Contents.................................................................................................................... 1 ............................................................................................................................. 2 CHAPTER 1................................................................................................................. 3 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... 3 INTRODUCTION:......................................................................................................3 CHAPTER 2................................................................................................................. 6 ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING..................................................6 2.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................7 2.2 EVOLUTION OF OFDM........................................................................................8 2.2.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)........................................................8 2.2.2 Multicarrier Communication (MC)................................................................8 2.2.3 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing...............................................8 2.3 PRINCIPLES OF OFDM.......................................................................................9 2.3.1 Data Transmission using multiple carriers...................................................9 2.3.2 Generation of sub-carriers using IFFT........................................................12 2.3.3 OFDM Transmitter Configuration...............................................................12 Guard Interval.......................................................................................................13 2.3.4 OFDM Receiver Configuration..................................................................14 2.4 ADVANTAGES OF OFDM..................................................................................14 2.5 LIMITATIONS IN OFDM.....................................................................................15 2.5.1 Inter Carrier Interference (ICI)...................................................................15 2.5.2 Orthogonality...........................................................................................16 2.5.3 Synchronization.......................................................................................16 2.5.4 Effect of clipping in OFDM signals............................................................17 2.5.5 Phase Noise.............................................................................................17 2.5.6 Frequency Error.......................................................................................17 1
2.5.7 Carrier Frequency Offset..........................................................................18 2.6 APPLICATIONS OF OFDM ...............................................................................18 Chapter 3................................................................................................................. 19 IMPULSIVE NOISE CHANNEL MODEL.........................................................................19 3. IMPULSIVE NOISE CHANNEL MODEL:.................................................................20 3.1. COVOLUTIONALLY CODED OFDM IN IMPULSIVE NOISE ENVIRONMENT............21 3.2. Impulsive Noise:.............................................................................................21 Chapter4..................................................................................................................24 Convolution Codes................................................................................................... 24 4. Convolution Codes............................................................................................24 4.1. Convolutional codes, why should complicate our lives with them...................24 4.2 Example of Convolution Encoding...................................................................26 4.2.1. The Encoder as a Finite-State Machine.....................................................27 4.2.2 The Trellis Encoding Diagram....................................................................27 4.3.Convolution Decoder.......................................................................................29 4.3.1. Decoding Using the Trellis Diagram.........................................................29 4.3.2 The Hamming Distance (Metric)................................................................29 4.4. The Viterbi Decoder.......................................................................................31 4.4.1. Step wise procedure of decoder in selection of best path.........................31 5.RESULTS:........................................................................................................... 34 6.CONCLUSION:.................................................................................................... 37 6.1.FEATURE WORK TO BE DONE:.......................................................................37 7.REFERENCES:.....................................................................................................37
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION :
INTRODUCTION:
Power Line Communication (PLC) technology is an emerging technology with potential results and recent developments as a multipurpose medium providing services such as energy distribution, voice, data and digital telecommunication services. Intense research activities focus the PLCs due to all these advantages. Interest in Power Line Communication (PLC) technology as a broadband multimedia connectivity solution to and within the home continues to grow in a rapid pace. The driving advantage of this technology is that it exploits the already existing and ubiquitous power line distribution infrastructure to provide broadband multimedia services to customers. Because power lines were originally designed for AC power distribution at 50 Hz and 60 Hz, the characteristics of this channel present some technical challenges for data transmission at higher frequencies. Conventional communication systems differ from PLC systems not only in
structure but also in physical properties. The performance of any communication system is limited by noise, attenuation and multipath propagation which are most significant channel properties. Noise in PLCs is much different from the classical additive white Gaussian noise. It can be classified into five types.They are colored background noise, narrow band noise, periodic impulsive noise asynchronous to the mains frequency, periodic impulsive noise synchronous to the mains frequency and asynchronous impulsive noise. The first three types of noise generally stay over long periods of time. The next two types are time varying and can be summarized as impulsive noise. Impulsive noise is mainly caused by power supplies or by switching transients in the network. It has a random occurrence and its duration varies from a few microseconds to milliseconds. Practical experiments in power lines show that the power spectral density (PSD) of impulsive noise exceeds the PSD of background noise by minimum of 10-15 dB and may sometimes reach 50 dB. Manmade noise is typically impulsive. A relatively simple model that incorporates background noise and impulsive noise is suggested in and is known as Middletons class-A noise. Middletons class-A noise model is the most widely used noise model in the performance analysis of PLC systems.
It is well known that the error performance of a communication system can be improved by using error control coding schemes such as BCH, Reed-Solomon (RS), Low Density Parity Check (LDPC) and convolutional codes. Channel coding is a good way to combat with noise and improve the bit error rate of a system. Apart from coding schemes interleaving is a technique to avoid the bursty behavior of impulsive noise in PLC channels. Interleaving reduces the channel memory and disperses the errors caused by the channel. This leads to a better exploitation of capabilities of a code that is designed to control independent errors. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is a mature multicarrier transmission technique that has been adopted in several wideband digital communication systems. Studies of OFDM system design are thus of great practical importance. The basic principle behind OFDM is to use a properly chosen linear transform at the transmitter and its inverse transform at the receiver. Most recently, the use of OFDM technique to combat with impulsive noise received a strong interest. OFDM performs better than single carrier in the presence of impulsive noise. This is due to OFDM spreads the effect of impulsive noise over multiple symbols due to Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) operation. The effect of cyclic prefix in OFDM symbols can reduce the effect of multipath. Its basic premise is to divide the transmitted bit stream into many different sub streams and send these over many different sub channels. Typically, the sub channels are orthogonal to each other. The data rate on each of the sub channels is much less than the total data rate, and the corresponding sub channel bandwidth is much less than the total system bandwidth. The number of sub streams is chosen to insure that each sub channel has a bandwidth less than the coherence bandwidth of the channel, so the sub channels experience relatively flat fading. Thus, the Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) on each sub channel is small. The sub channel need not be contiguous, so it saves a lot of bandwidth while simultaneously achieving high data rates.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is the modulation technique for European standards such as the Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and the Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) systems. As such it has received much attention and has been proposed for many other applications, including local area networks and personal communication systems. OFDM is a type of multichannel modulation that divides a given channel into many parallel subchannels or subcarriers, so that multiple symbols are sent in parallel. OFDM is often motivated by two of its many attractive features: it is considered to be spectrally efficient and it offers an elegant way to deal with equalization of dispersive slowly fading channels. Terrestrial digital video Broadcasting (DVB-T) in Europe was also an early OFDM application. However, these broadcasting systems did not offer much promise for two way communications in a typical broadcasting environment; transmitters are a rather expensive option. Late 1997, Lucent and NTT submitted proposals to the IEEE for a high speed wireless standard for local area networks (LAN). Eventually, the two companies combined their proposals and it was accepted as a draft standard in 1998 and as a standard now known as IEEE 802.11a standard, in 1999. Multiuser systems that use OFDM must be extended with a proper multiple-access scheme as must single carrier transmission systems. Compared to single carrier systems, OFDM is a versatile modulation scheme for multiple access systems in that it intrinsically facilitates both time-division multiple access and frequency-division (or subcarrier-division) multiple access. In addition, considerable attention has been given to the combination of the OFDM transmission technique and code-division multiple access (CDMA) in multicarrier-CDMA systems, MCCDMA.
2.2.1
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) has been used for a long time to carry more than one signal over a telephone line. FDM is the concept of using different frequency channels to carry the information of different users. Each channel is identified by the center frequency of transmission. To ensure that the signal of one channel did not overlap with the signal from an adjacent one, some gap or guard band was left between different channels. Obviously, this guard band will lead to inefficiencies which were exaggerated in the early days since the lack of digital filtering is made it difficult to filter closely packed adjacent channels.
2.2.2
The concept of multicarrier (MC) communications uses a form of FDM Technologies but only between a single data source and a single data receiver. As multicarrier communications was introduced, it enabled an increase in the overall capacity of communications, thereby increasing the overall throughput. Referring to MC as FDM, however, is somewhat misleading since the concept of multiplexing refers to the ability to add signals together. MC is actually the concept of splitting a signal into a number of signals, modulating each of these new signals over its own frequency channel; multiplexing these different frequency channels together in an FDM manner; feeding the received signal via a receiving antenna into a de-multiplexer that feeds the different frequency channels to different receivers and combining the data output of the receivers to form the received signal.
2.2.3
OFDM is the concept of MC where the different carriers are orthogonal to each other. Orthogonal in this respect means that the signals are totally independent. It is achieved by ensuring that the carriers are placed exactly at the nulls in the modulation spectra of each other. Source for OFDM spectral efficiency is the fact that the drop off of the signal at the band is
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primarily due to a single carrier which is carrying a low data rate. OFDM allows for sharp rectangular shape of the spectral power density of the signal.
2.3.1
An OFDM signal consists of a sum of subcarriers that are modulated by using Phase Shift Keying (PSK) or Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM). If di are the complex QAM symbol, Ns is the number of subcarriers, T the symbol duration, and frequency, then one OFDM symbol starting at t = ts can be written as: f i = f0 + i / T the carrier
ts t ts+T
Often the equivalent complex notation is used, which is given by equation (2.2). In this representation, the real and imaginary parts correspond to the in-phase and quadrature parts of the OFDM signal, which have to be multiplied by a cosine and sine of the desired carrier frequency to produce the final OFDM signal.
ts t ts+T
As an example, figure (2.1) shows four subcarriers from one OFDM signal. In this example, all sub-carriers have the phase and amplitude, but in practice the amplitudes and phases may be modulated differently for each subcarrier. Note that each subcarrier has exactly an integer number of cycles in the interval T, and the number of cycles between adjacent sub-carriers differs by exactly one. This properly accounts for the orthogonality between subcarriers. For instance, if the jth subcarrier from equation (2.2) is demodulated by down converting the signal with a frequency of fj = f0 + j / T and then integrating the signal over T seconds, the result is as written in equation (2.3). By looking at the intermediate result, it can be seen that a complex carrier is integrated over T seconds. For the demodulated subcarrier j, this integration gives the desired output dj (multiplied by a constant factor T), which is the QAM value for that particular subcarriers. For all other subcarriers, this integration is zero, because the frequency difference (ij)/T produce an integer number of cycles within the integration interval T, such that the integration result is always zero.
10
dt
---- (2.3)
The orthogonality of different OFDM subcarriers can also be demonstrated in another way. According to equation (2.1), each OFDM symbol contains subcarriers that are nonzero over a T seconds interval. Hence, the spectrum of a single symbol is a convolution of group of Dirac pulses located at the subcarrier frequencies with the spectrum of a square pulse that is one for a T second period and zero otherwise. The amplitude spectrum of the square pulse is equal to sinc(fT) , which has zeros for all frequencies f that are an integer multiple of 1/T . This effect is shown in figure which shows the overlapping sinc spectra of individual subcarriers. At the maximum of each subcarrier spectrum, all other subcarrier spectra are zero. Because an OFDM receiver calculates the spectrum values at those points that correspond to the maxima of individual subcarrier, it can demodulate each subcarrier free from any interference from the other subcarriers. Basically, Figure (2.2) shows that the OFDM spectrum fulfills Nyquists criterion for an inter symbol interference free pulse shape. Notice that the pulse shape is present in frequency domain and note in the time domain, for which the Nyquist criterion usually is applied. Therefore, instead of inter-symbol interference (ISI), it is inter-carrier interference (ICI) that avoided by having the maximum of one subcarrier spectrum correspond to zero crossing of all the others.
2.3.2
The complex baseband OFDM signal as defined by (2.2) is in fact nothing more than the inverse Fourier transform of Ns QAM input symbol. The time discrete equivalent is the inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT), which is given by (2.4) where the time t is replaced by a sample number n. In practice, this transform can be implemented very efficiently by the inverse Fast Fourier transform (IFFT).
Figure 2.3: OFDM Transmitter Figure 2.3 shows the configuration of an OFDM transmitter. In the transmitter, the transmitted high speed data is first converted into parallel data of N sub channels. Then, the transmitted data of each parallel sub channel is modulated by PSK based modulation. Consider a quadrature modulated data sequence of the N channels (d0, d1, d2... dNs-1) and dIn and dQn are {1,-1} in QPSK and {1, 3} in 16-QAM. These modulated data are fed into an inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) circuit and an OFDM signal is generated.
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Guard Interval
One key principle of OFDM is that since low rate modulation scheme, where the symbols are relatively long compared to the channel time characteristics suffer less from inter-symbol interference caused by multipath. It is the advantageous to transmit a number of low rate streams in parallel instead of a single high rate stream. Since the duration of each symbol is long, it can be affordable to insert a guard interval between the OFDM symbols and thus the inter-symbol interference can be eliminated. The transmitter sends s cyclic prefix during the guard interval. The guard interval also reduces the sensitivity to time synchronization problems. The orthogonality of sub channels in OFDM can be maintained and individual sub channels can be completely separated by using an FFT circuit at the receiver when there are no ISI and inter-carrier interference (ICI) introduced by transmission channel distortion. The spectra of OFDM signal are not strictly band limited, the distortion due to multipath fading causes each sub channel to spread the power into the adjacent channel. Moreover, the delayed wave with the delay time larger than 11 symbol time contaminates the next symbol. In order to reduce this distortion, a simple solution is to increase the symbol duration or the number of carriers. However, this method may be difficult to implement in terms of carrier stability against Doppler frequency and FFT size. Another way to eliminate ISI is to create a cyclically extended guard interval, where each OFDM symbol is preceded by a periodic extension of the signal itself. The total symbol duration Ttotal = Tg + Tn, where Tg = guard time interval. Each symbol is made of two parts. The whole signal is contained in the active symbol, the last part of which is also repeated at the start of the symbol and is called a guard interval. When the guard interval is longer than the channel impulse response or the multipath delay, the effect of ISI can be eliminated. However, the ICI or in band fading still exists. The ratio of the guard interval to the useful symbol duration is application dependent. The insertion of guard interval will reduce the data throughput; Tg is usually smaller than Ts/4.
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2.3.4
Figure 2.4: OFDM Receiver Figure 2.4 shows the configuration of an OFDM receiver. At the receiver, received signal r (t) is filtered by a band pass filter, which is assumed to have sufficiently wide pass band to introduce only negligible distortion in the signal. An orthogonal detector is then applied to the signal where the signal is down converted to IF band. Then, an FFT circuit is applied to the signal to obtain Fourier coefficients of the signal in observation periods [iTTotal, iTTotal + Ts]. The BER depends on the level of the receivers noise. In OFDM transmission, the orthogonality is preserved and the BER performance depends on the modulation scheme in each sub channel.
Multipath Delay Spread Tolerance Can easily be adapted to severe channel conditions without complex equalization Robust to narrowband co channel interference Robust to inter-symbol interference and fading caused by multipath propagation Efficient implementation by FFTs Low sensitivity to time synchronization errors Tuned sub channel receiver filters are not required Facilitates Single Frequency Network; i.e., transmitter macro diversity Makes efficient use of the spectrum by allowing overlap. By dividing the channel into narrowband flat fading sub channels, OFDM is more resistant to frequency selective fading than single carrier systems are. i.e. robustness to frequency selective fading channels.
Eliminates ISI through use of a cyclic prefix. Using adequate channel coding and interleaving one can recover symbols lost due to the frequency selectivity of the channel. Channel equalization becomes simpler than by using adaptive equalization techniques with single carrier systems. It is possible to use maximum likelihood decoding with reasonable complexity.
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2.5.2
Orthogonality
As seen above the fact to have several carriers is actually advantageous whenever they are mathematically orthogonal. So carrier orthogonality is a constraint that can leads to a wrong operation of OFDM systems if not respected. The orthogonality is provided by IFFT that a numerical manipulation, an error of computation could change lightly spacing between to consecutive carriers and break the orthogonality of the whole system. In this case OFDM loses all its efficiency, because the notion of orthogonality is an absolute one.
2.5.3
Synchronization
One of the crucial problems in the receiver is to sample the incoming signal correctly. If the wrong sequence of samples is processed, the Fast Fourier Transform shall not correctly recover the received data on the carriers. The problem is more embarrassing when the receiver is switched on. There is therefore a need for acquiring timing lock. If the signal transmitted is really time domain periodic, as required for the FFT to be correctly applied, then the effect of the time displacement is to modify the phase of all carriers by a known amount. This is due to the time shift theorem in convolutional transform theory.
However, the signal is not really repetitive, we have cheated and performed the mathematical transform as if it were repetitive, but then chosen different symbols and transmitted them one after the other. The effect of the time shift would then be not only to add the phase shift referred to above, but also to add some inter-symbol interference with adjacent symbols. This interference could hardly degrade reception. To avoid these problems, we decide to transmit more than one complete sequence of time samples in order to increase the tolerance in timing. Its an additional data guard interval. It is built by repeating a set as long as channel memory of last samples taken in the original sequence. The longer the guard interval, the more rugged the system, but guard interval does not carry any
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useful information and its transmission leads to a penalty of power. One technique used to obtain good synchronization is to add between each OFDM symbol a null (zero samples) symbol. This technique is used in DAB for time synchronisation.
2.5.4
When transmitted signals have high PAPRs, amplifiers may produce clipping. In some way, clipping can be regarded as peaks of the input signal being simply cut-off by amplifiers. Consequences of clipping are out-of-band radiation and inter symbol interference between subcarriers. In order to avoid these undesired effects that reduce OFDM performances, one has either to use amplifiers with dynamic range, or try to reduce PAPR. The first alternative is expensive; the second one is more often used.
2.5.5
Phase Noise
At the receiver, a local oscillator can add phase noise to an OFDM signal, for example. The phase noise could so have two effects those are: Common Phase Error (CPE) due to a rotation of the signal constellation and, Inter Carrier Interference (ICI), similar to additive Gaussian noise. The BBC R&D have made analysis of the effects of phase noise on an OFDM signal, this analysis shows that CPE arises simultaneously on all carriers. Indeed, the signal constellation within a given symbol is subject to the same rotation for all carriers and this effect can be corrected by using reference information within the same symbol. Unfortunately, ICI is more difficult to overcome, due to the additive noise, which is different for all carriers. This difference can be interpreted as a loss of orthogonality.
2.5.6
Frequency Error
An OFDM system can be subject to two types of frequency error. They are Frequency offset (as might be caused by the tolerance of the local oscillator frequency) and, Error in the receiver master clock frequency (which will cause the spacing of the demodulating carriers to be different from those transmitted). Before to find solutions to those problems, the system designer needs to determine how much residual frequency error is permissible, and understand exactly how errors affect the received signal. Both of these error situations have been analyzed so; a frequency offset affects most carriers equally, with the very edge carrier less affected. ICI resulting from a fixed absolute frequency offset increases with the number of carriers, if the system bandwidth is kept constant. About error in the receiver clock frequency, in absence of frequency offset, it
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affects carriers unequally (the center carrier suffers a little while the worst affected carrier lies close to, but not at, the edge).
2.5.7
OFDMs reliance on the orthogonality between sub-carriers makes it very sensitive to carrier frequency offsets. A small frequency shift in the received signal will mean that the subcarriers are no longer located at integer multiples of the sub-carrier spacing. As such, the demodulated signal will experience inter-carrier interference (ICI) which will degrade the system performance if these offsets are not appropriately recovered. In practical systems, carrier frequency offsets are introduced by Doppler shifts and by physical differences between the LO crystals in the transmitter and the receiver. Offsets introduced by the latter can be quite substantial. For example, a crystal tolerance of 100ppm in a 5 GHz oscillator could have a frequency offset of up to 500 kHz. In IEEE 802.16a, center frequencies range from 2 MHz to 11 MHz with 256 sub-carriers spaced across a band 20 MHz wide. Clearly, the carrier frequency offset can often be greater than the spacing between sub-carriers. The problem of carrier frequency offset recovery is therefore broken into a coarse and a fine stage. When the CFO is greater than half of the spacing between sub- carriers, which is generally true, an initial coarse estimate is used to determine the portion of the CFO that is an integer number of sub-carrier spacings. A number of well-established and straightforward algorithms exist to perform this coarse estimation, and this stage will therefore not be explored in detail herein. The second stage of CFO recovery, which the proposed algorithm addresses, aims to recover the fine portion of the CFO that is within plus or minus one-half of the sub-carrier spacing.
3. Very-high-speed Digital Subscriber Lines (VDSL at 100 Mbps) 4. ADSL and broadband access via telephone network copper wires.
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pgk(x) =
exp(-
(3.3)
2. The impulsive noise variables iks are also i.i.d with variance i2 and the p.d.f is given by
pik(x) =
(x) +
exp(-
(3.4)
with m2 = i2m/A and ( . ) represents the Dirac delta function [3]. The parameter A is called the impulsive index. For small values of A, only 1 e-A 9.5% samples are hit by impulses. So the noise is highly structured. A parameter = g2 / i2 is defined as the Gaussian to impulsive noise power ratio for convenience.
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The input data {uk}is first encoded by a convolutional encoder to produce a coded sequence {ck}. The coded sequence {ck} is then mapped by a QPSK mapper to get a symbol sequence. This symbol sequence is then passed through a serial to parallel converter, whose output is grouped into sets of N symbols {S0, S1, SN-1}, where Sk belongs to M ary constellation . N is the number of subcarriers employed in OFDM and the symbol Sk is transmitted over kth subcarrier. In order to generate the transmitted signal, an inverse discrete fourier transform (IDFT) is performed on the N symbols. After the signal is passed through the impulsive noise channel, the vector r is received at the receiver .Using the pilot symbols inserted at the transmitter the gaussian noise estimator nullifies the gaussian noise and FFT is implanted on that data. The output of FFT is demapped by an QPSK de-mapper . The demapped data is decoded by a convolutional decoder to get output data.
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background noise (wk) is modelled as AWGN with mean zero and variance 2 w , and the impulsive noise (ik) is given by: ik = bkgk (3) Where bk is the Poisson Process which is the arrival ofimpulsive noise, and gk is white Gaussian process with mean zero and variance 2 i . This means that the arrival of impulsive noise follows a Poisson distribution with a rate units per second, so that the probability of event of k arrivals in a seconds is:
P(k) = P(X = k) = k = 0, 1, 2, ... (4)
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The amplitude of impulsive noise, on the other hand, follows Gaussian distribution with mean zero and variance 2i . Impulse width is also assumed to be Gaussian. Fig. 2 shows the time domain representation of a sample impulse with an overall duration of 50 s surrounded by background noise. In Fig. 3 a number of impulses with average impulse rate ( = 5s1 and average inter-arrival time (1/) of 200 ms are illustrated.Impulsive noise can degrade
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4. Convolution Codes 4.1. Convolutional codes, why should complicate our lives with them
People use to send voice waveforms in electrical form over a twisted pair of wires. Thesetelephone voice signals had a bandwidth of 4KHz. If the channel polluted the signal with a bit of noise, the only thing that happened was that the conversation got a bit noisier. As technology developed,we digitized the voice signals at 8000 samples per second (twice the highest frequency to prevent aliasing) and transmitted the bits. If noise corrupted a few bits, the corresponding sample value(s) would be slightly wrong or very wrong depending on whether the bad bits were near the most-significant-bit or least-significant-bit. The conversation sounded noisier, but were still discernible.Someone saying cat will not be thought to have said dog, and probably would not even be thought to have said caught.When people started to send data files rather than voice, corrupted bits became more important.Even one wrong bit could prevent a program from running properly. Say the noise in a channel was low enough for the probability of a bad bit to be 1x10-9 i.e. the chances of a bit being correct is 0.999999999 (nine 9s). The chances of 1000 bits being all correct is 0.999999 (six 9s) and the chances of 106 bits being all
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correct is 0.999 (three 9s). A 1 megabyte file (8x106 bits) has almost a 1% chance of being corrupted. The reliability of the channel had to be improved.The probability of error can be reduced by transmitting more bits than needed to represent the information being sent, and convolving each bit with neighbouring bits so that if one transmitted bit got corrupted, enough information is carried by the neighbouring bits to estimate what the corrupted bit was. This approach of transforming a number of information bits into a larger number of transmitted bits is called channel coding, and the particular approach of convolving the bits to distribute the information is referred to as convolution coding. The ratio of information bits to transmitted bits is the code rate (less than 1) and the number of information bits over which the convolution takes place is the constraint length.For example, suppose you channel encoded a message using a convolution code.
Fig.1 convolution channel encoder Suppose you transmitted 2 bits for every information bit (code rate=0.5) and used a constraint length of 3.Then the coder would send out 16 bits for every 8 bits of input, and each output pair would depend on the present and the past 2 input bits(constraint length =3). The output would come out at twice the input speed. Since information about each input bit is spread out over 6 transmitted bits, one can usually reconstruct the correct input even with several transmission errors.The need for coding is very important in the use of cellular phones. In this case, the channelis the propagation of radio waves between your cell phone and the base station. Just by turning your head while talking on the phone, you could suddenly block out a large portion of the transmitted signal. If you tried to keep your head still, a passing bus could
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change the pattern of bouncing radio waves arriving at your phone so that they add destructively, again giving a poor signal. In both cases, the SNR suddenly drops deeply and the bit error rate goes up dramatically.So the cellular environment is extremely unreliable. If you didnt have lots of redundancy in the transmitted bits to boost reliability, chances are that digital cell phones would not be the success they are today. As an example, the first digital cell system, Digital Advance Mobile Phone Service (D-AMPS) used convolution coding of rate 1/2 (i.e. double the information bit rate) and constraintlength of 6. Current CDMA-based cell phones use spreadspectrum to combat the unreliably of the air interface, but still use convolution coding of rate 1/2 in the downlink and 1/3 in the uplink (constraintlength 9). What CDMA is, is not part of this lab. You can ask the TA if you are curious.
Fig.2 convolution encoder. This is a convolution encoder of code rate 1/2 This means there are two output bits for eachinput bit. Here the output bits are transmitted one after another, two per clock cycle.The output z1 = x(n)! x(n-1)!x(n-2).Here x(n) is the present input bit, x(n-1) was the previous (yesterdays) bit, etc.The output z2= x(n)! x(n-2).The input connections to the XORs can be written as binary vectors [1 1 1] and [1 0 1] are known as the generating vectors or generating polynomials for the code.
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Fig. 3. Finite state diagram State= 00 = S0 = [x(n-1),x(n-2)] Output z=[z1,z2] z1 = x(n)! x(n-1)!x(n-2) = 1! 0! 0 =1 z2 = x(n)! x(n-2). = 1! 0 =1 z=[z1,z2]= 11 After the clock, state bit x(n-1)=0 will shift right into x(n-2), the input x(n)=1 will shift right into x(n-1),and the next state will be 10 = S1.
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Fig.4.Trellis Encoding Diagram To get the trellis diagram, squash the state diagram so S0, S1, S2 and S3 are in a vertical line. This line represents the possible states at time t=n (now). Make time the horizontal axis. Put in another line of states to show the possible states at t=n+1.Then add the transitions to the diagram. Make the them all go from states @ t=n to states @ t=n+1. Thus the self loop at state S0 in the state graph becomes the horizontal line from S0@t=n to S0 @t=n+1 in the trellis diagram. The complete trellis diagram extends past t=1 to as many time steps as are needed.Suppose the encoder is reset to state S0=00, and the input is 1,0,1,1,0,0. By following the trellis one sees that the output is 11 10 00 01 01 11. Also it passes through states S0, S1, S2, S1, S3, S2 ending in S0 @ t=6.
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4.3.Convolution Decoder
The next part of the project will be to design a convolution decoder to retrieve the information bits from the transmitted bits. It should succeed even in the presence of some errors in the transmitted bits. The method we will use is called a Viterbi decoder.
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Suppose the first four received bits have an error so instead of 11 01, one receives 11 11. On the trellis In Fig. 8, there are two choices leaving state S0, one for input 11 and the other for input 00 . The number in the box is the Hamming distance between the received input and the bits for the transition. It is clear one should make the transition from S0 S1.The next input has an error. Note there are no 11 or 00 paths leaving state S1. Both possible paths, 10 or 01, are at Hamming distance 1. At this time either transition looks equally likely, but wait
Fig. 5.1. Hamming distance path matrice At t=2, if one starts from S3, then h=0 for the path to state S2. However if one starts fromS2 one has h=1 for either the path to S0 or to S1.Thus at t=1 the proper path was not obvious, at t=2, the choice is clearer. We will chose a path through the trellis based on the path Hamming distance or path metric, which is the sum of the Hamming distances as one steps along a path through the trellis. Figure 10 shows how the Hamming distances sum as one goes down various paths through the trellis diagram. At t=5, one path has a total distance of 1 from the input data. The others have
30
a distance of 3 or 4. Thus the most likely path is S0 => S1=> S3=> S2 => S1=> S2 with path distance of 1, and the corresponding output data is 11010
31
32
33
As illustrated above, the Viterbi decoder can decode a convolution code in the presence of some errors. If two branches entering a state have equal H, then the code is unable to tell if one path is more likely than another. Pick one path at random.
5.RESULTS:
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Fig: performance comparision of rate 1by 3, ratehalf, and without coding in Gaussian environment
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6.CONCLUSION:
From the results we can observe that coding gain is without coding to coding is approximately 10dB and without coding to 1/3 coding is approximately 12 dB at particular probability of error. Impulsive noise is generated and results are shown.
7.REFERENCES:
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