On the application of Newtonian triangles to decomposition theorems. O.O.

Oyadare Abstract: We introduce and employ the properties of the innitely many Newtonian triangles to give purely algebraic arguments to some decomposition theorems in number theory.

Introduction.
Let x, y, n N{0} then the coecients of (x+y)n , as a polynomial in descending powers of x, are 1, n C1 y, n C2 y 2 , , y n . For y = 1 we can form the Pascal triangle, in which every row corresponds to a value of n, while, for arbitrary values of y, we have what we shall call the Newtonian triangles. We are interested in forming numbers from these coecients by applying the digital correspondence map, , on each of these rows. The resulting polynomial function generates all exact rationals, which makes it useful in a purely algebraic discussion of some decomposition theorems in Diophantine analysis.

1. Digital correspondence in Newtonian triangles.

A typical row in a Pascal triangle is (1, n C1 , n C2 , , 1). Among some of its properties we have 1 +n C1 +n C2 + + 1 = 2n , for all n N {0}. For n < 5, each of these coecients is a digit, so that any row may be viewed as a number. These numbers are 1, 11, 121, 1331, 14641, each of which is the n-th power of 11. i.e., (11)n , n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, respectively. Is it a coincidence that (1 + 1)n is exactly 2n for all n N? Indeed, what can we say of each the remaining rows in the Pascal triangle with respect to (11)n ? To wit, the next row is (1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1) and, if we transfer the tens appropriately, we shall have the number 161051. This is clearly 115 . The next row is (1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1), corresponding, after the appropriate transfer of tens, to the number 1771561 = 116 . Generally, and for any y N {0}, we have (1, n C1 y, n C2 y 2 , , y n ). The corresponding triangle is then 1 1 y 1 2y y 2 1 3y 3y 2 y 3 1 4y 6y 2 4y 3 y 4 . This is the Newtonian triangle, dened for each y N {0}. The build-up formula for this triangle is y (n1 Cr1 y r1 ) +n1 Cr y r =n Cr y r , y N, which is a far reaching generalization of the well-known expression for the Pascal triangle, where y = 1. (cf. [3.], p.)

Consider the situation for y = 2. Proceeding as in the Pascal triangle, the second row is (1, 4, 4), which corresponds to the number 144 = 122 , the third row is (1, 6, 12, 8), which corresponds to the number 1728 = 123 , the fourth row is (1, 8, 24, 32, 16), which corresponds to the number 20736 = 124 . We shall henceforth say that 20736 digitally corresponds to (1, 8, 24, 32, 16), and vice-versa. The truth behind the above property of each of the rows in the Newtonian triangle is summarized in the following. 1.1. Proposition. Let y, n N {0}. (i.) The number digitally corresponding to the coecients (1, n C1 y, n C2 y 2 , , y n ) (=: N (y, n)) is an exact power of n. (ii.) Every exact number in N is derivable from N (y, n), for some y, n. Proof. We know that (x + y)n = xn + (n C1 y)xn1 + (n C2 y 2 )xn2 + + y n , so that, considering x as the base of numeration on both sides, we have (1yx )n = (1
n

C1 y

C2 y 2 y n )x ()

as two equal numbers in base x. We then have the digital correspondence map, : Nn+1 N {0}, whose domain is {(x0 , x1 , , xn ) : xi =n Ci , 0 i n} and which takes (1, n C1 y, n C2 y 2 , , y n ) to (1, n C1 y, n C2 y 2 , , y n ). We denote this simply as fn (y), whose polynomial representation may be seen, from the left side of (), to be (10 + y)n . Clearly, fn (y) = (N (y, n)). Our focus is to discuss the contribution of fn (y), y, n N {0}, to decomposition theorems in Diophantine analysis. For example, the study of the (Fermat) decomposition conjecture, an bn = cn , for non-zero values of a, b, c is equivalent to studying the zeros of the polynomial equation, fn (y1 ) fn (y2 ) = fn (y3 ). Indeed, this equation could be looked at by studying the possible values of y for which the polynomial Qn1 (y, a) := fn (y + a) fn (y), a N, is the digital correspondence of some N (y, n). We conduct this study by looking at the cases of n = 2 and n > 2.

2. The case of n = 2.
Proposition 1.1 clearly says that f2 (y), y N {0}, (indeed y I ) is a Q perfect square and that every perfect square is some f2 (y). The study of f2 (y) therefore corresponds to studying the digital correspondence of the second rows of the Newtonian triangles. In this case Q1 (y, a) = a[2y + (20 + a)]. The following may be seen as a purely algebraic proof of the existence of Pythagorean triples and of the truth of Pythagoras theorem. It establishes, in our context, that some of the values of Q1 (y, a) appear in the list of the digital correspondences of N (y, 2). 2.1. Theorem. Let a be xed in I \{0}, then there exist some y I at which Q Q Q1 (y, a) is a perfect square. Proof. Set y = 1 x2 +2 x+3 , with x I where the values of 1 , 2 , 3 are yet Q to be known, into Q1 (y, a). Then Q1 (x, a) = 2a1 x2 +2a2 x+a(23 +20+a) and for it to be a complete square of a non-zero rational we must have Q1 (x, a) (px + q)2 2 1 1 for all p, q, x I . This identity gives 1 = 2a p2 , 2 = a pq and 3 = q a(20+a) , each Q 2a 2

( 2) ( ) p of which belongs to I uniquely, for every p, q I . Therefore y = 2a x2 + pq x + Q Q a [ 2 ] q a(20+a) is the required y in I . (Indeed, the discriminant of Q1 (x, a) vanishes Q 2a exactly when 1 =
1 2 p , 2 2a 1 = a pq and 3 = q 2 a(20+a) .) 2a

This theorem assures that the set of triples in I 3 dened as Q Pm = {(a, b, c) : m = |a b|, m = |a c|, or m = |b c|}, where m I \{0}, is non-empty. Some of the properties of Pm , which should be Q termed the set of Pythagorean triples, are contained in the following straightforward results. 2.2. Theorem. (i.) (a, b, c) Pm i (a, b, c) Pm , for every I + \{0}. Q (ii.) Pm P|m| , whenever m I \{0}. Q Q (iii.) Pm = P|m| , whenever m I + \{0}. 2.3. Conjecture. For any three Pm1 , Pm2 , Pm3 , we have that (i)
3 k=1

Pmk is a singleton set, that

(ii) if |m1 | |m2 | < |m3 | then |m1 | + |m2 | = |m3 | and that (iii) every Pythagorean triple (a, b, c) belongs to precisely three Pm , namely P|ab| , P|ac| and P|bc| . In these conjectures one may consider (i.) and (iii.) as converse statements, while (ii.) suggests an approach to investigate ordering of the members of Pm .

3. The case of n > 2.

The study of each fn (y), n > 2, is essentially the study of each of the other rows, after the second, in the list of Newtonian triangles. Going in the direction of 2., we compute the corresponding Qn1 (y, a), which is then sought in the list of digital correspondences to N (y, n). The situation for a = 1 is very instructive, where we have Q2 (y, 1) = 3y 2 + 63y + 331, Q3 (y, 1) = 4y 3 + 126y 2 + 1324y + 4641, . Inductively we get 3.1. Lemma. Qn1 (y, 1) = n Qr1 (0, 1) n Cr y nr , for n > 2, each of which r=1 satises the iterative integral equation y Qn (y, 1) = Qn (0, 1) + (n + 1) Qn1 (, 1)d.
0

In seeking a position for Qn1 (y, 1) in the list of digital correspondence to N (y, n) we have the following preliminary observation on Q2 (y, 1). 3

3.2. Lemma. There does not exist any y I for which Q2 (y, 1) is a perfect Q cube. Proof. Assume the contrary and proceed as in Theorem 2.1. If the polynomial Q2 (y, 1) = 3y 2 + 63y + 331 is to be a perfect cube there must exist y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d I with a, b, c, d, x I , such that, after substituting y into Q2 (y, 1), the Q Q resulting polynomial, Q2 (x, 1), in x of degree six would be identical to (px2 +qx+r)3 , for all p, q, r I . Q By making the expected substitution and comparing the corresponding coecients we arrive at seven relations, namely: 3a2 = p3 , 2ab = p2 q, 2ac+b2 = p2 r +pq 2 , 6ad + 6bc + 63a = 6pqr + q 3 , 2bd + c2 + 21b = pr2 + q 2 r, 2cd + 21c = qr2 and 3d2 + 63d + 331 = r3 from which we are expected to nd a, b, c and d in terms of 1 3 p, q and r. A consideration of the rst three and last relations give: a = p, 3 63 3(4r3 1) q 3p 3(12p2 r + pq 2 ) b= , c= and d = . 2 6 8 p3 Though the rationality of a, b, c, d with these expressions is doubtful, the crux of the matter is that they do not satisfy the remaining three relations. We thus encounter a disorder in the middle entries of (px2 +qx +r)3 . Hence Q2 (x, 1) cannot be identical to (px2 + qx + r)3 for all possible values of p, q, r, x I . i.e., Q2 (y, 1) cannot be Q made into a perfect cube. One may as well consider (px + q)6 instead of (px2 + qx + r)3 in the proof of Proposition 3.2. Combining it with the above iterative integral equation gives the situation for other values of n. 3.3. Proposition. Let n 3. Then there does not exist any y I for which Q Qn1 (y, 1) is an exact power n. Proof. The result follows form (3.2), since the discrepancies noted for Q2 (y, 1) above have henceforth been built into the subsequent Qn1 - polynomials if we use the linearity of the integral in the iterative relations y y Q3 (y, 1) = Q3 (0, 1) + 4 Q2 (, 1)d, Q4 (y, 1) = Q4 (0, 1) + 5 Q3 (, 1)d, . . .
0 0

The situation may not be dierent for all values of a I \{0}. Q 3.4. Theorem. Let n 3 and a I \{0}. Then there does not exist any y I Q Q for which Qn1 (y, a) is an exact rational of power n. Proof. The polynomials Qn1 (y, a), n 3, are at least quadratic in y, some whose zeros are irrational and/or complex. This makes the identity employed in (2.1) to break down, as in (3.2). Apart from the just introduced theory crafted around f2 (y + a) and f2 (y) in the investigation of the set Pm , one may equally consider f2 (y) in the manner in which f2 (y + a) was considered, and the result is that, for every I \{0, 1}, we always Q have f2 (y) = 2 f2 (y) + R1 (y, ) where R1 (y, ) = 20(1 )y + 100(1 2 ). It can readily be shown that R1 (y, ) is a perfect square of a non-zero rational i [ ] [ ] [ 2 ] p2 pq q 100(1 2 ) 2 y= x + x+ 20(1 ) 10(1 ) 20(1 ) 4

for all p, q, x I . Q It is interesting to see how much could be done with a proper handling of the (nite) binomial expansion which was the much that Fermat himself could boast of in his days. (see [1.], p.) As a direction to further exploration, one may seek to make Pm into a vector space by using (2.2)(i.), as a scalar multiplication, and dening a suitable addition of its members. A reconciliation of the ideas of Andrew Wiles with the content of Theorem 3.4 would also be protable. Indeed all the techniques of [2.] may be seen as a whole in the light of the polynomials of this paper.

References.
[1.] Bell, E.T., MATHEMATICS, Queen and Servant of Science. MAA Publication (1987). [2.] Niven, I. and Zuckerman, H.S., An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers. John Wiley and Sons Inc. (1972). [3.] Page, A., Algebra. University of London Press Ltd. (1950). Department of Mathematics Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, NIGERIA. e-mail: femi oya@yahoo.com