes a central issue and gives foothold to designers in a fast changing society. Pressure and demands on the landscape grow, as well as the many individual needs of people that need to be met. While in modernism the design rules were clear, this is a time everything is possible but nothing is clear. In both woodlands, like in the Horsterwold, most of the ditch pattern has been preserved as a basic allotment pattern that takes care of the drainage. The woodlands were designed more or less independently of this ditch pattern. However, other elements of the existing landscape were used as well. In the Bentwoud an old creek system was used as a main design feature. This creek system was found in the soil but is not visible in the landscape.
84
In the Bieslandse Bos the existing landscape was used in yet another way. The plan for this forest was conceived over a long design period in which many different designers were involved. It was based on the landscape with its many different small polders. The dike system of these polders forms the main structure of this woodland. The areas between the dikes, the old polders, all have a different design, some have more and some have little to do with the polder landscape. In this way a varied woodland was created with a clear main structure that reflects the character of the polder landscape. Classical influences can also be recognised in these woodland designs. In the Bentwoud the western area close to Zoetermeer resembles an estate forest, with its long straight avenues. In the Balij a monumental axis was laid out at the Zoetermeer side leading into the forest. This was clearly based on French baroque gardens. So again in these forest plans historical design styles were used and adapted to a new situation.
As the Balij/Bieslandse Bos was the only one of the two woodlands that is almost planted now this issue will be discussed only for that forest. In the Balij/Bieslandse Bos, again like in the Horsterwold, most of the forested area was planted with one species per forest stand. Some areas were planted with mixed forest. When planning this forest the production target of 70% poplar had to be met. This aim was abandoned in the 1990s since it was no longer cost-effective due to the decreasing timber prices.
Figure 19. The axis at the Balij.
85
Figure 20. Open space in the Bieslandse Bos.
Figure 21. An old dike.
86
However, a creative solution was found in the area near Zoetermeer. Here the 30% non-poplar part was concentrated in a triangular shaped beech stand. Surrounded by the fast growing poplar this would in the beginning be an open space in the forest. After 20 to 25 years when the poplar would be cut the effect would be reversed; the beech stand would be seen as closed forest in an open space (see Figures 19, 20 and 21).
Three issues for the future

To conclude, some remarks are made on the three issues of planning, design and visual appearance of the forest.
Planning
After seeing the growing scale of woodland planning one might wonder what will be the future role of the urban woodland in the urban landscape. Generally it is expected that the urban area will expand. Furthermore the border between urban and rural area is continuously becoming less clear, and the landscape of the Randstad becomes more and more a mixture of urban and rural. If this development continues the existing urban woodlands will become surrounded by urban sprawl. It is important, however, that these green areas do not lie isolated in a large urban area. A coherent green structure should be developed in the Randstad that can form a strong base for future urbanisation. To quote the emeritus professor in landscape architecture Em. Prof. Vroom: Its time for the Olmsted of the Randstad.
Design
It seems that landscape architects look more and more to the past for inspiration for their landscape plans. They look at the historical design styles but also the history of the landscape. Although it is important to take care of the values of a landscape this should not evolve into an easy adoption of landscape features or other historical elements in a plan. With the growing complexity of society it seems that designers sometimes feel a lack of foothold. In that case it is easy to base a plan on what is already there. However, designers should not copy these landscape features, but use them in a creative way, adding new qualities to the landscape. It is important to find the right balance between conservation and creation.
Although most areas shown as examples in this paper are not mature enough yet to see the spatial characteristics of the forest patches, the older cases do show how important forest management is. In the Amsterdamse Bos not much was done in the forest, apart from some thinning, and no major changes were achieved. To develop an interesting
87
visual appearance it is important that future management is aware of spatial consequences of their interventions. But also designers should be more aware of the development in time of a forest. The designer should not just make a plan and leave it at that, being involved only at the starting point. Possibly more contact between designers and managers could be helpful, at the start of a project but also during the following years.
References
Al E & Kuiper L (Eds) (2000).
Dutch woodlands. Stichting ProBos, Zeist.

Arnoldussen AH & Nip JA (1996).
Ontwikkelingsplan Horsterwold, Rijkswaterstaat Directie IJsselmeergebied, Lelystad.

Daalder R (1999).
Het Amsterdamse Bos. Stad en Groen 2(1). Dienst Ruimtelijke Ordening, Amsterdam.
Dienst Landelijk Gebied (1997).
Boswachterijen De Balij en Bieslandse Bos. DLG, Voorburg.

Graaf WA de (1937).
Toelichting Boschplan Amsterdam. Publieke Werken, Amsterdam.

Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting en Ruimtelijke Ordening (1960).
Eerste Nota over de Ruimtelijke Ordening. Staatsuitgeverij, Den Haag.

Ministerie van Volkshuisvesting, Ruimtelijke Ordening en Milieu (2001).
Vijfde Nota over de Ruimtelijke Ordening. Staatsuitgeverij, Den Haag.

Oldenburger-Ebbers CS, Backer AM & Blok E (1998).
Gids voor de Nederlandse tuin- en landschapsarchitectuur, deel West. De Hef, Rotterdam.

Palmboom F (1995).
Rotterdam verstedelijkt landschap. Uitgeverij 010, Rotterdam.

Rossum V van (1993).
Het Algemeen Uitbreidingsplan van Amsterdam: geschiedenis en ontwerp. Nai Uitgevers, Rotterdam.
Stuurgroep Bentwoud (1996).
Bentwoud: Kleurbehoud voor het Groene Hart. Provincie Zuid-Holland, Den Haag.
88
A historical case of periurban forestry: the Sotos Histricos of Aranjuez, Spain

Jos Luis Garca-Valdecantos Instituto Tecnolgico de Desarrollo Agrario. Ronda de Atocha 17, 28012 Madrid, Spain Mara Luisa Tello Mariscal Instituto Madrileo de Investigacin Agraria y Alimentaria Carretera N-II, Km. 38.200, 28800 Madrid, Spain
Abstract
The Sotos Histricos de Aranjuez were established under King Philip II during the 16th century. Afterwards, the kings of the house of Bourbon developed his idea with new plantations and buildings. At present these cover an area of 425 ha and extend over 45 km of avenues planted with trees of different species (planes, oaks, limes, poplars, and so forth). Some of these trees are older than 200 years and up to 40 meters high. This network of vegetation, close to the city of Aranjuez is a link between the town, the agricultural properties and the historical buildings. This paper presents various aspects of the green network, including its origin, development, and present situation. Insight into the latter will be provided by means of a general map, inventory of species, sanitary status, pattern of works undertaken in recent years, plan of recovery of lost plantations and infrastructures, and characteristics of the use of these avenues by the inhabitants of Aranjuez and visitors. Also discussed will be problems originating from the agricultural exploitation and the different institutions concerned. Institutions involved include city council, National Heritage, Regional Government of Madrid, European Union, and other.
Key words: urban forestry, peri-urban parks, Aranjuez.
Basic data
Aranjuez is situated in the Madrid region, in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula. The zone studied has a latitude between 40O 01 and 40O 04N, and a longitude between 3O 33 and 3O 38 W. Its altitude is 490 metres, and the area is almost completely flat. According to Thornthwaites classification its climate is Mediterranean mesothermical semiarid. Geologically it is an ensemble of fluvial limestone alluviums. Under an upper layer of sandy brown limos lays a second layer of calcareous gravel. The resulting soil is the typical calcareous xerofluvent. The whole area is under the influence of the rivers Tajo and Jarama. Aranjuez is 50 km from the city of Madrid.
89
Origin
When Charles Vs son, the future Philip II, was heir to the throne of Spain, his father ordered him to take charge of the Royal Sites, given that he wanted to enjoy places as pleasant as the other European princes at that time did. The most important Spanish architects, such as Juan de Herrera and Juan Bautista de Toledo, designed the first buildings and gardens (Rivera 1984, Wilkinson Zerner 1996). In 1561 a large number of trees began to be brought to Aranjuez. 5000 came from Flanders and other quantities from France, Andalusia and Valencia. At the same time, Flemish and French farmers started to cultivate the fields and gardens of Aranjuez according to their national customs (Atienza & Flix unpubl.). It seems that the first structure adopted was a network of parks, gardens and tree-lined avenues; the farms came afterwards (Figure 1). This explains (Tern 1949) why such a large amount of very rich agricultural soil was devoted to landscape improvement: the main reason was the Kings personal will. The idea, common to the European kings of that time, was to show their power and wealth, as well as to enjoy beautiful places for hunting and resting. But, from the beginning, there was a big difference among the Sotos Histricos and the other gardens, the latter being reserved for members of the royal Court, whereas the Sotos were the way to get to the farms, as well as walking promenades.
Figure 1. Map of the Sotos of Aranjuez in the XVI century.
90
Development and evolution

The following kings of Spain kept this original network without significant changes. Ferdinand VI had new streets established and put great emphasis on the economical profit of the whole area, ordering the cultivation of more farms. By this time the trees growing in the Sotos showed a twofold interest: their aesthetic value and also an industrial exploitation. So, poplars were planted for timber production, mulberries for feeding the silkworms working at the local silk factory, and so forth. Charles III, remembered as one of the best kings of Spain for having been a strong sponsor of arts, sciences and industry, developed, completed and integrated the original idea of Philip II into an illustrated concept of a royal land. This combined the exhibition of the latest agricultural features and trends in landscape management. So, farmers and architects from various parts of Spain, France, Belgium, Italy, The Netherlands and Germany worked in Aranjuez. By this time there was a strong relationship between farms and avenue trees: farmers were in charge of the maintenance of the trees, mainly by watering them when necessary (Figure 2). The development of infrastructures during the 19th century negatively affected the Sotos. In 1851 the railway MadridAranjuez crossed over it, dividing five avenues. But, on the other hand, since 1869 many trains have allowed people from Madrid to visit Aranjuez at reasonable prices.
Figure 2. Traditional irrigation system in the Sotos.
91
The 20th century

In Spain as well as in the rest of Europe, the last century introduced sharp changes in sociological and economical circumstances. First of all, the spread of new technologies induced the rise of new agriculture, characterised by mechanisation and reduced manpower. This resulted in an increased emigration from the countryside to the big cities: fewer people were available to take care of non-intensive agricultural tasks. In the last quarter of the century two main events affected the evolution of the Sotos. First of all, Spain joined the European Union in 1986, enabling the farmers to obtain European funds. Since these funds are selective, some traditional not funded crops (e.g. horticultural crops) were neglected. Consequently, some estates adjacent to the avenues which were usually well watered, changed to dry farming, thus shortening the water supply to the trees. At the same time, the ownership of the Sotos was transferred from the National Heritage to the Regional Government of Madrid. Unfortunately, the result was the negligence of the maintenance of the trees for more than ten years. Therefore, some species (mainly poplars and limes) suffered a lot of decay: dead branches, dead trees, attacks by pests and diseases, etc. In 1997 the Technological Institute for Rural Development (Regional Government of Madrid) took charge of this network of avenues, trying to recover and improve them.
Present situation
The Sotos Histricos cover an area of 425 ha, with a total length of 35 km. The width of the avenues ranges from 13 to 34 m. In 9 of the crossings there are roundabouts that sometimes preserve architectural elements of great importance. The Glorieta de las Doce Calles, for example, was built in 1613 and still shows a large part of its former shape, though seriously damaged. The species represented are (in order of importance): Platanus hispanica, Populus alba var. pyramidalis, Populus x canadensis, Populus nigra, Ulmus pumila, Ulmus minor, Quercus robur, Tilia platyphyllos, Morus alba, Morus nigra, Juglans regia, Photinia serrulata, Robinia pseudoacacia, Sophora japnica, Fraxinus angustifolia, Melia azederach, Celtis australis and, to a lesser extent, Aesculus hippocastanum, Paulownia tomentosa and Acer negundo. Each avenue, depending on its width, holds two, four, or six rows of trees at different spacing, leaving a central pathway of 3 to 13 m (Figure 3). The surface of the streets consists of compacted earth, paving, or asphalt, bearing traffic of pedestrians and bicycles, agricultural vehicles, and, in some cases, all kinds of vehicles. Irrigation is by means of ditches dug directly into the surface of the soil. It is the traditional way (Lpez 1988) and fulfils an aesthetical task: in dry countries the look and sound of water is much more appreciated than in those that do not lack rainfall. Some popular bars are scattered in the Sotos. They constitute interesting meeting points, and could add a recreational value, but, as we will see later, they are also the origin of important problems.(Lpez y Malta 1988).
92
Figure 3. An avenue in the Sotos.
Man and trees in the Sotos: interaction

Coming back to the origin and first development
It was said before that the personal will of one man, Emperor Charles V, led to the birth of this network of alleys and buildings. As his heirs were aware of the importance of their heritage, they kept it in a fairly good state, and, as happened with Fernando VI and Carlos III, improved and enlarged it. Philip II, in spite of being concerned with the government of the largest empire ever known, made such precise recommendations as some poplars must be replaced in Aranjuez, as tall as possible, not to be unworthy with the others still living (Winthuysen 1990). People were allowed to enjoy these royal properties, and farmers were in charge of them more or less consciously. Moreover, the economical interest of part of the trees contributed to their conservation. Thus there was a positive interaction among men and trees, which has allowed us to see them today.
The Sotos today
The Sotos act as a link between the city, the farms, the historical buildings and the industrial zone of Aranjuez. They provide a large open space for tourism, recreation and environmental activities. However, the traffic of trucks, buses and private cars constitutes a serious constraint for these uses in some streets. There is a positive
93
interaction between agricultural cultivation and trees: the avenues close to well-watered farms keep their trees in a very good condition. Additional benefits of trees are to allow activities such as walking, cycling, horseback riding, recreation, and so forth.
Man-induced damages
The bars and restaurants existing in the Sotos have sometimes invaded the space of the trees. It is evident that public properties must be protected as carefully as private ones are (Figure 4). Public infrastructure has affected important parts like the Glorieta de las Doce Calles, with partial destruction of its original design due to the construction of a busy road. Occurrence of vandalism is not very important, with the exception of repeated fires that constitute a serious problem. Pruning by vandals for firewood collection has also destroyed many trees, affecting very valuable species such as Quercus robur, considered an excellent stock of fuel (Figure 5). This type of pruning causes a strong physiological decay, killing the trees sooner or later. The appearance of different fungi is not the cause, but the effect of such decay.
Abiotic damages
As is the case of many other urban and periurban areas in the world, there exists a great number of factors of abiotic origin that cause severe damage to the Sotos of Aranjuez. Apart from direct damage, these factors can affect the vitality of the tree and
Figure 4. A restaurant invading the space of the trees.
94
Figure 5. Oak trees severely damaged by firewood collection.
make it more susceptible to other pathogens. Throughout their long history, these trees have been subjected to very different management techniques, which have obviously affected their health. Soil pollution, for example, damaged the plantations in very particular cases due to former chemical waste dumping from small factories. Drought has seriously damaged the more sensitive species such as poplars and limes, in those locations close to dry lands. The only solution has been, of course, felling dead or heavily damaged trees and replanting afterwards with more tolerant genera: Celtis, Morus, Sophora, and so forth. But, in every case, the ornamental function of this kind of plantations, has been kept in mind, which means an especially careful maintenance.
Biotic damages
The plane trees are highly affected by the disease called anthracnose, which is caused by the fungus Apiognomonia veneta, and provokes decay and/or death in the majority of the planes living in Aranjuez (Tello et al. 2000). It is the most important disease affecting the trees of the Sotos Historicos, considering both its incidence and its intensity. One of the possible treatments is sanitary pruning, which is quite expensive (some trees are 30 or 40 meters high), but possibly effective in slowing the progress of the disease. Trunk injection with fungicides has been another control method tried, but
95
although much cheaper, at the moment it seems to have little effect. Nevertheless and luckily, no signs of Ceratocystis fimbriata (cancer stain) in these trees have been found. Attacks by insects such as Corythuca ciliata, known as Sycamore lace bug, are less worrying and there is no need to control them. It is also worth mentioning Dutch elm disease that severely affects most of the elms in the Sotos. Finally, several species of wood decay fungi affect many different tree species. The most common in the Sotos are Fomes fomentarius, Pleurotus ostreatus, Inonotus hispidus, Coriolopsis gallica, Schizophyllum commune and Ganoderma spp. mainly on Platanus, Populus, Quercus and Tilia. Their incidence is low, however, and restricted to individual decaying trees, previously damaged by other factors, mainly anthropogenic.
Future development
The first activities developed since 1998 have been the restoration of heavily damaged plantations, which were a real danger to people. Drs. Mateo-Sagasta and Tello carried out a comprehensive study of the health status of the trees. A general inventory and mapping by means of a GIS has shown to be an outstanding tool to manage the whole and to store information on a daily basis. A previous assessment of the total cost of the integral restoration of the Sotos (trees, pavements, architectural elements, etc.) is about 2.5 million Euros. After a careful study of the uses of the different streets it has been decided to cut down the traffic in most of them, only allowing the passage of agricultural and specially authorised vehicles. On the contrary, facilities for pedestrians, cyclists and horse-riders will be provided as much as possible (Figure 6).
Conclusions
In the last four centuries in Spain (and in Europe) the political frame has evolved from Gods right monarchy to more or less democratic monarchies, to republics, and, in the Spanish case, to a democratic monarchy. Many wars (civil, international and worldwide) have passed. Great social and economical changes have occurred, greatly disturbing the social scenario. But, year after year, century after century, the trees have remained. Obviously, man needs trees. One should not forget that, not too many millenniums ago we lived in the tops of them. The interaction man-tree has had some different expressions in Aranjuez during the last four hundred years. A very first conception phase: the heir to the thrones idea. Secondly, the development of this idea with the contribution of farmers, gardeners and architects from many European countries. In a later stage, succeeding Spanish kings carried out the maintenance and improvement. In the 20th century, dramatic changes in the social and political situation affected the Sotos negatively, showing that technicians, scientists and designers must be continuously in line with social evolution, anticipating the effects of the harsh evolution we have to live with. This is the only way to achieve our goal: that trees, and designs made by us, will remain much after we disappear.
96
Figure 6. Avenue with access restricted to non motorised traffic.
References
Lpez A (1988).
Antiguos riegos marginales de Aranjuez. Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid.

Lpez y Malta C (1988.)
Historia descriptiva del Real Sitio de Aranjuez. Doce Calles, Aranjuez.

Rivera J (1984).
Juan Bautista de Toledo y Felipe II. Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid.

Tello ML, Redondo C & Mateo-Sagasta E (2000).
Health status of plane trees (Platanus spp.) in Spain. Journal of Arboriculture 26(5): 246-254.
Tern M de (1949).
Huertas y jardines de Aranjuez. Universidad Complutense, Madrid.

Wilkinson Zerner C (1996).
Juan de Herrera, arquitecto de Felipe II. Akal, Madrid.

Winthuysen X de (1990).
Jardines clsicos de Espaa. Doce Calles/Real Jardn Botnico. CSIC, Aranjuez.
97
Chapter 3
Functions and benefits of urban forests and trees
99
Multi-functionality in Urban Forestry A Dream or a Task?

Janez Pinat Biotechnical Faculty, Dept. of Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources, University of Ljubljana Vecna pot 83, SLO-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Abstract
Ljubljana is the largest city (340,000) and capital of Slovenia. The most important categories of open green space are agricultural land, forests, gardens, parks and other. Forests are divided into forest patches of different size and for applied research in the field of urban forestry, the largest forest patch on Golovec hill was chosen. For study purposes the evaluation of generally beneficial urban forests functions and roles was carried out, as well as the analysis of temporal changes in land use. The results show that the forests on Golovec hill are the most stable land use category. However their timber production role is decreasing and their non-timber producing functions are becoming more and more important. One of the drawbacks is the private ownership of most forests and the fact that settlements are located in all suitable areas in the foothills an valleys, which together with sometimes steep slopes seriously compromises visitor access to Golovec urban forest. Future work in the field of urban forestry should concentrate on the development of knowledge, legislation, protection, inventories, detailed silvicultural planning, operational strategy of management and development of co-operation between state forestry service and local municipality regarding urban forest management. In the future urban forestry will have to deal with a very wide range of human activities, from knowledge of the living and non-living environment to technological and sociological knowledge
Key words: multi-functionality, urban forestry, non-timber forest functions, Ljubljana, nature understanding
Introduction
Due to economic growth and development the image of Slovenia has rapidly changed during recent years. Together with economic development the awareness of the importance of urban forests is also growing (Golob 1993, Kova & Golob 1993). One of the most significant recent landscape changes is the construction of highway
101
corridors through Slovenia. It is likely that this change will emerge especially in the Slovenian capital Ljubljana, as with the construction of the system of bypass highways around Ljubljana the borders of this space have been greatly changed. In spite of crossings (underpasses, crossovers) the highway creates a sharp boundary for the city, resulting in a defined townscape. The matter of concern is in general the role of forests and trees in the urban area since the forest represents an existential quality in the life of people and animals in the urban environment. Therefore the aim of the presented research was to provide an outlook of the forest patches in the townscape of Ljubljana, with special focus on the Golovec hill, the biggest urban forest of Ljubljana. The municipality of Ljubljana is responsible for maintenance of public green space and public trees, while the Slovenian Forests Service is responsible for the maintenance of urban forests. The recently completed management plan for the Urban Forest Management Unit Rast, elaborated by The Slovenian Forests Service, defines longterm and operational management planning in urban forests and operational management supervision in urban forests. At the moment between 2/3 to 3/4 of the urban forests are privately owned; after the denationalisation this figure is expected to have increased by an additional 5 -10% (Pirnat 2001). The urban forests of Ljubljana are regulated according to the following laws and plans: - The Slovenian Forest Act (1993) - The Proclamation Act on Forests with Special Purpose in the city of Ljubljana (recently completed and to be adopted in this year) - The Forest Management Plan for the Forest Management Unit Rast (1997-2006) These three documents have led to much better public participation, since the documents are publicly available, and obligatory public presentations of different projects always enable various public interest groups to participate - either as urban forest owners or citizens. All mentioned documents regulate management in the urban forests of Ljubljana. Some interesting and important issues related to these documents are (Pirnat 2001): - Close-to-nature and multi-purpose management in accordance with the principles of protection of the environment and natural values of urban (and all other) forests regardless of ownership; - free access to and movement in all forests regardless of ownership; - allocation of a category of forests with special purpose, being forests with significant ecological or social functions provides the Forests Service and municipality with a
102
legal base for protection and specially adapted management in these forests. an area of 1,503 ha around the city of Ljubljana should be proclaimed as urban forest; deforestation in protected areas is not allowed and clear cutting as a way of normal forest management is prohibited; special forest management directives for adapted management are defined together with some limitations; the municipality has accepted the decision and financial frame for systematic redemption of urban forests based on the offers of private owners. Also a financial compensation by the municipality to private owners due to limitations in management in urban forests is being prepared; extension regarding urban forests and education on urban forest functions for forest owners is a task of The Slovenian Forests Service. on the basis of past development, the present state of the forests and their actual role and significance, the main constraints, restrictions, general objectives and a strategy plan for adapted forest management were defined.
Study area
Ljubljana, the largest city and capital of Slovenia, is situated in a basin along the river Ljubljanica, surrounded by hills in western, northern and eastern direction and by a moor in southern direction. Its elevation is 310 m above sea level. The total residential population is about 340,000. The municipality area border (MAB) includes an area of 27,491ha. This border, however, is stretching far into the rural surroundings especially in south-eastern direction. Since the MAB is not suitable for delineating urban forests, the border of Forest Management Unit Rast slightly changed in the southern part due to the newly constructed highway, and is accepted as the most suitable area for urban forests in Ljubljana (Pirnat 2001). The management plan for the Forest Management Unit Rast will guide management of the urban forests of Ljubljana. In this way the border of real urban area is encircled much more logically. The study area dealt with in this paper is therefore 8,716 ha. A detailed survey was carried out on the 895 ha Golovec hill.
Methods
Data on current land use were obtained from Ljubljana municipality sources and partly corrected by using aerial-photos. By means of two Geographical Information System software packages, ArcView (ESRI 1996) and Idrisi (Eastman 1997), the forest patches within the stated circle were selected and analysed by area and spatial distribution. Since focus was especially on the forests of Golovec hill, the temporal analysis of land use change has been carried out for the this area only. By means of GIS (Corson 1992,
103
Eastman 1997) the different historic (Franciscean cadastre from 1825) land uses were digitised, transferred into Idrisi GIS raster images and evaluated (determination of areas and spatial distribution of different land use categories). The data of recent (1997) land uses were also transferred into the Idrisi GIS environment which enabled comparison with historic data.
Results
Forests within study area
Within the study area, 67% of the total area is green space. The most important categories of green space are agricultural and forested land use, followed by gardens, water, parks and other (see Table 1).
Table 1. The areas of different land use categories (ha).
Non-open space Buildings, yards, paved areas Agricultura l 4070 ha 70 % 2873 ha (33 %) Category and area of green space Forests * Gardens Water Playground Cemetery 1420 ha 24 % 8716 ha 117 ha 117 ha 81 ha 2% 2% 1% 5843 ha (67 %) 21 ha <1% Parks 17 ha <1%
* Including scattered areas with forest trees and tree corridors
All in all there are 62 forest patches larger than 1 ha. in study area (see Tables 2 and 3). The areas of Golovec hill and Rznik hill together account for 70% of the total (Golovec itself almost 47%) and the patches in other areas only make up 30%. The distribution of forest patches means additional trouble. Larger patches, like Golovec, Grad, Roznik and the forests between the Roznik and the highway indicate certain green corridor possibilities in NW-SE direction, thus representing a link between two neighbouring landscape sub-units, i.e. the Polhov Gradec Mountains and the mountains between Ljubljana and the Litija basin. Regretfully enough, a suitable linkage in south-western direction and especially towards the north-east cannot be found (Pirnat 1997).
Table 2. The number and area of individual forest patches*.
No. of patches 1 1 1 3 3 4 11 38 553 * Area class (ha) 400 1000 200 400 100 200 20 29.99 10 19.99 5 9.99 3 4.99 1 2.99 0.005 0.99 Total area (ha) 655.91 329.49 110.41 67.38 38.33 29.69 46.14 69.41 73.03 Average area (ha) 655.91 329.49 110.41 22.46 12.78 7.42 4.19 1.83 0.11 % 77 %
23 %
* Including scattered areas with forest trees and tree corridors.
104
Table 3. Spatial distribution of urban forest patches and areas with tree vegetation* in Ljubljana towncape.
Golovec Ronik Grad Sava Podutik Zaj ja Scattered Total dobrava in city 32.44 20 173.81 523 * 1419.79 615 1 1 1 3 3 4 11 38 553
Total area 662.13 334.65 10.10 154.02 52.64 No. of patches 22 15 11 14 10 400 1000.00 1 1 C 200 400.00 1 L 100 200.00 2 20 29.99 A 1 10 19.99 S 1 1 5 9.99 S 1 2 3 4.99 E 1 2.99 1 3 5 2 S 20 11 9 4 6 0.005 0.99 * Including scattered areas with forest trees and tree corridors
1 2 2 8 22 489 *
5 14
Case study Golovec hill
This applied research focused: on the development of guidelines for designating urban forests; evaluation of generally beneficial urban forest functions and roles; on evaluation of needs and wishes of urban forest visitors; and on spatial forest division according to the differentiated forest uses by various target groups (owners, visitors, etc.) who in one way or another express their need for urban forests. Golovec hill forms the largest urban forest patch in Ljubljana. Encircled by motorways and a railway on southern, western and northern side and by a highway on eastern side it can be well distinguished from the rest of Ljubljanas urban and agricultural landscape. Current land uses are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Present main land uses in the Golovec hill area in ha (Pirnat in press)
Forests and shrubs 662.13 74% Meadows 121.39 14% Settlements, roads 74.31 8% Orchards 21.04 2% Fields 13.43 1% Other 2.08 < 1% Total 894.38 100%
Golovec hill is not very high, situated between 286 and 450 m above sea level. Generally it is not very steep: nearly 2/3 of the hill has slopes with less than 35% inclination (see Table 5 for details) and long ridge on the top. Sometimes, however, steep parts appear already in the foothill, what can be regarded as a serious drawback for recreational use. Another drawback for recreation is the presence of settlements all around the foothill and in the valleys, which beside the slopes, seriously limits access into the forest.
105
Table 5. Data on altitude, slope inclination and slope aspect classes (Pirnat in press).
Altitude class Relative frequency (%) 15 23 21 18 14 7 2 Cumulative relative frequency (%) 15 38 59 77 91 98 100 Relative Cumulative Slope relative inclination frequency frequency (%) (%) (%) 0-5 5-15 15-25 25-35 35-45 45-55 55-65 65-75 over 75 11 17 12 24 13 8 5 7 3 11 28 40 64 77 85 90 97 100 Slope aspect Relative frequency (%) 11 11 11 10 13 12 10 10 12 Cumulative relative frequency (%) 11 22 33 43 56 68 78 88 100
286-300 300-325 325-350 350-375 375-400 400-425 425-450
flat N NE E SE S SW W NW
The comparison of historic land uses (Franciscean cadastre 1825) with current land uses (1997 land use survey) makes it possible to investigate the quantitative and qualitative changes in different types of land uses. In the following cross-tabulationmatrix (Table 6) the comparison of transition of land use changes for Golovec hill is given. Data for land use in year 1825 are given in columns and data for present situation (1997) are in rows.
Table 6. The comparison of transition between land uses in 1825 (columns) and 1997 (rows) in the area of Golovec hill in ha (Pirnat in press).
year land use forest field meadow garden orchard settlements roads paths water barren park bush Forest 600.48 2.99 29.79 0.07 7.18 12.60 5.13 4.96 0.14 0.22 0.00 0.06 Field 7.29 5.51 18.03 0.02 2.92 4.94 1.19 0.26 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 Meadow 6.74 3.92 52.69 0.11 7.01 23.08 4.01 0.63 1.10 0.02 0.02 1.22 Pasture 42.23 0.67 16.51 0.00 2.09 5.32 1.41 0.31 0.18 0.00 0.12 0.00 1825 Garden 0.03 0.12 0.21 0.00 0.18 0.56 0.07 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Orchard 0.15 0.10 1.24 0.02 0.92 3.41 0.16 0.06 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 Settlement 0.11 0.05 0.62 0.02 0.19 2.73 0.27 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Path 5.01 0.08 2.31 0.00 0.55 1.22 1.39 0.55 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 662.04 13.43 121.39 0.24 21.04 53.86 13.63 6.82 1.45 0.25 0.14 1.28
1 9 9 7
The total area of forests is nearly the same as it was in the beginning of the 19th century. The spatial distribution, however, has changed. Beside stable forest areas most other forest developed from former pastures, fields and meadows. On the other hand some former forest also changed into other land uses, mostly into meadows, settlements, roads, paths and even an orchard. The area of fields is generally decreasing. They mostly were turned into meadows, some forest and also settlements. The pastures have disappeared completely, as most of them were turned into forest and some meadows and settlements.
106
Of all land uses the settlement area increased with nearly 50 ha, mostly from former meadows, forests, pastures and fields. The area of meadows also increased, mostly from former forests, fields and pastures. The area of orchards, roads and paths increased, primarily from forests and meadows. Other land use categories are small and their changes are relatively insignificant.
Multiple-purpose planning for urban forests

The vegetation on Golovec hill is fairly uniform. On brown soils, which rest on carbonate slates and sandstone, the Blechno-Fagetum typicum and Blechno-Fagetum luzuletosum (75%) dominate. Due to long-lasting human impact (gathering litter), the communities Vaccinio-Pinetum (20%), and occasionally Alnetum glutinosae (3%) and Querco-Carpinetum (2%) also occur. The most widespread tree species is European beech. The Sessile oak is also common, and the Scotch pine and the Norway spruce are indicative for human impact. These forests are mainly privately owned, but the level of economic utilisation is low for different reasons. Therefore the anticipated annual cut is, on average, merely 1m3/ha (Tavcar et al. 1997). Planned silvicultural measures are adjusted to the timber production function and to other forest functions. The most important cultivation measures are: - Thinning in the young pole stage; - selective cutting in the pole stage; - removing of dead and dying trees; - site preparation; and - young growth tending and planting. Forest management section M2, a cadastral district of the Karlovko predmestje with an area of 38.95 hectares was selected as an example of what detailed silvicultural planning could be like. The section M2 was divided into three management units. The first unit consists of sub-sections in which the recreational function is of importance (in the vicinity of paths and roads - light grey colour in Figure 1). The second unit is made up of areas which are not so interesting for recreation purposes either due to steep slopes or lack of maintained paths (middle grey colour in Figure 1). The third unit is the zone above the rifle range in Rudnik, which is closed to the general public (dark grey colour in Figure 1). Each management unit was divided into the silvicultural units provided in Table 7.
^
107
Figure 1. Sample forest section M2 with management and silvicultural units.
Table 7. Division into silvicultural units of selected forest management unit M2.
Management unit I Silvicultural Sub-units 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Description Spruce and beech pole stand with large beech trees Older beech and oak stand with a mixture of spruce Younger pole stage of oak with a mixture of beech False acacia, hornbeam and chestnut stands Scots pine stand in a younger pole stage Older beech stand Trees around cultural heritage monument a chapel Mixed old beech, oak, and spruce stand Older pole stand of Scotch pine, beech and chestnut Older oak and beech stand with a mixture of spruce Black alder stand with a mixture of oak and hornbeam Closed area Non-forest Total forest area Area (ha) 1.02 4.83 0.52 1.08 2.22 1.40 0.44 9.08 9.92 3.40 1.25 3.79 38.95
II
III
108
Beside timber production the following non-timber functions of the urban forest Golovec are recognised by above mentioned documents (Pirnat 2001a): Ecological forest functions: - Protection of soils on steep and highly erodibile sites; - hydrological function; - biodiversity function; and - climatic function. Social forest functions: - Natural and cultural heritage protection function; - recreation function; - aesthetic function; - educational function; and - health function. Some of these functions can be defined as static, since they are linked to certain area conditions. The protective function, for example, is linked with inclination and bedrock and the hydrological function with the vicinity of water sources. The climatic and health function, moreover, is connected with the vicinity of towns (which is true practically of the whole area of Golovec), and the natural and cultural heritage protection function are characteristics of forests located in the direct vicinity of these objects. Other forest functions can be regarded as more dynamic since our knowledge of them rapidly changes and so do our needs. Examples are the biodiversity, recreation, aesthetic and educational functions which will be dealt with in detail. The biodiversity function Due to the construction of a motorway around Ljubljana, a 450-meter long greenbelt above the tunnel through the hill Golovec is the sole natural connection making it possible for wild animals - with the exception of birds - to migrate from the suburban landscape to the city and back. An analysis of the recreational use of this part of the city shows that this element of Golovec, except for the road leading to Orle, is less important for most Ljubljana residents. Therefore the eastern and south-eastern part of Golovec can be regarded a significant area for ensuring biodiversity in the urban forests of Ljubljana.
109
Measures to ensure sustainability of the biodiversity function include: - Conservation of so-called minority ecosystems or biotopes; - conservation of all sites and habitats of plants and wild animals included in the Red List of endangered species; - preparation of recreation plans so that the above-mentioned areas are not included; and - execution of silvicultural measures performed in the vicinity of habitats of rare and endangered species of wild animals should be carried out in strict adherence to the appropriate time of year. The recreation, aesthetic and educational functions Although these functions are dealt with separately under the 1993 Forest act, they are dealt with together here for practical reasons and because of the similarity of measures involved. The recreation function of the Golovec forests was evaluated by counting visitors on a (sunny) Sunday (7 May 2000, from 8.00 a.m. to 19.00 p.m.). Visitors were counted by forestry undergraduates at 24 possible entry points where paths or roads lead into the
386
293
290
Number of visitors
196
95 62 45 13 14 24 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22 1 8 9 11 0 33 33 16 14 0 0 1 8 50
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Entry point
Figure 2. The number of visitors at individual entry points per day (Osani 2001).
110
forest. On that day a total of 1,608 hikers were counted. The majority was recorded at four entry points (see Figure 2). The entry points were located along three most important roads or pathways linking the hill Golovec with Ljubljana: the road leading to Orle, the road which links the suburb of Rudnik with the suburb of tepanjsko naselje via Golovec, and the pathway to the observatory on Golovec. At all other entry points considerably fewer hikers were observed, because these are, as a rule, less well known, hidden and narrow, and lead up the hill past backyards and individual houses. The findings indicate that maintenance and accessibility of pathways are considered important by most visitors. This is particularly true of the hill Golovec, which is regarded as rather steep for recreational use outside pathways. In addition to motorists, the most frequent visitors are hikers and cyclists followed by couples and families (Osani 2001). The main group activity is cycling. Thus we can conclude the following: - The recreation forest function is linked with maintenance and accessibility of pathways; - it is important that it is clear which part of the road is to be used by motorists and cyclists, and which is intended for hikers; - signs and benches should be provided; - the forest should have a high maintenance intensity and should be well managed, so that all development stages are represented, including natural regeneration, young forest, mature forest, and an adequate number of trees of exceptional dimensions; and - it is of importance that an alternative pathway is available when major forest measures (e.g. felling and regeneration) take place. Difficulties and restrictions include: - Rather difficult and neglected access; - steep slope; - private ownership (formally, this is not necessarily a problem); and - excessive stress ( e.g. damage to trunks, compacted soil, erosion, and lack of natural regeneration). Thus it can be concluded that western parts of the hill Golovec are the most appropriate for recreation purposes as this area has adequate pathways leading right into the heart of Ljubljana. This is, however, also an area where most conflicts arise.
111
Discussion
Small areas of urban forest, especially forest remnants in an urban landscape are under strong development pressure all the time. If there is a wish for more attractive residential areas, all existing forest patches ought to be preserved. The linkage between tree corridors along the Ljubljanica River and along streets and parks will thus remain an important link in the green chain (Ahern 1995) of the Ljubljana townscape. The natural tree structure should be conserved in all forest areas. In larger forest patches the application of appropriate tools will have to enable the implementation of a more emphasised recreational and aesthetic role of the forest and to stress their significance for local habitats. Silvicultural measures - from stand tending to arboricultural measures - will have to be emphasised. This becomes/remains the task of urban forestry. An urban forest must preserve features of natural ecosystems in terms of structure and functioning on account of its sustainability and stability, and because a connection with a natural ecosystem is of vital importance for the physical, psychological and spiritual stability of visitors. It is essential that relationships between development phases are balanced as much as possible and interlinked within the whole area. In this way these make it possible for the citizens of Ljubljana to have one of those rare links with a life cycle which they can observe from birth to death. In the field of management of urban forests future work should concentrate on the following topics: - Development of co-operation between state forestry service and local municipality regarding urban forest management (from long-term strategic plans to detailed operational plans and supervising operational management on different levels). - Development of adapted management in urban and suburban forests on operational level with an emphasis on small forest remnant patches and rare and important biotopes (maintenance of biodiversity) in urban and suburban landscapes. - Detailed silvicultural planning should focus on tending objectives that will enable urban forests to fulfil the expressed need for social and ecological functions of urban forests (small scale measures carried out in winter time, selection cutting, chosen trees with special habitats). The structure and functioning of urban forests should be maintained, howeer, in a close-to-nature way (site conditions with appropriate tree species should never be neglected in planning), as an ecosystem rather that artificial park. This can be achieved with the development of remote sensing based inventory and management methods in urban forestry. - Since the unsuitable ownership structure in urban forests (high number of private owners with a small forest ownership) represents a serious obstacle to long-term
112
oriented forest management it is very important that the municipality supports the decision for systematic redemption of privately-owned urban forests. Moreover it should provide long-term financing for pre-emption of urban forests and for adapted forest management. Private ownership of urban forests is a potential source of conflicts between private and public interests. - One of the future tasks of urban foresters also is the development of unused potential of forests for recreation and education, which is important since public interest in participation in management of urban forests is increasing. In this way urban forestry will help to establish society sharing an interest in urban forestry (Pirnat in press). In todays urban society, a different level of awareness and of relationships has been developed from that of the rural society of the recent past. A cult of youth, power, beauty and success has been created, and any departure from this ideal means, in fact, a failure. Society, which is mainly aiming at a higher production level, has lost a great deal of humanity and also a link with nature. Similarly, this is happening to the basic human existential cell - the family. Today, birth, a great part of education and work, and, at the end, death take place quite often outside the family. Therefore, it is becoming increasingly difficult for us to understand and accept a number of principles governing mans physical, psychological and spiritual development. The same is also true for the knowledge and understanding of natural phenomena and principles which the postindustrial society tends to neglect and forget. So a question justly arises as to what (urban) forests can offer to (urban) inhabitants of the planet Earth. The question cannot be answered unequivocally once and for all. Instead, a few points are presented here which will hopefully make each of us consider the issue and search for an answer. These points are, in fact, a survey of the mans development as a whole and of his everyday decisions and doubts. An attempt is made to establish a link with individual developmental stages of mans attitude to the (urban) forest and the development of urban forestry.
Human development versus (urban) forest development
Developmental stages of the forest

Young growth Thicket Thin pole Younger pole stage Older pole stage Old stand Forest regeneration
Stages in a persons life

New-born Child Early adolescence Late adolescence Adulthood Early old age Late old age
113
New-born baby: The environment ( ....
?) exerts an influence
on a baby ( ) who cannot react as yet. Child: The environment experts an influence on a child, who react in a certain way but this response has no effect on the environment.
Early adolescence: The environment influences a teenager who reacts strongly in return
Late adolescence: The teenager has no interest at all in the environment, he is interested only in himself.
Adulthood: The time of life when a balance is established between the influence of the environment and an adults reaction to it.
Early old age: The environment exerts an influence on an old person, who reacts to it but this is of no consequence.
Late old age: he environment is of no importance any more. Instead, all what matters is internal wealth and the internal harvest. One can clearly compare certain stages of mans physical development with developmental stages of the forest:
114
Young growth: new-born baby. Thicket: child. Thin pole: early adolescence. Younger pole stage: late adolescence. Older pole stage: adulthood. Old stand: early old age. Forest in regeneration: late old age.
Mans psychological development

Instinct Impulse Passion Motive Wish Intention Decision
- A persons instinct is a basic and ubiquitous feeling, which influences the way he or she acts, although it is not physically experienced. - A persons impulse affects the way he or she acts and it is physically experienced (e.g. food, sleep). - Passion is a persons instinct at a psychological level, which makes ideas or impressions possible, but which is not yet present at the level of impulse. - A persons motive (idea) is his or her response to the environment, which is felt within. - A persons wish expresses the presence of his or her will for a certain action. - A persons intention shows the development of his or her will, from a wish to a decision. - A persons decision is the final act which governs actions. Mans spiritual (in)balance
Trust Greed Modesty Arrogance Courage Anger Enthusiasm Laziness Love Lust Gratitude Envy Faith Greediness
Mans rise and fall can be best illustrated with a symbolic representation of seven virtues and seven vices in terms of the polarities of good and evil. The development of mans attitude to the forest
Fear Survival Hunting Timber production Other functions Multiplepurpose use Sustainability
- Fear: The forest is a dangerous place. - Survival: Despite mans fear of the forest, it provides shelter in case of great danger. - Hunting: The forest is a source of food and it also provides an opportunity for asserting oneself.
115
- Timber production function: The forest provides wood, which is a source of comfort and safety (house, tools, firewood). - Other functions: The public is becoming aware that the forest is much more than a source of wood. - Multiple-purpose use: This is a concept of how to ensure as many functions of the same forest at the same time. - Sustainability: This is a method for ensuring all of the above mentioned functions over a longer period of time. The reader may determine from her or his own experience what the main temptations are to which mans attitude to the forest is subjected. Benefits of (urban) forests
Wood Other goods Water, air Diversity Recreation Amenity Meditation, prayer
At different stages in a persons life, different benefits of an urban forest are of interest. Fields of work of urban forestry
Non-living Flora nature Fauna Forestry profession Forest owners Politicians General public
Urban forestry deals with a very wide sphere of human activity, which can be summed up by the following categories: Knowledge of living and non-living nature: - Knowledge of fundamental natural givens of space (geology, soil, site and plant communities) and - knowledge of special features of planning and management required for urban forests with all their functions and roles. Technological knowledge: - Knowledge of remote sensing techniques and - knowledge of geographic information systems (GIS). Sociological knowledge:
116
- Solid knowledge of mans development and of his physical, psychological and spiritual needs - and of a link between these needs and nature or different needs at different stages in a persons life and - solid knowledge of basic principles of psychology, pedagogy and communications (public relations, owners, general public, politicians, schoolchildren etc.). Urban forestry is probably beyond the creative capacity of an individual. Hence it requires co-operation of a team of professionals. Nevertheless, or for this very reason, demands of this job should pose a challenge rather than an unattainable goal.
References
Ahern J (1995).
Greenways as a planning strategy. V: Landscape and Urban Planning 33(1-3): 131153.

Corson R J (1992).
ROOTS Digitizing System - User Manual. Skillman, Decision Images, Inc.

Eastman J R (1997).
IDRISI for Windows. Users Guide, Version 2.0. IDRISI Production, Clark University, Worcester.
ESRI (1996).
ArcView GIS Understanding GIS. Redlands, California.

Franciscean cadastre (1825).
Cadastre for the cadastral communities in the study area.

Golob S (eds) (1993).
Nartovanje v gozdovih zelenega pasu Ljubljane. In: Mestni in primestni gozd-naa skupna dobrina.- Zbornik republikega posvetovanja v okviru tedna gozdov, ZDIT in IGLG, Ljubljana: 106 - 125.
Kova M & Golob S (1993).
Gozd in drevje v mestni krajini Ljubljane. -V: Mestni in primestni gozd - naa skupna dobrina. Ljubljana, Zbornik republikega posvetovanja v okviru tedna gozdov: 66-79.
Osani A (2001.)
Mnogonamensko gospodarjenje na primeru Golovca.- Diplomska naloga, BF, Oddelek za gozdarstvo.
117
Oven P, Brus R & Pirnat J (1999).
Slovenia State-of-the-art-report. In: Forrest M, Konijnendijk CC & Randrup TB (Eds) COST Action E12 - Research and development in urban forestry in Europe: 254-266. Printing Office of the European Communities, Luxembourg.
Pirnat J (1997).
Razpored gozdov v ljubljanski urbani krajini.- Zbornik gozdarstva in lesarstva 53: 159-182.
Pirnat J (2001).
Slovenian input to the questionnaire on city profiles, developed within the framework COST E12 Action (unpublished).
Pirnat J (in press).
The development of urban forestry in Slovenia a key study of Ljubljana. Urbanistica.

Tavar M, Vidmar A & Vidmar J (1997).
Ljubljanski mestni gozd. Pobuda za razglasitev ljubljanskih mestnih gozdov za gozd s posebnim namenom.
The Forest Management Plan for the Forest Management Unit Rast.
Unpublished manuscript.
The Slovenian Forest Act (1993).
Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry, Ljubljana.
118
Results of Changing Social Demands in Istanbul Baheky Forest Enterprise: a case study*
mer Eker & Kenan Ok University of Istanbul, Faculty of Forest, Department of Forestry Economics 80895 Baheky, Istanbul, Turkey
Abstract
Istanbul is one of the heavily populated major cities in Turkey. In this study, the Baheky Forest Enterprise (BFE) - which is located nearby the Faculty of Forest, University of Istanbul and within the boundary of Belgrad Forest - was chosen as case study. It is one of the rare enterprises where the effects of rapid urbanisation and population increase can be noticed in terms of varying demands of society. During the early establishment period of the enterprise, timber production was the primary objective. Recreation management was also carried out at a small-scale level during this period. In the forest, water production also takes place, using the reservoirs and aqueducts that were constructed during the Ottoman Empire Era. Distribution and sale of water, however, has moved out of the BFE. In the early establishment years of the enterprise, the water production objective was not primarily included in the forest management plans. With an increasing population, peoples demands from forests in Istanbul also changed. Considering the importance of non-timber values, the BFE is currently focused on producing recreation and water collection services while considering timber production as a secondary use in its management plan. In the research presented here, the balance sheet of the BFE and the demand change indicators in the management plans were analysed.
Key words: changing social demand, forest functions, finance of forest enterprises
* This research was supported by the Research Fund of the University of Istanbul. Project Number: B-1220/02082001.
119
Reasons for the choice of Baheky Forest Enterprise as study subject

The Ministry of Forestry is responsible for forestry activities in Turkey. Forestry activities have been carried out under the General Directorate of Forest (OGM), the General Directorate of Afforestation and Erosion Control (AGM), the General Directorate of Forest and Rural Relations (ORKY) and the General Directorate of National Parks, Hunting and Wildlife (MP) of Turkey. These general directorates also have sub-organisations at the local level called enterprises in OGM and agencies called Head-Engineerings in AGM, ORKY and MP. OGM has 241 forest enterprises. These enterprises are owned by the state and carry out their activities under market rules and related legislation. The reasons for the choice of the Bahehy Forest Enterprice as study subject can be explained as follows: - The BFE is the oldest enterprise among the 241 forest enterprises in Turkey. For the management of the forests within the boundaries of the BFE, five different management plans were drawn up beginning from 1937. In addition, a model coppice forest management plan and plans for the management of recreation sites were made. - The BFE is simultaneously responsible for the management of the forest functions: water, timber raw material, recreation, scientific research, and wildlife. The BFE is rare among forest enterprises in Turkey for having a history of responding to a variety of demands. - The BFE is located within the boundary of the biggest city in Turkey, Istanbul. Istanbul has been the capital of both the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires during its history. Although it lost capital-city status at the beginning of the Turkish Republic, it continues to be the centre of economic, social, and cultural activity. As seen in Table 1, the population of Istanbul has increased faster than the population of Turkey. According to the results of the 1927 census, the population of Istanbul accounted for 5.82 percent of Turkeys total population. This proportion increased to 13.46 percent in the 1995 census. Except for 1927-1950, Istanbuls population growth rate has been higher than that for Turkey as a whole. This growth in population is closely related to rapid industrialisation and urbanisation in the Istanbul Region. Many reforms have been observed firstly in Istanbul, including new social demands on the forest. The forest enterprises in Istanbul, therefore, have drawn attention for pioneering responses to the new social demands in comparison to enterprises in Anatolia.
120
Table 1. Population and population growth rates in Istanbul and Turkey.

Population Growth Rate Between Censuses in Turkey (%) 53.5 32.5 28.3 25.6 13.2 12.0 10.7 Population Growth Rate Between Censuses in Istanbul (%) 46.8 61.3 60.4 57.1 23.2 25.1 15.2 Proportion of Istanbul in Turkey's Population (%) 5.82 5.56 6.78 8.48 10.59 11.53 12.94 13.46
Census Years
Population of Turkey
Population of Istanbul
1927 1950 1960 1970 1980 1985 1990 1995
13 648 000 20 947 183 27 754 820 35 605 176 44 736 957 50 664 458 56 473 035 62 526 000
794 444 1 166 477 1 882 092 3 019 032 4 741 890 5 842 985 7 309 190 8 417 000
Methodology
Unfortunately, comprehensive demand analyses have not been carried out for the forest enterprises in Turkey. The forests are managed, however, in compliance with management plans. The decisions on targets and assumptions of planners and managers are substituted for actual demand analyses. Therefore, these decisions about land allocation and resource management can be accepted as indicators of social demand that are targeted to be satisfied in the planning process. In this study, an attempt has been made to introduce changes in social demand in light of forest management plans prepared for the Belgrad Forest. Management Plans include the fundamental decisions that affect the financial structure of an enterprise. Due to the decisions, which are taken according to these plans, the income of the enterprise may increase or decrease. Income-cost combinations of the enterprise are affected by the management plans. Therefore, management plans have effects on profit or loss in the balance sheet of the enterprise. In order to see the actual financial structure of the BFE, analysis of balance sheets are also included in this study.
A brief history of the Belgrad Forest and the BFE

During the Byzantine Era the Belgrad Forest was used for both timber and water sources. It was during the Ottoman Era, however, that the forest was utilised in an intensive way. After the conquest of Istanbul by the Turks in 1453, the citys population grew rapidly due to migration. Large-scale construction projects were undertaken during this period, creating a large demand for forest products based on timber raw material. This caused
121
degradation of the forest. After the military expedition of Suleyman the Magnificent to Belgrade in 1521, immigrants from that region settled in the forest. The village founded by these immigrants got the name Belgrad Village. The forest, therefore, became known as Belgrad Forest. Between 1554 and 1564 existing waterways were extensively repaired and new aqueducts were established in order to provide water for the increasing needs of Istanbul city. In 1575, responsibility for protecting existing waterways, aqueducts, and pools and partial responsibility for the forest was given to a water organisation called Sular Idaresi (Water Administration), which had been established that same year. The Sular Idaresi was the first organisation responsible for protecting the Belgrad Forest. In order to respond to the requirements of the city for water, Kmrc Bent (1620), Byk Bent (1724), Topuz Bendi (1750), Ayvat Bendi (1765), Valide Sultan Bendi (1796), Kirazl1 Bent (1818), and Yeni Bent (1839) reservoirs were chronologically constructed in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. During the construction of Yeni Bent in 1839, other reservoirs and aqueducts were also repaired. The 19th century is the period when efforts to establish a forest organisation by the Ottomans began. In 1839 the General Directorate of Forestry was established, in 1857 the first Forest School, in 1858 Land Act, and in 1870 Forest Regulations. During this development process, the protection of the forest was taken from Sular Idaresi and given to a team consisting of a forest engineer and some supporting work forces. This team carried on working under the umbrella of Istanbul Forest Head-Engineering, which is attached to OGM. In 1894 an act was passed to remove the inhabitants of Belgrad Village to an area outside the forest because of the damage they were causing to the hydrologic function of the forest. Strict protection measures within the boundaries of Belgrad Forest followed this action. In 1914, however, with the beginning of World War I heavy tree cutting occurred in order to provide railway-ties, fuel wood and other timber material for the army and city. The level of tree cutting continued to increase during the sovereignty period of the occupying powers between 1918 and 1923. After the withdrawal of the occupying powers, the Belgrad Forest was put under protection again, but it was not possible to repair the damage done in the forest. By an act passed on November 12th, 1924 forest protection organisations were strengthened and the forest care operation for Belgrad Forest was given to the existing Forest High School nearby. With a law passed on May 26th, 1926, Belgrad Forest was given State Forest Enterprise status for the first time, but a year later this enterprise was closed. In 1949, the BFE, which is responsible for the management of the Belgrad Forest at present, was established as a Model Enterprise (Eker 1997).
122
Utilisation of the Belgrad Forest according to management plans

Until now, five management plans for different periods have been drawn up to adjust utilisation from the Belgrad Forest. Apart from these plans a model coppice forest management plan was also prepared.
1937 Management Plan
Efforts to clean up the heavy damage done both at the beginning of the 20th century and before and for improving the forest can be seen in the 1937 Management Plan. Strict measures were taken to protect the forest. In addition, some silvicultural interventions to repair the forest were stressed in the plan. During the preparation of the 1937 Plan, it was stated that special care must be given not to cause negative effects on the reservoirs and aqueducts supplying water to the city, and the rivers that joined in the Ka1thane watershed. Besides, while responding to the education and research needs of the Faculty of Forest, University of Istanbul, which was formerly known as Forest High School, production of timber raw material which would provide economic benefit was also targeted in this management plan. According to records of the 1937 Plan, allocations for the aimed purposes in Table 2 were made. Approximately, 56 % of forest area was allocated for timber production. The total area was 4 919,5 hectares in the 1937 Plan. 28,9 % of the area was allocated for water collection purposes. 11,5 % of the forest area was allocated as protected forest status due to heavy tree cuts made in recent years and this area was taken out of timber raw material production.
Table 2. Amount and Shares of the Areas Concerning Non-Timber Use in the 1937 Plan (OGM 1937). Forest Land Use Type Water Collection Protected Forest Scientific Recreational Wildlife Protection Total Area (ha) 1 424.05 568.15 92.20 80.95 14.00 2 179.35 Percentage in Total Area (%) 28.9 11.5 1.8 1.6 0.3 44.1
According to the forest inventory which was made for the preparation of 1937 Plan, the total growing stock was calculated to be 220,317 m and the growing stock per hectare was found to be 44.78 m. In this plan, out of 2,200.4 m/year annual increment, 1003 m/year (45,58 %) was decided as allowable cut.
123
1949 Management Plan
The second management plan for the Belgrad Forest was prepared in 1949. When this is examined, it can derived that some areas nearby the forest were added to the boundaries of the Belgrad Forest. Therefore, the total area increased from 4,919.5 hectares to 5,294.1 hectares. It was decided that the protection measures taken according to the 1937 Plan would also continue in the second management plan.
Table 3. Amount and Shares of the Areas Concerning Non-Timber Use, in the 1949 Plan (OGM 1949).
Forest Land Use Type Water Collection Protected Forest Recreational Total
Area(ha) 1 779.35 166.00 40.30 1 985.65
Percentage in Total Area (%) 33.61 3.10 0.76 37.47
While no new decision was made about scientific and wildlife functions of the forest in the 1949 Management Plan, thoughts of allocating some protected forest areas to the water production area and narrowing the boundaries of areas for recreational purposes did draw the attention. As seen by the comparison of Table 2 and Table 3 the amount of protected areas for water production increased in the 1949 Plan. The area allocated for functions other than timber production is approximately 37,5 % of the whole forest. During the preparation of the 1949 Plan, it was estimated that total growing stock was approximately 256,884 m according to inventory data. Although the total growing stock increased during this management period, no decision to yield timber as timber raw material was made. However, some silvicultural interventions requiring removal of weak, diseased trees to improve the quality of the forest were carried out in the area. During the application of the 1949 Management Plan, an area of 38 hectares was allocated for construction of the Atatrk Arboretum. In 1954, an area of 70 hectares was allocated for the establishment of Wildlife Production Area. In addition, areas nearby Valide Sultan Bendi, Yeni Bent and Neet Suyu were designated for picnicking in the Belgrad Forest. These allocations were realised outside the decisions of the 1949 Management Plan.
124
1955 Model Coppice Forest Management Plan
In the 1937 Management Plan the compartments which were numbered as 82, 83, and 84 were re-planned for the purpose of special coppice forest management. The objectives of allocating an area of 205.3 hectares for coppice forest management can be explained as follows: - To provide fuel wood and raw material for the production of charcoal for local villagers; - to supply wooden stakes to the villagers for supporting agricultural crops such as tomatoes, beans, etc.; and - to establish an experimental model coppice forest for the students of the Faculty of Forest (OGM 1955).
1965-1984 and 1971-1990 Management Plans
The first management plan following the 1939 and 1949 Plans was prepared for the 1965-1984 time period. Before this period ended, a new management plan including the 1971-1990 period was also implemented. When these two plans are compared with the former plans, it is observed that compartments in the area distribution table were not recorded in detail. In the 1965-1984 Plan, it was decided that 49.43 ha, 103.64 ha and 56.21 ha areas would be allocated for recreation, wildlife production, and the Atatrk Arboretum (OGM 1964a and 1964b). The 1971-1990 Plan included a record allocated 36.73 hectares for recreation and 56.21 hectares for the Atatrk Arboretum. Information related to wildlife production areas was not part of the 1971-1990 Plan (OGM 1971). According to data which was taken from the 1965-1984 Plan, the total growing stock was 604 343 m. In the 1971-1990 Plan, this increased to 714 558 m. Optimal allowable cut in the 1965-1984 and 1971-1990 Management Plans were calculated as 14,247 m and 18,094 m. In the 1965-1984 Plan, allowable cut in the forest increased to 1,47 % of the total growing stock.
1990-1999 Management Plan
The last forest management plan, which is called the functional management plan, was drawn up for the period of 1990-1999. In this plan, the entire forestland is allocated to different forest functions. The functions and the amount of areas devoted to each are given in Table 4.
125
Table 4. Amount and Shares of the Forest Functions, in the 1990-1999 Plan (OGM, 1990). Forest Land Use Type Water Collection Erosion Control Scientific Recreational Wildlife Protection Total Area(ha) 1 406.16 2 248.17 651.66 910.06 103.64 5 319.69 Percentage in Total Area (%) 26.44 42.26 12.25 17.10 1.95 100
The sum of functional use areas is equal to the total area of the Belgrad Forest, which was not the case with the former plans. Only cutting to maintain the health of the forest is allowed in the forest area and timber production for timber raw material is not accepted as a primary objective. Therefore, 100% of the forest area is allocated for non-timber production objectives. According to data of the forest inventory for the preparation of the 1990-1999 Plan, the level of growing stock increased to 1,083,781 m. Annual increment is 18,182 m. It was decided that the allowable cut would be 6,189.1 m which is equal to 34 % of the total annual increment in the forest.
Balance sheet data of the BFE (1990-2000)

As mentioned in the Methodology section, balance sheets of forest enterprises reflect the financial results of their activities. Unfortunately, the balance sheets of the BFE dating back to its establishment in 1949 could not all be found. Some results of collected balance sheet data covering 1990-2000 are given in Table 5. In column 2 and 4 of Table 5 nominal values of general administration costs and profit/loss data including 1990-2000 period are shown. Because of the existing high inflation rate in Turkey, these values in column 2 and 4 were adjusted to real values with help of Price Indices from the Istanbul Chamber of Commerce, base 1963=100. Adjusted real values are shown in column 3 and 5, in Table 5. In the past ten years while the average general administration cost was 11,193 TL (Turkish Liras), the BFE only had profit in the last two years. Between 1990-1998 the enterprise always incurred losses. In 1999 the Sariyer Forest Districts which formerly was attached to the Directorate of Istanbul Forest Enterprise became part of the BFE. Therefore, the BFE artificially started to have profits after the addition the Sariyer Forest District.
126
Table 5. Balance Sheet Data of the BFE (1990-2000). 10,000 Turkish Liras (TL) equalled 0.0185 euros in 2000.
General Administration Costs (TL) 174 429 640 000 140 268 302 250 75 056 398 000 54 192 184 057 21 499 505 000 11 338 638 725 7 808 626 000 3 963 079 645 2 309 775 700 1 382 782 694 1 022 378 422 Adjusted General Administration Costs (TL) 11 269 13 929 10 709 13 051 9 238 8 360 10 823 12 111 10 958 10 965 12 368 Profit or/Loss (TL) 1 072 856 250 102 361 208 250 -53 318 103 259 -44 130 320 100 -5 255 752 000 -8 352 941 790 -2 113 054 500 -4 808 701 945 -11 071 972 -353 810 134 -800 014 776 Adjusted Profit or Loss (TL) 69 10 165 -7 608 -10 628 -2 258 -6 159 -2 929 -14 695 -53 -2 805 -9 678
Years 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990
In the accounting system of forest enterprises in Turkey values such as timber, recreation, and water which can be measured in monetary terms are not recorded separately. The main revenues of enterprises are based on timber sales. Revenues which are gained from uses other than timber sales are put together under the title other revenues. Therefore, trends in these numbers can not be followed. Nonmonetary benefits such as scientific research and erosion control, can not be reflected in the balance sheets.
General Trends of Forest Functions for the BFE

When the management decisions in the records from the Belgrad Forest are examined it is understood that the forest has been managed with the possibilities of supplying production of timber raw material, water, recreation, scientific research and wildlife. However, historically, it is observed that the development of each use has been realised as follows: - Levels of total and unit area growing stocks which are the indicator of production ability of the forest from the view point of timber raw material have five times increased (from 220,317 m and 44.78 m/ha to the level of 1,083,781 m and 204.64 m/ha) since 1937. However, the production level of timber did not increase compared with the growing stock. Trends of growing stock and allowable cuts can be seen in Figure 1. In fact, it is understood that the 205.3 ha area which was allocated as coppice forest for the production of fuel wood and wooden stakes was entirely converted to high forest. The need of villagers for fuel wood decreased as they found alternative fuel sources and the demand for wooden stakes totally disappeared. This is caused by the industrialisation and urbanisation which occurred
127
Growing Stock per hectare m 3/ha

1200000
250 200 150 100 50 0 1937 1949 1965 1971 1990
Growing Stock m3
20000
Allowable cut m3
1000000
15000
800000 600000 400000

5000 10000
200000 0 1937 1949 1965 1971 1990

0 1937 1949 1965 1971 1990
Figure 1. Trends of growing stocks and allowable cut.
in Istanbul and its surroundings. However, it is not possible to say that social demand for fuel wood produced by the BFE has entirely disappeared. Bread has a great importance in Turkish dietary custom. Consumer demand has increased for bread baked in wood heat, especially in recent years. Therefore, it is understood that a limited demand for fuel wood continues. - The importance of water resources in the Belgrad Forest for Istanbul has been increasing for five hundred years. Currently, the Belgrad Forest supplies 2.6 million/ m of water to Istanbul (Destan 2000). To ensure the water supply forests nearby the reservoirs and aqueducts were managed according to the water production function by the BFE. However, water produced by the Belgrad Forest is distributed by ISKI, an organisation attached to the Municipality of Metropolitan Istanbul. ISKI is only in charge of the distribution of water, but it sells the water and collects the revenues of it. Therefore, no share of the income is added to the balance sheet of the BFE. - The amount of land for recreational purposes within the Belgrad Forest has continuously been increased. At present, 322.5 hectares of the forest is used for recreation. While the number of visitors per year for recreational purposes was 630,128 in 1990, it increased 63% and reached 1,004,107 persons in the year 2000. The Belgrad Forest was visited by an average of 890,591 persons per year between 1990-2000. As also seen from the studies (Pehlivanolu (1986), alayan (1999) and Destan (2000)) which were prepared for the Belgrad Forest, the demand for recreation has continuously increased. Management of recreational areas, however, was taken from the BFE and has been given to the Head-Engineering of General Directorate of National Parks, Hunting and Wildlife. Thus, revenues gained from recreation are not reflected on the balance sheets of the BFE.
128
- Within the boundaries of the Belgrad Forest, deer have been bred in the wildlife production area. A rapidly decreasing wildlife population has increased the importance of this service. Demand for wildlife areas is rising. However, management of this area was given to MP as well. - The Atatrk Arboretum supplies both scientific and cultural services for both the Faculty of Forest and people living in Istanbul. Concern for the Atatrk Arboretum is rising. According to data for the year 2001, there are 4,370 members of the arboretum who pay 200 million TL per year as a membership fee. By a regulation which was recently passed, the management of the Atatrk Arboretum was given to the Directorate of the Forest Research Institute of 0stanbul. In the other sections of the Belgrad Forest scientific and educational activities of the Faculty of Forest are continuing.
Results and discussion

The demands of society related to the BFE moved from timber raw material to nontimber functions of the forest. Of these functions, water and recreation serve other organisations. Increasing recreational demand for the Belgrad Forest generates revenues in the form of entry fees for MP. Recreation also supports commercial activities adjacent to the forest. New commercial activities, such as selling food, sports equipment, and picnic materials appeared as recreational use of the forest increased. In order to protect water quality and quantity, the BFE sacrifices some of its revenues from timber production. Although there is not a formal agreement between ISKI and BFE on the distribution and sale of water collected in the Belgrad Forest, these activities are carried out by ISKI. The BFE can not obtain any revenue from water production activities. Therefore, the BFE has lost an important source of revenue. In addition, general administration costs of the BFE have not decreased and BFE has experienced continuing budget deficits. The transfer of Atatrk Arboretum has caused the enterprise to lose of an important source of prestige. The collection of recreation revenues by MP may not cause any problem when the organisations responsibilities for management and protection of the forest are considered. However, transfer of recreational areas to MP caused a decrease in BFEs revenues, but it did not decrease the enterprises administration costs. This shows that either the transfer of works related to recreational sites were improperly conceived or the BFE has found new activities which would cause an increase in its general administration costs. However, there is no indication of these new activities. Therefore, it might be said that there is a problem in terms of arranging the transfer of the recreational areas.
129
Increasing demand for forest functions such as erosion control and, scientific and educational research are not reflected in the balance sheet of the enterprise. As a result, the enterprise, which is facing a worsening financial situation, will struggle to manage the increasingly important forest. Within the boundaries of the area the BFE is not responsible for revenues that could be gained from water collection, but instead an organisation which makes no contribution in terms of the management and protection of the forest is responsible. Unfortunately, institutional regulations to improve this situation have not been realised yet. The BFE must, at least, get the opportunity costs of timber production, which is forgone in order to increase the quality and quantity of water production. Otherwise, the enterprise would face financial problems due to its decreasing revenues. Therefore, the financial sources of the enterprises in Turkey should be revised to adapt themselves to the developing new situations. The ways of reflecting non-monetary forest functions in the balance sheets of enterprises should be investigated. As seen in the BFE case study, population increase, urbanisation and industrialisation may cause different problems for each of the other 240 forest enterprises in Turkey in the future. For this reason, the definition of production, benefit, organisation and responsibility of forest enterprises must be redefined in compliance with changing social demands.
References
alayan AY (1999).
Determining the features of recreational demand in the Belgrad Forest (In Turkish). MSc-thesis. University Of Istanbul, Istanbul.
Destan S (2000).
Management and functional characteristics and assessment of forest ecosystem in forest management activities. PhD-thesis. Sofia, Bulgaria. (In Bulgarian)
Eker (1997).
The economics of multiple use of forest with special reference to Turkey. MScthesis. School of Agriculture and Forest Sciences University of Wales, Bangor.
OGM (1937).
Management Plan of Istanbul Belgrad State Forest. (In Turkish)

OGM (1949).
Revision Plan of Istanbul Belgrad State Forest. (In Turkish)
130
OGM (1955).
Model Coppice Forest Management Plan of Istanbul Belgrad State Forest. (In Turkish)
OGM (1964a).
Detailed Management Plan of Baheky Model State Forest Enterprise for Bentler Series. Istanbul Forest Head-Engineering. (In Turkish)
OGM (1964b).
Detailed Management Plan of Baheky Model State Forest Enterprise for Kurtkemeri Series. Istanbul Forest Head-Engineering. (In Turkish)
OGM (1971).
The First Detailed Revision Plan of the Head-Directorate of Baheky Model Forest Enterprise for Bentler Series. (In Turkish)
OGM (1990).
Management Plan of Directorate of Baheky Forest Enterprise, Directorate of Istanbul District. (In Turkish)
Pehlivanolu T (1986).
Recreational potential of the Belgrad Forest and planning principles. PhD-thesis. University of Istanbul, Istanbul. (In Turkish)
131
Cost-benefit analysis of urban forests from a research point of view

Ellen Moons Centre for Economic Studies, Faculty of Economics and Applied Economics, Catholic University Leuven, Naamsestraat 69, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
Abstract
In this paper we show how cost-benefit analysis can be used as a decision support mechanism for the location of new (urban) forest land, starting from the multifunctional role of these new forests. We start with a simple presentation of the cost-benefit analysis (CBA) technique. Key features of this evaluation technique are that (i) all - both positive and negative - impacts for all relevant parties (i.e. not only the project promoter) are taken into account and (ii) evaluation occurs on the basis of monetary values. Next, we give an overview of all relevant costs and benefits of afforestation projects for the society as a whole. On the cost side, we distinguish costs directly related to the afforestation project itself, such as tree planting and forest management on the one hand, and opportunity costs on the other hand. On the benefit side we make a distinction between use and non-use values. Use values include timber production, hunting, recreation and ecosystem values. Non-use and option values capture forest benefits that are independent from the actual use of the forest area. As valuation of recreation and non-use/option values is not straightforward, we discuss their valuation methods in more detail. For valuing recreation the travel cost method (TCM) is the most widely used technique. TCM shows how the visit frequency responds to changes in the price of a visit. Non-use values can only be valued using the contingent valuation method (CVM). CVM uses survey questions to elicit peoples preferences for public goods by finding out what they would be willing to pay for specified changes in them. Finally, we apply the CBA to a real life policy problem. The Flemish government has agreed on a 10,000 ha forest expansion in Flanders, focusing on the multifunction role of forests. In our case study we give an example for the Ghent region (East Flanders). We investigate the net benefits per hectare of combinations of potential forests that meet the surface restriction of 540 ha. The importance is shown of including recreation benefits in the evaluation of afforestation projects and more specifically the role of alternative forests (substitutes) in the valuation of one specific forest. It is concluded that this substitution effect is significant in the decision on the location of new forests and leads to a wide variation in the net benefits per hectare of different combinations.
133
Key words: environmental economics, cost-benefit analysis, valuation, land use change, forestry.
Introduction
The Flemish government has set aside a budget for the expansion of existing forests and the creation of new forests. The Land-use Structure Plan of Flanders (Ruimtelijk Structuurplan Vlaanderen) allocates 10,000 hectares for ecological forest expansion. According to the Long Term Regional Forest Plan (1993), multi-functionality of forestry is the most important criterion for forest expansion. The latter has to be aimed for in areas where five functions - the economic, educational, shelter, ecological and social functions - can be fulfilled within one forest. The decision on the location of these 10,000 hectares should therefore take into account all functions of these forests. How this can be done is not straightforward. Cost-benefit analysis is a technique that was developed to evaluate investments taking into account all positive and negative impacts of the investment on all parties involved. In this paper we first discuss the basic idea of cost-benefit analysis. Next, we explain how this technique can be used to evaluate land use changes such as afforestation on former agricultural land. We give an overview of the different costs and benefits of afforestation projects and discuss their measurement and valuation. To conclude an example is given of the use of cost-benefit analysis in deciding on the location of multiple new urban forests.
Cost-benefit analysis: an introduction

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a technique developed to evaluate investments from a social-economic point of view. It helps decision-makers: 1. To decide on the optimal level of the investment (e.g. the optimal forest expansion area); 2. to find the optimal mix of investments maximising efficiency (e.g. the optimal mix of urban and regional forests); and 3. to choose among several alternative investments (e.g. the optimal location of new forests) (Loomis & Walsh 1997). A key factor of CBA is that the evaluation is made on the basis of monetary values. The basic idea is very simple. If we have to decide whether to make investment A or not, the rule is: do A only if the benefits exceed those of the next best alternative. The benefits of the next best alternative are referred to as the costs of A. The basic rule can now be formulated as follows: do A if the benefits exceed the costs, and not otherwise (Layard & Glaister 1994).
134
The first questions that come to mind are how to measure and value these costs and benefits and which costs and benefits should be taken into account. Assuming that only people matter, two (more theoretical) steps can be distinguished: first, find out how the investment affects the individuals welfare. This impact is measured by the individuals own valuation. Next, deduce the change in social welfare from these changes in individual welfare. All positive and negative impacts in each year of the project should be taken into account. We will discuss this in more detail in section 3. Secondly, what is the relevant society for which the change in welfare should be analysed? Either one takes on an international point of view or one limits the analysis to the population of the country undertaking the investment. In either case, costs and benefits to all members of society are included and not only the monetary expenditures and receipts of the project promoter. A third question concerns distribution effects. The underlying assumption in most CBA studies is that income is optimally distributed or that in case of non-optimal distribution there is some form of redistribution. Consequently, each persons 1 euro has the same weight. However, in real situations this might not always be true. This implies that one needs to value a poor persons 1 euro higher than that of a rich person (Layard & Glaister 1994). A final issue is the choice of the discount rate. An aggregate present value of the project is obtained by discounting costs and benefits in future years to make them commensurate with present costs and benefits. A high or low discount rate has a large impact on the final result (the net present value) when costs and benefits occur at different points in time. The advantage of CBA compared to other evaluation techniques is the transparent and objective comparison between projects, since all impacts are expressed in monetary values that can be added up/distracted.
Costs and benefits of afforestation projects

The most obvious benefits of a forest relate to timber production. In some forests, hunting permits are issued. On the cost side, plantation and management are the first costs that come to mind. All these costs and benefits are financial expenditures or revenues for the forest owners. A social CBA however takes into account costs and benefits for the whole society. This implies that impacts related to the afforestation project that do not directly accrue to
135
the project promoters should be taken into account. A full overview of all costs and benefits related to afforestation projects on agricultural land is given in Table 1.
Table 1. Costs and benefits of afforestation projects on agricultural land.
COSTS Tree planting and forest management Opportunity cost of afforestation: Loss of agricultural production Loss of manure deposition possibilities BENEFITS Use values: Direct use values: timber, hunting, recreation Indirect use values: ecosystem values (e.g. carbon fixation, biodiversity, ) Non-use values: Existence values Bequest values
Costs
Two main categories of costs can be distinguished. On the one hand there are costs directly related to the afforestation project itself. These include costs of tree planting and forest management. The latter includes site preparation, pruning, thinning, felling, etc. On the other hand one should take into account the net benefits of the land that are lost when the project is executed, i.e. the opportunity cost of the project. In theory, these should be the benefits of the next best alternative land use, in practice, it is obvious one should take the benefits of the current use of the land, i.e. agriculture. In the Flemish case, the opportunity cost includes both the agricultural production lost and the manure deposition lost. Calculating the loss of agricultural production is a complex matter due to the high level of subsidisation of the agricultural sector on both European and national level. These subsidies are merely transfers between different groups in society and should therefore be subtracted from the observed market prices for agricultural goods. One way of dealing with this problem is to use world prices to value agricultural production. In the Flemish case, this leads to a net loss instead of profit for most agricultural crops. During the past decades, norms for using manure have become more and more restricted in Flanders due to environmental concerns. For each parcel we now have a maximum amount of manure that can be used. As farmers have a choice between manure deposition on agricultural land (which is free but restricted by law) or manure processing (which is costly), afforestation of agricultural land implies an increase in the cost of manure processing. Measuring and valuing the costs of afforestation is rather straightforward. Inputs for afforestation, inputs and outputs of agricultural production and manure processing are traded on markets. Consequently, market prices for all these goods are available and reflect the willingness of persons to pay for these goods. However, as mentioned
136
before, one needs to pay attention to government interventions such as subsidies and taxes. In a CBA social values rather than pure market prices matter
Benefits
On the benefit side we make a (theoretical) distinction between use and non-use values. As the name suggests the use benefits are the values arising from the actual use of a forest. The use values are divided into direct use values, such as timber production, hunting or sightseeing, and indirect use values, which refer to the benefits derived from the forests functional support (shortly named in economics as externalities) to for the example CO2 absorption. On the other hand, there are non-use values that capture the forest benefits that are independent from the actual use of such forest area. The non-use values are composed of a bequest value, i.e. the benefit accruing to any individual from the knowledge that others might benefit from the forest in the future, and an existence value, i.e. the benefit accruing to any individual from the knowledge of that forest area. Valuation of the benefits is more difficult. What is the willingness to pay of persons for these benefits? Only for direct use values such as timber and hunting, markets for trading these goods exist. All other values, especially non-use benefits, are more intangible. The value assessment of such functions requires special concepts and tools. Valuation of recreational benefits will be discussed next, followed by valuation of option and non-use values. Valuation of forest recreation: the travel cost method Hotelling first mentioned the travel cost method (TCM) in 1947 but it was formally first used in literature several years later by Wood & Trice (1958) and Clawson & Knetsch (1966). The method is based on observed market behaviour of a cross section of users and is therefore the preferred method for outdoor recreation modelling for most economists (Loomis & Walsh 1997). It is considered to be an empirical application of the household production approach pioneered by Becker (1965). a) The basic method: The TCM shows how the visit frequency of users responds to changes in the price of a visit. The costs of travelling to the site, both direct monetary and time costs, and onsite costs, such as entry fees, are used as a proxy for price (Hanley & Spash 1993). The basic premise of the approach is that the number of visits to the site decreases with increases in the travel costs, to a major extent determined by distance travelled. We can formally represent travel costs (TC) to a given site j as follows:
TCij = TC ( DCij , TTCij , Fi ) i = 1...n; j = 1...m
137
where DC are distance costs for each individual i, dependent on the distance travelled and the cost per kilometre1. TTC are time costs. These depend on how long it takes individual i to get to the site and on the valuation of that individuals time. F stands for on-site costs including an entrance fee that is charged for some sites2. These travel costs are one of the independent variables that are used to explain the dependent variable, some form of quantity of recreation. Usually, one takes the number of visits taken by a person over a year or visits per capita from a specific zone to a recreation site (Loomis & Walsh 1997)3. Other variables that influence visit frequency are socio-economic characteristics such as income, education and age level, family composition, gender, as well as variables giving information on the type of trip. The latter include mainly forest characteristics in the case of forest recreation. The last factor that influences visit frequency is the price and availability of substitutes. Substitutes are, in the case of forest recreation, other forests an individual could visit. The more substitutes a visitor has, or the more nearby substitutes are, the lower the number of visits to the studied site. b) Recreation-demand function We now have all the ingredients to specify a recreation demand function4 that explains the quantity of recreation in terms of the price and other explanatory variables. This can formally be stated as follows:
Vij = V (TCij , SCij , FCi , Si ) i = 1...n, j = 1...m
where V are visits of individual i to site j, TC are travel costs, SC are socio-economic characteristics, FC are forest characteristics and S is the price of visiting other sites. This demand function, sometimes also referred to as trip generating function (Hanley & Spash, 1993) is estimated using multiple regression techniques. Using the statistical coefficients from the regression, a demand curve or willingness to pay curve
2 3
The cost per kilometre consists of variable costs such as fuel costs as well as fixed costs such as insurance, taxes, acquisition costs etc. Entrance fees are unusual for forests with public access. Depending on how the dependent variable is defined, the TCM is described as individual or zonal TCM. From this point forward we will limit the discussion to the individual TCM.
138
Costs, TC TC*
TC1
V1
Figure 1. Demand curve and consumer surplus.
VT
Visits, V
representing the relationship between the number of visits and the cost (price) of a trip can be traced out with increments in costs starting from the current cost of each individual. The key assumption behind the demand curve is that as travel costs increase the number of visits falls. There exists a cost TC* at which no more visits will be made. This is called the choke price. On the other hand, when costs are zero, the number of visits will be highest (VT). At any price higher than zero, the number of visits will drop, i.e. at a positive price TC1 visits will drop to V1. c) Consumer surplus The area under the demand curve measures the visitors net willingness to pay or consumer surplus attributed to the site (Loomis & Walsh 1997). It is the surplus benefit (grey triangle) over and above the cost (dotted rectangle). From Figure 1 we know that at a cost TC1 an individual would make V1 visits. However, the individual is willing to pay almost TC* for the first visit and any amount between TC* and TC1 for the following trips (up to V1). From that point onwards, the cost of a visit is higher than what the individual is willing to pay for the trip. d) Problems with the travel cost method - Multipurpose trips vs. single destination trips If an individual leaves home and drives directly to the recreation site and returns home
139
directly afterwards, costs of making the trip can be exclusively attributed to the site visit. This type of visitors is often referred to as purposeful visitors (Hanley & Spash 1993). Those visitors for whom a visit to the site is only part of the purpose of their trip are called meanderers. In the latter case, taking into account the full cost of the trip will lead to an overestimation of benefits attributable to the recreation area (Loomis & Walsh 1997). There is not a theoretically correct way to allocate the trip costs among multiple destinations. Either these observations are dropped from the analysis or the visitors are asked to subjectively attribute a proportion of trip costs to visiting each destination. - Distance costs Increases in distance are converted to the monetary amounts visitors would pay if they were required to travel the additional distance. There are basically two options to calculate a price per kilometre: (1) use fuel costs only as an estimate of marginal cost or (2) use full costs including an allowance for depreciation, insurance, etc. as an estimate of average cost. Consumer surplus measures will depend on the choice. - Travel time costs Travel time costs are calculated by multiplying the duration of the trip (depending on distance and transport mode) by the value of travel time. The value of travel time is the opportunity cost of that time. The time spent on the trip5, which is assumed to create no benefits, cannot be spent in another way like benefit creating activities such as working or alternative recreational activities. Saving time in travelling to the site clearly has a positive value, or, time spent travelling in itself has a negative value. If the individual is giving up working time in order to visit a site, the wage rate is the correct opportunity cost of time travelled. However, most individuals are restricted by fixed working hours and will therefore make the trip in their leisure time. The travel time to a site would alternatively be spent on other leisure activities. No labour income is foregone and the correct opportunity cost here is the value, at the margin, of the other recreation activities foregone. - Statistical problems Several statistical problems can occur when estimating a (recreation) demand function. First, there are problems related to the independent variables in the regression equation. All relevant variables affecting visitor behaviour need to be included. Omission of variables will bias the coefficient estimates and therefore bias the
Here we assume time spent on site has no value, although we are aware of the debate in the literature regarding this aspect of TCM applications.
140
consumer surplus estimates. However, it is not necessary to include variables that do not vary among individuals or according to distance travelled, as these variables will not change the slope or the area under the demand curve. Second, the dependent variable is subject to both truncation and endogenous stratification (Hellerstein 1992). Truncation occurs when observations are only available greater than (or less than) some lower (or upper) bound. This is the case for most TCM studies when observations originate from on-site surveys and all respondents make at least one visit to the site. The dependent variable (visits) is said to be truncated at one. Endogenous stratification occurs when the probability of being sampled is a function of the value of the dependent variable. When interviewing visitors at specific checkpoints on site, people with higher visit frequencies have a higher chance of being interviewed. Truncation and endogenous stratification require the functional form of the recreation demand function to be chosen with care. A good choice seems to be using count data models that are based on probability distributions that are defined for nonnegative integers only (Hellerstein 1992). Valuation of non-use values: the contingent valuation method A procedure to convert changes (qualitative or quantitative) in environmental goods into monetary terms (Willingness To Pay or WTP) is the contingent valuation method (CVM). CVM uses survey questions to elicit peoples preferences for public goods by finding out what they would be willing to pay for specified changes in them (Mitchell & Carson 1989). Constructing a hypothetical yet detailed and realistic market in which consumers have the opportunity to buy the good circumvents the problem of missing markets for many environmental goods. Because valuation is contingent upon the particular hypothetical market, this approach is called the contingent valuation method (Brookshire & Eubanks 1978, Brookshire & Randall 1978, Schulze & dArge 1978). The first empirical study can be traced back to 1958 and more studies were done since the 1970s. However, the method only became widely known and used since the Exxon Valdez oil tanker ran aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska (1989). Two groups of eminent economists were asked to undertake an extensive and thorough CV assessment of the non-use damages caused by this disaster (Bateman & Willis 1999). One study was commissioned by the State of Alaska6, and the other by the Exxon Company because the latter questioned the validity of the CV technique (Hausman 1993). As a consequence of the disagreement on the validity of the method, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) commissioned an investigation of the CVM. This resulted in a set of explicit guidelines that should be followed in order to perform a valid CVM study (Arrow et al. 1993).
The results of this study can be found in Carson et al. (1992).
141
a) Survey structure The CVM is solely dependent on survey data. The design of the survey is therefore a key element in determining the quality of the study. The survey has to be tested in small discussion groups and in a small sample of respondents. This helps to determine whether respondents are likely to correctly interpret the questions, whether response categories are unambiguous and whether visual aids are clear and sufficient (Loomis & Walsh 1997). Respondents are best interviewed in person due to the complex nature of a CVM questionnaire. The survey itself consists of three parts (Mitchell & Carson 1989): - The first part gives a precise description of the good that has to be valued and the hypothetical circumstances under which the public good is made available to the respondent. It also describes the baseline level of provision, the range of available substitutes and the method of payment. - The second part consists of questions intended to elicit the respondents WTP for the defined change of availability of the environmental good. An alternative would be asking the respondents WTP for a qualitative or quantitative change of the good. It is often desirable to ask respondents to specify the reasons for their reported choices, especially when respondents report they are not willing to pay anything. Adding questions about the reason of their zero answer can identify whether their true valuation is zero or whether they protest against the hypothetical market or method of payment. - The third part of the survey asks for the characteristics of the respondents (e.g. income, age), their preferences relevant to the good being valued and their use of the good. This information is used to explain the WTP of the respondents and to determine the validity and reliability of the CVM as a measuring instrument of WTP for environmental goods. The answers to the valuation questions provide information on the WTP of respondents. These amounts can then be used to develop an estimate of the benefit of the good. b) WTP vs. WTA Asking maximum WTP for an increase in quality of quantity of a good is the preferred approach for determining economic benefits (Loomis & Walsh 1997). The alternative is to ask for an individuals minimum willingness to accept (WTA) compensation for a decrease in the quality or quantity of a resource. Since WTA is not directly constrained by income, chances are WTA is greater than WTP, which is constrained by income (Loomis & Walsh 1997, Bishop & Heberlein 1979) and therefore leads to an overestimation of benefits.
142
c) Method of payment How people are asked to pay for a change in the provision of a good determines to a great extent the degree of honesty of their answers. Possibilities include taxes on income or property, voluntary or compulsory donations or contributions, entrance fees for visiting a nature area, hunting permits, etc. The NOAA-panel recommends the use of taxes because of their compulsory character. d) Question format There are several possibilities to ask for the WTP of a person. Techniques differ in the degree of accuracy, degree of non-response or dont know answers, difficulty of statistical processing, etc. The most straightforward way of asking is to ask directly what amount a person maximally would be willing to pay for the proposed change. This is called the open-ended question format. This is the simplest way to formulate the question and answers can be analysed without further data manipulation. The problem is that it is not straightforward for respondents to answer this question. They are simply not familiar with placing a value on a good that is not traded in a normal market. On the one hand, this leads to a high degree of non-response and protest answers, on the other hand, it creates incentives for strategic behaviour (i.e. stating a higher or lower WTP than the actual WTP) (Desvousges et al. 1983). The disadvantages of this elicitation format have lead to the development of new techniques taking into account the difficulty for respondents to answer and the possibilities for strategic behaviour without losing valuable information. The bidding game (Davis 1964) is based on real-life situations in which individuals are asked to state a price for a specific good (cf. auctions). Respondents answer yes or no to an iteration of monetary amounts and this process goes on until the respondent changes his answer. The last (or first) price a respondent accepts is his maximum WTP. The advantage is that this elicitation format directly gives the highest WTP (Cummings et al. 1986). Moreover, due to the iterative character of the approach a respondent has more time to carefully consider his valuation (Hoehn & Randall 1983). A disadvantage is the possibility of starting point bias implying that the starting bid influences to a great extent the value for the good (Roberts et al. 1985) Another question format frequently used is the payment card (Mitchell & Carson 1981, 1984). Respondents are shown a card with alternative values and are asked to select their maximum WTP from these values. Sometimes the card provides an indication of what the respondent is already spending on other public goods or services, although the answer can be influenced by these benchmarks. Advantages are that (1) the answer does not depend on the starting bid and (2) respondents only have to answer one question.
143
The final important question format is the dichotomous choice question format (Bishop & Heberlein 1979, 1980). There are two versions currently in use. The first is the single bounded dichotomous choice. The respondent is presented one of a list of previously determined values and is asked whether or not he would be willing to pay this amount for the proposed change. The major advantage of this approach is its simplicity for the respondent. Moreover, it has been shown (Hoehn & Randall 1987) that this approach minimises strategic behaviour. The primary drawback is inefficiency. A very large amount of observations is needed for a correct estimate of the WTP. Also, one has to make assumptions about the parametric specification of the valuation function to obtain mean WTP. Finally, the design of the bid amounts requires the greatest care. A variation of the single bounded is the double bounded dichotomous choice (Carson et al. 1986). The respondent is presented with a follow up question with a bid that is dependent on his answer on the first dichotomous choice question. There is a list of several bid values and follow up values. This elicitation method increases the efficiency of the single bounded dichotomous choice and is the preferred format for the NOAApanel. Studies have shown that the estimated WTP based on this format is lower than based on the single bounded dichotomous choice (Carson et al. 1999). e) Possible biases of the WTP estimate Due to the hypothetical nature of the CVM, the method of payment used and other factors, the estimated WTP can be biased. These biases should and can be avoided as much as possible by performing statistical tests during survey design (e.g. after testing). A first possible bias is strategic behaviour of the respondent. This means the respondent lies about his true WTP for the public good because he assumes that, although he states a low WTP, others will not answer strategically and the public good will be provided anyway. Once a forest is created, it is impossible to exclude those respondents that state a lower than their actual WTP. Strategic behaviour can be minimised by stressing the fact that everyone will have to pay, by not giving information on other respondents WTP and by making the provision of the good dependent on the WTP of the respondents (Mitchell & Carson 1989). Other problems are design and information biases. These problems are related to the design of the survey, the way information is presented and the amount and the kind of information that is given previously to the WTP question. Design bias also includes starting point bias (Hanley & Spash 1993). Another problem arises from the hypothetical nature of the CVM questionnaire. This implies that incorrect WTP assessments by the respondent will not be punished. The respondent will never actually have to pay his stated WTP.
144
Overview of benefits and their valuation
Table 2 summarises the different use and non-use value categories and their valuation methods. The travel cost and contingent valuation method were discussed in detail in this paper, other valuation techniques are not extensively used in this paper and are therefore only briefly mentioned in the table.
Table 2. Benefits and their valuation.
BENEFIT CATEGORIES Direct use values: recreation Direct use values: hunting, timber Indirect use values: ecosystem Non-use values POSSIBLE VALUATION METHODS Travel cost method, Contingent valuation method Market approach Production cost method, Dose-response method; Damage method Contingent valuation method
Case study: location of new (urban) forest

Introduction
A methodology was developed to select a combination of potential forest areas (currently agricultural land) in the Ghent region (province of East Flanders, Belgium) that maximises net social benefits taking into account restrictions on the total surface of new forest land. We assumed that all newly created forests consist of oak and ash trees and the time period is 200 years (one rotation of oak and two rotations of ash). Our main point of attention was the role of substitutes, both existing and other new forests, in determining the recreation value of the potential forest areas. To fulfil the surface restriction, one potential forest area can be included in several combinations of potential forest areas. Therefore, the possible substitutes for its visitors will differ depending on the combination and as a consequence the recreation value of the same forest in different combinations will be different. In order to limit the number of potential forest areas, we started from the study Gewenste Bosstructuur voor Vlaanderen (desired forest structure for Flanders), executed by bureau Mens en Ruimte. Next, we excluded zones on the spatial planning map coloured as valuable ecotopes, legally protected areas (Habitats Directive 92/43/ EEC and Birds Directive 79/409/EEC), built-on areas, existing forests, infrastructure, industry and residential areas. Furthermore, ecological arguments like the proximity of existing forests and (non-) suitability for agricultural production reduced the total potential forest area even more. This lead to 14,565 ha potential forest area in the whole province of East Flanders which was divided in 113 sites with a minimal surface of 20 ha each. The province was further subdivided into four parts, one of which is the Ghent region in which 32 of the 113 potential forest areas are located (see Figure 2). As it is an objective of the Flemish Community to allocate at least 2,500 ha of new forestland in East Flanders, proportionally 540 ha (539 541 ha) are to be allocated to
145
N
Forest extensions Population density (number/ha) 0- 3 3- 7 7 - 10 10 - 15 15 - 20 20 - 25 25 - 35 35 - 50 50 - 60
0 7 Kilometers
Figure 2. Geographical location of forest expansion projects and population density.
the Ghent region. This gave us more than 51,000 possible combinations of four to eight forest areas out of a total of 32 potential forest areas for which the net social benefits per hectare were calculated for both the combination as a whole and for each forest in the combination.
Costs and benefits of afforestation on agricultural land
All costs and benefits listed in Table 1 were included in the analysis. Most of the costs and benefits are fixed amounts per hectare of forestland and are independent both of the location of the potential forest area itself and the location of its substitutes. This applies to planting and management costs, timber, hunting, carbon fixation and nonuse values. Opportunity costs on the other hand differ according to the characteristics of the soil. This applies to the loss of agricultural production as well as the loss of manure deposition. Consequently, opportunity costs per hectare can differ between forests but are the same regardless of the combination of potential forest areas that particular forest belongs to. Recreation is the only benefit category that is assumed to be both dependent on the location of the forest and the location of its substitutes, which could be either existing or other new forests. The same forest will therefore have a different recreation value depending on the combination that is studied. An overview of values for the cost and benefit categories is given in Table 3.
146
Table 3. Costs and benefits (ha-1year-1) of afforestation. COSTS Planting and management Loss of agricultural production Loss of manure deposition 38.60 -714 - -362 457-590 BENEFITS Timber Hunting Carbon fixation Non-use Recreation 28.50 15 25 3680 Av. 1440
The figures show that forest planting and management costs are very modest compared to opportunity costs. On the benefit side we see that non-tangible benefits like non-use and recreation values are far more important than the benefits that are directly perceptible and create direct income for the forest owner (sale of timber and of hunting permits). As was explained before, recreation values per hectare vary between forests and more importantly they depend on the combination of all potential forest areas a forest area belongs to. A combination of forests that are geographically located close to the same major population centres will each attract fewer visitors than they would when they were located further apart and closer to different population centres. This is the so-called substitution effect.
We have analysed the maximisation problem in two different ways. First, we only took into account the tangible cost and benefit categories (limited analysis). This implies we did not take into account carbon fixation, recreation and non-use values. Consequently, for each of the 32 potential forest areas we got one net benefit estimate independent of the combination they belong to. Summing net benefits over the different forest areas in the combination gave the net benefit of the combination or of a fixed surface of forest expansion in the Ghent region. The difference in net social benefits between combinations could be fully ascribed to differences in opportunity costs of the potential afforestation areas, as these were the only cost or benefit categories that had no fixed value per hectare. Opportunity costs per hectare differ between forests, but were not dependent on the combination the forest areas belong to. Next, we included carbon fixation, recreation and non-use values as well (full analysis). The difference between the two analyses was that in the latter, combinations do matter. A forest has a different recreation value in combination A and combination B. The results are presented in Table 4 and Figure 3. Table 4 gives the numbers of the forests areas that were in the best and worst combination. Figure 3 shows the geographical location of all numbered potential forest areas. Looking at the best combination according to the full analysis showed that the potential forest areas are geographically spread throughout the region, but are all located in the Southeast to Southwest of the city of Ghent where we find the highest population density, i.e. highest number of potential visitors. Just looking at the map of Figure 3, the forest areas in the best combination of the
147
32 31
1
28 21 1 2 3 29 6 7 8 13 14 12 19 18 30 4 5 20
22 23 27 24 26 10 25 15 9 11 17 16
Forest expansion proje cts Region Gent
10 K eters ilom
Figure 3. Numbered forest expansion projects in the Ghent region (Source: Moons et al., 2001).
limited analysis are a bit more concentrated either on the Southwest or Southeast side of Ghent. The forest areas in the worst combination of the full analysis are clearly located close to each other at the Southwest of Ghent. This implies they are close substitutes in recreation and therefore have low recreation values each, which explains their bad ranking. However, at first sight differences between locations for limited and full analysis seem to be small. Although results were not clear at first sight, according to the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks test for differences, adding recreation, non-use and carbon fixation values do make a significant difference. Net benefits per hectare for both best and worst combinations are significantly higher for the full analysis. This could also be expected based on the values given in Table 3. Ranking all possible combinations from highest to lowest net benefits (full analysis) shows that the highest net benefit (best combination) is more than 100 times higher than the lowest net benefit (worst combination) per hectare. This is clearly shown on Figure 4, which shows net social benefits per hectare ranked
148
Table 4. Best and worst combinations for the limited and full analysis of the Ghent region. LIMITED ANALYSIS Best combination 1 5 13 24 26 27 30 32 Worst combination 6 15 16 18 FULL ANALYSIS Best combination 1 6 14 16 18 24 25 26 Worst combination 4 8 9 29
from high to low for every tenth combination (out of the 51,000 possible combinations). Concentrating on the results of the full analysis shows the importance of the substitution effect in estimating the recreational value of a potential forest area. In other words, geographical location of a forest in itself and in relation to other forests matters. The greater the choice of forests a person can visit, the fewer the number of visits to one particular forest, the lower the recreational value of the forest and the
35000000
Net social benefit ( per hectare)
30000000 25000000 20000000 15000000 10000000 5000000 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Number of combination (best - worst)
Figure 4. Ranking of highest to lowest net social benefit per hectare for conbinations of forest expansion proejtcs.
149
lower the net benefit per hectare. This finding is of great importance for the afforestation policy of the Flemish Community. Afforestation of a certain surface of agricultural land at different locations leads to high variations in the net social benefits per hectare of afforestation. In other words, the same euro spent on afforestation can create different net benefits.
Conclusions
In this paper we have shown how cost-benefit analysis can be used as a decision support mechanism for the location of new (urban) forest land, starting from the multifunctional role of these new forests. Cost-benefit analysis is a technique developed to evaluate investments from a social-economic point of view. Key factors of the CBA method are that (i) all impacts for the whole relevant population are taken into account and that (ii) all evaluation occurs on the basis of monetary values. We have given an overview of the costs and benefits of afforestation projects on former agricultural land. Apart from the straightforward costs of tree planting and forest management and the direct revenues from the sale of timber and hunting permits, we have shown the importance of recreation, non-use and option values. We have discussed in detail the most widely used valuation techniques for these non-tangible benefits of forests. Recreation is valued using the travel cost method through the relationship between visit frequency and the price of a visit. Non-use benefits are valued by the contingent valuation method that uses survey questions to elicit peoples preferences and willingness to pay for specific changes in public goods. We have demonstrated how these methods can be used in land use change decisions in a case study for the location of a specific surface of new urban forest land in the Ghent region in the province of East Flanders, Belgium. As the total surface of 540 ha cannot be realised by one forest on one single location, we investigated the net benefits per hectare of combinations of four to eight forests to meet the surface restriction. We have shown the importance of including recreation benefits in the evaluation of afforestation projects. Within the valuation of recreation benefits, we focused on the role of alternative forests in the (recreational) valuation of one specific forest and we have found that this substitution effect is significant in the decision on the location of new forests. Ranking all possible combinations from highest to lowest net social benefit shows that the net benefit of the best combination is more than 100 times higher than the net benefit of the worst combination, or, the same euro spent on afforestation combinations on different locations can create a wide variation in net social benefits.
150
References
AMINAL (1993).
Lange Termijnplanning Bosbouw Deel 1. AMINAL, Brussels.

AMINAL (1993).
Lange Termijnplanning Bosbouw Deel 2: Bijlage: Ondersteunend onderzoek. AMINAL, Brussels.

Arrow KJ, Solow R, Portney PR, Leamer EE, Radner R & Shuman EH (1993).
Report of the NOAA panel on contingent valuation, Federal Register 58: 46024614.
Bateman IJ & Willis KG (1999).
Valuing environmental preferences. Theory and practice of the contingent valuation method in the US, EU and developing countries. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Becker GS (1965).
A theory of the allocation of time. The Economic Journal 75: 493-457.

Bishop RC & Heberlein TA (1979).
Measuring values of extra-market goods: are indirect measure biased? American Journal of Agricultural Economics 61(5): 926-930.
Bishop RC & Heberlein TA (1980).
Simulated markets, hypothetical markets, and travel cost analysis: alternative methods of estimating outdoor recreation demand. Staff Paper Series no. 187, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Wisconsin.
Brookshire DS & Eubanks LS (1978).
Contingent valuation and revealing actual demand for public environmental commodities. Manuscript. University of Wyoming.
Brookshire DS and Randall A (1978).
Public policy alternatives, public goods, and contingent valuation mechanisms. Paper presented at the Western Economic Association Meeting, Honolulu, Hawaii.
Carson RT, Groves T & Machina MJ (1999).
Incentive and informational properties of preference questions. Plenary Address, EAERE Conference, Oslo, Norway.
Carson RT, Hanemann WM & Mitchell RC (1986).
Determining the demand for public goods by simulating referendums at different tax prices. Manuscript, University of California, San Diego.
151
Carson RT, Mitchell RC, Hanemann WM, Kopp RJ, Presser S & Rudd PA (1992).
A contingent valuation study of lost passive use values resulting from the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Report to the Attorney General of the State of Alaska, Natural Resource Damage Assessment Inc., San Diego.
Clawson M & Knetsch J (1966).
Economics of outdoor recreation. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Cummings RG, Schulze WD, Gerking SD & Brookshire DS (1986).
Measuring the elasticity of substitution of wages for municipal infrastructure: a comparison of the survey and wage hedonic approaches. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 13(3): 269-276.
Davis RK (1964).
The value of big game hunting in a private forest. In: Transactions of the 29th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. Wildlife Management Institute, Washington DC.
Desvousges WH, Smith VK & McGivney MP (1983).
A comparison of alternative approaches for estimated recreation and related benefits of water quality improvements. EPA-230-05-83-001. Office of Policy Analysis, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC.
Hanley N & Spash CL (1993).
Cost-benefit analysis and the environment. Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Hants.
Hausman JA (1993).
Contingent valuation: a critical assessment. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam.

Hellerstein D (1992).
The treatment of nonparticipants in travel cost analysis and other demand models. Water Resources Research 28(8): 1999-2004.
Hoehn JP & Randall A (1983).
Incentives and performance in contingent policy valuation. Paper presented at the American Agricultural Economics Association summer meetings, Purdue University.
Hoehn JP & Randall A (1987).
A satisfactory benefit cost indicator from contingent valuation. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 14(3): 226-247.
152
Layard R & Glaister S (Eds) (1994).
Cost-benefit analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Loomis JB & Walsh RG (1997).
Recreation economic decisions. Comparing benefits and costs (2nd edition). State College, Venture Publishing.
Mens & Ruimte (1996).
De gewenste bosstructuur voor Vlaanderen. Mens & Ruimte, Brussels.

Mitchell RC & Carson RT (1984).
A contingent valuation estimate of national freshwater benefits: technical report to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Resources for the Future, Washington.
Mitchell RC & Carson RT (1989).
Using surveys to value public goods: the contingent valuation method. Resources for the Future, Washington.
Moons E, Proost S, Saveyn B & Scheirlinck H (2001).
Kosten-batenanalyse van bosuitbreiding in Oost-Vlaanderen. Final report VLINAproject 0017.

Roberts KJ, Thompson ME & Pawlyk PW (1985).
Contingent valuation of recreational diving at petroleum rigs, Gulf of Mexico. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 114(2): 214-219.
Schulze WD & dArge RC (1978).
On the valuation of recreational damages. Paper presented to the Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, New York, December 1978.
Wood S & Trice A (1958).
Measurement of recreation benefits. Land Economics 34: 195-207.
153
Chapter 4
Threats to urban forests and trees
155
Analysis of the WildlandUrban Interface Fire Problem of Greece

Alexandros Dimitrakopoulos Department of Forestry & Natural Environment, Aristotle University P.O. Box 228, Thessaloniki 541 24, Greece
Abstract
During the last 30 years Greece gradually acquired a serious wildlandurban interface fire problem, mostly intensified around metropolitan areas and tourist locations. Urbanisation of the population, tourist development and a large need for summer housing have created increased human pressure for land use change by applying fire and, subsequent, encroachment on public wildlands. At the same time, human settlements engulfed by wildlands and forestland fragmentation in a mosaic of agricultural, forest and rural areas have created increased fire hazard and fire suppression planning difficulties. The following measures are proposed for alleviating the problem: a) Establishment of legislature pertaining to the regional and urban planning of wildland urban intermix areas; b) strict regulations regarding the location of waste disposal sites and other public and private enterprises of human activities in forestlands; c) establishment of fire safety regulations for houses and residents in the wildlandurban interface; d) assignment of a special category in forest management practices pertaining to peri urban forests (wildlands that surround urban settlements); all silvicultural and management practices will set as priority the protection of the urban structures that they surround; and e) special fire-safety planning and installations should be designed for cultural monuments and antiquities that are surrounded by forest vegetation constituting the natural setting of the monument and part of its scenic beauty.
Key words: peri-urban forest, wildland/urban interface, fire, Mediterranean, Greece.
Introduction
Greece has a severe wildland fire problem, which has significantly augmented during the last 30 years. Almost 80% of the total number of fires occur in the Mediterranean zone, which extends from the coastal line to an elevation of approximately 800 metres, including all the islands. This area combines the typical Mediterranean climate
157
(pronounced hot and dry period during the summer, mild winters with most of the total rainfall) with flammable vegetation types. The latter are comprised of drought resistant and fire-adapted evergreen-broadleaved sclerophyllous shrublands (maquis) and low-elevation coniferous forests of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) on the mainland and Calabrian pine (Pinus brutia Ten.) on the islands. Also, due to the fact that the Mediterranean zone of Greece hosts most of the countrys economic activities (agriculture, tourism, urban development, industry), over 70% of the total population is concentrated in these areas. This has resulted in an ever-increasing human pressure on the natural environment for land use change, which is reflected by the high frequency of arsons and unknown-cause fires occurring in the wildlands. The intermix of human settlements with natural ecosystems created a severe wildlandurban interface fire problem that has become a major issue of political debate and confrontation because of public awareness and mass media attention especially during the summer months, when most fires occur. We will analyse the wildland-urban interface fire problem of Greece in terms of its current status, causes and possible mitigation measures.
Causes of the wildland-urban interface fire problem of Greece

Table 1 provides a synopsis of the wildland urban interface problem of Greece. The country has undergone significant social changes, since the 1970s. These have created and aggravated its wildland-urban interface fire problem: 1. Large parts of the population from mountainous areas migrated to the major urban centres (internal migration). The urbanisation of Greece resulted in half its population now residing in only two cities (Athens and Thessaloniki). 2. There has been a substantial tourist development of Greece and, especially on the islands, resulting in continuous construction of holiday resorts and hotel accommodations in the wildlands. 3. There has been a fashion in most middle class urban families for building a country house near the sea for summer vacations. 4. Activities inside the forests have multiplied due to the enhanced accessibility that resulted from an extended forest road network in combination with the everincreasing number of private cars. 5. Numerous municipal waste disposal sites have been arbitrarily established on public forestlands. 6. There has been extensive intermix of agricultural areas, forestlands and rural settlements over large areas in the Greek Mediterranean countryside, creating a mosaic of different land uses and fire hazards. All these reasons resulted in tremendous pressure for change of use of the wildlands for urban, tourist and agricultural development in the Mediterranean areas. Given the
158
Table 1. Analysis of the wildland - urban interface probllem of Greece.

FIRE INTERFACE DESCRIPTION
Expanding urbanization results in the construction of an ever increasing number of illegal housing settlements inside wildlands peripheral to metropolitan centers, without previous urban or regional planning and provisions for fire safety. This created a major fire control problem. Also, increased human activities to peri urban forests, due to high population density and accessibility, have resulted in many arson and negligence fires. The land value near touristically developing areas has increased dramatically, creating pressure for land use change from wildland to urban through fire. Thus, the number of arsons has increased. Many summer houses and hotel accommodations have been constructed in remote areas inside forests, creating accessibility, high dispersion and water availability problems to fire suppression forces. There has been extensive intermix of agricultural areas with forest lands and rural settlements over large areas in the Greek mediterranean countryside, creating a mosaic of different land uses and fire hazards. This resulted in high fire risk (variety of human activities) and severe fire behavior problems (different kind of fuels and fire protection planning and priorities).
CAUSES
Urbanization (internal migration) of a large part of the rural population since the 70s caused very high demand for peri urban land to meet the housing needs. Numerous arsons are set to wildlands surrounding urban centers to destroy natural vegetation and facilitate subsequent encroachment on the burned public wildlands. Mismanaged municipal waste disposal sites located inside forests also constitute a major cause of wildlfires. Substantial touristic development of Greece since the 80s has led to uncontrolled and illegal construction of hotel accommodations in remote Mediterranean areas (especially in the islands) of natural beauty without any fire safety infrastructure. Also, there has been a continuous trend since the 70s for urban middle-class families to acquire a summer house close to nature for vacations. Increased outdoor activities in the forests have raised the number of fires. Agriculture has expanded on forest lands causing fragmentation of the natural landscape and increasing the various land use activities. The traditional mediterranean model of small rural villages is changing and farm houses are now constructed near agricultural fields, while wildlands become more isolated.
peri urban
wildland urban
rural urban
fact that Greece still lacks a national cadastre (register) and land use classification mapping, the public forestlands were the first to be attacked by arsonists. These aimed at the destruction of the natural vegetation through fire and, subsequently, the encroachment and conversion of the burned areas into urban settlements or agricultural areas. In most cases, law enforcement procedures for the eviction of intruders from the burned wildlands have been time-consuming and ineffective. On the contrary, in many cases a legalisation followed of the encroachment on the burned public wildlands by the Greek government for social reasons, thus creating an additional motive for arson. Consequently, in Greece the most densely inhabited or touristically developed areas are fire-stricken (Attica peninsula with Athens metropolitan area, Thessaloniki with the Chalkidiki peninsula, Kavala, Aegean and Ionian islands, Crete, Magnesia and Evia). They face severe fire rural/urban interface problems which coincide with a high fire frequency and areas burnt, mostly attributed to arson or unknown causes. The wildland-urban fire interface problem of Greece first became apparent when a large, wind-driven fire on August 4 1981 occurred in the northern suburbs of Athens, and resulted in the destruction of many luxurious residences. In 1985, numerous arsons destroyed the peri-urban forests that surrounded Kavala, northern Greece. In 1995, a large fire (6,500 ha) on the Penteli mountain at the outskirts of Athens metropolitan area, burnt approximately 100 structures causing panic to the population. Another fire at the same mountain in 1998 was equally destructive and received huge media attention and public awareness, thus creating a severe political issue. Multiple arsons burnt most of the aesthetic forest that surrounded Thessaloniki in July 1997.
159
Numerous fires devastated large areas of public pine forests at the Chalkidiki peninsula in 1981, 1985 and 1990, resulting in the development of numerous summer cottages and villas in the burned areas without urban planning. Additionally, significant economic losses result every year from fires that burn at the rural/urban interface and expand from forest areas to adjacent agricultural lands (mostly olive groves, grapevines, and wheat fields). Finally, in most cases, the natural fire regime has been altered in the wildland /urban interface due to increased fire frequency, thus adversely affecting biodiversity and ecosystem processes in these areas. Also, expanding urbanisation has resulted in wildlife habitat fragmentation.
Particularities of fire suppression in the wildland urban interface

Fire suppression in the intermix context of urban and wildland is complicated and particular. In some instances, wildlands constitute enclaves within urban environments, and suppression proceeds within the general context of urban firefighting. In other cases, houses form small islands within a sea of public wildlands, and wildfires must be controlled as ancillary functions to general wildland fire control. In other words, the mixture of wild, urban, agricultural, public and private lands prevents either urban or wildland fire strategies (Pyne et al. 1996). Perhaps the really unresolved issue is not so much the suppression of an isolated structural fire but the protection of structures within the context of a true fire intermix (Weise & Martin 1994). Ethical instincts and legal structures impose the preferential protection of houses (not to mention their residents) even if this means that the overall fire continues to propagate freely. Perimeter control is problematic; counter-firing is almost impossible; prescription control unthinkable. No clearly articulated strategy exists (NWCG 1989). Instead, fire-fighting resources, especially engines, are massed and dispatched to protect structures. Control of structural fires differs from control of wildland fires in several respects (Radke 1983). There is first the question of people, victims who may need medical attention, residents who need evacuation, onlookers who may require restraint. There is also a matter of fire behaviour. Compared to wildland fires, fuel loads in structures are heavier, fuel moisture lower, residence time longer, and fire build-up more rapid (Fischer & Arno 1988). A review of past wildland-urban interface fires showed that most structures were lost or damaged when they were not separated from the surrounding flammable vegetation, built on steep (over 50%) slopes, and the fire-fighting forces had poor access to the structures, limited water supply, and arrived late (Moore 1981).
160
When a fire occurs, it is often unclear to what extent suppression should emphasise the saving of property or the containment of the spreading fire. It is likely that fire management will focus on just such issues in the coming decades (Gale & Cortner 1987).
Proposed measures for alleviation of the wildland-urban interface fire problem

The wildland-urban interface fire problem of Greece can be alleviated with a combination of institutional and technological measures: 1. Establishment of legislature pertaining to the regional and urban planning of wildland-urban intermix areas. These regulations should provide for restricted areas were construction is not allowed due to high fire risk, for maximum housing density per unit of wildland area, for adequate road network density for easy accessibility of all structures, for evacuation routes and sites in case of emergency. Also, strict regulations should apply regarding the location of the waste disposal sites and other public and private enterprises of human activities (open mines, amusement parks, pick - nick areas, nature trails, etc). 2. Establishment of fire safety regulations for houses and residents in the wildlandurban interface. Residents will be obliged to apply all fire safety regulations at their own expense for their house (clearing vegetation, provide extra sources of water, use appropriate building materials) with severe penalty for the violators. 3. Jurisdiction by legislature should be granted to the fire-fighting forces regarding the selection of the appropriate fire strategy for optimal results (i.e., choice of fire protection priorities, forced evacuation of people from residences, destruction of fences and gardens, use of private water sources, curfew of vehicle circulation). 4. Assignment of a special category in forest management practices pertaining to forests at the urban interface. These forests should not be managed on a traditional sustained yield basis or as purely protective forests, but rather as periurban forests (wildlands that surround urban settlements) and, therefore, all silvicultural and management practices will focus on the protection of the urban structures that they harbour and border. In other words, the primary management objective for peri-urban forests is the protection of human lives and structures that reside in them, and secondary, the aesthetics of the landscape. These objectives should be clearly described and imposed by specific and regulatory guidelines issued by the Forest Service. 5. Provisions for extra water supply and intensive urban silviculture practices (pruning, thinning, fuel removal and isolation, breaking of horizontal continuity, etc) should be applied to all peri-urban forests. Special underground installations for ample water supply should be established in the wildland areas prior to urban development.
161
6. Special fire-safety planning and installations should be designed and established for cultural monuments and antiquities that are surrounded by natural vegetation of high aesthetic value, constituting the natural setting of the monument and part of its scenic beauty (Ancient Olympia, Mount Athos, etc). In such cases, all fire suppression measures should aim at adequately protecting the monument without disturbing the natural beauty of the site (Dimitrakopoulos 2000).
Conclusions
During the last 30 years Greece acquired a serious fire problem at the wildland-urban interface, mostly intensified around metropolitan areas and tourist locations. Internal migration, tourist sector development and need for summer housing have created increased human pressure for land use change by applying fire and, subsequent, encroachment on public wildlands. Legislative and regulatory measures regarding the function and management of periurban forests need to be imposed by the State and Municipal authorities for fire hazard reduction and the protection of human settlements.
References
Dimitrakopoulos AP (2000).
Wildland fire protection of cultural monuments and National Parks of Greece. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Fire Protection of Cultural Heritage, Thessaloniki, 1-2 June 2000: 195-200. Organised by EU, DG XII.
Fischer WC & Arno SF (eds) (1988).
Protecting people and homes from wildfire in the interior West. USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. INT 251. Ogden, Utah.
Gale RD & Cortner HJ (eds) (1987).
People and fire at the wildland/urban interface: a sourcebook. USDA, Forest Service, Washington DC.
Moore HE (1981).
Protecting residences from wildfires: a guide for homeowners, lawmakers, and planners. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report PSW-50.
National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) (1989).
Wildland/urban interface reference materials.

Pyne SJ, Andrews PL & Laven RD (1996).
Introduction to wildland fire science. 2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
162
Radke KW (1983).
Living more safely in the chaparral urban interface. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, General Technical Report PSW67.
Weise DR & Martin RE (eds) (1994).
The Biswell Symposium: Fire issues and solutions in urban interface and wildland ecosystems. USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, General Technical Report PSW-GTR-158.
163
Pests and Diseases of Urban Forests in Greece

Helen Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos Forest Research Institute, 570 06 Vassilika Thessaloniki, Greece
Abstract
The rapid and in many cases uncontrolled urbanisation observed during the last fifty years has created many social and environmental problems. It is believed that nowadays more than half of the worlds population lives in urban areas. This huge shift of populations all over the world had adversely affected the environment and demand for land for housing purposes was satisfied to the expense of surrounding forests (Unasylva 1993). Trees have always played an important role in human settlements throughout history. In the past, however, urban forestry mainly had an aesthetic role. Nowadays, with the explosion of the cities population, the environmental role of urban forestry is a main issue both in developed and developing countries (Kuchelmeister & Braatz 1993). The value of urban forests to society is well known to everybody and is not going to be repeated here, as the aim of this paper is a different one. Urban forestry in Greece has an important role to play from many points of view, such as aesthetic, environmental, recreational, touristic, wildlife conservation, landscape design, protection against erosion and so forth. These urban forests in Greece are mainly found at lower altitudes, where on one the hand soil and climatic conditions are less favourable for forest development (shallow and eroded soils, high summer temperatures and low rainfall) while on the other, pressure for land use change for housing purposes is high. Such a situation poses a serious threat to these forests from the forest fire point of view, and actually in Greece most of the fires take place at altitudes from 1 700 m (Dimitrakopoulos pers.comm.). At the same time, these forests are mainly artificial. They resulted from extending reforestation projects all over the country during the last 50 years. The genus mostly used for reforestation purposes in Greece is pine, represented by different species, either indigenous or exotic ones. These include Pinus brutia, P. halepensis, P. nigra, P. pinea, P. radiata and P. pinaster, while Pseudotsuga menziesii is more rarely used. Consequently these forests are monocultures and even aged, and thus more prone to damages from all potential damaging factors, either biotic or abiotic.
165
The present paper concentrates on the biotic factors (fungi, insects and nematodes) affecting urban forests as well as trees in alleys and parks in Greece.
Key words: urban forests, pests, diseases, Greece
Diseases due to fungi

Table 1 shows those fungi that cause diseases and are most commonly found in urban and sub-urban forests, alleys and parks. This list is not an exhaustive one and many more fungi have been isolated during the last 30 years. Most of them, however, are of minor importance. As seen from the Table, most of the fungi have been reported on pines. The genus Pinus is the most important of conifers especially in the Northern Hemisphere. Large areas of this part of the world are covered by natural pine forests that form a variety of ecosystems and play an important role in the carbon cycle (Hansen & Lewis 1997).
Table 1. The main fungi causing disease in urban and suburban forests and parks in Greece.
Forest species Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Conifers & Broadleaves Cupressus sempervirens Pseudotsuga menziesii Platanus sp. Platanus sp. Robinia pseudoacacia Robinia pseudoacacia Robinia pseudoacacia Albizzia julibrissin Ailanthus glandulosa Populus clones
Fungus Coleosporium tussilaginis Cyclaneusma minus Cytospora pinastri Dothistroma pini Elytroderma sp. Lophodermium spp. Scirrhia acicola Sclerophoma pithyophila Brunchorstia pinea Cenangium ferruginosum Diplodia pinea Wood decay fungi Seiridium cardinale Rhabdocline pseudotsugae Gnomonia platani Microsphaera platani Aglaospora profusa Cucurbitaria elongata Phomopsis oncostoma Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. perniciosum Verticillium dahliae Dothichiza populea
Kind of attack Needles Needles Needles Needles Needles Needles Needles Needles Twigs and branches Twigs and branches Twigs and branches Wood decay Branches Needles Leaves Leaves Twigs and branches Twigs and branches Twigs and branches Wilt disease Wilt disease Bark necrosis
166
At the same time, at least all over Europe pines have been extensively used in reforestation projects and it is well known that this practice has attracted serious criticism. The main reason for this practice in Greece is the suitability of pines for this purpose, taking into account the poor soil conditions, high temperatures and low precipitation, almost non-existent during the summer months. Pines are good candidates for this type of conditions. The introduction of some exotic species has not proved very successful. Species like P. radiata and P. pinaster were introduced as fast growing ones. However, P. radiata on one hand succeeded only on better sites, being a demanding species with regards to soil conditions and air humidity. P. pinaster, on the other hand is not considered suitable for calcareous soils as is the prevalent case in Greece. In fact this last species proved problematic in growth capability and at the same time very susceptible to different damaging biotic factors. The fungi on pine needles listed in Table 1 are among the most commonly found ones worldwide (Gibson 1979, Hansen & Lewis 1997). Among them are some well known pathogens like Cyclaneusma minus, Lophodermium sp., Scirrhia acicola, Elytroderma sp. and Dothistroma pini, which have been repeatedly reported causing extensive damage in plantations in other parts of the world. However, serious attacks by these fungi have not been reported in Greece, except one by Dothistroma pini (Kailidis 1990). From the literature (Gibson 1979, Hansen & Lewis 1997) it appears that epidemics and serious damage are related to increased humidity which is not the case in Greece. Nevertheless, it must be born in mind that repeated attacks by needle fungi and consequent needle cast negatively influence the trees growth by destroying partly, at least, their assimilating surface. Pseudotsuga menziesii, an introduced species in Greece, is also used in plantations and for Christmas tree purposes. It has been repeatedly found to suffer from Rhabdocline pseudotsugae, a fungus causing premature needle cast (Skarmoutos 1986, Michalopoulos & Skarmoutsos 1998). Among the three most important fungi that affect twigs and branches of pines, namely Diplodia pinea, Brunchorstia pinea and Cenangium ferruginosum, the latter is considered as the most dangerous one. Although C. ferruginosum is generally seen as a saprophyte that contributes to the natural pruning procedure of pines, in certain years and for reasons that have not been fully elucidated it can cause serious disease. This has been the case in Northern Greece in 1985 and 1986, when thousands of pines died during an epidemic. Similar epidemics are also known from other European countries (IUFRO 1963, Skarmoutsos 1994). There is already serious suspicion that this year another epidemic of the fungus is about to break out. A factor that has to be taken into consideration is that last winter has been a very cold one with exceptionally low temperatures that lasted over a period of several days.
167
Finally Fomes pini is quite well spread on P. halepensis at Chalkidiki, a highly touristic area. The main reason for this infection is resin tapping. Other wood decay fungi are also commonly found in parks and alleys. Fungal attack in this case is related to tree wounds, usually inflicted by man (Skarmoutsos 1994). Apart from pine, cypress is also a traditional tree species in Greece, as well as in other Mediterranean countries. The most dangerous of diseases is that caused by the fungus Seiridium cardinale (Kailidis 1990). The disease already had devastating effects on cypress in southern Greece, while it is rather sporadically found in the northern part of the country (Xenopoulos & Diamandis 1985). Control measures involve felling and burning of affected trees, while fungicides may be used preventively. Efforts have also been undertaken to produce resistant planting material by breeding (Panconesi et al. 1999). Platanus sp. is another traditional species, admired for offering shadow during the summer months. Very old and enormous plane trees can be found in many parts of the country, quite often at recreational areas, thus having increased aesthetic value. The most commonly found fungi affecting plane trees leaves are Gnomonia platani and Microsphaera platani. The infections are not serious, apart from an aesthetic point of view. It is difficult, however, to apply spraying on fungicides at recreational sites as these are regularly used by people during the summer months (Kailidis 1990). Robinia pseudoacacia is a multi-purpose species increasingly used during the last years. It has been found to suffer from fungal pathogens, the most important ones being Phomopsis oncostoma, Aglaospora profusa and Cucurbitaria elongata. These fungi affect twigs and branches. Especially P. oncostoma may even cause the death of young trees of Robinia (Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos & Skarmoutsos 1999). Different poplar clones have been extensively used in Greece during the last 50 years. In many cases such clones have been used in alleys, as can easily been seen in Thessaloniki. Poplars are susceptible to an array of fungi that cause disease. One of the most important, internationally, is the bark necrosis caused by the fungus Dothichiza populea. Epidemics by this fungus have been observed in Greece and although it is generally considered as a disease of young poplars, it can also affect older ages when trees suffer from other fungal infections and/or adverse environmental conditions. Ailanthus glandulosa is an exotic species too, introduced in Greece a long time ago. It has been fully acclimatised, it multiplies naturally and can be found forming hedgerows or alleys in the outskirts of urban areas. In recent years it was found to suffer from wilt disease, caused by Verticillium dahliae. As a consequence thousands of A. glandulosa trees
168
died in Northern Greece. The pathogenicity of the fungus was checked by inoculations tests (Skarmoutsos & Skarmoutos 1998). An appreciated exotic species, widely used in parks and alleys in Greece, is Albizzia julibrissin. It forms extensive alleys both in Thessaloniki and in satellite municipalities. In 1992, Mimosa trees at Kalamaria municipality were found to suffer and die. Laboratory examinations revealed the presence of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. perniciosum, known to cause wilt disease in the U.S.A. The finding of this fungus is a first record for Europe. It is spread through the soil and although preventive measures were immediately suggested to the local authorities, the disease has already been spotted in neighbouring Thessaloniki. Only preventive measures can be applied (Michalopoulos & Skarmoutsos 1992, Skarmoutsou & Skarmoutsos 1999).
Problems due to insects

Table 2 shows the most common insect species causing problems in Greece. It is assumed that due to the climatic conditions of Greece, insects cause more damage than fungi. It is also well documented that in exceptionally dry years, insect populations may explode and cause epidemics (Kailidis 1990).
Table 2. Insects commonly causing damage in urban and suburban forests, alleys and parks in Greece.
Forest species Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Cupressus sempervirens Cupressus sempervirens Ulmus sp. Salix babylonica Populus spp.+ broadleaves Populus spp. Populus spp. Populus spp. Populus spp. Populus spp. Populus spp. Platanus sp. Platanus sp. Different broadleaves Different conifers
Insect Thaumetopoea pityocampa Neodiprion sertifer Marchalina hellenica Pissodes notatus Ips spp. Rhyacionia buoliana Blastophagus piniperda Buprestis cupressi Phloesinus armatus Galerucella luteola Eriophyes triradiatus Acarea and Aphids Melasoma populi Byctiscus betulae Stilpnotia salicis Pemphigus spp. Melanophila picta Sciapteron tabaniformis Lithocolletis platani Corythuca ciliata Lymantria dispar Aphids, acarea, scale insects
Kind of attack Needles Needles Twigs and branches Wood Wood-bark Buds-shoots Shoots-wood Bark-wood Bark-wood Leaves Leaves (galls) Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves (galls) Wood Wood Leaves Leaves Leaves Leaves, twigs, buds
169
A great number of insect species have been recorded in Greece so far (Kailidis 1991), however this paper refers to those more often associated with problems in urban forests. Pine trees in plantations in suburban areas are in almost all cases attacked by Thaumetopoea pityocampa. The problem is well known across the Mediterranean area and heavy even total defoliation may occur on certain years. In suburban areas dedicated to aesthetic and recreational purposes, aerial control is undertaken with Bacillus thuringiensis preparations. Neodiprion sertifer may also cause serious defoliation. As a result pines do not grow well and may have a stunted appearance. Among the wood and bark insects, Pissodes notatus and different Ips species are the commonest attackers, while buds and shoots are usually attacked by Rhyacionia buoliana. A dangerous and ubiquitus insect affecting shoots and wood at different stages of its life-cycle is Blastophagus piniperda. This insect may also provoke the death of infected trees, while at the same time it has been found to be the vector of the nematodes Bursaphelenchus sexdentati and B. hellenicus (Braasch et al. 2000). The most prevalent insects on cypress are Buprestis cupressi and Phloesinus armatus, both found in wood. They can cause damage on cypress growing on poor soils, especially during dry years. Galerucella luteola has been found to cause serious damage to Elm trees in alleys, during certain years. Salix babylonica, widely used in parks and gardens, suffers from Eriophyes triradiatus attacks on its leaves, where it forms galls. The insect affects the trees from an aesthetic point of view. Different poplar hybrids and other broadleaved trees are used in alleys and parks. Leaf eating insects include Acarea and Aphids, scale insects and different Pemphigus species that form galls on the leaves. Insects of these groups also affect conifers. However, such attacks are not considered serious. Melasoma populi, Byctiscus betulae and Stilpnotia salicis are well known representatives of leaf eating insects. Melasoma populi and Stilpnotia salicis have both been found to cause epidemics on certain years. However, the most dangerous of the insects attacking poplar wood are Melanophila picta and Sciapteron tabaniformis. The damage to poplars by the latter make trees susceptible to wind breaks. Such wind broken trees may cause serious damage to property in urban areas. The well-known honey dew insect Marchalina hellenica is widely spread in Greece and is considered beneficial as contributing to the production of honey from conifer forests. Lithocolletis platani causes serious defoliation of plane trees during years of epidemics. Corythuca ciliata on the other hand is a relatively newly introduced species in Greece that
170
causes serious damage to Platanus leaves, thus affecting the general state of health of the trees. Finally Lymantria dispar is able to attack different broadleaved species. Its main hosts are different Quercus species. Control of this insect is undertaken during certain years when epidemics appear on plants around residential areas, in order to stop the insect moving to neighbouring orchards.
Nematodes
Table 3 shows the Bursaphelenchus nematodes isolated so far from pines in Greece.
Table 3. Bursaphelenchus nematodes found on pines in urban and sub-urban forests in Greece.
Forest species Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp. Pinus spp.
Nematode B. sexdentati B. leoni B.teratospicularis B. hellenicus B. tusciae B. eggersi B. mucronatus
Kind of attack Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood Wood
It is well known that nematodes of the genus Bursaphelenchus are parasitic organisms that live in the above-ground part of the conifers they attack. The most virulent of them is Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, an indigenous species in North America, initially transferred to Japan through timber trade and from there to the neighbouring countries China, Korea and Taiwan. Although a quarantine species for the European Union, the nematode was reported in 1999 in Portugal (Mota et al. 1999) and this constitutes a first record in Europe. It has already been established in Portugal where it causes damage to Pinus pinaster (Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos 2001). Apart from the reality with regards to the potential of establishment of B. xylophilus in Europe, another reality has also caused concern in recent years. This is the observation of pine decline phenomena in many countries and especially in South European ones, the causes of which have not been fully clarified. In many such cases, different Bursaphelenchus species have been isolated from dead or dying trees (Braasch et al. 2000, Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos 2001). This situation was investigated through a EU-funded research project, namely Pest Risk Analysis of Pinewood Nematode Related Bursaphelenchus Species in View of South
171
European Pine Wilting and Imports from Asia (Braasch et al. 2000, MichalopoulosSkarmoutsos 2001). Results from Greece revealed the existence of seven species of Bursaphelenchus, all isolated from different pine species. The nematodes isolated from different parts of the country, were: B. sexdentati, B. leoni, B. teratospicularis, B. eggersi, B. hellenicus, B. tusciae and B. mucronatus. They all constitute a first record for Greece, while B. hellenicus is a species described for the first time in the framework of the abovementioned project. B. xylophilus was not isolated (Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos 2001). As different Bursaphelenchus nematodes are known to be transmitted by insects, relevant studies during the project revealed that in Greece, B. sexdentati and B. hellenicus are vectored by Blastophagus piniperda. At the same time, inoculation experiments on 3-yearold pine seedlings, in order to test the pathogenicity of the isolated Bursaphelenchus species, showed that B. sexdentati is highly pathogenic to indigenous pine species of this age group. Of the rest of the nematodes, only B. leoni showed a moderate pathogenicity on pine seedlings, while the other ones are considered as nonpathogenic. No data on the pathogenic potential of B. teratospicularis were collected, as this nematode could not be reared in the laboratory.
Discussion
A review was presented above on the situation of urban and suburban forests in Greece with regards to their state of health in relation to biotic factors, such as fungal diseases, insect attacks and pine wilt phenomena in which nematodes of the genus Bursaphelenchus are involved. The lists of organisms presented are not, of course, exhaustive, but they include the commonest of such organisms found in Greece. Urban forestry, at the same time, has an important role to play in Greece and many efforts are undertaken towards this aim. In a country with a long history of erosion, urban and suburban forests are of immense importance and they have a multi-purpose role to play, taking into account the fact that Greece strongly relies on tourism. In general reforestation projects have taken place in many cases on degraded soils coupled with difficult climatic conditions with low precipitation being a key issue. In this type of environment, where water and nutrients are limited, trees have to face tremendous challenges that affect their growth and survival. At the same time the resulting plantations are monocultures of even age a fact that predisposes them to an easy buildup of an epidemic by any pathogenic agent. As stated previously in this paper, climatic conditions do not favour the creation of epidemics by fungal pathogens except in years when conditions are favourable. In fact few epidemics due to diseases have been observed in recent years. On the contrary,
172
insect pests are thought to be more dangerous under the climatic conditions of Greece. Some of the insects referred in the list almost constantly cause major problems, as is the case with Thaumetopoea pityocampa, Lymantria dispar, Melanophila picta, Sciapteron tabaniformis, Blastophagus piniperda. Nematodes are also thought to contribute to the decline phenomena of greek pine forests. It is assumed that decline urban and sub-urban pine forests in Greece is a complex phenomenon, which is provoked by adverse environmental conditions on the one hand and on the other by the simultaneous action of insects, fungi and nematodes in any combination. The best control in this case lies more in a preventive rather than intervening approach. The preventive approach involves the correct selection of species used in reforestation projects and the correct and timely manipulation of the resulting stands in their following stages. Mixed stands are more resistant to attacks while at the same time more desirable from the aesthetic point of view. Health problems that appear on trees in parks and alleys can be dealt with in a more individualistic approach and control measures of the chemical type are easier to apply. Here, again, the correct selection of the species to be planted is of eminent importance for the survival of the trees and the creation of the desired effect.
References
Braasch H, Caroppo S, Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos H & Tomiczek C (2000).
Final report of the project Pest Risk Analysis of Pinewood Nematode Related Bursaphelenchus Species in View of South European Pine Wilting and Wood Imports from Asia,Chapter 3.
Gibson IAS (1979).
Diseases of forest trees widely planted as exotics in the tropics and Southern Hemisphere. Part II: The Genus Pinus: 134. Commonwealth Mycol. Inst. and Commonwealth For. Inst., England.
Hansen EM & Lewis KJ (1997).
Compendium of conifer diseases: 1-101. APS Press.

IUFRO (1963).
Internationally dangerous forest tree diseases. Proceedings of 13th Congress. Vienna, 1961. USDA Forest Service, Misc. Publ. No. 39.
Kailidis D (1990).
Diseases of trees in forests and parks. Christodoulidis Publ., Thessaloniki. (In Greek)
173
Kailidis D (1991).
Forest entomology and zoology. 4th Ed. Christodoulidis Publ., Thessaloniki. (In Greek)
Kuchelmeister G & Braatz S (1993).
Urban Forestry revisited. Unasylva 44(173): 3-12.

Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos H (2001).
European conifer forests in regard to nematodes of the genus Bursaphelenchus. Invited Paper. International Conference Forest Research: A Challenge for an Integrated European Approach Thessaloniki, Greece 27-8 to 1-9-2001: 299-304. Supported by the Research Directorate General of the European Commission, Brussels.
Michalopoulou H & Skarmoutsos G (1992).
Necroses of Albizzia julibrissin due to the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. perniciosum (Hepting) Toole. A new disese in Greece. Hellenic Forestry Society, 5th Panhellenic Forestry Conference, Kalamata, Greece. 4 6 March 1992: 222 229. (In Greek)
Michalopoulou H & Skarmoutsos G (1998).
Infection of a plantation of Pseudotsuga at Pertouli forest by the fungus Rhabdocline pseudotsugae Syd. Hellenic Forestry Society. 8th Panhellenic Forestry Conference, Alexandroupolis, Greece, 6 8 April 1998: 303 387. (In Greek)
Michalopoulos-Skarmoutsos H & Skarmoutsos G (1999).
Pathogenicity of fungi affecting Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) in Greece. Phytoparasitica 27(3): 239 240.
Mota M, Braasch H, Bravo MA, Penas AC, Burgermeister W, Metge K & Sousa E (1999).
First report of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in Portugal and Europe. Nematology 1: 727 734.
Panconesi A, Raddi P, Androli C, Xenopoulos S, Ramos P, Caetano F & Pinto-Ganhao J (1999).
Chapter 5. In: Cypress: a practical Handbook. Commission of the European Communities, Brussels.
Skarmoutsos G (1986).
The occurrence of Rhabdocline needle cast on Douglas fir in Greece. Eur. J. For. Path. 16(4): 254 255.
Skarmoutsos G (1994).
The main pathogenic fungi affecting pine plantations in Northern Greece. Geotechnic Scientific Issue, 5(2): 13 19. (In Greek)
174
Skarmoutsos G & Skarmoutsou H (1998).
Occurrence of wilt disease caused by Verticillium dahliae on Ailanthus glandulosa in Greece. Plant Disease 82(1): 129.
Skarmoutsou H & Skarmoutsos G (1999).
First report of Fusarium wilt disease of Mimosa in Greece. Plant Disease 83(6): 590.
Unasylva (1993).
Editorial. Unasylva 44(173): 1.

Xenopoulos S & Diamandis S (1985).
A distribution map for Seiridium cardinale causing the cypress canker disease in Greece. Eur. J. For. Path. 15: 223 226.
175
Threats to Urban Green Areas - Case study: Mexico City

Alicia Chacalo, Jaime Grabinsky, Hector Javier Vazquez and Alejandro Aldama Universidad Autnoma Metropolitana, Azcapotzalco, Mexico
Introduction
Mexico City and its challenges
Mexico City is neither the largest nor the most populated city of the world as is frequently believed to be. But it is a mega-city with 17 million people. Even though this number includes the whole metropolitan area, it is a fact that there is no defined limit separating the Federal District from its surroundings (INEGI - SEMARNAP 1998). Urban conditions are difficult for the trees in any city of the world. In Mexico City, conditions are worsened through the following factors: a) Air pollution levels are very high all year round because the city is located 2240 m above the sea level (masl) in a Valley surrounded by high mountains. Problems that do not exist in other cities, such as photochemical pollution, or the enormous
Figure 1. Mexico city is densely populated and densely urbanized.
177
difficulty of bringing water from sources located very far away from the city - since the local resource is not enough - are a daily concern. Once in the area, the water needs to be pumped upwards for several hundred meters (Sedue 1986). b) The average annual rainfall is between 600 mm in the drier area of the city to 1400 mm in the most humid part (INEGI 1993). Rainfall occurs mainly between May and October, which means that the trees face a dry season lasting 6 months, most of the times with no additional irrigation. c) The city is densely populated (see Figure 1): 17% of the total population of Mexico lives on 1% of the territory. In addition, the city is densely urbanised. It consisted of 34,000 blocks in 1980, increasing to 55,000 blocks by 1994: a 62% increase in 14 years (INEGI 1994). During recent years, the city has been growing and invading the natural areas, green areas and medians (Ezcurra 1990). Mexico City, just as many other megacities, has the problem of intense and frequent traffic. Strategies used to improve vehicular traffic have included the widening of avenues, but at the cost of sacrificing the green areas. A recent official project for the City has evoked intensive arguments. The project outlines the construction of a second floor above the two most important high-speed routes of the city: the Periferico and the Viaducto. Thousands of trees could be affected by this construction. The contractors indicated that the trees were going to be transplanted. However, there is no experienced personnel, no equipment, or knowledge for the transplant of adult trees. We believe that if these transplants are going to take place within the time limitations established by the government for this project, the great majority of the trees are condemned to die. If this project is to be developed someday, tree transplanting as well as the specifications related to adequate equipment, the future location and care practices of the hundreds or thousands of transplanted trees, must be planned in advance.
Human and green residents of urban areas
73.5% of the total population of the country inhabits urban zones (INEGI 1998). In 1940, only 35% of the population lived in cities and 66% resided in rural areas (Sedue 1986). It is calculated that in the year 2020, 80% of the population will be living in cities (WRI 1999). The ratio rural/urban zones is quickly changing without the planning and funding processes necessary to guarantee basic services to all the new housing developments such as drinking water, electricity and drainage. Besides the new housing developments, services and infrastructure that will be needed, the new urban zones must be endowed with green areas in order to avoid pavement and concrete islands.
178
There is a great disparity between the quantity of green areas at different socioeconomic levels (Chacalo et al. 1998). In the higher income zones infrastructure is better, the sidewalks are wider and there are more financial resources to hire personnel (gardeners), and purchasing materials and tools for tree care. The location of Mexico City in a subtropical region means that climate and soil conditions favour tree growth all year round (Chacalo et al. 1998) (see Figure 2). The country and the city (Federal District) are located in a zone of great natural biodiversity, which is not represented in the cities.
Figure 2. In this city, if a tree seed falls to the ground, it not only germinates but it easily becomes an adult tree.
One of the main environmental effects of the trees in this city - that has sunny days almost all year round - is the shade. This function is highly appreciated by local inhabitants. At the same time, the aesthetic and psychological beneficial effects of trees and green areas in a densely paved city are immense. Concrete, concrete, concrete. Mexico City is densely built and the local construction style uses great quantities of concrete. Important amounts of resources are spent every year for construction, but not even a minimal percentage of these resources is devoted to develop the infrastructure that permits a friendly place for trees to live in (the
179
minimum suggested is 3%) nor to improve the quality of the existing green areas. Utility lines are mainly external causing a constant struggle between the trees and the infrastructure.
Threats Street tree inventory
The diagnosis of the tree situation in Mexico City is the result of the development and application of street tree inventories in local conditions during a period of 10 years. Four professors of the Metropolitan University, 2 research assistants and 17 students sampled 1,261 trees. The stratified sample was distributed proportionally by block between all the boroughs or neighbourhoods of the Federal District, sampling 866 blocks that represented 1.5% of the total number of blocks in Mexico City. The confidence level was of 95% with a maximum error of 2.25 trees per block. Ten percent of the blocks were supervised (Chacalo et al. 1996 & 1994). The tree inventory showed that more than half the trees are in regular or bad health conditions. For the planting site, the results turned out to be very similar. There exists a high correlation between these two factors, which means that the attention given to the site and the appropriate match between trees and planting sites is beneficial for the
Figure 3. Only eight species constitute 72 % of the street trees. A single species, the ash: (Fraxinus uhdei) represents 19 % of the alignment trees.
180
trees. The inventory registered 1,827 wounds on 1,261 trees, i.e. more than one wound per tree. 671 wounds were classified as severe. Health conditions were not differentiated according to the socio-economic level of the area. In the high income zones trees are distributed among the same categories as in the low income zones, which means that the city has no culture for caring for trees (Chacalo & Fernndez 1995, Chacalo et al. 1994, 1996 & 1998). Tree planting and species selection. Species. Seventy percent of the trees are introduced and the 30% remaining are indigenous species. We are aware that the origin of the species is not a decisive factor for the success of the trees. However, the introduced species are used with great frequency - although sometimes they have a poor ecological or ornamental quality because they are species that grow very fast, are easy to propagate, or simply because they continue to propagate from seeds from the already existing trees in the streets. It is important to start testing new potential species in order to diversify the population of trees, to change the proportion of dominant species and to prevent possible massive losses of trees due to pests (Figure 3). Quality of the trees. It is common to see very small, newly planted trees. Some times the trees are a little larger but still do not have the adequate proportions between trunk diameter, root ball and height. Very few successful and well-planned tree plantings can be seen (Figure 4). The government, which is responsible for most of tree plantings, has undertaken efforts to re-green the streets. This effort, however must be supported by adequate planning and training of qualified persons. The planting of trees is just one step in a series of previous and subsequent activities that end in the newly planted trees turned into adult and healthy trees.
Planting techniques
Distances. Trees are planted very closely together and their height at maturity is not taken into consideration. In the best plantings, the distance usually maintained is max. 5 meters which in a very short period of time becomes insufficient for a healthy tree growth. Size of the sidewalk. The modal interval found during the inventory was 1.6 to 2 metres, which is a very reduced space for the trees. Even if very small trees are planted, the sidewalk is small in proportion to the container.
181
Literature indicating that planting bellow ground level should be avoided (Watson & Himelick 1997) is completely ignored in Mexico City.
Figure 4. Quality of the trees planted. A great heterogeneity is seen in the tree population. Trees of different species, heights, ages and diameter are planted in the same street.
Care of planted trees. Unfortunately, more emphasis is still put on the quantity of the trees planted than in the quality of the whole process. In Mexico City, trees are forgotten - even in terms of watering - immediately after they have been planted (Figure 5). During the rainy season the newly planted trees will grow well. If the trees are planted close to the dry season, however, they can die due to severe stress.
182
Fig. 5. Trees that might have developed well with little care fail due to lack of attention after having been planted.
Maintenance
Pruning. Probably the most serious problem faced by the trees consists of inappropriate pruning practices. These pruning practices are in fact mutilations that leave the trees in very poor aesthetic and health conditions. Nevertheless, the climatic and edaphic conditions of the city are so good that also when severely mutilated the trees manage to survive, even when 100% of the crown has been eliminated. Inventories. Even though some institutions have been pioneers in the use of tree inventories, these methods have been primarily used in research projects or for internal tree management. In the city, tree inventories are not yet used. Pests. Some pests can cause severe problems. The species of trees affected, such as the coral tree (Erythrina coralloides) or eucalyptus tree (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) are densely
183
planted in the city. In the near future the city will greatly require advisors with expertise in arboriculture who will be able to substitute and eliminate species, and select and plant the most adequate ones which are suitable for the local conditions. Dead trees and hazardous trees. A first step in the management programme for trees in a specific place is the elimination of dead and hazardous trees. If this is not done this means there is a lack of priorities for the programme or that the team of persons taking care of the trees is working just limiting themselves to solving problems as they happen, with no planning. Two boroughs inventoried presented 21 and 23 % respectively of dead trees! (Chacalo et al. 1996). Notable trees. In several neighbourhoods of the city there still are a few trees considered remarkable either by their size or because they belong to an interesting species (from an ornamental, ecological or historical point of view). Regrettably, these trees do not receive any special attention. Very frequently they end up surrounded by pavement, in difficult conditions which accelerate the damage and stress. Throughout the years we have witnessed how one after another of these trees have disappeared.
Cultural activities
Mulch. Although this has been a common practice for 25- 30 years in the United States, Europe and Canada, mulching is not yet common in Mexico. Chippers are not used or known in Mexico. Other friendly practices such as composting, which do not require sophisticated equipment, are not common here either. Irrigation. Trees recently planted in the city require water to grow well. In Mexico, watering is not common during the dry season. In spite of the good weather of the city, trees grow slowly without the appropriate irrigation. When the trees are watered, it is done with trucks called here water pipes. Their hose has a broad opening and the water jet is so strong it causes severe soil erosion. Actions such as watering the soil around the tree instead of the trunk of the tree in order to avoid diseases are not known or practised here (Lilly 1999). The irrigation pipes move slowly along the street with a person on (the roof) managing the hose with the strong water jet, watering the green areas. This way of watering is extremely dangerous. Many accidents have happened already where the person on the roof has fallen down. Site around the tree. Trees are surrounded by grass or concrete but there is no open space around them in order to avoid water and nutrient competition between the roots of the tree and the grass, other plants or other trees. When the trees are surrounded by concrete (37 % of the inventoried trees are affected by this problem) rainfall can not reach the roots inside the soil and root extension is very limited.
184
Construction activities. These activities cause more damage to trees than any other (Figures 6 & 7). Trees that suddenly fall down have lost a good part of their root system during different excavations. The construction materials and resulting soil from the excavations is put all over the root system of the tree. When the excavations take place during the dry season, the roots do not receive enough water to allow them to regenerate. The simplest technique to protect the main roots is to tunnel below them instead of trenching; this simple practice is not known or applied in Mexico City (Watson & Himelick 1997, Lilly 1999).
Figure 6. In construction sites, many trees remain trapped between the walls of the new buildings. Surprisingly, it is often forgotten that trees are alive and need space to allow their growth.
185
Figur 7. Two or more trees sharing the same planting site.
Opportunities
Training program. The certification study guide of the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) has been already translated into Spanish and published. We are hopeful that, once a considerable number of arborists are certified, the situation will change. Certified arborists will be able to supervise empirical gardeners responsible for the maintenance and planting activities in parks and gardens. Through the certification program more people will be trained even if they themselves are not certified. New species. Being Mexico, a highly diverse country, it would be a privilege to see the local species of the flora represented in its cities (Chacalo & Fernndez 1995). Therefore, the search for new species can start locally, using the great natural species palette.
186
Nature in the city. When the inhabitants of Mexico City wish to interact with nature, they must leave the city and hike to the forests. Although this alternative should still be an option, we think it is important also to bring nature to the city and not to take the people away from the city and into the natural ecosystems as is currently happening. How is this to happen? This is a great challenge for urban planners, architects, landscape architects, arborists, and other professionals. Legislation. In order to avoid repeating the same mistakes that have been made for 20 years, it is of the utmost importance not only to develop legislation but also to apply it. Institutional tree care programs. Several institutions have implemented programmes destined to care for their green areas and their trees. The few certified arborists and people devoted to arboriculture are trying to put their knowledge to good use within their own institutions. The quality of the results obtained is an excellent example that should be used to educate at least some sectors of society. The tree quality at those institutions will mark the difference between the quality obtained when managing a green area with traditional empirical knowledge, or with the science and techniques developed by this discipline in several countries for the past 80 years. Research projects on local problems. Which species are more appropriate for each site? How to control and prevent local pest problems? What soil type is appropriate for each species? These are some of the important topics that could start a local research program. Tree culture. The Asociacin Mexicana de Arboricultura (Mexican Arboriculture Association), an association of recent creation, this association is trying to promote the culture of tree care. Great challenges await us in this 21st century.
References
Chacalo A, Aldama A & Grabinsky J (1994).
Street Tree Inventory in Mexico City. Journal of Arboriculture 20(4): 222-226.

Chacalo A & Fernndez R (1995).
Los rboles nativos e introducidos utilizados en la reforestacin de la Ciudad de Mxico. Ciencia Revista de la Academia de la Investigacin Cientfica 46(3): 383393.
Chacalo A, Grabinsky J & Aldama A (1996).
Inventario del arbolado de alineacin de la ciudad de Mxico. Ciencia Forestal en Mxico 21(79): 101-120.
187
Chacalo A, Grabinsky J & Aldama A (1998).
Site limitations to tree growth. In: Proceedings of the 9th METRIA Conference (Metropolitan Tree Improvement Alliance). Published on the web page of the University of Ohio State: www.hcs.ohio-state.edu.METRIA/Metria9.html.
Ezcurra E (1990).
De las chinampas a la megalopolis. El medio ambiente de la cuenca de Mxico. Fondo de Cultura Econmica, coleccin la ciencia desde Mxico no. 91. Mxico.
INEGI (1993).
Anuario Estadstico del Distrito Federal. Mxico.

INEGI (1994).
Governmental Institute for National and local Economic and Geographic Information. Manzanas de la Ciudad de Mxico. Comunicacin Personal. Mxico.
INEGI - SEMARNAP (1998).
Estadsticas del medio ambiente. Talleres del INEGI. Mxico.

Lilly Sh (1999).
Manual de arboricultura: Gua de estudio para la certificacin del arborista. Chacalo A (ed of Spanish edition). ISA-UAM. Amalgama arte editorial, Mxico.
Sedue (1986).
Informe sobre el estado del medio ambiente en Mxico. Editores e Impresores Foc., Mxico.
Watson G. & Himelick E (1997).
Principles and practice of planting trees and shrubs. International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign IL.
WRI (1998).
World Resources 1998-99. World Resources Institute. Oxford University Press.
188
Chapter 5
Management of urban forests and trees
189
Weed Control in the Urban Environment in Denmark

Palle Kristoffersen & Camilla Blankholm Lophaven Skov & Landskab, Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning Hrsholm Kongevej 11, DK-2970 Hrsholm, Denmark
Abstract
In 1998 the Danish Minister of Environment and Energy signed a voluntary agreement with The National Association of Local Authorities in Denmark, The Association of County Councils in Denmark and the cities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg. The agreement states that all publicly owned areas must be managed and maintained entirely without the use of pesticides from 1 January 2003. The agreement is a response to research results concerning the fate of pesticides in the aquatic environment including our ground water resources upon which the Danish drinking water supply is dependent. In Denmark the use of pesticides for weed control on publicly owned non-cropland, use of alternative methods and the drawing up of action plans according to the agreement are monitored. In 1999 and 2000 the annual use of pesticides for weed control on publicly owned non-cropland was estimated to account for 0.3 % of the total use in Denmark. The use was reduced by 59 % in the period 1995 - 2000, from 29 to 12 tonnes of active substance. A research project on weed control on non-cropland in Europe was carried out. The main objectives of the project were to review the present national regulation on use of pesticides and alternative methods for weed control on non-cropland in Europe and also to summarise the status of Research & Development on non-chemical weed control in Europe. Non-cropland is defined here as e.g. roads, squares, pavements, parks, sports fields, cemeteries and golf courses. Local authorities and counties in Denmark are currently in a transitional period in which the methods used for weed control are changing. A number of research projects on weed control on semi-hard and hard surfaces, mainly focusing on the biological effect from non-chemical methods such as burning, steaming and brushing, as well as research projects on sports fields and golf courses have been set up. For sports fields and the like, the methods in focus are mechanical weed control, natural selection and competition of turf grass species against weeds.
191
From being mostly chemical the methods are changing towards being primarily thermal and mechanical. To meet the new demands experiments with these methods on semi-hard and hard surfaces are being done as well as scenario studies describing construction, economic and botanical consequences of various management and treatment strategies.
Key words: Weed control, urban area, non-cropland, non-chemical weed control, regulation.
Introduction
Weed control and the related use of pesticides is a still increasingly important issue in both administrative and practical management of non-cropland like paved areas, sports grounds, cemeteries etc. in urban areas. This is due to an emerging threat to the environment including the ground water and surface water resources upon which our drinking water supplies are based, and it is the case in Denmark as it is in the rest of Europe (Lophaven & Kristoffersen in prep.). The aim of the study presented here was therefore to enlighten the Danish general opinion regarding weed control on noncropland in urban areas, to show whether it could be possible to reduce the use of pesticides, draw conclusions and offer perspectives for the consequences and needs in relation to equipment and strategies presently used as well as in future weed control.
Materials and methods

The study has been separated in five parts. These five parts concern 1. The Danish legislation and regulation of use of pesticides for weed control in urban areas primarily on paved areas; 2. current use of pesticides; 3. non-chemical methods for weed control on publicly owned areas; 4. European regulations and perceptions in weed control on non-cropland areas; and 5. Research and Development (R&D) on non-chemical weed control in Denmark. The study of European perceptions is described in detail in Lophaven & Kristoffersen
Table 1. Methodology of the 5 parts of this study included their duration period. Part 1 2 3 4 5 Methodology Survey Questionnaire Questionnaire Questionnaire Survey of field studies Period 2001 1995-2000 1995-2000 2001 2001
192
(in prep.) and will not be presented in detail in this paper. The methodology of the five parts and their duration is listed in Table 1.
Results & Discussion

The Danish regulation
There is only sparse regulation of weed control on non-cropland and therefore also in urban areas. The Danish regulation is subordinate to the EU-legislation in force. This is primarily the plant protection product regulation of which the Danish version is the departmental order on plant protection products no. 241 of 27/04/1998. This act regulates the use of chemical pesticides, thus also pesticides used for weed control on non-cropland areas. Since March 1993 it has been forbidden to use chemical substances for weed control on cemeteries managed by the Church in Denmark. According to the Danish regulation and to the most recent re-evaluation of the active substance Glyphosate, pesticides containing this can no longer be used on paved areas. This will have enormous consequences for the future treatment of urban areas. Alternative regulation a voluntary agreement In Denmark there also exists a voluntary agreement on ending the use of pesticides for weed control on publicly owned areas by 1 January 2003. The agreement was signed in 1998 by the Minister of Environment and Energy, Svend Auken, the National Association of Local Authorities and the Association of County Councils as well as the cities of Copenhagen and Frederiksberg. The agreement covers all publicly owned areas; both urban areas, cropland and forests. Only issues concerning urban areas are considered in this paper. There were two main reasons for deciding to regulate the pesticide use with this voluntary agreement. The first reason was the finding of pesticides in Danish ground water aquifers, which are the main source of our drinking water supply. Secondly, a number of reports, initiatives and political declarations of intent since the mid-1990s had showed a will and a wish for the public to be proactive in regard to minimising the use of pesticides. A third of the European countries had some kind of alternative regulation of the pesticide use for weed control on non-cropland additional to the national regulation that followed the EU-regulation. Examples of the alternative regulations were the Dutch agreement of reduction of use, the Norwegian voluntary agreement concerning publicly owned roads, special permits in Germany and a general tendency among Swedish local authorities to stop using pesticides on non-cropland. There was also the Swiss total prohibition by law of use of pesticides on roads, pavements and so forth (Lophaven & Kristoffersen in prep.).
193
The Danish voluntary agreement also included reporting and follow-up which Skov & Landskab performed for the Danish Ministry of the Environment by means of a questionnaire sent to all state institutions, counties and local authorities in Denmark. Among the subjects reported were: - The use of pesticides in counties and local authorities and on specific area types. Only plant protection products were in focus. - The number of counties and local authorities who have phased out the use of pesticides completely. - The public authorities actions toward phasing out expressed as actual plans. - Critical elements in the different public authorities, i.e. the elements that make or made the phasing out difficult.
Pesticide use in Denmark
Table 2 shows the development of the use of pesticides for weed control on publicly owned non-cropland areas in Denmark in the period 1995-1999 as reported in the questionnaires. The column at the far right shows the reduction in percent for each of the public authorities: state, counties and local authorities. The greatest reduction took place in the counties. The state had the predominant part of the pesticide use in 1999. Of this use, half was located at the Ministry of Transport and used for keeping railway areas free from weeds. In total, the use of pesticides for weed control on publicly owned non-cropland in Denmark was reduced by 59 percent from 1995 to 1999 (Kristoffersen & Mller 2001).
Table 2. Danish pesticide use for weed control on non-cropland during the period 1995-1999. Calculations based on numbers from Kristoffersen and Mller (2001). Pesticide use [Tonnes of active substance] State Counties 1 Local authorities Total
1
Reduction [%]
1995 13.370 1.674 13.721 28.765
1999 7.820 0.351 3.634 11.805
1995-1999 42 79 74 59
Data for local authorities from 2001.
An interesting detail concerning the specifications of the use of pesticides was that the vast majority were plant protection products containing the active substance Glyphosate, as can be seen when comparing Table 2 with Table 3.
194
Table 3. Use of Glyphosate in state, counties and local authorities in tonnes. Calculations based on data from Kristoffersen and Mller (2001).
1995 State Counties Local authorities Total 6.880 1.027 5.876 13.783
1999/2000 5.555 0.298 2.154 8.007
% reduction 19 71 63 42
Regarding Glyphosate, moreover, the counties had the largest percentage of reduction. The tables illustrate the fact that the vast majority of the pesticides presently being used contains Glyphosate, which in the near future might become a problem since Glyphosate has been forbidden on these types of areas since the year 2000. It should be noted that the pesticides used on non-cropland accounted for approximately 12 tonnes, 0.3 %, in 1999 and 29 tonnes, 0.8 %, in 1995 of the total use in Denmark. The main use was for agricultural purposes on cropland (Kristoffersen & Mller 2001). Table 4 shows how many of the 273 Danish local authorities that at the time of registration in 2000 used pesticides for weed control on non-cropland. 70 local authorities of the 250 answering the questionnaire had already ended their use of pesticides. This equals approximately 40 %. Approximately 50 % of the local authorities had a plan for their future use of pesticides. 91 local authorities, approximately 35 %, had no plan and were still using pesticides.
Table 4. Pesticide use for weed control on non-cropland in local authorities in Denmark in 2000numbers. Calculations based on numbers from Kristoffersen and Mller (2001).
Local authorities Use No use Total
Plan 89 28 117
No plan 91 42 133
Total 180 70 250
Figure 1 shows past and expected development of the use of pesticides for weed control on non-cropland in the period 1995 to 2003. In 1998 the voluntary agreement came into force and in 1995 and 1999 registrations have taken place. The total stop of the use of pesticides in 2003 is also plotted in the diagram. Compared to the fact that approximately half the local communities had phased out pesticides in 1999 it can be expected to achieve the goal of a total stop of the use of pesticides in 2003.
195
30 20 tonnes of active substance 10 0 1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
1 registration
st
Voluntary agreement
2 registration
nd
Total stop
Figure 1. Pesticide use in the period 1995-1999 illustrated with the most important events in the sequence. Calculations based on numbers from Kristoffersen & Mller (2001).
Non-chemical weed control methods in Denmark
The non-chemical weed control methods used in Denmark are primarily motor mechanical methods and thermal methods as well as a few manually performed methods. The methods are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Non-chemical weed control methods in use in Denmark. Grass areas Planted areas Optimised grass growth by vertical cutting, etc. Mechanical weed control and soil coverage by mulches and low plants Brushing, burning, harrowing and steaming
Paved areas
Compared to other European countries the actual use of non-chemical weed control methods in practice was generally higher in Denmark. The most prevalent methods in Europe were mechanical, whereas the methods in Denmark were thermal, mechanical and manually performed. This cannot be explained by regulation of the choice of weed control methods in Denmark since such does not exist. Neither does it exist in the rest of Europe and must therefore to a great extent be explained by the voluntary agreement (Lophaven & Kristoffersen in prep.). Critical elements Initially a positive critical element which is important in understanding the future concept of non-chemical weed control is that the public authorities all recognised an increased knowledge of the various methods during the period of time that has passed since the agreement was signed. However there were no improvements of machinery to encourage the general application.
196
The fact that there were considerable extra economical charges involved in phasing out the use of pesticides was generally a major critical element. Further reduction or a total stop could mean great technical or work-related problems on certain area types like e.g. road systems, squares, railway areas and airfields because the equipment simply was not sufficient from a technical perspective (Kristoffersen & Mller 2001).
Research and Development in Denmark
Several experiments regarding thermal weed control methods have been carried out during the last few years. These have included, for example: - Dose-response tests regarding dose, driving speed, treated area, and treatment time. The test should enforce the knowledge of the relationship between dose and response by input of varying amounts of energy. - Field experiments covering biological diversity throughout the year and consequences for the weed control strategies on hard and semi-hard surfaces. Minimisation of weeds on grass playing fields by optimising the growth of the grass by designing different maintenance operations and maintenance strategies. - Development of a material to be used in joints in both kerbs and pavements to keep them free from weeds. - The most recent projects are the development of a combined burner and steamer and improvement and development of brushes also for non-chemical weed control for paved areas in urban areas. Thermal methods Figure 2 shows a propane gas burner mounted on a tractor. By burning weeds with this type of equipment it was possible to reduce weed infestation since the plant cells are heated and then burst. Because of this the plant looses a lot of fluid and finally withers and dies if done properly a number of times. Figure 3 shows a Danish weed steamer. The principle of steaming was almost similar to the gas burner, plant cells burst and the plant withers by being exposed to strong heat and steam. In contrast to the burners there was no fire risk from using this equipment. Both Figure 2 and 3 show machinery from the dose-response-test. The machinery only represented thermal methods: steaming and propane gas burning. A total of eight different machines participated in the test and were all tested on three types of vegetation representing typical weed species and with seven different energy doses. The result of the test was that one gets the same good biological effect on the weeds can be achieved by treatment with either steam or gas burning with equivalent energy doses - 1000 kWh per hectare and approximately 80 kg propane gas per hectare (Kristoffersen et al. 2001).
197
Figure 2. Propane gas burning equipment. Photo taken during dose-response test in autumn 2000. Picture: Camilla Blankholm Lophaven.
Figure 3. Steaming equipment. Picture taken during dose-response test in autumn 2000. Picture: Camilla Blankholm Lophaven.
198
Strategy development During the period 1999-2001 different weed control strategies have been tested in six local authorities in Denmark (Larsen & Larsen 2000). The test was finalised in 2001. A number of strategies were tested in the experiment. The strategies involved weed control by steaming, burning and brushing. The methods were applied with a varying intensity to investigate the effect of an increasing level of weed control, but also during the year and at different times to test the seasonal effect on the final weed infestation by executing the weed control at different times of the year. Figure 4 shows a reference stretch. The stretch had visible weeds to a height of 20-40 cm, i.e. the weed infestation was quite heavy.
Figure 4. Reference stretch from strategy-test, summer 2001. Picture: Palle Kristoffersen.
Figure 5 shows pictures from the propane gas burning treatments. The F4-stretch shown to the left in figure 5 was to be treated four times a year during the three-year period and is defined as a minimum strategy. When the picture was taken the stretch was burned three times that year, and the weeds had not disappeared. The amount of energy used for the purpose was equivalent to 100 kg of propane gas per hectare per treatment. The F8-stretch to the right was to be treated eight times a year during the three-year period. When the photograph was taken the stretch had been treated six times that year. The strategy is called the normal strategy. The weed infestation was significantly lower than in the F4-stretch, which meant that burning eight times a year obviously had an improved effect compared to burning four times a year.
199
Figure 5. Stretches treated with propane gas burning. To the left: four yearly treatments. To the right: Eight yearly treatments. Pictures taken in summer 2001. Pictures: Palle Kristoffersen.
Strategies A number of strategies describing the economic costs related to choosing certain levels of maintenance of the paved areas with regard to weed control were drawn up. The strategies qualified and helped the local park management to prioritise their means of business in choosing a weed control strategy. The strategies described the amount of weed control, cleaning, weed infestation, consequences for paved areas, life span, number of reconstructions of the paved areas and the cost of 30 years of management including reconstruction. The strategies are described in detail in Table 6 (Kristoffersen & Larsen 2000). The weed infestation decreases moving from left to right in the description of the strategies. The expenses related to managing and reconstructing this type of area decreases for each level of increasing weed control. This is due to an impediment by the control elements of the weeds accelerated break down of the paved areas. The span of the costs was from a maximum of 37 EUR/m2/30 years varying down to approximately 12 EUR/m2/30 years for the normal weed control strategy. The strategies show that it can be expensive to be frugal when dealing with weeds on non-cropland. The accelerated break down of the surfaces can lead to a threefold increase of the costs related to managing and renovating paved areas over a 30-year period when comparing the no weed control strategy with the normal weed control strategy.
200
Table 6. Five non-chemical weed control strategies.

Description Application No weed control Clean-up weed Minimum weed Normal weed control control control On areas low in the list of priorities In outer areas and along kerbs In residential On normally priorineighbourhoods, tised areas, paveand along kerbs ments etc. Maximum weed control On highly prioritised localities, and highvalue areas including areas with unhewn stone 12 thermal treatments Paved areas free from visually bothering weeds. Joints overgrown with moss, Sagina sp., and dwarf like types of weeds No damage on the paved areas because of weed growth
Treatment (yearly) Vegetation
No treatment or cleaning Overgrowing of joints and paved areas
1 brushing
4 thermal treatments and 1 brushing Overgrowing of joints, most weeds below 5 cm high
8 thermal treatments Overgrowing can be prevented. Started weeds will be below 2 cm high. No actual control of started weeds No damage on the paved areas because of weed growth
Overgrowing of joints, some vegetation on paved areas
Consequences
Paved areas not brushable and surface runoff is prevented. Penetration of water into the open joints Shortened from 30 to 10 years 3 times 36.9
Paved areas hard to brush. Surface runoff is complicated. Some penetration of water into open joints. Shortened from 30 to 15 years 2 times 22.2
Weeds will not bother traffic. Weeds will open joints, which may risk penetration of water. Shortened from 30 to 20 years 1 times 18.8
Life span Relay Calculated 2 Value 2 [EUR/m /30 Years]

2
No shortening 1 time 11.9
No shortening 1 time 14.4
Calculated from 30 years of management and renovation, by the current rate of exchange 6 November 2001.
As the empirical basis of non-chemical weed control is expanded and confirmed with both test results from the currently running R&D and real life experiences these scenarios will be validated and adjusted to fitting present needs and knowledge. Seen from a European perspective the Danish R&D ideas of primarily working with thermal methods are in accordance with the rest of Europe. Approximately half of the 15 countries that participated in a European study confirmed that R&D focussed on thermal methods like burning and steaming (Lophaven & Kristoffersen in prep.).
Conclusion
It is possible to manage and maintain non-cropland in urban areas without the use of pesticides. This can be seen both experimentally and in practice in Denmark. The
201
voluntary agreement has actually meant a reduction of the use of pesticides by approximately 60% in a period of five years - and the bottom line has not even been reached yet. Even though it is no bed of roses because the non-chemical weed control methods are expensive; the costs are higher than when using pesticides. It is also difficult because the empirical basis is limited.
Perspectives
There exists a still increasing need for better equipment for weed control, and somehow it seems that the machinery currently available is not sufficient to meet the practitioners needs. Therefore there is a general agreement that new methods for nonchemical weed control are needed. Regarding the protection of our resources it can only be expected that even on European level there will be an increased awareness of protecting ground and surface water resources. These are the ones the societies rely upon for drinking water all over Europe. All of these demands point in one direction: decrease the use of pesticides for weed control purposes. This will mean a higher weed infestation than traditionally accepted. This is the situation society has faced and is still facing in Denmark; it means that it is necessary for the actors in society to revise ideals of what is regarded as nice and what can be accepted along roadsides and on pavements in the neighbourhood.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the dialogues about the drafts of this manuscript with Thomas Barfoed Randrup and Cecil Konijnendijk, Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning. Use of trade names in this paper does not imply endorsement by the Danish Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning of any product or service.
References
Kristoffersen P & Larsen K (2000).
Kemikaliefri ukrudtsbekmpelse. Stads- og haveneigeniren 6-7: 6-11.

Kristoffersen P & Mller J (2001).
Undersgelse af pesticidforbruget p offentlige arealer i 1999 og 2000. Skov & Landskab, Hrsholm.
202
Kristoffersen P, Srensen CB, Larsen K, Hansen P K, Noy G & Hartvig P (2001).
Test af redskaber til termisk ukrudtsbekmpelse, Fagbladet Grnt Milj 5(1): 84-89.
Larsen SU & Larsen K (2000).
Pesticidfri Ukrudtsbekmpelse p befstede arealer, Forsg 1999-2000, Anlgsrapport 1.1. Frederiksborg Amt, Skov & Landskab, Hrsholm.
Lophaven CB & Kristoffersen P (in prep.).
Weed Control on non-cropland in Urban Areas in Europe. Journal of Environmental Management. In review.
203
Urban Forest of Thessaloniki: Post-fire (1997) Restoration Perspectives

Ch. Tourlakidis Division of Reforestation of Thessaloniki Thessaloniki, Greece
Abstract
The urban forest of Thessaloniki is an artificial one established over a period of 65 years. Its vegetation is composed mainly of Pinus brutia, Cupressus sp. and some other species. The Greek Forest Service completed a number of activities, such as establishment of forest roads, fire lanes, a fire watering system, recreation sites and insect control. In 1997, a fire destroyed 55% of the forest. Restoration started shortly after. The District Forest Office cleared the burnt forest and the Division of Reforestation constructed small-scale erosion and watershed control works. These included matchsticks, log erosion barriers, ploughing & furrowing, small timbered dams, and check dams. Reforestation plans were aimed at natural regeneration of Pinus brutia, Cupressus sp. and Quercus coccifera on one hand. On the other hand artificial reforestation was to be applied, using conifers and broadleaves, and mainly Cupressus sp., Cedrus sp., Quercus sp., Celtis sp., Fraxinus sp., Acer sp. and Robinia sp., some secondary species and shrub species near recreation sites, forest roads and lanes, and Populus sp., and Platanus sp. on stream bed sides. Threats to the urban forest include land use change due to housing, forest fires, insect pests, soil erosion, floods, drought, and heavy recreational exploitation. A new project designed for the urban forest as a whole aims at vegetation improvement and supplement, watershed management, new recreation design, development of forest protection plans, and insect pest control.
Key Words: urban forest, forest fire, post-fire restoration.
Introduction
The urban forest of Thessaloniki covers the slopes of Kedrinos hills and expands North-East of the town of Thessaloniki, bordering its residential areas. It is an artificial forest, a result of a continuous and persistent effort that has lasted 65 years.
205
One case of reforestation is known from during the Turkish occupation in 1910. A grove was established in an area of 20 hectares at a place called Hilia Dendra (Thousand trees). After liberation and the end of World War I, the first afforestating effort was carried out in 1929 by Professor Petros Kontos and his students of the newly established Forestry School at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Reforestation schemes became more intensive after 1934, on the basis of an applied study conducted by the head of the Thessaloniki Forest Office and later professor at the Forestry School, Dr. Antonis Georgopoulos. He also established a small-scale nursery near the forest to produce the necessary planting stock. At the beginning, afforestation plans aimed at watershed management through restoration of the degraded forest ecosystem, consisting of short high bushland with woody, hard-leafed evergreen broadleaves. Recreation and environmental approaches in forestry emerged later, after urbanisation of the surrounding area and city development. During the 1980s, afforestation was completed. The Division of reforestation of Thessaloniki established 8 recreation sites and constructed 4 paths with total length of 7 kilometres crossing the forest. At the same time, the District Forest Office of Thessaloniki designed and constructed 90 kilometres of forest roads, 83 kilometres of fire lanes, and a fire watering system consisting of 3 permanent tanks automatically filled and 41 water filling points scattered across the area. The final result was a Pinus brutia forest mixed in many places with Cupressus sempervirens var. orizontalis, C. arizonica. Other indigenous species used were Pinus pinea, P. halepensis, Celtis australis, and some others. The Greek Forest Service was proud of this work. Under the given circumstances this was believed to be the best protected urban forest in the Mediterranean region. Two forest departments manage the urban forest of Thessaloniki: - The District Forest Office is dealing with ownership, protection schemes, and forest management. - The Division of Reforestation is dealing with reforestation, recreation and watershed management plans.
Field data
Geografical data of the site
The entire forest covers an area of 3,020 hectares and is in fact the central part of a wider forested region around Thessaloniki consisting of 23,500 hectares of forestland that has been mostly artificially reforested.
206
The forest forms a protective belt, a natural wall against torrential effects of the Kedrinos currents, secondly, as well as a recreation site bordering the city and an environmental filter. Administratively eight local communities share this area, namely Thessaloniki, Pylaia, Panorama, Triandria, Sykies, Ag. Paylos, Hortiatis and Pefka, all belonging to the Thessaloniki prefecture.
Ownership
The urban forest of Thessaloniki is mainly state-owned (2,261 ha). Part of it consists of private forest land (645 ha). Another part is rural land (114 ha) scattered across the area. To satisfy community needs 52.2 hectares were allocated for purposes of education, sports, water provision and religion. State, private and rural lands are all under strict forest legislation. This creates a confrontation between land owners and government, particularly in the case of the rural land use because of its high value for housing. By a High Court decision provoked by environmental groups, this rural land became classified permanently as forestland. This decision created problems to landowners and this debate is still continuing. To solve this problem, the Greek Government has two alternatives, as changing forestland to land for housing is against the law. The first is to compensate the owners against the real value of their land, and the second to compensate their land with public land of equal value outside the area of the urban forest of Thessaloniki.
Vegetation
According to Professor Athanasiadis, the area belongs to the submeditteranean vegetation zone (Quercetalia pubescentis). This is the most peculiar transitional vegetation zone composed of hard-leafed evergreen broadleaves and deciduous broadleaves. The zone includes hilly areas with an altitude varying from 100 to 500 metres found at some distance from the sea all over the Northern part of the country. This area in particular belongs to the community ostryo-carpinion and the vegetative association of cocciferocarpinetum. Before reforestation, this area was bushland of mainly Quercus coccifera, a very hardleafed, evergreen broadleaved species that may very easily transform from a tree to a shrub due to, for example, goat grazing, forest fires, felling for obtaining fuelwood, and so forth. Phytogeography showed that during Middle ages this area was dominated by Oak forests (Q. pubescens) in a mixture with other broadleaved species such as Acer campestris,
207
Fraxinus ornus, Carpinus betulus, Pistacia terebinthus, Ulmus campestris, Crategus oxyacantha, Platanus orientalis, Populus alba, and so forth. Remnants of those forests still exist scattered over either the area itself or in its vicinity (forest of Kouri). In the 14th century, historian Houmnos describes vast broadleaved stands situated above the Acropolis of Thessaloniki which inhabitants used for getting fuel.
Climatic considerations
Meteorological data presented here come from the Aristotle University Meteorological Station, found at a distance of 1.5 kilometres of the area, over a period of 20 years (1979-1999). Air temperature Information about average temperature throughout the year is summarised in Tables 1, 2 and 3.
Table 1. Mean average temperature throughout the year.
J 5.7
F 7.0
M 10.1 14.2 18.9
J 23.5
J 25.8 25.2
S 22.0 16.4 10.7
D 7.5
Av 15.8
Table 2. Mean maximum temperatures throughout the year (warmest month so far was July 1998 with an average 34.4oC).
J 9.5
F 11.1
M 14.5 19.1 24.4
J 29.0
J 31.3 30.8
S 27.8 21.4 15.0
D 11.3
Av 20.7
Table 3. Mean minimum temperatures throughout the year (coldest month so far January 1982 with 3.8oC).
J 2.2
F 3.4
M 6.2 9.6 13.9
J 18.0
J 20.4 19.8
S 17.0 12.1 7.4
D 4.3
Av 11.4
The absolute maximum temperature measured in the area to date was 42.1oC on 7 July 1988, while the absolute minimum was -7.3oC on 10 January 1987. Rainfall The accumulative precipitation is 448.1 mm per year unevenly distributed over the year as can be seen in Table 4. Maximum rainfall so far was 650.4 mm in 1987, while the minimum level was 301.9 in 1984. Average rainfall for the growing season (March to September) is 218.8 mm and for the wet period (October to February) 229.3 mm. The
208
driest season includes July, August and September. Temperature and rainfall are also depicted in Figure 1. Rainfall has gradually decreased. During the last 9 years (19911999), mean values reached 411.2 mm.
Table 4. Average rainfall (in mm) throughout the year.
J 24.7 F 32.7 M 42.3 37.6 41.4 J 33.5 J 24.3 23.1 S 16.6 42.6 74.5 D 54.8 Av 448.1
Aristotle University og Thessaloniki Meteorological Station Pluviothermic diagram for the period 1979-1990
40 35 30 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Temperature Co
20 15 10 5 0
J
Months
Figure 1. Pluviothermic diagram for Aristotle University Meteorological Station.
Relative humidity As Table 5 shows, relative humidity values from 52% to 84%.
Table 5. Relative humidity throughout the year.
J 71.0
F 68.0
M 69.0 67.0 67.0
J 60.0
J 59.0 63.0
S 66.0 71.0 75.0
Rainfall mm
25
D 72.0
Av 67.0
209
Winds The most frequently occurring winds are Northwest (Vardaris), being strong (8-40 km/ h), cold and dry. The western winds bring rain. Southern wind is hot (livas) and if blowing during summer months (July, August, September) raises fire risk. Days with snow and fog are very rare, and frost is exceptional. Climate According to Mavromatis (1980) the climate of the site is Meditteranean (pluviothermic diagram with reverse temperature and rainfall graphs, see Figure 1). It is semiarid with cold winters.
Soil conditions
Geology - parent material From this perspective, the area belongs to the Axios river zone that covers central, northern Greece and expands up to Bulgaria. Parent material is sedimentary and metamorphic from the quartenary period. Rock types identified in the area include red argils, phyllites, gneisses, gabbros, lime schists, dunites, peridotites and serpentines. These rocks form horizontal layers along the long axis of the area. Soil As a result of the underlying rock and the interaction with climate, relief, rock withering, erosion, vegetation, time and influence by human, site soil belongs to the division of red gleys with clay loamy texture, and to yellow, non-calcareous gleys with sandy-loamy texture. Both include low levels of organic matter. What particularly matters is heavy erosion that occurred over long periods. Parent rock is very often superficial.
Fire risk and insect pests

This type of forest is very susceptible to fire risk, particularly during the summer months (dry season). Because of this, the District Forest Office of Thessaloniki, responsible for forest protection, established a fire station in the middle of the forest with easy accessibility to all parts of the forest. Besides that, a zone at the edges of forest roads and fire lanes is cleared from branches and grass every year, in late spring. In 1998, the Greek government enforced an act and transferred forest fire responsibility and control from the Greek Forest Service to the Fire Brigade Department. Since then, the Greek Forest Service plays an assisting role in this serious matter.
210
Another threat to the forest is the insect pest Thaumetopea pityocampa which causes severe damage to Pinus brutia foliage by foraging during the autumn and winter months. This loss weakens trees that struggle to recover their foliage every spring. Apart from a negative aesthetic impact it causes allergic skin disease to passers-by. In recent years, an approved biological product applied by air - with the active ingredient Bachillus thurigiensis - is used to control the insect. This product poses no risks to the rest of the insects in the forest.
Disaster
A fire broke simultaneously at five places on the afternoon of 6 July 1997, a very hot dry day with strong hot southern winds blowing. Within 40 hours, 1,664 hectares i.e 55% of the urban forest burnt. According to Margaropoulos (1955) there have been cases in the past where floods from currents of the Kedrinos hills caused serious damage after heavy rainfall, even with human casualties. Therefore, after the fire, the possibility emerged that such a phenomenon might be repeated as it had been the case in other places in Greece (e.g. Athens, Chalkidiki, Corinth and Crete).
Applied studies
A special committee was set up at the Prefecture of Thessaloniki to manage this crisis. The Division of Reforestation started the task of restoration while the District Forest Office of Thessaloniki had to produce and remove useful dead timber and sell it to sawmills. Within the first month (July 1997) a plan was prepared by a team of the Division of Reforestation staff, titled : Applied study for erosion and water flow control of the burned area of the urban forest of Thessaloniki. A budget of 3,610,000 = was C allocated. During the next two months another study was completed, namely: Applied study for reforestation of the burned area of the urban forest of Thessaloniki C). (budget: 3,610,000=
Restoration
The first thing to define was the degree of environmental impact. Emphasis was placed on small-scale works leaving nature to recover, giving it the initiative and time to adjust itself to a new forest model more effectively. Under this view, two kinds of works were allocated: those on a temporary (5-10 years) and those on a permanent basis.
211
The District Forest Office and the Division of Reforestation rapidly made contracts with 5 forest cooperative workers and forest work constructors from the Thessaloniki area for two assignments. The first was to clear-fell and remove dead, raw timber and the terrible mess on the site. The second assignment was to construct erosion and waterflow control works. 1.Erosion control works. These have been built up on a temporary basis (5 years), aimed to stop sheet erosion caused by heavy rain. They offer first degree protection and include: a) Matchsticks. In practice these are rows made of large and small branches, thin boles, and residues of clear-fellings, stuck on the ground in horizontal lines (on the uphill side of the stumps) in areas where the slope of the ground varies between 0-30%. The distance between these rows has been calculated to optimally be 10-15 metres depending on relief. Their dimensions are: height 0.75 m, width 1.0-1.5 m and length from 1 to a thousand and more metres. These structures work like a water filter collecting sediment, sand and stones moving down the slope, stopping sheet erosion during heavy rainfall. 663,000 metres of these were constructed. b) Log erosion barriers. These are structures made of logs of dead pine and cypress trees, stuck in the ground by poles or tied to tree stumps in horizontal lines in places where the slope varies from 31- 50%. A little trench is dug upwards to stop downwards rainfall. Distance between the log lines is estimated to vary between 8-10 metres, height-width equals log diameter (20 centimetres) and length ranges from 1 to a thousand and more metres. 84,000 metres were constructed. c) Clear-fellings. At places where the slope exceeds 50%, dead trees were cut to pieces of about 1 metre in length and spread on the site. This measure was applied to a total area of 83.6 ha. d) Ploughing - furrowing. A heavy machine (bulldozer) with two ripers at the back (nails 1.0 m long at 2.0 m distance from each other) ploughed the area just once, horizontally, at a depth of 0.70-1.0 m between matchsticks where slope was 030 %, leaving a furrow. The measure aimed at three targets. First, by furrowing the ground, water, soil, and sediment are collected into furrows. Secondly, by loosening ground soil rainwater is absorbed and penetrates more easily into deeper layers without eroding the surface. Thirdly, plantation is facilitated. 2,146,000 metres were ploughed. 2.Waterflow control works. These constitute second-degree protection works affecting the city of Thessaloniki below and supplementing erosion control works. These works aim to control flooding, keeping in place water, mud, sand and stones that have
212
escaped erosion control works. These works are of two kinds : a) Small timbered dams. These are constructed on a temporary basis (7-10 years). They are wooden structures made with logs from dead pines and cypresses on 2nd and 3rd degree currents built at certain locations along currentbeds. The dams are stacked 1.0 metres in height. 188 were constructed. b) Check dams. These are permanent basic constructions made of concrete with a height of up to 5.0 metres placed at the lower elevations of the 1st degree current beds. 22 small dams were constructed. 3 Reforestation. The new type of ecosystem should be a stable, upgraded, and adapted to climatic and soil conditions, more resistant to fire and insect pests, with a normal resource of fauna and flora. Services offered to people are watershed management, recreation, aesthetics, sports and education. The type of forest that matches these demands is a mixture of broadleaved species and conifers from this vegetation zone. There have been two approaches to this aim: a) Natural regeneration. Design involved natural regeneration of Pinus brutia, Cup ressus sp. and Quercus coccifera, wherever these could be established. Particularly natural regeneration of P. brutia was at risk, as pine trees were weakened from drought and pests. On the other hand, cypress was expected to cover only its own restricted area. b) Artificial reforestation. This aimed first of all to fill the gaps left from natural regeneration, secondly to re-introduce species that disappeared long ago because of human activity, and thirdly to renew and improve vegetation. Regarding the latter, species selected were indigenous, with some exotic exceptions, belonging to this vegetative zone and surviving and growing well under the existing these climatic conditions. The list of species used includes conifer and broadleaved species, evergreen and deciduous. Particular site, space, altitude and exposure were taken into account. Briefly, plantation layout followed the following rules: - Conifers were introduced to poorer soils and south exposures, and included Cupressus sempervirens, Cupressus arizonica, Cedrus libani, Cedrus Atlantica, Cedrus deodara, Thuja orientalis. The exception was Pinus pinea, which was used on deep and better-quality soils. - Broadleaved species were used in better environments and on better soils in the following order : Quercus aegilops and Quercus pubescens on southern exposed sites. Quercus ilex on northern exposured sites. Quercus conferta on higher and northern exposured sites.
213
Celtis australis, Cercis siliquastrum, Fraxinus oxycarpa, Fraxinus ornus, Acer campestris, Acer negundo, Robinia pseudacacia, Tilia tomentosa on certain places all over the area. Secondary species such as Prunus insititia, Pyrus communis, Prunus avium, Cornus mas, Crataegus monogyna, Morus alba, ficus carica, Eleagnus angustifolia, Juglans regia and so forth were used at different locations among other species to modify the environment. Shrub species such as Laurus nobilis, Spartium junceum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Nerium oleander, Ligustrum vulgare, Cotoneaster orizontalis etc., were established around recreation sites, fire lanes, forest roads. On current and stream sides, Platanus orientalis, Populus alba, populus nigra, Fraxinus excelsior, Acer pseudoplatanus were established. Planting material was produced at the forest nurseries belonging to the Division of Reforestation of Thessaloniki. Planting material was either containerised or barerooted. In some cases seeding was applied. One should keep in mind that the result embodies a potential situation. Nature will accept or refuse human options. The Forest Service will be there to make the necessary manipulations needed each time. All the work described above lasted 8 months, from July 1997 to the end of February 1998.
Perspectives
All the above interventions referred to the burnt area of the Thessaloniki urban forest. Five years after the fire, a new project (2003-2006) for the entire urban forest financed by European Union was developed with the following elements: - Vegetation improvement and complementing; - watershed management; - recreation cost analysis and facilities (new Master plan); and - forest protection, forest road improvement, watering system expansion, control of insect pests, forest cultivation. The ultimate principle is that urban forest should remain a natural forest with all natural functions operative. This is secured at present with the strict forest law being implemented.
214
References
Athanasiadis (n.n.).
Forest phytosociology. Giahoudi-Diapouli, Thessaloniki. (In Greek)

Kapetanopoulos G (1984).
Element electronic calculation of weight dams. Ministry of Agriculture 142800/ 13.3.1984, Athens.
Kotoulas D (1985).
Management and control of torrents. Part 1. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, University Press, Thessaloniki. (In Greek)
Kotoulas D (1989).
The small dams. Agricultural Chamber of Greece, Thessaloniki. (In Greek)

Kotoulas D (1997).
Management and torrent control in prefecture of Thessaloniki. Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Laboratory of Watershed Management, Thessaloniki.
Margaropoulos P (1950).
Hydraylic calculations of watershed management works. Ministry of Agriculture KTGK & Forests, Athens. (In Greek)
Margaropoulos P (1955).
Applied study of watershed management of torrent Pylaeas (Kyberniou). Ministry of Agriculture Y.P.E.M, Division of reforestation and Watershed Management, Thessaloniki. (In Greek)
Mavromatis G (1980).
Le bioclimat de la Grce. Relations entre le climat et la vegetation naturelle. Cartes bioclimatiques. Institut des recherches forestires dAthenes. Forest research V(1).
Stefanidis P (1990).
Morphometrical and hydrographical composition of torrent types in Northern Greece. Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki. Scientific Annals of the Department of Forestry and natural Environment. Appendix No 6 Volume LB (Dissertation). Thessaloniki.
Stefanidis P, Sapountzis M & Stathis D (2001).
Sheet erosion after fire at the urban forest of Thessaloniki. Bulgarian Forest Research Institute No 1. 2001. Printing House Bolid Bulgaria.
215
Spanos K et al. (2000).
Post fire establishment of plantings in the suburban forest park of Thessaloniki: First results two years after the great fire. Forest Research Institute (NAGREF). Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Dept. of Forestry and Natural Environment. District of Central Macedonia, Reforestation Directorate of Thessaloniki. National Agricultural Research Foundation Vol. 13. Athens, Greece.
Vantellas A (1983).
Torrent basins of hydrographic network of Greece. Minisry of Agriculture, Athens. (In Greek)
216
Arboricultural Research of Trees in City of Ljubljana and Instructions for their Care
Primoz Oven University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Department of Wood Science and Technology Rozna dolina VIII/34, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Abstract
In the City of Ljubljana 612 trees were investigated: 358 in Park Tivoli and 254 in other areas of the City (Ambrozev trg, Eipprova, Mrtvaski most-Vrazov trg, Poljanski nasip, Prule-Grudnovo nabrezje in Trnovski pristan). Species and biometrical characteristics of trees were determined. Biotic and abiotic injuries of crown, stem and roots were investigated. Growth history, wood structure and activity of the cambial zone were additionally studied for 30 horse-chestnut trees. De-icing salts seriously affected trees, growing along the streets. Early defoliation of horse-chestnut trees attacked by Cameraria ohridella was not yet detectable in the annual increment or structure of the wood. Trees were mechanically wounded by building operations, cars, vandalism, mowing and non-professional pruning. Defects were described and adequate arboricultural measurements were proposed for individual trees: 35 trees should be removed and replaced, 26 trees needed a security system in the crown, 275 should be nursed according to given instructions, and the rest of trees needed regular and professional care.
Key words: arboriculture, urban tree, health status, hazardous trees, biotic and abiotic injuries
Introduction
As opposed to larger European countries, management of street trees in Slovenia lacked a systematic approach until recently. Increasing pressure of public opinion and commercial interest for tree care during the last five years generated demands for improved management. Interest for trees was mainly triggered by breakage and failure of branches and trees in storms (wind, heavy snow) in the years 1996, 1998 and 1999, as well as by an explosion of the horse-chestnut leaf miner (Cameraria ohridella) population. Demands to cut down sick and non-perspective tree species became very strong, although the majority of trees are protected as a natural heritage. In response, the City of Ljubljana initiated the research project Arboricultural research of trees in
217
City of Ljubljana and instructions for their care in 1999. Objectives of the project were among others: to assess vitality of trees and to identify factors affecting it, to evaluate hazard potential and to prepare instructions for tree care. Results of this research are reported here.
Material and methods

Research included trees along streets with a high frequency of traffic and trees in Park Tivoli. The latter served as a control trees and will be referred as to Park Tivoli trees in this article. Street trees will be the term used to refer to first group of trees. Due to the lack of data on trees in Ljubljana, we had to count the trees to obtain a traceable identification number and to determine the species. Height and DBH (at 1.3 m above ground) were measured with Suunto instruments and served as basic biometrical data. To obtain an integral assessment of vitality of the investigated trees several methods were used: visual assessment of the crown according to Rollof (1998); a study of the anatomy of cambial zone was used to reveal seasonal activity of the cambium (Oven 1999); and dendrochronology was employed to reveal history of secondary growth of trees in the last decades (Oven & Levanic 2001). An evaluation of the hazard potential of the trees involved identification of target, recording growth defects as well as the frequency and distribution of mechanical wounds. Moreover, wood destroying fungi (fruit bodies) were identified and an evaluation was made of the extent of decay using increment boring to obtain wood cores, and drilling with a 3 mm bit to asses the colour, odour, and texture of the wood particles. Methodologies described by Matheny & Clark (1994), Dujesiefken et al. (1999) and Kowol et al. (1999) were applied.

Collection of basic data revealed that 612 trees were included in the arboricultural research (Figure 1). The number of tree species was relatively small. All trees from Park Tivoli were horse-chestnut trees (Aesculus hippocastanum). This species also prevailed among the street trees: 144 trees were horse-chestnut trees, 66 maples (Acer psudoplatanus, A. platanoides, A. saccharinum) and 30 trees were willows (Salix x spulcralis). The other trees were of the following species: Betula pendula, Ailanthus altissima, Platanus x hispanica, Fraxinus excelsior Pendula, Sofora japonica and Tilia platyphyllos. The majority of investigated trees were adults. Among the street trees only 13 were young trees with a diameter at the breast height (DBH) smaller than 15 cm. 7 trees
218
(Salix x sepulcralis) had a DBH smaller than 10 cm. Due to a restoration program of tree colonnades going on in Park Tivoli, the share of young trees was much higher, 121 horse-chestnuts had a DBH smaller than 15 cm. The DBH of adult trees ranged from 55 to 98 cm and the height ranged from 15 to 28 m.
No. of investigated trees = 612

Street trees 254 / 42%
Park Tivoli 358 / 58%
Figure 1. Number of trees included in the arboricultural research in the City of Ljubljana.
Symptoms of more than one adverse factor diminishing the vitality of trees were found for all investigated trees. All horse-chestnut trees were affected with C. ohridella and Guignardia aesculi. The insect was detected in 1994 in Slovenia and is usually causing defoliation in the middle of August every year. Typical symptoms of water stress and de-icing salts were recognised on leaves of city trees, irrespective of the species. The rate of street trees affected with de-icing salts reached 36 % (out of 131 trees) in the examined city area Prule. To examine the influence of above-mentioned adverse factors, a detailed analysis of the seasonal duration of cambial activity and the history of secondary growth have been studied in selected adult horse-chestnut trees. The beginning of cambial activity did not reveal differences between affected street trees and apparently healthy trees from Park Tivoli. The first cellular divisions in the cambial zone were detected on April 21st, 1999 in both affected and healthy trees. Differences between healthy park trees and affected street trees were visible at the end of the growing period. The growing period of affected trees ended on August 4th, 2000 as assessed by the absence of cambial divisions. On the contrary, the cambial zone of healthy trees still displayed divisional activity at this date. For all investigated affected trees annual growth (increment) had already been completed by August 4th. This was not the case for healthy trees. The annual increment consisted of already differentiated wood elements and cells in the process of differentiation. It could be concluded that the growing season of healthy trees is longer than the growing period of affected trees.
219
The thickness of the annual growth rings in affected trees was smaller than in healthy park trees (Figure 2). Five groups of trees were selected for dendrochronology: six apparently healthy trees from Park Tivoli, five topped trees, nine trees affected by de-icing salts and five trees which were considered to be affected by C. ohridella earlier and more severe than other test trees. Growth of apparently healthy trees was found to be stable during the last 80 years, despite unfavourable site conditions. Before 1954 tree rings of the other three groups were two to three times wider than the reference trees. Thereafter the width of the tree rings decreased, accompanied by changes in wood structure up to present (Figure 2). Vessels of the trees affected with de-icing salts were numerous and smaller. On the other hand, vessels were numerous but larger in topped trees, both compared to healthy trees from Park Tivoli. It was concluded that the vitality of street trees in Ljubljana had diminished primarily due to anthropogenic factors. It is supposed that the survival chances of horse-chestnut trees drastically diminish due to a simultaneous effect of a biological factor (leaf miner) and unfavourable anthropogenic influences.
1000
Radial increment (0,01 mm)
De-icing salts Cameraria
1954
Healthy trees Topped trees
500
1958
1973 1993
0
1920 1920 1930 1930 1940 1940 1950
1950
1960 1960 Year
1970
1970
1980
1980
1990 1990
2000 2000
Year
Figure 2. Radial growth of apparently healthy horse-chestnut trees from Park Tivoli and affected street trees in the City of Ljubljana during the last 80 years.
Identification of hazardous trees was based on the evaluation of target and inspection of growth defects, frequency and distribution of mechanical wounds, identification of wood destroying fungi (fruit bodies) and evaluation of extant of decay. Dead wood in the crowns was present in each of the 612 trees. The number and diameter of dead branches increased with diminishing vitality of trees. The presence of co-dominant branches with included bark was the most obvious growth defect. Surprisingly all investigated trees (612) were mechanically wounded. Improper and unnecessary pruning (toping, flush cut) and failure of branches in crowns, vandalism, traffic
220
accidents on stems and construction activities around the root systems were identified as main causes of damage to trees. Dieback of newly planted trees due to damage to root crowns and vandalism was found to drastically diminish success of the replanting program in Park Tivoli. Very often large pruning wounds and wounding of roots has caused extensive dieback of cambium along the stems. In such cases bark is still present on the stems, hence the defect cannot be recognized by visual inspection. Measurements of electrical resistance of the cambial zone proved to be a very useful tool for identification of such defects. Instructions for management of investigated trees were prepared according to ZTV Baumpflege (1993) and EAC (1999). Urgent felling (Figure 3) was recommended for 35 trees. For 26 trees it was recommended to use a security system in the crown (Cobra system). Moreover, for 276 trees we recommended to employ one of the following regular care pruning techniques, formative pruning, crown lifting and crown maintenance.
(No. of trees = 612)
Pruning for safety resons 45% Regular care 45%
Felling 6%
Securty system in the crown 4%
Figure 3. Structure of recommended arboricultural measures for investigated trees in the City of Ljubljana.
For 275 trees (Figure 3) pruning for safety reasons was recommended, in addition to other case sensitive recommendations. These included, for example, mulching, supporting, removal of electrical infrastructure being attached to dead branches in crown, removal of balustrades, prevention of parking, irrigation, change of the regime of salt spreading, regular collection of affected leaves, and so forth. In conclusion, it should be stressed that the decreasing vitality of trees and the increasing rate of hazardous trees in the City of Ljubljana is due to anthropogenic factors. The condition of trees could be improved by applying contemporary arboricultural practice, which should replace the existing, experience-based approach. It is likely however, that this could be achieved if stronger co-operation between the
221
city administration, practitioners and research institutions could be established within an extensive continuing tree program. Preparation of guidelines in Slovenian (Oven & Zupancic 2001) could be considered as a first step in this direction.
Acknowledgment
This research was supported by the City of Ljubljana (Department of culture and research, Department of municipal services and traffic) and the Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Slovenia.
References
Dujesiefken D, Wohlers A & Kowol T (1999).
Die Hamburger Baumkontrolle der Leitfaden fr eine fachgerechte Baumkontrolle. In: Dujesiefken D & Kockerbeck P (Eds) Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 1999: 124-138. Thalacker Medien, Braunschweig.
European Arboricultural Council (EAC) (1999).
European Tree Pruning Guide. Tree Advice Trust, Forest Research Station, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclessham.
Kowol T, Wohlers A & Dujesiefken D (1999).
Baumkontrolle nach Baumarten differenziert typische Schadsymptome bei Linde, Eiche und Rokastanie. Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 1999: 139-156. Thalacker Medien, Braunschweig.
Matheny P & Clark JR (1994).
A photographic guide to the evaluation of hazard trees in urban areas. 2nd edit. International Society of Arboriculture, Savoy, Illinois.
Oven P (2000).
Arboristicna naliza drevja V MOL in navodila za njihovo nego. Biotehniska fakulteta, Ljubljana.
Oven P & Levanic T (2001).
Jahrringanalytische und holzanatomische Untersuchungen unterschiedlich befallener Rosskastanien (Aesculus hippocastanum L.) in der Stadt Ljubljana (Slowenien). In: Dujesiefken D & Kockerbeck P (Eds) Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 2001: 254 259. Thalacker Medien, Braunschweig.
Oven P & Zupancic M (2001).
Navodila za obzagovanje urbanega drevja. V: Arboristicna preiskava izbranih drevoredov v Mestni obcini Maribor in navodila za nego dreves. Biotehniska fakulteta, Oddelek za lesarstvo: 90-99.
222
Rollof A (1998).
Vitalittsbeurteilung anhand der Kronenstruktur. In: Dujesiefken D & Kockerbeck P (Eds) Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 1998: 142 151. Thalacker Medien, Braunschweig.
ZTV-Baumpflege (2001).
Zustzliche Technische Vertragsbedingungen und Richtlinien fr Baumpflege. 4. Auflage, Forschungsgesellschaft Landschaftsentwicklung - Landschaftsbau e.V. (FLL), Bonn.
223
Managing Forest Fires Near Urban Areas in Mediterranean Countries

Ramon Vallejo, Susana Bautista, Jaime Baeza, and J.Antonio Alloza Fundacin CEAM, Parque Tecnolgico Ch. Darwin 14, 46980 Paterna, Spain
Abstracts
Wildfires are increasingly affecting the wildland-urban interface all over the world. Therefore, protection measures are urgently required to prevent burning of structures and to avoid post-fire damages in urban areas. Preventive measures are concentrated on reducing the fuel load in the surroundings of settlements, to reduce flammability of housing materials, and to ensure accesses and extinction systems. The complexity of the problem of the wildland-urban interface makes it difficult to implement existing regulations. Several techniques are developed to mitigate post-fire effects downslope. Among them, emergency seeding has been widely used in the wildland-urban, interface especially in southern California. The use of native herbaceous and shrubby species together with onsite mulching material is recommended to protect only those hillsides previously recognised as prone to soil erosion, and for those sites threatening structures. In general, all restoration projects for burned lands should take into account the principles of fire prevention
Key Words: forest fires, wildland-urban interface, fire prevention.
Introduction
Wildfires are becoming a major disturbance in forests and shrublands in the Mediterranean, like in other parts of the world (Pausas & Vallejo 1999), and a threat to properties and structures. In southern Europe, wildfires have greatly increased since the last quarter of the 20th century, mainly in relation to rural land abandonment and human activities (Moreno et al. 1998). A relevant part of wildfires in Mediterranean countries affects periurban areas, and in many cases densely inhabited tourist areas in summer, when wildfires mostly occur. The problem is likely to escalate in the future with the urban developments in the coastal strips, which often invade wildland areas. This generates the specific issue of fire management of the wildland/urban interface (Davis 1990). This is especially critical in the USA, where in addition to the intermixing of fuels with the settlements, in many cases the houses are made of wood and other flammable materials (Cohen 2000). Unfortunately, experiences in the past demonstrated the high danger for human beings and properties in these areas.
225
Particularities of the wildland/urban interface

For fire management, the wildland/urban interface has several characteristics (Davis 1990, Conard and Weise 1998, Cohen 1999) that deserve a different approach than open wildland fires. - Human activities are a major cause for fire occurrence, therefore high human frequentation in the vicinities of settlements induces high ignition hazard. In this way, the hot spots of high fire recurrence often happen in the wildland/urban interface. - Fuels accumulated in vegetation, home ignitability and fuel load of buildings are very high. - Tourist developments often generate housing conflicts that may increase arson risk. - Land abandonment is most frequent in periurban areas leading to the accumulation of highly flammable fuels in the Mediterranean (Baeza et al. 1998). - Urban development concentrates on private land, which complicates the intervention of forest services for fire prevention measures (such as fuel control). In addition, prescribed fire applications are restricted for safety reasons. - High risk of structure losses in the first few hours of an incident, therefore fast intervention is very critical. - High human and property risk. - Hazard of direct impact of post-fire flooding, erosion/sedimentation, and mud flows on human population. - High value of affected land. Therefore, higher potential investments for restoration can be envisaged than in common wildlands. - In general, closer proximity of fire brigades and (relatively) good access, though sometimes access can be a bottleneck, demonstrated in some of the most dramatic accidents.
Preventive measures
Fire prevention in the wildland/urban interface is relatively old as a recognised problem (at least since the 1960s in the USA) having old solutions as well, i.e. managing fuels near structures (USDA 1996). But, in general, there is little real implementation. Progress in those fields will require legal mandates, zoning regulations, fire and building codes, insurance rating systems, and tackling social and psychological factors (Davis 1990). In southern California (Conard and Weise 1998), mosaic burning through prescribed fire programs was implemented since the 1980s to reduce fuel and decrease the size of wildfires. According to the same authors, these programs have been difficult to implement and little effective, especially in the wildland-urban interface because of the risk of burning structures and public opposition. In view of these limitations, Conard and Weise (1998) recommend to separate urban interface areas from natural fuels through intensive and rotational fire risk management in these areas, taking advantage of natural or man-made barriers, such as roads.
226
Fire prevention in the immediate wildland-urban interface has the twofold objective of preventing ignition from the urban areas and preventing of damage in the settlements from fires originated in wildland areas (Conard and Weise 1998). In these situations, fire prevention is focused on the so-called home ignition zone, a zone with a 25-60 m radius surrounding the houses (Cohen 2000, Vlez 2000) or even less, e.g. 9 m (SGSF 1998). Experimental and modelling evidence indicates that fuel reduction may be inefficient at hundred of more meters around homes because the distance is greater than necessary for reducing ignitions from flames. Also it is ineffective because it does not sufficiently reduce firebrand production that potentially extend for several kilometres away from structures (Cohen 1999). Tourist resorts would require a firebreak strip at least 25 m wide, with adjoining trees pruned to a minimum height of 4 m (Leone et al. 2000). Regulations intend to maintain a low fuel load in the home ignition zone, to reduce flammability of housing materials, and to ensure access and proper functioning of extinction systems. Usually there is no federal or national legislation in this regard, but there is legislation at the local (community or municipality) level for fire prevention in the periurban zone. In Spain, there is autonomic legislation for some regions, e.g. in Catalonia a cleared protective belt of 25 m around urban settlements should be maintained by the owners. Vegetation management to reduce fire hazard should consider vegetation dynamics and ecosystem conservation. In addition to fuel reduction, small changes in connectivity by managing the spatial arrangement of fuels may largely influence fire spread (Turner et
40 35
Ulex oarviflorus germination

Slash No slash
Number of seedlings (m-2)
30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3
Figure 1. Control of fire-prone shrublands in Eastern Spain. Reduction of the fuel accumulator Ulex parviflorus germination by clearing and spreading slash on soil surface. Slash cover reduced seed germination with respect to bare soil.
227
al. 1989). Clearing techniques should be based on a deep knowledge of the biology of the target plant species (fuel accumulators) in order to optimise the treatments. Often, fire-prone ecosystems develop after land abandonment in southern Europe, and this mainly occurs in the vicinity of settlements. As an example, in fire-prone shrublands dominated by obligate seeders and fuel-accumulators, such as gorse (Ulex parviflorus) in eastern Spain, clearing treatments spreading slash on soil surface allow reducing fuel load and decrease gorse germination (Figure 1).
Post-fire emergency mitigation/rehabilitation treatments

Burned wildlands are exposed to increased water and wind erosion, and runoff, due to the temporal loss of protective plant and litter cover. These processes can occur close to structures, generating a high risk of damage to human properties and lives down slope. The objective of post-fire management actions is to reduce runoff and soil erosion, including offsite effects (flooding, mudflows, siltation), and promote ecosystem recovery at the same time. The most common treatments are (Forrest and Harding 1994, Robichaud et al. 2000): - Seeding (aerial or ground) with mulching to promote a fast herbaceous cover to reduce erosion risk; - contour-felled logs; - silt fences; - check dams, gabions; and - other hillside treatments: contour trenches, blankets. This paper will concentrate on seeding practices, as they are controversial nowadays. In a recent review (Robichaud et al. 2000), mostly based on the USA experience, several potential shortcomings have been identified for seeding practices: Seeding may not be needed when natural regeneration is efficient; uncertain germination rates; risk of being affective only late in the first and second post-fire season; and competition of seeded non-native species (e.g. Lolium multiflorum) with native flora.
We have developed some experiments on post-fire emergency seeding in Eastern Spain (Vallejo and Alloza 1998). The first step was to identify those burned areas that might need emergency mitigation measures. The selection criteria were related to erosion and runoff risk, namely steep slopes, erodible soil, and low regeneration capacity for vegetation. Previous research (Abad et al. 1996) showed that the post-fire regeneration capacity in eastern Spain was mainly controlled by the presence of resprouting species, i.e. those areas dominated by resprouters showed an efficient plant cover regeneration,
228
quite independent of post-fire weather conditions, and unlikely to be improved by seeding treatments. On the contrary, plant communities dominated by obligate seeders often show slow plant cover regeneration, which, in addition, is highly dependent on post-fire rainfall. This poor plant regeneration was concentrated on south-facing slopes. Therefore, post-fire erosion and runoff risk could be assessed from pre-fire conditions that can be obtained from available maps and/or a quick field survey just after a fire. Selected erosion-prone plots were seeded right after fires, using a mixture of seeds, mulching material (200 gm2 straw) and inorganic fertiliser. The seed mixture included commercially available seeds of native or naturalised herbaceous species, combining perennials with annuals, and grasses with legumes. Annuals show fast germination ability after the first rain, whereas perennials allow longer persistence of plants, independent of the uncertain flowering, seed production and germination rate of introduced species. The different rooting depth and pattern of grasses and legumes, and the potential N-fixing capacity of the latter, justify their mixed application. Seeded plots showed a fast recovery of plant cover within two months after application. Measurements taken 6 and 18 months after seeding showed a transient increase in plant cover, especially significant under semi-arid conditions (Figure 2), with almost all introduced species having disappeared after 18 months. Therefore, no inhibition of regrowth of native species was observed in those plots. Treated plots showed significantly lower erosion rates than the control plots (Figure 3). Therefore, the technique proved to be efficient in protecting vulnerable ecosystems after fire.
100
Dry-sub-humid
80
Semiarid
Seeding + Mulching Control
60
Total plant cover (%)
*
40 20
6 months
18 months
6 months
18 months
Figure 2. Total plant cover 6 and 18 months after seeding in dry-sub-humid and semiarid burned areas (mean values and standard error). Seeding + mulching treatment significantly increased plant cover in the short-term in semiarid conditions.
229
35 30
Seeding + Mulching Control
Soil loss (Mg ha-1 year-1)
25 20 15 10 5 0
Dry-subhumid
Semiarid
Figure 3. Soil erosion rates in treated (seeding + mulching) and control plots in dry-sub-humid and semiarid conditions (mean values and standard error). Seeding + mulching treatment significantly reduced soil loss.
We performed a subsequent set of erosion-plots experiments in a pine forest under semi-arid conditions. The study was conducted in a periurban coastal stand moderately impacted by tourist recreation and severely affected by a large wildfire. We compared a seeding + mulching treatment with an only mulching treatment (no seeding) and control plots. The two treatments applied showed similar results in terms of increasing plant cover and reducing runoff and erosion, especially for the most vulnerable sites within the burned stand (Table 1). It is interesting to note that mulching alone protected soil surface from post-fire degradation and soil loss, and also enhanced spontaneous plant growth (Bautista at al. 1996). Therefore, in our experimental sites, mulching alone was effective and feasible enough as a mitigation measure after fire.
Table 1. Total sediment yield (g m-2) for the first 18 months after treatment application in a semiarid burned pine forest. B1, B2, and B3 sites represent increasing levels in fire severity.
Seeding + Mulching Site B1 Site B2 Site B3 14 17 21
Mulching 9 11 18
Control 18 33 292
230
According to Robichaud et al (2000) and our own experience described above, various alternatives are proposed to the shortcomings of seeding treatments: 1) Previous assessment of natural regeneration potential: a) selection of areas with poor regeneration potential (e.g. low resprouters cover); b) high runoff and erosion risk (steep slope, compact soils); and c) high downstream risk of damage (infrastructures, homes). 2) Spreading mulch (preferably onsite slash) to ensure immediate soil protection 3) Selection of seeding mixtures using native species: a) Fast growing annuals; b) Perennials for the persistence of soil protection; c) Grasses and legumes; and d) Shrubs and trees to enhance secondary succession. In general, all restoration projects for burned lands in fire-prone ecosystems, being either seeding or plantation, should take into account the principles of fire prevention (Vlez 1990). E.g. to avoid mono-culture plantations, to reduce fuel accumulator species, to promote more resilient and late-successional vegetation (Vallejo and Alloza 1998), and to design all interventions in the landscape so to reduce the hazard of fire spread (Turner 1994, Forman and Collinge 1996).
Acknowledgements
This research has been supported by the Regional Government of Valencia (Generalitat Valenciana) and Fundacin Bancaixa.
References Abad N, Caturla RN, Baeza J, Blad C, Vieira F, Carb E, Valdecantos A, Bonet A, Serrasolsas I, Guardia R, Ravents J, Alloza JA, Escarr A, Bellot J & Vallejo VR (1996).
Regeneracin de los montes quemados. In: La restauracin de la cubierta vegetal en la Comunidad Valenciana. V.R. Vallejo ed. 51-148. CEAM, Valencia.
Bautista S, Bellot J & Vallejo VR (1996).
Mulching treatment for postfire soil conservation in a semiarid ecosystem. Arid Soil Res. and Rehab., 10: 235-242.
Baeza MJ, Ravents J & Escarr A. (1998).
Structural changes in relation to age in fire-prone mediterranean shrubland. II Int. Confer. on Forest Fire Research. Vol II, 2567-2578. Luso, Protugal.
231
Cohen JD (1999).
Reducing the wildland fire threat to homes: Where and how much? USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-173, 189-195
Cohen JD (2000).
Preventing disaster: home ignitability in the wildland-urban interface. J. Forestry 98(3):15-21.

Conard SG & Weise DR (1998).
Management of fire regime, fuels, and fire effects in southern California chaparral: lessons from the past and thoughts for the future. In: T.L. Pruden and L.A. Brennan (Eds) Fire in ecosystem management: shifting the paradigm from suppression to prescription. Pp. 342-350, Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference Proc., no. 20, Tall Timbers Res. Station, Tallahassee, USA.
Davis J (1990).
The wildland-urban interface: Paradise or battleground? J. Forestry, 88 (1): 26-31.

Forman RTT & Collinge SK (1996).
The spatial solution to conserving biodiversity in landscapes and regions. En: R.M. DeGraaf and R.I. Miller (Eds) Conservation of Faunal Diversity in Forested Landscapes: 537-569. Chapman & Hall, London.
Forrest CL & Harding MV (1994).
Erosion and sediment control: Preventing additional disasters after the southern California fires. J. Soil and Water Conservation 49(6): 535-541.
Leone V, Saracino A, Trabaud L & Vlez R (2000).
Fire prevention and management policies in west Mediterranean pine forests. In: Neleman G & Trabaud L (Eds): 335-353. Ecology, Biogeography and Management of Pinus halepensis and P. brutia Forest Ecosystems in the Mediterranean Basin, Blackhuys Publ., Leiden.
Moreno, J.M., Vzquez, A. and Vlez, R., 1998.
Recent history of forest fires in Spain. In: Moreno, JM (Ed): Large forest fires, J.M. Moreno ed., 159-185. Backhuys Pub., Leiden, The Netherlands.
Pausas JG & Vallejo VR (1999).
The role of fire in European Mediterranean ecosystems. In: Chuvieco E. (Ed): pp. 3-16. Remote sensing of large wildfires in the European Mediterranean basin. Springer-Verlag.
Robichaud PR, Beyers JL & Neary DG (2000).
Evaluating the effectiveness of postfire rehabilitation treatments. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-63. USDA, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Res. Station. Fort Collins, USA.
232
SGSF (Southern Group of State Foresters) (1998).
When the forest becomes a community. A foresters handbook for the wildland/ urban interface. USDA Forest Service, Atlanta, USA.
Turner MG. (1994).
Landscape dynamics in crown fire ecosystems. Landscape Ecology 9(1): 59-77.

Turner MG., Gardner RH, Dale VH & ONeill R V (1989).
Predicting the spread of disturbance across heterogeneous landscapes. Oikos 55: 121129.
USDA (1996).
Federal wildland policy. USDA Forest Service. Avaliable online at: (http:// www.fs.fed.us/land/wdfire.htm).
Vallejo VR & Alloza JA (1998).
The restoration of burned lands: the case of eastern Spain. In: Moreno JM (Ed) Large forest fires: 91-108. Backhuys, Leiden, Holland.
Vlez R (1990).
Algunas observaciones para una selvicultura preventiva de incendios forestales, Ecologa, Fuera de Serie n 1: 561-571.
Vlez R (2000).
Otras infraestructuras preventivas. In: Vlez R (Ed) La defensa contra incendios forestales: 14.82-14.86. McGraw-Hill, Madrid.
233
Chapter 6
Partnerships for urban forestry
235
The White Rose Forest A Catalyst for the Regeneration of a Region

Alan Simson Landscape at Leeds Research Group, Faculty of Health and Environment, Leeds Metropolitan University Brunswick Building, Leeds LS2 8BU. United Kingdom
Abstract
It is generally believed that there is a north south divide in the UK, largely brought about by the undue centralisation of economic power on London and the southeast region. The UK Government addressed this issue in December 1997, when it published a White Paper entitled Building Partnerships for Prosperity, which set out government plans for the development of the English Regions. The subsequent Regional Development Agencies Act (November 1998) set up nine Regional Development Agencies (RDAs), one of which was the Yorkshire and Humber RDA, now known as Yorkshire Forward. In the preface to its new Regional Development Strategy, Yorkshire Forward articulated a vision of a world class region, strong and globally competitive, a good region within which to live, work and play, and be educated. To assist in developing this vision, Yorkshire Forward commissioned Leeds Metropolitan University (LMU) to research and collate a wide range of statistical indicators about the region, its economy, its environment and its quality of life. As a result of this research, Yorkshire Forward recognised that rapid improvement in attracting and retaining inward investment into the area could be facilitated by combining commercial success with environmental improvement, particularly by significantly increasing the tree and woodland cover of the region and by being at the cutting edge of sustainable development. After a programme of consultation with the National Urban Forestry Unit (NUFU) and numerous other agencies, it was decided to develop a strategy for enhancing the tree and woodland cover of the Yorkshire region. This was officially launched on 1st August 2000 as the White Rose Forest (WRF). The project initially concentrated on the five local authority metropolitan districts of West Yorkshire, including all the cities, towns, villages and their rural hinterland. The project aimed to increase the total
237
woodland cover of the region to at least 6,5 % by 2016, which would entail the planting of a minimum of 4000 ha of new woodland planting. The vision of the White Rose Forest was to create a genuinely sustainable wellwooded landscape which will benefit the people, the economy and the wildlife of (West) Yorkshire. This paper considers the rationale behind this vision, its core aims and priorities and the key actions involved in its delivery, including its role as a forum for cross-authority working, training and research. The paper will conclude by suggesting that the White Rose Forest could be considered as a national model for promoting the positive role that trees and woodland can play in helping to deliver the wide range of policies of a Regional Development Agency.
Key words: urban forestry, trees, woodland, catalyst, regional regeneration, regional development agency.
Introduction
There are those who say that there is a division between the people who live in the north of the UK, and those who live in the south. The implication is that in the north, things are not so good; there is a measure of unemployment, there is a post-industrial, despoiled landscape, the quality of life is compromised and people, particularly young people, are leaving for richer pickings elsewhere. In the south however, the implication is that the quality of life is good; there is full employment, there is a quality environment, life has a certain style to it. Like all good urban myths, there is a grain of truth in it although, as might be expected, it is not quite as simple as that. What is true is that, historically speaking, too much power particularly economic power has been centred on London. It has been suggested that, in terms of economic performance, if London sneezed, then the English regions caught a bad cold. Joking apart, what this means is that by setting a rigid, one size fits all economic policy based on London, the government were contributing to this so-called northsouth divide, or more accurately a south-east all other regions divide, by not recognising that each region has its own aspirations, its own set of problems, and probably its own ways of trying to solve them. The UK government has made some progress with trying to address this issue. Wales and Scotland now enjoy a measure of devolution, and Northern Ireland has a measure of self-determination as well. In December 1997, it was the turn of the English regions, when the government published a White Paper entitled Building Partnerships for Prosperity, which set out plans for the development of the English regions. The subsequent Regional Development Agencies Act of November 1998 set up nine
238
Regional Development Agencies (RDAs), one of which was the Yorkshire & Humber RDA, now known as Yorkshire Forward.
Yorkshire and Humber Region

Regional Development Agencies have both a wide networking role and a policy development brief, as well as being responsible for delivering some services directly, but their core task is to revitalise their region by developing and delivering a new, visionary Regional Economic Strategy. Yorkshire Forwards vision is simple and straightforward. It is to be the driving force behind the economic regeneration of Yorkshire & Humber, delivering a programme of change that will make a positive difference to our people, our businesses and our environment (Yorkshire Forward 1999a). To achieve this, the RDA articulated six prime objectives: - To grow the regions businesses; - to achieve higher business births and survival rates; - to attract and retain more inward investment; - to improve education, learning and skills; - to target community-based regeneration programmes; and - to get the best from the regions physical and environmental assets. As part of the preparation for their new strategy, the Yorkshire & Humber RDA Project Team commissioned Leeds Metropolitan University to undertake a study of the region to produce a series of baseline studies (LMU 1998). This research presented a picture of Yorkshire & Humbers regional performance across a wide range of regional issues and performance indicators, including environmental quality. The broad conclusion was that, although there were many significant success stories and new regeneration opportunities, the region was not performing well. The region of Yorkshire & Humber is a strange admixture of contrasts. It covers a huge area, in excess of 15,500 km2, and has a population of more than 5 million people approximately the same as Scotland or slightly less than Denmark. They are not evenly distributed, there being an average of 0,3 people/ha in parts of the north of the region and 10,39 people / ha in parts of the south (the UK average is 3,6 people/ha). The region has an ageing population, and it is predicted that over 10 % of the population under the age of 30 will have left the region by 2016. There are 9 universities and over 40 colleges in the region, producing just over 10 % of all UK graduates, and yet in 1996, the region was ranked 36 out of 38 when compared against other comparable regions in the EU with regard to the percentage of 16-18 year olds who were in some kind of education or training. The regions GDP was only 87 % of
239
the EU average in 1996, with low levels of manufacturing investment, low employment in the high technology sectors, low investment in research and development and poor small firm formation and survival rates. And yet the regional capital, the City of Leeds, has the fastest-growing city economy in the whole of the UK (LMU 1998). Worst of all, from the urban forestry point of view, was the fact that the region had one of the lowest percentages of woodland cover in the UK (4,3 %). This compares very unfavourably with the 7,6 % average woodland cover in England, let alone the average UK cover of 10,8 %, and is way behind that found in many mainland European countries. Worst still, although parts of Sheffield, Rotherham and Barnsley benefit from being part of the South Yorkshire Community Forest, which is gradually increasing the local woodland cover, Wakefield has the lowest woodland cover of any British local authority (3,5 %). Depressing though these statistics are, they did serve a purpose. It was recognised by the RDA Project Team that rapid improvement in attracting and retaining inward investment into the area could only be made by combining business success with environmental improvement, being at the cutting edge of sustainable development, and significantly increasing the tree and woodland cover of the region (Yorkshire Forward 1999b). It is interesting to note that whilst the Regional Development Agencies were beginning to find their feet, the Forestry Commission was being reorganised by having their regional administrative boundaries re-drawn to co-inside with the new RDA boundaries. More significantly however, they published a new series of strategic priorities and programmes under the guise of a new English Forest Strategy (Forestry Commission 1998). Wales and Scotland were to have their own strategies. Under the English Strategy, four Programme Actions were proposed: - Forestry for Rural Development; - Forestry for Recreation, Access & Tourism; - Forestry for Environment & Conservation; and - Forestry for Economic Regeneration. Specifically pledged under the latter was a commitment to encourage the RDAs to use forestry & woodland programmes to help deliver their vision, and also to encourage the development of new urban forestry initiatives that demonstrate achievement through partnership approaches. This new strategy represented a significant step forward for forestry, and particularly urban forestry, in the UK. An early initiative by the National Urban Forestry Unit (NUFU), in partnership with a number of other organisations, persuaded Yorkshire Forward of the merits of using a long-term, regional programme of urban forestry as a catalyst for the regeneration of the region, and thus the concept of the White Rose Forest was born (Simson in press).
240
The White Rose Forest Strategy

Stimulated by their own beliefs in large-scale urban forestry and bolstered by a number of UK governments reports (DETR 1999), NUFU commissioned a feasibility study into this potential regional urban forestry project (NUFU 1999), and following wide consultation and an appraisal of existing regional and sub-regional planning and policy initiatives, a one day seminar was held in Bradford in the September of 1999 to fully discuss the project. There was sufficient unanimity of purpose amongst the assembled potential partners for a Forest Strategy Consultation report to be commissioned and published by NUFU in February 2000, although at that time, it was deemed politically wise to limit the project to west Yorkshire, a sub-region of the county (Groundwork Wakefield 2000). Caution was thrown to the wind in July of that year, when it was agreed to change the name of the project to the White Rose Forest (WRF), thus declaring the projects regional aspirations by adopting the floral emblem of Yorkshire. An outline strategy was also published that endeavoured to set out the first steps that would be required in order to progress the project. These were: - To establish a lead body capable of shaping and championing the strategy; - to make an inventory of existing and potential woodland sites to identify opportunities for planting, public access and the enhancement of bio-diversity; - to relate the White Rose Forest Strategy to the rest of the regions land-use planning framework; - to secure the resources to enable the partners to implement the strategy; - to develop demonstration projects to promote the forest concepts; and - to raise public awareness of the benefits of more trees and woodland in and around towns. The project was officially launched on 1 August 2000 in the City of Bradford. The partnership comprised Yorkshire Forward, the Government Office for Yorkshire & The Humber, the National Urban Forestry Unit (NUFU), the five local authorities that make up West Yorkshire, and some 15 other institutions and organisations who had a commitment to or an interest in delivering the Forest on the ground (Simson in press). To date, this list of partners has remained the same, although several other local authorities have expressed an interest in joining the partnership. The mission statement for the White Rose Forest states that it is to create a genuinely sustainable well-wooded landscape which will benefit the people, economy and wildlife of (West) Yorkshire (NUFU 2000). This would be achieved by establishing three core aims:
241
Economic aims - to improve the environment of (West) Yorkshire, as a means of increasing the regions capacity to attract and retain successful businesses by: - Creating a more attractive setting for housing, business and commerce; - involving the business community in planning for new woodland; - giving priority to areas identified for future development; - including economic, training and employment objectives in the planning and design of woodland projects; and - helping to market local wood products. Social aims to involve local communities in site identification, planning, planting and aftercare by: - Encouraging and promoting safe and easy access to woodland; - helping community groups to identify sites and to plan, plant and manage trees and woodland where appropriate; and - consulting with local people when planting is proposed by WRF partners. Environmental aims - to increase the quality, quantity and physical continuity of tree and woodland cover in (West) Yorkshire, on a scale that will improve air quality, stabilise and reclaim dereliction, reduce the risk of flooding and enhance bio-diversity by: - Protecting and enhancing existing woodland areas of conservation value; - respecting landscape character when designing new woodlands; - assessing sites for existing archaeological, historical, ecological and social value; - selecting plant species which are appropriate to the local landscape; - targeting resources to the priority areas; and - relating the White Rose Forest to national sustainability indicators. Of vital important was the fact that this strategy was wholeheartedly politically endorsed by Graham Hall, the Chairman of Yorkshire Forward, and in particular the economic benefits that would accrue from the project. He said: The future economic sustainability of Yorkshire and Humber is linked directly to the quality of life of local people, and the environment plays a vital role in both. A greater investment in the planting and management of trees and woodlands will bring all kinds of benefits, from cleaner air and more accessible wildlife, to the reclamation of wasted land and reduced storm-water flooding. The fortunes of the region are bound to improve as a consequence. (NUFU 2000)
The management of the project

Responsibility for running the WRF is taken by a Steering Group and Development Team, chaired by the author. This meets every other month and is supplemented by quarterly meetings of a Land Use Survey Group, an External Funding Group and The
242
Development Officer Management Group. A Development Officer has been in post since January 2000, and he is responsible for collating the annual planting programme, liasing with appropriate grant-making organisations, and drawing up a Business Plan for the Forest, in consultation with the project partners. A standard price of 12,000/ ha. (approximately = 19,675/ha.) has been agreed between the partners for the C establishment of new woodland. This guarantees funding for a five-year establishment period, and although the cost may seem high, it does include a contingency sum of 5,000 (= 8,195) which can be claimed should poor site conditions demand additional C investment to ensure that robust woodland is quickly established. Community liaison is particularly important, and to help with that task in the multi-ethnic communities of the industrial areas of Yorkshire, the White Rose Forest leaflets have been produced in a number of ethnic minority languages. The Development Officer has a heavy workload, and in September of this year, funding was secured to appoint a White Rose Forest Partnership Manager, initially for a period of a year, to take on some of this load, but with the additional remit to promote the project politically and commercially. Priority areas for planting have been identified, which include: - Transport corridors; - river valleys; - the old coalfield area; - extensions to existing local initiatives; - areas of social and economic deprivation; and - potential links between significant existing woodlands.
Future developments
Thus, significant achievements have already been made, but what of the future? It was always envisaged that it would take a generation to achieve the White Rose Forest, and although the momentum is building up, the amount of new planting achieved to date is lower than had been hoped, only 44 ha of new woodland having been planted between the 1998/99 and 2000/2001 planting seasons. The Foot and Mouth epidemic in the UK during the spring and early summer of 2001 was partially responsible for these low figures during the last planting season, because access to potential planting land was prohibited. However, the momentum is building up with the 2001/2 seasons programme being about 40 ha, and the figures for 2002/3 and 2003/4 are provisionally 54 ha and 60 ha respectively. It has also proved necessary to draw up a legal agreement between the partners, primarily so that the White Rose Forest can access grant aid for tree planting or
243
research purposes. It is also a useful cement to bind the Partnership closer together in common purpose, which in turn assists the promotion of the project as a single entity. Finding a form of agreement that was acceptable to local authorities, public limited companies, voluntary organisations and charitable bodies has not been easy, but a Joint Venture Agreement has been drawn up. A final draft will be agreed by January 2002, and a high-profile media event will be staged in the spring of 2002 to re-state the commitment of the various partners to the project and to raise the political profile of the project in the region. Such activity is of crucial importance to the future success of the White Rose Forest. It is sometimes hard to persuade local politicians of the economic merits of a project such as the White Rose Forest. Large or regional scale environmental improvement initiatives such as this find themselves in competition with demands for funding from other large-scale projects, such as new business or commercial start-up support, infrastructure or transport projects, and it is becoming increasingly necessary to be able to justify environmental improvement investment programmes in terms of the economic benefits which will accrue as a result of their implementation. In other words, in order to secure appropriate levels of resourcing, both financially and in terms of land-use allocation, for regional-scale environmental improvement works, including urban forestry, there must be a sound economic rationale behind the proposals. The White Rose Forest has begun to do this. Figure 1 indicates the potential contributions that the White Rose Forest can make to Yorkshire Forwards Regional Economic Strategy (RES). Selected objectives from the RES have been chosen to illustrate the most significant contributions that the WRF can make. In order to deliver these significant contributions, and to progress urban forestry on a regional scale, the spectrum of people with whom urban foresters should be involved extends far beyond what might be termed urban tree people. It is likely to involve liaison with political and professional colleagues who, in the normal run of events, might not consider themselves to be pro-urban trees. One such liaison has occurred between the White Rose Forest Partnership and a regional organisation known as Concourse, a registered charity dedicated to the support and promotion of multi- and inter-disciplinary professional working in the construction and design industries. The dialogue with Concourse is significant, because Concourse has had discussions with the Council for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE), an organisation set up by the government to take over much of the role played by the Royal Fine Arts Commission in championing good design in the built environment. Part of CABEs remit is to set up Regional Centres for the Built Environment, in conjunction with all the professional institutes associated with the
244
Objective 3: to attract and retain more investment by providing the right product for investors and more effective marketing of the Region: Deliverables: A) Market the Region more effectively: Delivery through the WRF: Woodland planting to improve the major transport corridors, eg. targeting key sites along the motorway network with the Highways Agency. Promote Yorkshire as an increasingly green place to live and work.
B) Increase inward investment:
Objective 5: Implement targeted, community-based regeneration programmes to improve the living standards of the Regions most deprived communities: Deliverables: A) Develop sustainable neighbourhoods: C) Increase the capacity of individuals, local groups and businesses to be effective partners, to influence decisions and to participate in Regional initiatives: D) Regenerate the regions town and city centres: E) Encourage community enterprise: Delivery through the WRF: Working with local communities to improve their local environment Through participation in the development and delivery of schemes, and the acquisition of skills and experience.
Through street tree and city centre arboretum projects, contributing to highquality urban landscapes. Work with local Groundwork Trusts on community enterprises ( eg Wakefield and the proposal for a Community Forester.
Objective 6: getting the best out of the Regions physical assets and conserving and enhancing its environmental assets: Deliverables: C) Optimise the availability of land and property for business: E) Protect and enhance the Regions environment: Delivery through the WRF: The establishment of a wooded landscape infrastructure, contributing to the supply of high-quality sites for development. Directly through woodland establishment on disused and derelict land, and indirectly from the environmental benefits of tree cover (eg. improved air quality). The establishment and management of woodland for recreational use and the sustainable harvesting of woodland for
G) Promote initiatives to make better use of natural resources:
Figure 1. Selected objectives of yorkshire forwards regional economic strategy deliverable by the White Rose Forest (WRF).
245
built environment, as well as networks of artists and other agencies. This was one of the recommendations of Richard Rogers Urban Task Force, and was endorsed by the governments Urban White Paper (DETR 2000). The likely location for the Yorkshire & Humber Regional Centre is Leeds, although there will be several satellite centres in other towns and cities around the region. There is cross-party political backing for the project, and urban forestry and the White Rose Forest Partnership have been in on the ground floor of these negotiations. The application and bid to CABE for setting up the initial phase of this centre was submitted on 31st October 2001.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it was always intended that, as well as providing a catalyst for the social, economic and environmental regeneration of the Yorkshire Region, the White Rose Forest would act as a forum for the partners to exchange ideas, experiences and information, and to provide opportunities for cross-authority, multi-disciplinary working, training and research. Indeed, this was deemed to be essential, if progress was to be made in promoting urban forestry within the region and expanding its influence. It has taken a while for this sort of activity to get off the ground, but initiatives have started to develop. One such initiative that will hopefully bear fruit in the future is investigating the concept of green asset management. All local authorities in England are required by central government to draw up an Asset Management Plan, which is reviewed annually. In assessing which assets should be included in the Plan, two questions are asked. First, is there a maintenance liability associated with the asset?, and secondly, is there an opportunity cost associated with the holding of the asset? To date, this has been defined narrowly, and it is only really the property portfolio of the local authority that features in these Asset Management Plans, together with prime areas of developable land, if there are any in local authority ownership. There are plans however to include other structures, such as bridges, possibly public squares, art treasures and museum artefacts, and stocks and shares. But not trees, or woodlands, or urban green space generally. Why not? The selection criteria that deems what can be included in an Asset Management Plan would certainly apply to trees and urban forestry. Research and discussion within the Partnership have agreed that the economic value of a piece of commercial real estate depends just as much on where it is, as what it is. In other words, location is everything, and it can be responsible for up to two thirds of the value of a commercial asset. Urban forestry can help to create location, and in some cases, makes it entirely. Thus trees and urban forestry deserve to be included in every local authoritys Asset Management Plan, indeed it must if the concept of urban
246
forestry is to be accepted as a prime mover in the regional or local regeneration game. It will be interesting to see whether progress can be made with these discussions, and whether they turn out to be a good example of multi-disciplinary, cross-authority working and research. Professionals involved in urban forestry should understand the benefits of multidisciplinary working, and the creativity of the shared experience. We sometimes need to work hard at fanning the embers of the sort of productive relationships between individuals, groups or partners that cannot be easily defined, or legislated for, or organised or monitored, but where there is nevertheless a genuine delight in the culture of the shared experience and the resulting progress made. If such a working relationship can be achieved within the White Rose Forest Partnership, then it could well become a powerful model of an urban forestry-stimulated catalyst for regional regeneration for other regions to seriously consider.
References
DETR (1998).
The Regional Development Agency Act. Department of Environment, Transport & the Regions, London.
DETR (1999).
A better quality of life: A strategy for sustainable development in the UK. London.
DETR (2000).
Our towns and cities: The future delivering an urban renaissance. November 2000. Department of Environment, Transport & the Regions, London.
Forestry Commission (1998).
A focus for Englands woodlands - Strategic priorities and programmes: 16. Forestry Commission.
Groundwork Wakefield (2000).
The West Yorkshire Forest: A strategy report. Groundwork Wakefield.

LMU (1998).
The state of the region, A report for the Yorkshire and The Humberside Regional Development Agency. Leeds Metropolitan University, European Regional Business and Economic Development Unit, Leeds.
NUFU (1999).
The West Yorkshire Urban Forest : The planning context for a West Yorkshire Strategy. National Urban Forestry Unit, Wolverhampton.
247
NUFU (2000).
The White Rose Forest: A strategy for urban and rural renewal in West Yorkshire using trees and woodland. National Urban Forestry Unit, Wolverhampton.
Simson AJ (in press).
Regional Regeneration and the White Rose Forest. Paper given to IUFROs 4th European Forum on Urban Forestry, May 2000. Durham, UK. Proceedings.
Yorkshire Forward (1999a).
Yorkshire and Humber Regional Planning Guidance: 58. Yorkshire Forward, Leeds.
Yorkshire Forward (1999b).
Turning the vision into reality: A regional economic strategy for Yorkshire and Humber. Yorkshire Forward, Leeds.
248
Challenges of Neighbourhood Participation in City-Scale Urban Green-space Planning

Ann Van Herzele Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Human Ecology. Laarbeeklaan 103, B1090 Brussel, Belgium
Abstract
This paper deals with an unique example of how an active strategy of internal and external negotiation together with the early involvement of public actors led to consensus for creating a new 17 ha park in a former railway yard in the city of Antwerp (northern Belgium). Comparable experiments abroad have shown that involving the public in large-scale urban renewal plans is quite problematic. The main obstacles are the multiple-level interests, the diversity of stakeholders, the long time span and the abstract level of the discussions. In addition, it is difficult to provide an overview of the large scale of this project with its somewhat unlimited possibilities and alternatives. In an attempt to cope with these problems, informal participatory workshops involving key actors were organised parallel to and interactively with the formal visionary process. The aims were to generate a creative input from the public and to initiate a participatory process in the long term. Based on these experiences, this paper aims to summarise and discuss a vision on the approach of participatory planning for large-scaled urban greening.
Key Words: urban greenspace, public participation, greenspace planning.
Introduction
The participation of people in shaping their local environment plays a central role in the creation of liveable neighbourhoods. Although there is a trend to base planning processes on broad discussion and an interactive dialogue, and the number of groups getting involved and their powers are increasing, individual citizens hardly get a chance to participate in this market of negotiations. The willingness of local authorities to provide space for them to take part in the planning process is often limited to the level of their direct living environment. Consequently, projects planned on a higher level for example where city issues are at stake - often lack public understanding because the impact on the surrounding neighbourhoods is neglected. On the other hand, wellmeaning attempts and experiences have shown that involving the public in large-scale urban renewal plans is quite problematic. The large scale of the plans bring many obstacles to effective public involvement such as the diversity of the stakeholders, the
249
multiple levels of interest, the long time span and the abstract level of the discussions. In addition, it is difficult to provide an overview of the large scale of the project with its manifold possibilities and alternatives. This paper addresses possible approaches to acting and organising in the face of those obstacles related to the complex situation of a the visionary process for an urban renewal project in a former railway yard in the city of Antwerp. The case was chosen as it demonstrates so many challenges shared much more broadly.
Study context
The planning process concerns a former railway yard (24 ha) which is situated in the northern part of Antwerp, the district of Antwerp North (Flanders, northern Belgium), between the city centre and the port of Antwerp. The surrounding, denselybuilt neighbourhoods provide housing to over 35,000 inhabitants and are characterised by low income levels, unemployment, high percentage of migrants, poor urban design etc. In addition, a recent study (Van Herzele et al. 2000, Van Herzele & Wiedemann in press) showed that the neighbourhoods of Antwerp North are the most problematic in the supply of green spaces on different functional levels. In April 2001 the city government established a three step planning procedure. In the first step an internal consensus was reached on the future role of the area and the preconditions for development. The largest part (17 ha) was designated to become a park and the remaining area in the western side for business development. In autumn 2001 a successful external negotiation with the property owner, the Railway Company, was finished. In the third step the city will conduct the further project development in co-operation with other parties involved. Activities in this phase will be the clean up of the soils, the draw up of the land use plan and the organisation of an architectural competition. This paper deals with the first step of the planning procedure in which the city aims to create clarity about the objectives and to speak with one voice during the external negotiations. It particularly draws on the experiences from the study Groen op het Spoor (Van Herzele 2001) which was commissioned by the city authority to support the visionary process. This study was meant to provide essential elements for the underpinning of the park idea, as well as to answer the many questions on where and what kind of greening should be developed. In the framework of this study a participatory approach was developed with the aim to generate a creative input from the public and to initiate a participatory process in the long term.
250
Critical issues and obstacles to effective involvement

To develop an appropriate approach this study started to consider a range of critical issues in large-scale planning contexts. These issues make social interaction and more particularly the engagement of the wider public most difficult. The overview is based on the exploration of comparable experiences elsewhere and the observations made in this case. It seemed that even in largely different contexts, planning in large-scale urban development shares many challenges.
Many alternatives
Large-sized open spaces, especially when located in densely built areas provide a somewhat unlimited array of possibilities and alternatives for development. In contrast, there is limited room to manoeuvre, as urban development increasingly needs to act in a market-led world where productivity and financial benefits are in the centre of attention. In this context the creation of greening is often seen as a visually attractive adjunct or as an environmentally conscious backdrop to development rather than as a necessary element to support the quality of life. In addition, the shift in landuse policy towards a more compact city form puts first pressure on those open spaces, which have so far remained undeveloped. In many examples the conflicting requirements of providing space for business, housing and infrastructure and the demand of the residents for green spaces have constrained the participation process as the polarisation of those demands has deadlocked communication.
Multiple-level interests
Even when green space creation gets a serious chance in the development process conflicts of interest are likely to arise from the wide range of claims for attention. In case of large development areas the geographical area of interest is not easily recognisable to both local authorities and inhabitants. Empirical studies do assume that green spaces fulfil different functions at different levels (see: Van Herzele & Wiedemann in press). City parks, for example, may have significance to the totality of an urban area for recreation, while at the same time they have a strong connection with the very local popular culture and social life. In a participatory process dealing with large spaces, conflicts may arise between the everyday needs of the immediate community and the demands of the larger community. In addition, there often exists a drive to use urban development (including city parks) as a prestige object and even as a marketing promotion feature, presenting the city as attractive for investment, tourism etc.
Complexity in decision-making
Decision-making involved on the level of large developments, which is a very strategic one, is inherently political rather than technical. Planners might be strongly influenced
251
by political pressures and external circumstances such as budgetary constraints rather than being driven from an articulated view of community needs. Moreover, negotiations operate in a multiplicity of formal and informal arenas and microprocesses within institutions and among local business interests may play a prominent role. The complexity and confidentiality of negotiations and the unpredictability of outcomes are extremely difficult to manage in face of the public. On the other hand lack of openness may cause uncertainty and distrust among the public and consequently block their willingness to participate.
Abstract level of discussions
A common question in participatory planning is the difficulty to engage people with strategic level planning where issues are discussed at a higher level of abstraction without being made concrete in practical measures. Many examples have shown that only when plans become tangible or conceivable participants become active. On the other hand, planners may feel hindered when too detailed issues are raised at this level of general strategic choices.
Long time span
Involving people in a planning process does arouse expectations and hopes for the future. In the case of a large-scale development, realisations in the field will probably only become visible after many years. Continuation in communication over such a long time span is difficult to organise and is often constrained by a loss of engagement among participants. Moreover, on the short term local residents will be confronted with the inconveniences caused by works in the area, which may also be conductive to its negative image.
Vision on the participatory approach

Following the objectives of the study and in response to the described methodological challenges, a vision on the overall approach was developed. It is described using five key characteristics. In an effort to make the vision on the approach more concrete, the description of each refers to practical experiences from application in this case.
Defining the areas role as a whole
It was seen as crucial to first decide on the role and main function of the area as a whole by means of describing clear alternatives from the very beginning of the process. In the case of Antwerp North many uncertainties have arisen about the new role of the railway yard during the past years. Residents and neighbourhood groups have been requesting a park for several years. Within the city departments, however, diverse development scenarios have been proposed ranging from industrial
252
development or the construction of a road to the creation of a park. It was decided to assess the main scenarios using a Geograhical Information System (GIS) tool for the detection of their impact on the supply of green spaces on different functional levels (see: Van Herzele & Wiedemann in press). In a first step the deficiencies of green spaces supply within the potential catchment area of the railway yard were assessed on two functional levels (city quarter or 800 m and city district or 1600 m). Next a simulation exercise was carried out using the different development scenarios discussed during that time. The results were linked to the demographic data of the neighbourhoods located within the catchment areas. The results were discussed in the first Thinking Day of the formal visionary process (see the next paragraph). Based on the quantitative results, the participating officials were given the choice between a park with importance for the surrounding neighbourhoods or a park with importance for a considerable part of the city. The latter opinion was adopted, which means that it was decided that the park should have an unbroken surface of at least 10 ha and greenspace should be the dominant function of the former railway yard. Supported by this decision, the planners were able to develop a first planning concept, which was presented for discussion in the first participatory workshop. The experience from this case was that the visualisation of the impact of the different development scenarios has helped the city officials to see how the proposed scenarios will change the deficiencies and has supported the choice for the park idea as the main function of the area. In this very early planning phase the quantitative assessment using GIS has worked as strategic ammunition leading to quickly balancing a series of competing claims and interests by quantifying the more intangible benefits of urban greening. Moreover, the decision made about the park scenario in the first Thinking Day has allowed for a more open discussion in the workshops about the park qualities without arousing false hopes.
A parallel process of formal and informal visioning
The visionary process established by the city government used the format of three Thinking Days. Administrators from different city departments as well as politicians and external experts were invited by the city planning team to develop a shared vision on the function of the area and to set preconditions for development. During the meetings the city officials worked together in prioritising between often conflicting goals (e.g. the demand for housing provision, the adequacy of transportation, the citys vision on economic development, the lack of green-space) and in negotiating about the proposed planning concept for development using feasibility requirements. Parallel to this internal negotiation forum two participatory meetings were organised within the framework of the Groen op het Spoor study. In contrast with the formal visionary procedure, these meetings operated with a creative orientation, involving key actors
253
for discussion in Creative Workshops. About forty people collaborated, being representatives of neighbourhood groups, local schools, ethnic minorities, public agencies (culture, sports, housing, crime prevention, sustainable development, etc.), business actors, regeneration practitioners, health workers, youth workers, a priest, and so forth, and independent local residents as well. The objective was to create a free and informal setting which could provide distance from pressures: no decisions to make, no interests to defend etc., and give participants greater freedom to pursue ways of thinking. At the beginning of the first workshop the city planning team presented their first conceptual ideas which were used as a starting point for discussion. During the second workshop the planners presented new ideas and solutions in response to the outcome of the first one and raised issues to be explored more in detail in workshop activities. A constant and main concern of the Groen op het Spoor study has been the interaction between both processes and in particular the implementation of the ideas from the workshops into the formal process. However, as the outcome of the Creative Workshops could not be predicted - some scepticism was even apparent in the planning team - implementation could not be foreseen at the outset. The outcome was successful and was taken on board by the planning team in producing their planning concept and it was decided to present the workshop results in the third Thinking Day. There the ideas from the workshops were welcomed as high quality and it was decided to also include the workshop minutes into the Consensus Note (2001), which was the end product of the visionary process. As a formal document it was approved by the city government in September 2001 and has gone through the external negotiation process in October 2001 In this case, the parallel construction allowed for flexibility, improvisation and reflective reasoning both in the concept development by the planners and the organisation of interactions between the two processes. The creative workshop approach has enabled to interactively build rich ideas, to freely exchange interests and concerns within a wide scope of possibilities and in direct contact with the professionals. A main element is that such settings are more likely to provide quick and optimal results as polarisation of interests is less likely to occur. Furthermore, the outcome could provide a creative input to the formal policy forum where more instrumental and rational considerations were dominating the discourses. However, the informal forum was not always able to stay clear from strategic considerations. This was particularly clear where the desirability of business development in a part of the area was discussed. The participants felt that they had to anticipate the external negotiations with the property owner by providing the necessary feasibility conditions.
Mixed level involvement
In the context of a large-scale development it is important to simultaneously
254
concentrate on small areas of neighbourhoods and gain insight in the wider strategic context. Therefore, it has been the purpose from the start to encourage local actors to think beyond their own circle of neighbourhood relations and to link actors operating at higher city levels (e.g. involved in tourism, cycling routes, cultural heritage) with the diversity of local situations. The creative workshops were designed as a mixed level negotiation platform for people to identify with interests and considerations at different city levels (from very local to city level). The multiple level interests were clearly reflected in the discussions during the workshops. Considerations were simultaneously given to a variety of functional levels ranging from the surrounding neighbourhoods to the whole city and even wider. High hopes were expressed, for example, for the fact that the development of a park in this area should turn the current negative image of deprived neighbourhoods into a positive one. It was generally taken for granted that people from outside the surrounding neighbourhoods should be attracted to the park. This should make the neighbourhoods more important within the context of the whole city. However, an important precondition was that the wider level is not equal to large-scaled functions or events. The balance between both levels needs careful attention so that the park will be both of significance in the every day life of the people who live nearby and a valued symbol of where they live. From participants reactions after the workshops it became clear that the mixed level approach has had a learning effect in widening participants perspectives. Existing relations were seen in a different context and this has influenced the content of the discourse. Moreover, participants have not only begun to see anothers point of view but also could break away from assumptions taken for granted about each others ways of thinking. City officials were surprised, for example, that the locals were thinking in a much wider scope than they had expected and vice versa, local residents were surprised that officials working at the city level were thinking along the same lines as they do.
Focus on the quality of discourse
In a planning process where place creation is the clear purpose, peoples involvement is not only about the creation of a collectively shared vision but also about the goal of usable changes worth making and to reach acceptance towards action. In the case described here, the quality of discourse was seen a main argument for implementation. Therefore it was the aim to undertake great efforts to stimulate the creative input from the workshop participants. The variety of participants was seen as a first element to bring in a diversity of knowledge and life experiences generating a rich and creative discourse. It was aimed to cover the main interests and controversies (leisure, sports, health, safety, youth, ethnic minorities etc), as well as to bring in people with a key position in neighbourhood surveillance, cultural events, schools, social welfare work, city tourism etc. About sixty people were personally invited and actively encouraged to
255
participate in two workshops. As a second element an informal setting was intended to stimulate a constructive debate. Interaction in small groups was used to encourage a wide range and form of understanding, to facilitate the expression of ideas, to illuminate different perspectives through debate within the group, to avoid preconceptions about the plan and to involve people more actively. Not everyone can be expected to easily engage themselves in the abstract, conceptual and systemised reasoning of plan making. Therefore, in the workshop approach it was seen as important to make room for manifold sorts of reasoning such as topic-oriented or detailed reasoning as well as reasoning on the whole picture. Although the proper way is to plan before designing and to design before managing, in this early planning phase practical reasoning on design or even management was not denied. In order to make the size and form more concrete, connections with the neighbourhoods were visualised by means of street plans on which the walkable area (400m) around the project was shown and participants were asked to draw attractive routes to the future park. To stimulate the brainstorm sessions, copies of the conceptual ideas and provocative images of park characters were also used. Outcomes were discussed in a plenary feedback meeting. In addition, contact with the planners during the workshops was considered an important pre-condition toward the implementation of ideas. Careful observation and reflection have enabled the planners to be responsive to the considerations and ideas expressed. In addition, much attention was given to the writing of the minutes as a supporting tool for implementation. In this case, the planning team has welcomed the workshop discussions as very constructive, providing them with new ideas as well as supporting them in their own ideas. Moreover, the output from the workshops has provided a wider base from which to argue during the Third Thinking Day of the formal visionary process. Although there was general agreement on the quality of the output, some critical notes were expressed on the representativeness of the ideas. The workshop participants who showed a more than average interest in public policy, did not really represent the general public and its average concerns and preferences. Another question emerging from the experience is the extent in which the discussion needs to be framed at the outset. Some of the participants felt that the first conceptual ideas presented by the planners at the start of the first workshop limited their creative thinking during the workshop discussions. In contrast, others expressed that those ideas stimulated their creative thinking. A clear limitation, however, was the short time span of the process. Processes of creative thinking need time. It seemed that during these two workshops several problems, options and ideas were left unexplored. On the other hand it is not realistic to expect participants to engage in long procedures as they might be too costly in terms of the time and the energy the participants have to invest.
256
Balancing openness and confidentiality
Openness during the whole process, from initiation to implementation and continuation is a pre-requisite for building trust among the public. A challenge therefore exists in bringing people into the participatory process at the very early stages of project development. Involving the wider public early in the process requires a high degree of openness which, however, is not always felt as being desirable in planning for large-scale development which is inherently strategic. In the case described the planning team was initially hesitating to open the doors for citizens as this could possibly affect the negotiations with the railway company and arouse false hopes among the local residents about the creation of a park in that area. Finding a balance between openness and confidentiality of information has been a continuous subject of discussion in the framework of the Groen op het Spoor study and between the citys planning and communication departments. It was only from the moment that the park scenario got accepted by the officials participating in the first Thinking Day that they agreed upon the workshop approach in the Groen op het Spoor study. Later on the discussion continued when the Consensus Note was made: what information can be given to the wider public and when? Then, the citys communication department took on an active role and organised an exhibition for the wider public. After heated debate it was decided to display the entire concept, along with a request for ideas, opinions and further questions. The exhibition was concluded with a talk caf, an informal public meeting where representatives of the city authority and railway company were brought together in a panel and were asked to react to the issues raised during the exhibition and in the public meeting held at a local caf. After the external negotiations more room was given to providing information more widely. Since then, the media are actively involved and the residents are regularly informed about the plan making by means of leaflets. Recently, a Planning for Real event was organised in which almost 200 people participated in providing their ideas about a range of design questions. Residents responding widely and enthusiastically to consultation does not usually happen as a result of one-off participatory events. In the long term the objective should be the infusing of ideas into the wide array of social networks. So far, a clear vision and active strategies on how to draw attention from a wider public are lacking. Wider forums, such as the organisation of the interactive exhibition create opportunities for generating new members, new ideas and feedback. However, as there was no strategy followed to establishing links with institutions (e.g. schools, social welfare work) and neighbourhood associations, only a limited section of the public was reached. In this case, it also appeared that residents who were already participating in the workshops or the exhibition, showed a range of expectations, uncertainties and even distrust about their real impact. The further development of the plan has to pay careful attention to continuation of effective communication. This is not an easy task in a context where political and external pressures as well as uncertainty about further
257
internal co-ordination make the further process less transparent. Also the legal context may not be favourable to participatory approaches, for example, the international design competitions rules exclude citizens from taking part in the evaluation of the design proposals.
Conclusions
The purpose of the participatory approach in this case was not to confront interests and viewpoints with each other and to reach a compromise, but to move people toward a common understanding of the issues and to create a sense of shared goals. The reactions from participants after the workshops suggest that a common understanding was a significant outcome. Through this process of making sense together, no one set of interests was predominating the discourse and the ideas expressed were linked up with the realities of local situations. However, as planning inherently seeks to connect knowledge and ideas to action, implementation to make them true is the real challenge. This case has shown that much strategic power of the visioning lies in co-ordination: the careful preparatory work and the flexible management of this intensive visionary process by a handful motivated people from the planning department as well as the elaborate workshop design in the Groen op het Spoor study. Most important are the exploration of the context in which approaches will be practised - which includes sensitivity to how social interactions and settings may shape the outcomes of participatory activities - and a flexible process management in order to integrate participatory outcomes with policy making. Flexibility was particularly important as objectives and targets were an output rather than an input to the process. In addition, a constant attention for new information and ideas that arise during the process is required. The most powerful tool for implementation, however, has been the quality of the discourse. Quality of discourse very much depends on the quality of the participants, the richness of their ideas and the way they are articulated, argued and mediated. The high quality mutual work of workshop participants and planners has resulted in a powerful strategic idea, which has gained acceptance among the decision-makers and is on its way to enter popular consciousness. The experience from this case, however, is limited to the very initial stage of visioning. The local population represents a huge potential, so far largely untapped, to deliver creative ideas, skills and manpower to contribute in the further planning, design and management of the new park. The challenge will be to explore and develop possible linkages between the idea development in formal planning and day-to-day processes not labelled officially as planning and designing. In addition, concerning the long time
258
span of the project, it is important to create a positive atmosphere around the project, showing people that things are changing and progress is being made. Nieuwinckel (1996) notes that a stimulating image of the city is needed to enable continuation of the creative generation of solutions: giving a positive meaning to urban culture is an important part of this. Each planning process based on consensus building will be unique in its organisation structure and will require particular mechanisms at various stages for involving local people in the development process. Nevertheless, it is hoped that some general lessons can be learned from this case and that its experiences will contribute to planning for urban greening that will no longer remain the exclusive domain of experts and authorities, but will become a playground for all those it is designed to serve.
Acknowledgements
The Groen op het Spoor study was carried out within the framework of the project Visieontwikkeling Spoorwegemplacement en Omgeving and financed by the Federaal Programma Grootstedenbeleid 2001. The author would like to thank all the workshop participants, the planning team and the regeneration department for collaboration in the activities and helpful feedback.
References
Herzele A Van (2001).
Groen op het Spoor (Green on the Rail). Supporting study in: OB/planningscel.. Het grootstedenbeleid van de federale regering. Spoorwegemplacement en Omgeving. Consensusnota, October 2001.
Herzele A Van, Wiedemann T & Overmeire M Van (2000).
Stedelijk Milieu (Urban Environment). In: Steertegem M Van (Ed) Milieu- en Natuurrapport Vlaanderen MIRA-S 2000. Vlaamse Milieumaatschappij & Garant Uitgevers NV, Leuven/Apeldoorn.
Herzele A Van & Wiedemann T (in press).
A Monitoring Tool for the Provision of Accessible and Attractive Green Spaces. Article accepted for publication in Landscape and Urban Planning.
Nieuwinckel S (1996).
De Wonderjaren Voorbij? Wijkontwikkeling in Antwerpen. In: De Decker P, Hubeau B & Nieuwinckel S (Eds) In de ban van stad en wijk. EPO Berchem.
OB/planningscel (2001).
Het grootstedenbeleid van de federale regering. Spoorwegemplacement en Omgeving. Consensusnota.
259
Urban Forestry in India and Nepal

Klaus Seeland Chair of Forest Policy and Forest Economics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland
Introduction
By the year 2025, it is expected that two thirds of the worlds population will live in developing countries and the majority of them in and around cities. Urbanisation is a phenomenon in history, a development process characterising the rise of civilisation all over the world caused by a social division of labour and the development of political and social institutions. Urbanisation in non-European cultures, particularly with the advent of colonial expansion in the two Americas, in Africa and most parts of Asia, has been marked by a process of demographic and cultural change and in recent decades by a rapid population growth. Whereas the pre-colonial capitals of those areas were centres of state power and administration or the stronghold of tribal rulers, these were either transformed to colonial cities representing the culture of the new rulers, or new settlements were founded that developed from fortifications and commercial towns into colonial cities. Urban development itself often was, and with respect to economic globalisation still is, a legacy of European political domination and expansion in overseas areas. Social inequality and political domination was thus a structural characteristic of colonial urban development in the South. Along with rather stable political conditions during the period of colonial rule and the improvement of health services, a tremendous increase of the population contributed to an even more rapid growth of large cities. During the 20th century there was a remarkable drain of rural poor and landless people searching for alternative sources of livelihood to the cities. Settlements that were planned for a few thousands of inhabitants grew to large agglomerations hosting millions of people living with inadequate infrastructure. When the colonial period came to an end and the previous colonies became independent states, urban growth still used to continue and often with a much higher speed than before. Industrialisation and ambitious targets of economic growth encouraged people to move to the cities. Thus regional and social unbalanced development within the developing countries accelerated.
Major problems of urban environments in developing countries

The deterioration of living conditions, living standard and quality of the environment in urban and peri-urban areas in developing countries is not always perceived by municipal authorities as a deficient situation. It has become, however, an all-pervading
261
phenomenon they have to cope with. Crisis management tries to avoid the collapse of the metropolises and to provide at least the most vital and basic services to the public such as electricity and water supply, waste and sewage water disposal, traffic, health services and security. Public administration has severe difficulties to meet proper urban livelihood standards due to a lack of finances and administrational capacities. An inherent inertia of the administrational staff and the politically responsible decision makers who sometimes show a lack of motivation as only few believe that there is a chance for a change for the better. This hampers the process of finding solutions to the manifold problems connected to the administration of large agglomerations. Taking all difficult circumstances into account one must admit that quick solutions to the vast field of problems for a public green space policy in developing countries are not at hand at the moment. However, the situation aggravates silently and there is definitely an urgent need for solutions at almost any level of the problem scenario. In a nutshell, the major problems of public green space management in urban areas in developing countries are:

increasing population rate / over-population migration from rural areas to the large agglomerations air (toxic gases, heat and dust) and water pollution little problem awareness among the public little or no support by politicians concerning green space and related matters solid waste disposal problems lack of hygiene and sanitation poverty creates slum and squatter areas encroachment of wastelands by in-migrating people from rural areas, mostly with herds of domestic animals lack of open free space in and around cities
As the situation varies to a great extent depending on the country one looks at, we will take India and Nepal as examples for steps that have been taken at the political and the implementation level. Both countries are located in South Asia, but vary in size and degree of urbanisation as well as in many other aspects. They have a common Hindu tradition, mentality and culture and share similar approaches to face the challenges of urban green space management. Both countries in principle have a top-down-approach to the management of their nationalised forests and have recently turned to social and community forestry schemes based on participation intending to favour a decentralised and more democratic management of forests and forest resources. These participatory approaches have been, based on the experiences that were made in joint forest management (India) and community forestry (Nepal), partly tried to extend to the management of urban green spaces as well. Firstly, let us have a look at India and then at Nepal.
262
Participatory urban green space management in India

Urban demographics in India in the 20th century show a tremendous growth. According to census data, The population of the 384 urban agglomerations increased more than ten times from approximately 30 million in 1901 to 307 million one hundred years later. In 2001 more than 30 percent of the Indian population lived in cities and the official growth rate against 1991 was 41 per cent. The actual growth is generally suspected to be much higher. Unregulated growth due to immigration from the countryside to slums and squatter settlements that are inhabited by a large number of unregistered people who are not recorded in any statistics. The administrational set-up of public environmental management in India is divided into three levels: the Ministry of Urban Development (Indian Union) at the central government level, the State level, the district level and finally the level of the metropolitan authorities. The legal basis for environmental legislation at present is the 74th Amendment Act to the Indian Constitution, 1992. It focuses particularly on urban agglomerations, as they are the most relevant centres of economic growth and generation of surplus value as well as modern development. It allots particular political importance to municipal bodies (power, competence and finances) with the objective of supporting local self-government through deregulation and decentralisation. In this regard the 12th Schedule of the Indian Constitution enables municipal bodies to initiate among other measures for, e.g.:
urban planning regulation of land use and construction of buildings planning for economic and social development water supply public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid waste management provision of urban amenities and facilities (parks, gardens and playgrounds) cremation grounds
These initiatives are relevant sectors of planning and management as far as urban green space in the widest sense is concerned. There is a lot of management capacity, political responsibility and financial resources and competence involved, marking an empowerment of the municipal authorities. It is therefore important that they are not too disperse and distributed over several levels of public administration. The major types of measures that have been taken up in the green sector over the recent decades are:
263
Urban Community Forestry (e.g. in Ahmedabad, Gujarat) Urban community forestry is by and large an adaptation of the principles and practices of community forestry to urban conditions. Major objectives are the exclusion of unauthorised land users, free riders illegally appropriating green space products such as e.g. flowers, fruits, fuel wood or leaf fodder, squatters encroaching on public green space, etc. The goal of urban community forestry is a joint management of the respective municipal authorities with the legitimate users (registered groups of tax paying town dwellers) who have been allotted with an area of green space in order to manage and to care for it. Usually they are entitled to usufruct rights for a certain time that has agreed upon in a contract. Greenbelts (e.g. in New Delhi; in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh) Greenbelts around the metropolitan area or at the outskirts of the inner city, where there is no or only little space for public green areas, provide the agglomeration with a cordon sanitaire, a large green space surrounding the core built area with meadows, parks, broad alleys and forests on public land. Green Partnership Projects being a co-operation of NGO, industrial enterprises, Government Departments, and private and public international donors Green partnership projects are the most recent developments in the green space management sector uniting institutions and voluntary agencies in their efforts to contribute to the upgrading of public green space, providing funds and managerial expertise under prevailing conditions of small administrational budgets. These measures always link social and environmental objectives such as income generation for the urban and peri-urban poor with tree planting, nursing, watering, protecting saplings, and so forth. Major objectives are poverty eradication and the improvement of the environmental living conditions including air quality (by reducing the number of old and extremely air polluting vehicles), solid waste disposal and the supply of safe drinking water. Anti-land speculation measures and the upgrading of waste lands suitable for urban agriculture and urban forestry, mainly through fencing, afforestation and enrichment planting are important objectives in urban green space policy and management. Womens clubs, youth clubs and religious institutions are providing opportunities for self-employment by establishing school gardens and nurseries, temple forests to enhance diversity of tree species and medicinal plants. Indias mega-cities such as Mumbai (Bombay) with 13 million, Calcutta with 11 million, Delhi with 9 million and Chennai (Madras) with almost 6 million inhabitants, to mention only the largest ones, are urban landscapes of their own. Excluding Mumbai, which is an exception due to its location on a rather small peninsular, they are very much outspread, including forests, pastures and agricultural land for horticulture and
264
livestock keeping for the production of dairy products. Much intensified industrial production areas and densely built service oriented housing quarters with a large informal sector absorbs lots of land and labour in urban agglomerations. To compensate for these living conditions in a hot sub-tropical country, this requires green space areas to provide air circulation and free space to roam around under shady trees in a cool breeze, where lawn and flowers counterbalance the monotonous townscape of mostly functional buildings. The aesthetic requirements combined with practical amenities matter a lot for the satisfaction of basic quality of life standards in a country where a substantial part of the urban population lives below the poverty line.
Urban community forestry management in Nepal

Nepal is a landlocked country located at the southern slopes of the Central Himalayan Range covering an altitude between 70 m and 8,848 m above sea level and an area of 147,181 km2. Since 1991 Nepal is a constitutional monarchy with a population of about 25 million people in 2000, who are predominantly Hindus, and an annual population growth rate of 2.5 per cent. The country ranges among the economically least developed with a per capita income of US $ 210. It is country with a remarkable rural-urban migration and a high rate of dependence on forest products of all sections of the population. With the new Nepalese Constitution of 1990, democratisation and decentralisation was promoted all over the country. In 1993 a strong Forest User Group Committee movement based on (1) a strong tradition of independent village communities, (2) strong self esteem of castes and ethnic groups, and (3) self-reliance and economic subsistence was encouraged by local NGOs, the newly established political parties and international development donor support. The socio-cultural values and ecological traditions of highly independent mountain communities have been transferred to urban livelihood conditions during the last decade. Urban life in Nepal, which is still mostly an agrarian country, has a more or less rural character. Cities, perhaps apart from the capital Kathmandu, being an agglomeration of several towns with an estimated population of about one million in 2001, are big villages. This facilitates the transfer and application of community development and community forestry programmes to urban areas. The alienation of the population from natural renewable resources through the Forest Act of 1957 by which all forests were nationalised has been counterbalanced by decentralisation and the local self-management of forests in the wake of the community forestry programme. This programme was established for the first time in 1978. It was tried to transfer the mostly good experiences with community forestry in the mid-hills of Nepal to urban and peri-urban areas of central and southern lowland Nepal. Urban forestry is yet little developed and shares many of its problems with Indian cities, as the social and cultural conditions of both countries are rather similar.
265
Obstacles to sound urban forest management are a strong social hierarchy and inequality of status and power due to the Hindu caste system and corruption in the administration is common. Transgressions to the protected urban forests of other users than those who are entitled to use and manage the forests in and around the cities is one major problem caused mainly by poverty and sometimes by the illegal appropriation of timber and non-wood forest products by traders. Another form of mismanagement in the urban forestry sector is caused by wealthy and influential people who illegally fell trees to construct buildings or cut access roads to their houses through urban forests or clear-fell plots of urban forests to convert them into building sites. However, even if urban forest protection schemes work well, there is a danger of further degradation of non-protected forests in the vicinity or that the poorest people who rely most on irregular use of forest produce are excluded from their customary rights of small-scale exploitation. Furthermore, access to forest user groups, rural or urban, is more often than not denied to the poorest and low status people. Thus community forestry can be an ambiguous approach to protect forest as social equity is difficult to be achieved. The possibility of turning the rural poor to even more marginal people and make them living in a state of misery is something that has to be paid attention to. If neglected, this may raise opposition, if not obstruction, with the increasing portion of the lower and lowest urban as well as rural sections of the society. The intention of the community forestry programme in Nepal is, however, as far as the present political circumstances allow, a socially equal, not individual appropriation of economic benefits. And not at least it heads for sustainability of forest management through re-investment of a reasonable portion of the profit drawn from the managed forests into seedling production, planting, fencing and patrolling. This is a commitment that is a contractual obligation and precondition for handing over a forest to a forest user group.
Conclusion
Urban forestry in India and Nepal, as in many other developing countries, is a domain of self-management or joint management of locally appropriated resources in which social objectives in focus through and in combination with urban environmental management. Social cohesion is enhanced through co-operation of members of forest user groups, neighbouring communities who care for the quarters green space, as well as through government institutions and non-governmental organisations, national, regional and local. Administration is often by-passed, like in Nepal, where a lack in staff capacities slows down the process of democratising the forests or urban forestry tends to become a grass-roots movement such as in more and more municipalities in India.
266
One aspect that gets less attention with the rise of the community forestry programme and the decline of commercial timber harvesting oriented forestry, however, is the aspect of national equity. The benefits of urban community forestry go primarily to the immediate users and to people who feel concerned and participate actively in it. There is little or no nation-wide distribution or appropriation in the form of revenue drawn from the forest, as was the case when forests were commercially exploited by the state. Decentralisation and democratisation of forest use and management focuses on a more direct access to, use of and responsibility for forests and green space in a communitys surroundings. The political legitimacy of urban community forestry lies in its service to the whole urban society. It is not an exclusive appropriation of economic benefits or profits, but meant to be a contribution to the urban society as a whole. Provided that town and country implement community forestry as a societal assignment based on broad co-operation, it may serve the quality of the forest as it may benefit the society. The examples of India and Nepal show ample hope that exclusive state administration may not be the only way to handle forests and urban green space for good, but that there are other ways of a socially and environmentally sustainable use and management of these common pool resources.
267
Informing the public about the ecological impact of different methods for road and pavement winter maintenance in Vienna
Monika Sieghardt and Martin Wresowar Institute of Forest Ecology, University of Agricultural Sciences. Vienna, Austria
Abstract
For city administrations in northern and middle Europe a severe conflict exists between the public demand for unrestricted mobility during winter season and the demand for keeping urban vegetation alive. On behalf of the municipality of Vienna an environmental compatibility evaluation of road and pavement winter maintenance methods was carried out reviewing scientific and public literature and own respective research as well. Most de-icing products in trade are promoted as being ecologically completely harmless even when containing hazardous chemicals. Users can sometimes hardly distinguish how the chemical declaration and recommended application doses correlate with actual application fields and temperatures and what is the ecological impact of the concerned product. The study includes the following winter maintenance products: Gravel and expended clay (EC); halogenides (NaCl, MgCl2, CaCl2 and mixtures), K2CO3; N-containing de-icers (ammonium sulphate and urea). Model calculations based on the ecological impact of the concerned product and on different settings like type and quantity of de-icer, tree size and soil surface area lead to the following environmental compatibility ranking for different methods of winter road and pavement maintenance:
Gravel = EC >> EC+Urea = EC+K2CO3 >> ammoniumsulphate NaCl+CaCl2>NaCl Urea K2CO3 >
Key words: de-icingagents, eco-toxicology
Introduction
For city administrations in northern and middle Europe a severe conflict exists between the public demand for unrestricted mobility during the winter season and the demand for keeping urban vegetation alive. In Vienna the use of common salt as de-
269
icer is restricted by order. Especially on pathways, minor roads, playgrounds, biking ways and parking areas the use of alternative de-icers is encouraged. Some of these alternative de-icing agents have a high nitrogen content. In Vienna a municipal institution called ko-Kauf Wien (translated as ecological buying Vienna) exists. In the project, information is collected to make ecologicalorientated decisions when buying different equipment or rolling stock. This institution consists of a changing number of administrative departments and working groups as well as of experts for special fields, who can be co-opted according to necessity. On behalf of the city department for environmental protection, which is part of koKauf Wien, an environmental compatibility evaluation of winter road maintenance products was carried out. Our task was to review the respective scientific and public literature as well as own research in that field. The output of this evaluation was extended knowledge on the environmental impact of different road winter maintenance practices. Results can be seen at the homepage of the department (http:/ /www.wien.gv.at/ma22/pool/doc/auftaumittel_abs.pdf) as well as a public abstract of the main results to be included in an information leaflet for city inhabitants. The review focuses on comparing conservative de-icing agents like NaCl, or CaCl2 and MgCl2, and so-called alternative de-icers like potassium carbonate and Ncontaining de-icers like urea and ammonium sulphate. We tried to answer the following questions: - Which products are applied and in trade for winter road maintenance: what is on the market?; which names are used?; how is the chemical declaration of these products?; what are the advertisement strategies of the traders? - What are the fields of application for different winter maintenance products: what is used for highways, roads, airports, pathways, pedestrian zones, parking areas, biking ways, and playgrounds? - How effective are different winter maintenance methods? - What is the ecological impact of different winter maintenance products? - Which figures provide a simple tree/soil model concerning the impact of applications of different de-icers?
Traded winter maintenance products

Table 1 summarises some traded products for Austria and gives information about temperature limits and application fields. Gravel and expanded clay are the ecologically most harmless products, but they are ineffective in terms of traffic security. Moreover, they involve high removal costs and problems in the sewage systems and because of dust emission they are not well accepted by the public. In terms of eco-balance expanded clay comes off worse than gravel, because of high energy input during
270
Table 1. Properties of different traded winter maintenance products.

Product Gravel Expanded Clay Anti-Gliss Salt CaCl2 DI-Mix Streumittel G- 149 ICE-Remover Monroe x-73, Ice-Melter, Arkas Eisfresser Greeny Eisschmelzer, Floralis Streudas, Eskimo K2CO3 Leca-Tau Sole D, Polar-Ultra-Grip Leca-Tau, ko-Tau Polar-Eis-Stop, Murexin-Eis-Ex Plantabon Eisex
271
Production quarry clay burned at 1200 C clay burned at 1200 C rock- or seasalt by-product of soda mixture mixture mixture gravel + brine potash, potas-siumhydroxide expanded clay + brine expanded clay + brine mixture
Constituents basalt, dolomite light expanded clay aggregates clay aggregates Na (39,3 %) Cl (60,7 %) ++ Ca (28 %) Cl (51 %) 70 % NaCl 30 % CaCl2 96 % CaCl2, 2% MgCl2, 2 % NaCl 91 % CaCl2, 9 % unsoluble 85 % gravel, 15 % NaCl K2CO3 EC aggregates + 15 % K2CO3 light expanded clay aggregates + (NH2)2CO (NH4)2SO4 67-80 % (NH4)2SO4 5-11 % (NH4)3PO4 12-17 % (NH2)2CO 2-5 % unsoluble
+
Grain Size variabel variabel variabel 0,15-5 mm 3-3,5 mm 3 mm variabel variabel variabel 0,15-3 mm variabel variabel variabel 0,9 mm
Applied as
Application limits -
Doses 2 g/m 250 8
Application fields pavements roads pavements pavements roads highways roads highways roads highways roads highways roads highways (roads), pavements roads pavements pavements pavements pavements pavements
wet salt (brine) wet salt (solution) dry dry dry dry dry dry dry dry dry
- 8 C - 22 C - 10 C - 22 C - 22 C - 8 C - 5 C - 5 C - 7 C - 7 C - 7 C
6-15 10 6-15 6 30 6,25 30 16 15 30-50 30-50
production. For halogenides different mono-salts and mixtures are marketed with different grain sizes and application limits. Some traded de-icing products are marketed with advertisement slogans such as: alternative de-icers, biological de-icers, ecologically completely harmless, improving the environment, de-icer and fertiliser in one even when containing ecologically hazardous chemicals. Trade names even suggest benefits to the environment: Greeny, Floralis, Plantabon, kotau are trademarks that persuade people to apply them with the intention to do less damage to the environment. Users are hardly able to distinguish how chemical declaration and recommended application doses correlate with application fields, temperatures and ecological sensitivity of the environment.
Pathways of winter maintenance products to the vegetation site

Winter maintenance products are administered to the vegetation site partly as aerosol, partly deposited as contaminated snow or as contaminated runoff depending on traffic speed, pavement construction and technical equipment (Figure 1). Paved areas are normally not perfectly sealed; salt solutions penetrate through the surface or through the soil of the tree site and contaminate soil solution and groundwater or reach the sewage system. Between 20 to 60% of applied de-icers are transported by air,
25 % of applied de-icers reach via aerosol, spray and dust the vegetation site, depending on wind and traffic speed snow,de-icing agents, gravel
dust from gravel snow, de-icing agents, gravel co nta mi na
aerosols
ted
sn
ow
gr av el melting water, runoff
&
spray, contaminated snow (snowploughing) melting water, runoff
pavement
gravel road drainage sewage groundwater, aquifer
40 % of applied de-icer reach the vegetation site depending on type of snow ploughing, traffic speed and protection of tree disk
Figure 1. Pathways of de-icing agents and gravel to the vegation site.
272
deposited 2-40 m from the road. 90% of air-transported de-icer are deposited between 15 and 20 m from the road (Leonardi & Flckiger1987, Blomqvist & Johansson 1999). On average 25% of applied de-icers reach the vegetation site via aerosol, spray and dust, depending on wind direction, wind and traffic speed (Blomqvist 1998).
Ecological impact of gravel and expanded clay

Traffic smashes gravel into small particles. The impact of these abrasive dust particles on human health is rather low (Litzka et al. 1995, Neuberger 1996), depending on how long the material remains on the pavement, on traffic frequency and speed. Mechanical injuries of stems of road trees may occur depending on traffic speed and particle size. Gravel and expanded clay enhance soil surface sealing, change permeability for water and air, surface and soil temperature and soil quality as seedbed. Soil structure may benefit from their application. Dust layers on plants change the energy balance of leaves and needles (Eller 1977). For dark coloured dusts the surface temperature increases, reflection decreases. Impact on spectral absorption by leaves has been reported (Sieghardt 1983). In some cases stomata are sealed and gas exchange is reduced. The surface chemistry of vegetation and soil changes according to the chemical properties of the applied product influences the mycorrhiza distribution and quality (Turnau 1990). Gravel and expanded clay may cause mechanical problems in the sewage systems (Matsch 1996).
Ecological impact of chloride-containing de-icers

Salt (NaCl), the most common and cheapest de-icer is very efficient in terms of improving traffic security in winter season, but even when applied as wet salt or brine with reduced doses, it directly and indirectly causes dysfunction and instability of urban greening (Figure 2). Chloride is highly toxic to the vegetation. It changes the membrane permeability of cells and increases the osmotic potential. Growth reduction, chlorosis and necrosis of leaves and dieback of tree crowns are symptoms that occur after salt application. Via cation exchange high sodium saturation in soils causes desorption of other cations (K, Ca, Mg, NH4) and metals, which percolate through the soil and in the worst case are leached out. This nutrient depletion is crucial for growth of urban vegetation and misbalances mineral nutrition (Ruge 1974, Kreutzer 1974, Ernst & Feldermann 1975). Loss of calcium enhances the susceptibility for soil compaction at tree sites causing shrinkage and dispersion of soil aggregates with negative impacts on soil water balance and soil aeration. Sites become physiologically dry. After high and frequent NaCl application doses, free Na+-ions occur in the soil solution via re-desorption of Na against H+ and cause alkalinisation by formation of sodium hydroxide. The increase of pH causes dissolution and loss of humus and changes of the bioavailability of heavy metals (Amrhein et al. 1992). MgCl2
273
and CaCl2 are less harmful because they contain basic double charged cations, but they still have the disadvantage of containing Cl as toxic anion (Bogemans et al. 1989). Cl percolates quickly through the soil system and contaminates the groundwater or aquifer and exceeds the target values for drinking water. In Austria, 8 drinking water supply-sources were analysed, 5 of them situated near highways showed extraordinary high chloride contents, wells along the most frequented transit route Brenner-highway had o be closed because of Cl-contents between 200 500 mg/l which manifold exceeded target values (Peer & Podlesak 1991). High salt contents in the sewage water (> 2 % salt content) decrease the efficiency of nitrogen-decay; nitrification and denitrification in the sewage system are reduced (Dincer & Kargi 1999).
growth
m diu so ide lor ch
Cl
-,
Na +
K+ , Ca++, Mg++
pH
Cl - (toxic) Na +
po tas siu
chloroses necroses
nutritional imbalances
soilcolloid
K+ (nutrient) Ca ++ Mg ++ destruction of soil aggregates and humus formation of HCO3-, CO3 2-, carbonates
destruction of soil aggregates (and humus)
K+ Ca ++ Mg ++
K+, Ca++, Mg++, (NH4+) heavy metal dislocation?
groundwater, aquifer
Figure 2. Ecological impact of sodiumchloride and potassiumcarbonate.
Ecological evaluation of potassium carbonate (K2CO3)

This chemical has a four times higher price compared to NaCl and is not directly toxic for urban vegetation. In urban vegetation sites the usual practice of litter removal often leads to potassium deficiency, so in this respect this de-icer is ecologically indifferent as well as the anion is. High K-uptake increases frost hardiness of urban plants. One crucial effect of this alternative de-icer is its potential for direct soil alkalinisation.
274
mc arb o
pH
na te
growth , stressresistance
Potassium carbonate solution has a pH of up to 14. After frequent application of high doses soil structure collapses and soil humus is dissolved. NH4, Ca and Mg are exchanged against K and washed out with the percolating water. Deficiency symptoms, like growth reduction, necrosis and chlorosis occur due to nutritional imbalances as well as decrease of soil aggregate stability (Sieghardt et al. 1998, Sieghardt 2000). These effects are minimised and stabilised by formation of hydrocarbonates and carbonates in calcareous soils (Figure 2). Because of high pH of solution-solution hypothetically the sewage water could be alkalinised and ammonia dissolved and evaporated. In practical experiments no increase of ammonia concentrations occurred, because of the high dilution rates in communal sewage water systems. Positive effects of potassium carbonate on the bioznoses of sewage systems have been reported (Frhwirth 1990).
Ecological impact of nitrogen containing de-icers

The ecologically hazardous constituents of nitrogen containing de-icers that are sold under different trademarks are urea (46,6 % N) and ammonium sulphate (21,2 % N). These are frequently-used fertilisers. Primarily, the idea to use a fertiliser for de-icing
growth, transpiration, element imbalances sensitivity against pathogens, drought, frost
NH3, N2O, NO
mo niu am
NH3
NO3-, NH4+
NO3-, NH4+, SO4
NH42 H+ + urea hydrolysis, OH NH3 toxic N2O, NO pH
root growth & (NH4)2SO4 mycorrhiza , pH element imbalances 2 H+
denitrifi cation
NO3-
nitrifcation pH
NH4+ Norg
K+,
Ca++,
Mg++, soilcolloid groundwater, aquifer
NO3-
K+, Ca++, Mg++, NO3-, SO4--
Figure 3. Ecological impact of sodiumchloride and potassiumcarbonate.
ms u lf
NH3, N2O, NO
at e
ure a( O ) 2-C NH 2
275
seems to be striking and harmless to the environment. This idea turned out to be totally wrong (Figure 3): N-containing de-icer are heavily affecting vegetation, soils, water and sewage systems by over-fertilisation and enhancing nutritional imbalances and reducing frost hardiness (Balasch 1987). Urea-hydrolysis causes a local increase of soil water pH and a higher solubility for ammonia in water (Gubler 1993). Ammonia is highly bio-toxic: root growth and mycorrhiza frequency decrease. When penetrating to the ground- and surface water it is highly toxic for fish and for most micro-organisms (Dobson 1991) and has an impact on drinking water quality. Enzymatic hydrolysis of urea in soils is highly oxygen-demanding, a severe problem in frequently compacted urban soils. Ammonium itself causes an exchange against other cations resulting in nutritional deficiencies and imbalances. When it is nitrified, this 2 H+ are generated and pH decreases. In the sewage systems this process causes problematic changes and enhances the ammoniumoutput into surface waters. Urea also contributes to gaseous losses of Ammonia, N2O and NO via denitrification. The increasing uptake of nitrogen by urban vegetation enhances growth and imbalances the nutrient ratios in the biomass and increases transpiration as well as the susceptibility to several stresses like drought, frost and pathogens (Bloom 1997, De Visser et al. 1996). The organic nitrogen pool in the soil is enriched presumed enough carbon is available. Even when we assume that urban sites are in general low in nitrogen, uncontrolled applying nitrogen via de-icing agents is problematic and enhances deficiencies by increasing growth and relatively diluting other elements. Ammonium sulphate reacts physiologically acidic in soils and decreases NH3-toxicity depending on soil temperature and pH. Ammonium sulphate is highly corrosive (Dirnbck 1993). Additional to the impact of enhanced nitrogen supply and growth the nitrogen cycle is affected: nitrate availability as well as diverse exchange processes of cat ions versus ammonium is increased. It contains sulphate, which is easily leached and as well easily taken up by vegetation. Excessive sulphate availability may enhance instability of urban vegetation as well.
Model calculations
Figure 4 shows the results of model calculations comparing element fluxes and enrichments after application of different de-icing agents. The respective calculations include average deposition rates and are based on a tree disk of 4 m2, a tree with a DBH of 40 cm, a crown diameter of 7 m and de-icer applications according to practical doses and 20 times per year. The output is calculated via tree-leaf-litter and herbaceous vegetation, fertiliser recommendations are for forest plantations for one rotation of 80 years. Losses to the soil and the groundwater are not considered. Urea
276
with 46 % N-content generates an input that is equivalent with 1,5 times the recommended fertiliser amount for 80 year rotation. Ammonium sulphate and potassium carbonate contribute to extraordinary high accumulation of N and K respectively, which exceed the fertiliser recommendations for one forest rotation period in between two years. Brine impregnated expanded clay is evaluated ecologically less harmful and has the additional advantage of being an antigliss.
Calculations including average deposition rates tree disk = 4 m2, tree DBH = 40 cm, crown diameter = 7 m, deicer application = 20 times/year, output calculated via tree-leaf-litter and herbaceous vegetation, fertilizer recommendation for forestry for one rotation.
g / tree 1400 1000 600 200 0

N N AmmoniumUrea sulfate K Potassiumcarbonate NaCl NaCl Cl Na N Exp. Clay + Urea K Exp.Clay + K-carbonate
Deicing agents and elelments
input (g/ tree)
output (g/ tree)
accumulation (g/ tree)
recommended fertilizer (g/ tree)
Figure 4. Element balance for different de-icers.
Environmental compatibility ranking

Based on these results the following environmental compatibility ranking for different methods of winter road and pavement maintenance is presented (without considering the impact on ground- and surface water):
Gravel=EC>>EC+Urea=EC+K2CO3>>(NH4)2SO4 (NH2)2-CO K2CO3>NaCl+CaCl2>NaCl
277
References
Amrhein C, Strong JE & Mosher PA (1992).
Effects of de-icing salts on metal and organic matter mobilization in roadside soils. Environmental Science and Technology 26: 703-709.
Balasch (1987)
Die Anwendung von Auftausalz und dessen Alternativen unter konomischen und kologischen Kriterien. Dissertation an der Wirtschaftsuniversitt Wien. Wien.
Blomqvist G (1998).
Impact of de-icing salt on roadside vegetation, a literature review. VTI Rapport 427A.
Blomqvist G & Johansson EL (1999).
Airborne spreading and deposition of de-icing salt a case study. Sc. Tot.Environm 235: 161-168.
Bloom AJ (1997).
Interaction between inorganic nitrogen nutrition and root development. Z.Pflanzenernaehr. Bodenk. 160: 253-259.
Bogemans J, Neirinckx L & Stassart JM (1989).
Effect of de-icing NaCl and CaCl2 on spruce (Picea abies). Plant and Soil 120: 203211.
De Visser P, Keltjens W & Findenegg G (1996).
Transpiration and drought resistance of Douglas-fir seedlings exposed to excess ammonium. Trees 10: 301-307.
Dincer AR & Kargi F (1999).
Salt inhibition of nitrification and denitrification in saline wastewater. Environ. Technol. 20: 1147-1153.
Dirnbck G (1993).
Umwelt- und Rechtsaspekte beim Streudienst. Mitteilungen des Institutes fr Straenbau und Straenerhaltung der Technischen Universitt Wien, Heft 3. Wien.
Dobson MC (1991).
De-icing dalt damage to trees and shrubs. Forestry Bulletin 101. London.
Eller BM (1977).
Beeinflussung der Energiebilanz von Blttern durch Straenstaub. Angew. Bot. 51: 9-15
278
Ernst W & Feldermann D (1975).
Auswirkungen der Wintersalzstreuung auf den Mineralhaushalt von Linden. Z. Pflanzenernaer. Bodenk. 6: 629-640
Frhwirth I (1990).
Einsatz von Kaliumkarbonat als Auftaumittel: Auswirkungen auf die Kanalisation und auf die biologische Abwasserreinigung. Diplomarbeit am Institut fr Wassergte und Landschaftswasserbau der Technischen Universitt Wien, Wien.
Gubler A (1993).
Literaturstudie: Salzersatz im Winterdienst. Institut f. Verkehrsplanung, Transporttechnik, Strassen- und Eisenbahnbau, Zrich.
Kreutzer K (1974).
Bodenkundliche Aspekte der Salzanwendung. Eur. J. For. Path. 4: 41-44.

Leornardi S & Flckiger W (1987).
Die Verfrachtung salzhaltiger Verkehrsgischt entlang Autobahnen und ihre Wirkung auf exponierte Gehlze. Strae und Verkehr 1-87.
Matsch N (1996).
Aspekte zum Salzeinsatz im Winterdienst: Auswirkungen auf das Wasser. In: Lenz P (Ed) Aspekte zum Salzeinsatz im Winterdienst.
Neuberger M (1996).
Staubbelastung durch Straenstreusplitt. Waste Magazin 3/96: 11-13.

Peer Th & Podlesak K (1991).
Auswirkungen von chloridhltigen Auftaumitteln auf Wasser und Boden im Bereich von Autobahnen und Schnellstraen. sterreichische Wasserwirtschaft, Sonderdruck 43: 24-36.
Ruge U (1974).
Ursachen der Schdigung des Straenbegleitgrns in Stdten und an der Autobahn. Eur. J. For. Path. 4: 48-49.
Sieghardt H (1983).
Beeinflussung der spektralen Absorptionseigenschaften der Bltter von Hedera helix durch Staubimmissionen. Phyton 23: 177-184.
Sieghardt M, Wresowar M & Tartar A (1998).
Potassium carbonate as an alternative de-icer: impact on soil properties on vegetation. NHP Report 43: 41-51.
279
Sieghardt M (2000).
Aktuelle Untersuchungen ber die Auswirkungen von Auftausalzen auf Bden. In: Dujesiefken D & Kockerbeck P (Eds) Jahrbuch der Baumpflege 2000. Thalacker Medien.
Turnau K (1990).
The influence of industrial dusts on mycorrhizal status of plants in PinoQuercetum forest. Ecological and applied aspects of ecto- and endomycorrhizal associations 28(1-4): 529-533.
280
Appendix
281
Programme: Florence, Italy, 29-31 March 2001

Conservation and management of historical parks Thursday 29 March
Plenary session
Time: 13.00 - 18.00 Kim Wilkie (Landscape Architect, UK) Case studies of restoration projects: the Park of the river Thames and Villa La Pietra. Laura Gatti (ISA, Italy) Historical parks, old trees: technical and research aspects of their conservation and restoration. Thomas Randrup and Cecil Konijnendijk (Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, Denmark). Review of higher education on urban forests and trees in Europe. Roberto Causin (University of Padova, Italy) Management of root disease in the Botanical Garden of the University of Padova. Mirella Di Giovine (Municipality of Rome, Italy) The system of urban and historical Parks of Rome: case studies of the Caffarella and Castelfusano Parks. Emilio Amorini (Research Institute of Silviculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest Politics, Italy) The Castelfusano forest management: suggestions and issues. Mario Bencivenni (University of Milan, Italy) A walk through the historical public parks in Florence. Fabio Salbitano (University of Florence, Italy) The Urban Forest of Florence: environment, management and directions.
283
Programme, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 28-30 June 2001

Multifunctionality in urban forestry Thursday 28 June
Plenary session
Time: 13.30 - 17.00 Rien van den Berg (Dutch Service of Land and Water Management, the Netherlands) Experiences with establishment of multifunctional urban and periurban woodlands in the Netherlands. Janez Pirnat (Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia) Multifunctionality in urban forests - a dream or a task? Primoz Oven (Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia) Report on research of trees in the city of Ljubljana (1999-2000). Dusan Robic (emeritus professor of Phytosociology, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia) Forest vegetation of Slovenia as a reflection of physical environment and human activity.
284
Programme:11-14 November 2001, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

International Policy Research Symposium on: The changing role of forestry in Europe; between urbanization and rural development
Monday 12 November
Plenary session Time: 10.00 - 18.00 Nicolas Hanley (EU Division Nature & Biodiversity, DG Environment) The European Commissions nature management policies and strategies in changing European societies. Nathalie Bertrand (Cemagref, France) & Marie-Christine Kovacshazy (Commissariat du Plan, France) Developments and recent driving forces in rural areas in a European perspective. Gregory Ashworth (University of Groningen, the Netherlands) Developments and recent driving forces in urban areas in a European perspective. Klaas Kerkstra (Wageningen University, the Netherlands) Interaction between urban and rural areas in Europe underlying processes and their consequences for forest and nature management. Robert Sommer (University of California, USA) Changing relationships between people and nature - the impact of urbanization and rural development. Niels Elers Koch (Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, Denmark) The challenges of changing urban-rural relations for forest and nature manage ment in Europe. Birgit Elands (Wageningen University, the Netherlands) & Thomas OLeary (University College Dublin, Ireland) Multifor: the role of forests for rural development in Europe introduction and main results.
285
Kjell Nilsson & Cecil Konijnendijk (Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, Denmark) COST-E12: Urban forests and trees introduction and main results -
Changing form, benefit and functions of urban forests and trees

Tuesday 13 November
Parallel sessions COST E12 Time: 9.30 - 15.00

Developing the Social Values of Urban Forests
Sjerp de Vries and Martin Goossen (the Netherlands) Professionalising planning for the social functions of forests and nature areas. Klaus Seeland (Switzerland) and Fabio Salbitano (Italy) The potential of social integration in some of the major cities of multicultural Switzerland and Italy in urban green areas. Christin Janssens and Danny Wildemeersch (Belgium) Social learning and urban forestry planning - the case of Flanders.
Developing Innovative Programmes for Urban Forestry
Kevin Collins and John Brosnan (Ireland) Irelands NeighbourWood scheme - urban greening through partnerships. Alan Simson (United Kingdom) The White Rose Forest - A catalyst for the regeneration of a region. Ann Van Herzele (Belgium) Challenges of neighbourhood participation in city-scaled urban green-space planning.
Case Studies of Urban Woodland Planning and Design
Simon Bell (United Kingdom) Use and abuse of woodlands in Central Scotland. Dominique Blom (the Netherlands) Urban woodlands in the lowlands. Iris Bernstein (Israel) Creating an urban forest in the city of Maale Edomim, Israel
286
Innovative approaches in selection and establishment of urban tree resources

Innovative Approaches in Plant Selection and Pest Control
Arne Sb (Norway), Thorarinn Benedikz (Iceland), Thomas Randrup (Denmark) and Jos Van Slycken (Belgium) Plant selection for street trees, park trees and urban woodlands. Joanna L. Francis (Ireland) Enhancing the diversity of woodland field layer communities in urban plantation woodlands for amenity and wildlife purposes Marel Tomalak (Poland) Biological and integrated control of insect pests in urban parks and forests.
Innovative approaches in urban tree establishment
Stephan Pauleit (Germany), Louis Marie Rivire (France), Laure Vidal-Beaudet (France), Jose Luis Garcia-Valdecantos (Spain), Gemma Garcia-Marin (Spain), Monique Bodson (Belgium), and Nerys Jones (United Kingdom) Tree selection and establishment practices in Europe - Results from a European survey. Monika Sieghardt and Martin Wresowar (Austria) Informing the public about the ecological impact of different methods of road and pavement winter maintenance in Vienna. Palle Kristoffersen and Camilla B. Srensen (Denmark) Weed control in the urban environment in Denmark.
Improving Urban Soils for Urban Trees
Els Couenberg (the Netherlands) The Amsterdam Tree Soil revisited. Jrgen Samyn (Belgium) The assessment of mulch sheets to inhibit competitive vegetation in tree plantations in urban and natural environment. Jitze Kopinga (the Netherlands) The effect of adding mycorrhizae to planting soil on the establishment and first growth of street tree plantings.
287
Innovative approaches in urban forest and tree management

Developing management systems in urban forestry
Werner Pillmann (Austria) Management of urban greenery - a system oriented model of tasks in urban forestry. Jens Ole Juul (Denmark), Susanne Guldager (Denmark), Alexander Alekseev (Rusland), Cecil Konijnendijk (Denmark), Evgeny Kouznetsov (Rusland) and Andrey Selikhovkin (Rusland) Developing an information system for structural urban green planning and ma nagement in St. Petersburg, Russia. Martin Hermy and Johnny Cornelis (Belgium) Towards a monitoring method and a number of multifaceted and hierarchical biodiversity indicators for urban and suburban parks.
Management of urban woodlands
sa Ode (Sweden) Visual aspects in the management of urban woodland. Anna Jnsson and Roland Gustavsson (Sweden) Management styles and knowledge cultures of yesterday and tomorrow for multiple use and urban woodland management.
Case studies of urban forestry ownership and management
mer Eker and Kenan Ok (Turkey) Results of changing social demands in Istanbul Bahcekoy Forest Enterprise: a case study. Jos-Luis Garcia-Valdecantos and Maria-Louisa Tello (Spain) A historical case of periurban forestry: the Sotos Histricos of Aranjuez, Spain
288
Programme, Thessaloniki, Greece, 1113 April 2002

Treats to urban forests and trees - the North-South perspective Thursday 11 April
Plenary session
Time: 14.00 - 18.00 Guido Kuchelmeister (Tree City Initiative, Germany) Urban forestry as a development tool. Alicia Chacalo (Universidad Autnoma Metropolitana, Mexico) Urban forestry in the South: the case of Mexico City. Klaus Seeland (Technical University of Zurich, Switzerland) Urban and community forestry in India and Nepal. Syaka Sadio (FAO) Urban forestry issues in Africa: case studies in Near East (Egypt, Sudan) and Sahelian (Mauritania, Malia and Ethiopia) countries. Ramon Vallejo Calzada (CEAM, Spain) Managing forest fires near urban areas in Spain. Helen Michalopoulos (National Agricultural Research Foundation/ Forest Research Institute of Thessaloniki,Greece) Pests and diseases to urban forests in Greece. Alexandros Dimitrakopoulos (Dept. of Forestry and Natural Environment, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece) Analysis of the wildland fire problem of Greece at the urban-rural interface. Christos Tourlakidis (Director of Reforestation Service of Thessaloniki, Greece) Periurban forest of Thessaloniki: Post-fire restoration and perspectives.
289
Bruges, Belgium, 13-15 June 2002

Integrating research and practice - optimal use of open space in Europe Thursday 13 June 2002
Plenary Session
Time: 14.00 - 16.30 Peter Janssens (Benelux) Urban forestry and efficient use of open space in western Europe from a research point of view. Roel Vanhaeren (Flemish Community, Forest and Green Areas Division) Realising urban forests in Flanders: a policy perspective. Ellen Moons (Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium) Cost-revenue analysis of urban forests from a research point of view Muriel Eyletters (Universit Libre de Bruxelles) Diagnosis of trees capacity to live in an urban environment. Ilse Wuyts (Ministerie van het Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest) The Green Logic, Renovation of street trees in Brussels.
290
Participants Florence, Ljubljana, Wageningen, Thessaloniki, and Bruges

Participants at the COST E12 meetings in Florence (29-31 March, 2001), Ljubljana (28-20 June, 2001), Wageningen (11-14 November, 2001), Thessaloniki (11-13 April, 2002) and Bruges (13-15 June, 2002)
Lastname Aertsen Amorini Apostolides Ashworth Baines Bakker Bell Bencat Bencivenni Benedikz Bernstein Bianchi Birot Blioumis Blom Bodson Bonsen Borzan Bostjan Broekhuijsen - de Hes Brosnan Brus Buck Bussche Buyse Calvo Causin Chacalo Christodoulou Collet Collins
Firstname Ekko Emilio Christos Gregory Chris Teije Simon Tibor Mario Thorarinn Iris Massimo Yves Vaius Dominique Monique Karel Zelimir Anko Sanneke John Robert Alexander Brenda Griet Enrico Roberto Alicia Athanasios Gregor Kevin
Country The Netherlands Italy Greece The Netherlands United Kingdom The Netherlands United Kingdom Slovakia Italy Iceland Israel Italy France Greece The Netherlands Belgium The Netherlands Croatia Slovenia The Netherlands Ireland Slovenia Austria Belgium Belgium Italy Italy Mexico Greece Germany Ireland
291
Lastname Couenberg Cuizzi de Deugd De Nutte De Rogatis de Schrijver De Vico Fallani De Vreese de Vries De Wilde de Winter Devaere Di Giovine Dimitrakopoulos Dominguez Drnou Ducatillion Dujesiefken Edelin Edwards Eker Elands Eriksson Eyletters Falck Fede Forrest From Garcia-Marin Garca-Valdecantos Gatti Gauthier German Chiari Ghag Gijsbers Gijsel Goossen Gorissen Gundersen
Firstname Els Danielle Maartje Tim Anna Filip Massimo Rik Sjerp Joris PJ Veerle Mirella Alexandros Gloria Christphe Cathrine Dirk Claude Penny mer Birgit Liselott Muril Jan Salvatore Mary Johanna Gemma Jos Luis Laura Michelle Cristina Jasbinder Ineke Katrijn Martin Dries Vegard
Country The Netherlands Italy The Netherlands Belgium Italy Belgium Italy Belgium The Netherlands Belgium The Netherlands Belgium Italy Greece Spain France France Germany France United Kingdom Turkey The Netherlands Sweden Belgium Sweden Italy Ireland Sweden Spain Spain Italy FAO Switzerland United Kingdom United Kingdom Belgium The Netherlands Belgium Norway
292
Lastname Gustavsson Hanley Hasler Hatzistathis Hermy Heyens Hoogstra Hunter Hyttinen Hrdter Jager Jansen Janssens Jensen Jhannesson Jones Juul Jnsson Kalb Kassioumis Keizer Kerkstra Knol Koch Konijnendijk Koolen Kopinga Kovacshazy Kristofferesen Kuchelmeister Kvarda Lagerstrom Larsen le Floch Lub Lfstrm Malamidis Martin McCormack
Firstname Roland Nicholas Berit Athanasios Martin Veerle Marjanke Beatrice Penti Ulf Laslo Hans Peter Frank Arni Nerys Jens Ole Anna Joop Konstantinos Gerrit Jan Klaas Reijer Niels Elers Cecil Jos Jitze Marie-Christine Palle Guido Eva Tomas J. Bo Sophie Jan Irja George Luis Art
Country Sweden EU Denmark Greece Belgium Belgium The Netherlands The Netherlands COST Germany Hungary The Netherlands Belgium Denmark Iceland United Kingdom Denmark Sweden The Netherlands Greece The Netherlands The Netherlands The Netherlands Denmark Denmark/The Netherlands The Netherlands The Netherlands France Denmark Germany Austria Sweden Denmark France The Netherlands Finland Greece Portugal Irelande
293
Lastname Michalopoulos Moons Motta Mussche Mutto Nachtergaele Nas Nieto Nilsson Niskanen Nyhuus OSullivan OBrien Ode OLeary Olsen Oosterbaan sterbye OSullivan Ottitsch Oven Paganova Plsson Papageorgiou Pauleit Petit Piggen Pillmann Pirnat Plana Potyralska Prstholm Quist Randrup Rautamki Rego Robic Rolf Rydberg
Firstname Helen Ellen Emma Sylvie Sergio Jeroen Rob Laura Kjell Anssi Signe Rory Elizabeth sa Tomas Ib Asger Anne Lars Rory Andreas Primoz Viera Jhann Kostas Stephan Franck J Werner Janez Eduard Aleksandra Sren Willem Thomas Maija Francisco Dusan Kaj Dan
Country Greece Belgium Italy Belgium Italy Belgium The Netherlands Spain Denmark Finland Norway Ireland United Kingdom Sweden Ireland Denmark The Netherlands Denmark Ireland The Netherlands/Austria Slovenia Slovakia Iceland Greece United Kingdom/Germany Belgium The Netherlands Austria Slovenia Spain Poland Denmark The Netherlands Denmark Finland Portugal Slovenia Sweden Sweden
294
Lastname Sadio Salbitano Samyn Sanesi Schanz Scheirlinck Schmidt Schraml Schrder Seeland Selby Shannon Siegel Sieghardt Simson Siwecki Skarphdinsdttir Slee Sneep Soares Sommer Steidle-Schwahn Stoffer Stoker Supuka Susca Szepesi Sb Tello Terrasson Tomalak Tourlakidis Trakolis Tyrvinen Uilarino Valk Vallejo van den Berg van der Sleesen
Firstname Syaka Fabio Jrgen Giovanni Heiner Hans Gbor Ulrich Klaus Klaus Ashley Denis Gunther Monika Alan Ryszard Ragnhildur Bill Huib Ana Lusa Robert Anna Bart Christian Jn Vito Andrs Arne Maria-Luisa Daniel Marek Christos Dimitrios Liisa Jose Remco Ramon Rien Sasha
Country FAO Italy Belgium Italy The Netherlands Belgium Hungary Germany Germany Switzerland Finland Ireland COST Austria United Kingdom Poland Iceland United Kingdom The Netherlands Portugal United States of America Germany The Netherlands Switzerland Slovakia Italy Hungary Norway Spain France Poland Greece Greece Finland Spain The Netherlands Spain The Netherlands Ireland
295
Lastname van der Wiel van der Wielen Van Herzele van Holsteijn Van Hoye van Ingen van Kerckhove Van Slycken van Tuyll van Serooskerken van Vliet Varga Veer Visschedijk Von Weisenberg Vriesman Vuletic Weber Wiegersma Wiersum Wilderink Wilkie Wohlers Wuyts Zagas
Firstname Hans Pierre Ann Hein Dirk Michel Geert Jos Frederik Kees Gabor Marije Peter Kim Kees Dijana Norbert Lodewijk Freerk Ellen Kim Antje Ilse Theocharis
Country The Netherlands The Netherlands Belgium The Netherlands Belgium The Netherlands Belgium Belgium The Netherlands The Netherlands Hungary The Netherlands The Netherlands Finland The Netherlands Croatia Germany The Netherlands The Netherlands The Netherlands United Kingdom Germany Belgium Greece
296
COST Office COST domain: Forests and forestry products EUR 21524 COST Action E12 Urban forests and trees Proceedings No 2 Edited by: C. C. Konijnendijk, J. Schipperijn, K. Nilsson Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities 2005 296 pp. 17.6 x 25 cm ISBN 92-898-0009-7
The purpose of this report is to make available the outcome of the work of COST Action 722 Short-range forecasting of fog, visibility and low clouds, which was carried out from 2002 to 2003. During this period, an inventory of existing forecast methods and ongoing projects was made and an evaluation of requirements from customers and from forecasters was prepared. These results will be used for the next phases of COST Action 722. However, they could be also useful for a wider community interested in the processing of input data (in-situ, satellites), numerical and statistical forecasting and in application purposes.

Urban Forests and Trees - Proceedings N°2

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Deskripsi Asli:

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Urban Forests and Trees - Proceedings N°2

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

41BL17_Pages_lim 07-07-2005 10:20 Pagina 1

COST Action E12 Forests and forestry products

C. C. Konijnendijk, J. Schipperijn, K. Nilsson

41BL17_Pages_lim 07-07-2005 10:20 Pagina 2

Chapter 3 Functions and benefits of urban forests and trees

Chapter 4 Threats to urban forests and trees

Chapter 5 Management of urban forests and trees

Chapter 6 Partnerships for urban forestry

Technical description and implementation

Activities and results

Pilot studies within WG 2 Selection and establishment,

Pilot studies within WG 3 Management,

Literature review, expert knowledge compiled.

Pedersen LB, Randrup TB & Ingerslev M

Health status of Plane trees (Platanus spp.) in Spain.

Pruning trees: the problem of forks.

Tree crown stabilization with the double-belt system Osnabruck.

Adapting forestry to urban demands - role of communication in urban forestry in Europe.

Long-term changes in indigenous vegetation preserved in urban areas.

Green structure and sustainability - developing a tool for local planning.

Conservation and management of forest patches and corridors in suburban landscapes.

User surveys of Ankaras urban parks.

Urban forest landscapes in the UK - progressing the social agenda.

Visual aspects in urban woodland management.

Modelling recreational visits to forests and nature areas.

Higher education on urban forestry in Europe: An overview. Forestry 75(5): 501-511.

Konijnendijk CC, Randrup TB & Nilsson K (2000).

Urban Forestry research in Europe: An overview. Journal of Arboriculture 26(3): 152161.

Stedelingen maken van bos een topattractie. WB 15/11/01. (In Dutch.)

Beskring af trer - European Tree Pruning Guide. Copenhagen. (In Danish.)

Dujesiefken D & Duhme F (1999).

The urban face of forestry. EFI-News: 3-6.

Lfstrm I & Tyrvinen L (1997).

Kunnat tarvitsevat viheralueohjelmat (vieraskyn-artikkeli). Helsingin Sanomat. (In Finnish.)

Suomi mukana COST -hankkeessa. Viherymprist 1. (In Finnish.)

What is urban forestry? BUFPRA Newsletter 1(2): 2.

Seeland K & Nicol S (1999).

The three net/works. Landlines July 1999: 6.

Arboriculture in Ljubljana, Slovenia. Arborist news 9(4): 43-45.

COST E12 Final Declaration, Brugges 2002 Green Health of Cities

The group of concerned experts

Green space: an asset - not a liability

Tasks for local governments

Tasks within Europe

Policy-making, planning and design for urban forests and trees

The spatial context

Figure 1. Population density in the CCC area.

Figure 2. Trend scenario for the CCC area.

Figure 3. Policy scenario for the CCC area.

Figure 4. Main principles of the Second Structural Outline of the Benelux.

1 2 3 4 5 GPCICOPIT Sarlorlux MHAL ANKE HEG

Figure 5. Cross-border urban networks

A programme to strengthen collaboration between the regions of the European Union.

DHondt F & De Boe Ph (2002).

Coopration pour lamnagement du territoire europen. Commission Europenne DG16, Brussels.

Area. Interreg IIC Community Initiative Programme 1997-1999.

European Commission Directorate General 16, Brussels.

Rseau de rseaux (Urbains) Transfrontaliers (2001).

Secretariaat-Generaal voor de Benelux, Brussels.

Secretariaat-Generaal voor de Benelux, Brussels.

(co-financed by Interreg IIc).