Paradigms--Scientific and Social Author(s): S. B. Barnes Reviewed work(s): Source: Man, New Series, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Mar.

, 1969), pp. 94-102 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2799267 . Accessed: 20/02/2012 10:07
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PARADIGMS-SCIENTIFIC S. B. BARNES

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University ofEdinburgh

and of patterns thought belief, and to systematise explain attempts order, In their have and sociologists anthropologists tendedto use ideal modelsof philosophers, In of thought'as standards comparison. anthro'rationalthought'and 'scientific abouttheextent of a there exists controversy long standing pology,forinstance, can communities be accomof beliefs preliterate and to whichthemagical religious Evans-Pritchard of Levy-Bruhl, modated to such models; the writings Frazer, in in debate.Often, such be andLevi-Strauss all,I think, seenas landmarks this can of treatment anthropological one findsa detailedand sophisticated material, or of notions whatis rational scienimplicit and related sketchy often to material but needno elucidation, on that these ideasareso familiar they it tific; couldbe that our view. Clarifying ideasof science workI would opposethis thebasisof recent arguedthatuniversal seemsto pay off.Lukes(I967) has recently and rationality a He of are criteria rationality availableto anthropologists. is able to establish powerfulcase for this by examiningthe rules-logical and empirical-which rules if in that at leastsomeof these and define rationality our society by showing thenwe shouldnot be able to to in are not assumed be operating othersocieties Horton(I967) itself them.Similarly to attribute concepts evenlanguage or beliefs, traditional of and of advantages limitations African in hisdiscussion theexplanatory natural an science, of is understanding Western aidedbya detailed thought greatly the imageof science. in whichcontradicts somerespects stereotype understanding and its science in Horton'swork is a farcryfromFrazer's thesensethatit takes rather thana simpleintuitive model; as complexentity theories an exceedingly interwe perhaps shallbegin to see scienceas so complexthatanthropological it. of will serveas modelsin understanding Certainly beliefs pretations primitive advocatedmanages to currently activity none of thesimplemodelsforscientific usedas thebasisof this and diagnosis achievea tolerable consensus, theparticular whichrunscounter to it is of article thesubject controversy; is in facta diagnosis the notablythosewherehe stresses difference thatof Hortonat severalpoints, to it betweenscienceand otherkindsof thought; will be useful listthese. of outlook is an awareness the of i. The major distinctiveness the scientific and of theories setsof ideas. existence alternative existsin scienceonly,as an oasiswithinour totalculture: 2. This awareness in more"open" or scientific hisoutlook is Western .... themodern layman rarely African thanis thetraditional villager'(HortonI967). of world; there is scientist a microcosmic replica thescientific 3. The individual within science. factors individual institutional and is no need to distinguish methodused to developand testtheories. scientific 4. There is a specifically the of no to there-is attempt preserve theory means by Wherethetests negative are beliefs. as elaboration is commonin thecase of primitive secondary

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I can now proceedwiththealternative whichverylargely basesitself diagnosis of of studies of on viewspresented ThomasKuhn as a result a series historical by is of scientific change.The cruxof Kuhn'sposition theconcept a paradigm:
A paradigm a fundamental is scientific achievement, one whichincludes and botha theory and some exemplary to of and More applications the results experiment observation. it one of still important is an openendedachievement, whichleavesall sorts research to be done.Andfinally isanaccepted it achievement the in sense itis received a group that whose by members longer to rivalit or to create no try for alternatives it (KuhnI963a: 358).

to A scientific discipline may be considered developas follows: will exciteinvestigation fora periodnothing but that i. A set of phenomena will as can be described progress occur.Investigators coverthesameground will will produceand reject and in manytimes;they manyconcepts theories attempts from or theirresults guide theirwork. New investigators to interpret starting in at scratch thefieldwill findthemselves no disadvantage. a the field. 2. Eventually singleparadigmwill become acceptedthroughout fluid theoryof Kuhn gives many examples of this-for instanceFranklin's or the electricity, Aristotelian cosmology theatomictheory. a 3. Thisinaugurates periodof whatKuhncalls'normalscience'during which to as tend scientists unthinkingly accepttheparadigm trueand limitthemselves to its The paradigmgenerates set of exa and checking implications. developing worldwhichthescientist seeksto confirm. about thenatural pectations
the and to muchspecialpurpose ... he struggles articulate concretise known,designing of and for task.Fromthese apparatus manyspecial purpose adaptations theory that puzzles of design adaptation getshispleasure and he (KuhnI963a: 363).

The paradigms normalscience of tendto be presented theneophyte dogma, to as devoidof their historical originand withpossible to objections themoften caremodem scientific in fullyconcealed.Kuhn describes training detailas followsthe student chemistry, and of Typically, undergraduate graduate physics, astronomy, geology, the or biologyacquires substance his fieldfrom books written of for especially students. Untilhe is ready, verynearly or to workon hisown dissertation, is ready, commence he neither askedto attempt research trial nor projects exposedto theimmediate products of research byothers-to, is,theprofessional done that communications scientists for that write eachother. Thereareno collections 'Readings'in thenatural of sciences. is thescience Nor student to classics hisfield-works whichhe might of encouraged readthehistorical in discoverother the discussed histext, inwhich wouldalso in waysofregarding problems but he meetproblems, and of that concepts standards solution hisfuture profession longsince has discarded replaced. contrast, various and In the texts thestudent encounter that does display different rather as subject matters, of than, inmany thesocialsciences, exemplifying different to field. approaches a singleproblem Even books thatcompete adoption a single for in coursediffer mainlyin level and in pedagogicdetail,not in substance conceptual or structure. Last,but most important all, is the characteristic of technique textbook of presentation. Except in their occasional introductions, science textbooks not describe do the sortsof problems thatthe professional be asked to solve and the variety may of techniques availablefor theirsolution. Rather thesebooks exhibitconcrete problemsolutions theprofession cometo accept paradigms, they that has as and then thestudent, ask either witha pencil paperorinthelaboratory, solvefor and to himself problems closely very related both method substance those in and to which text accompanying the or lecture led has himthrough. Nothing couldbe better calculated produce to 'mental sets'or 'Einstellungen'. mostelementary Onlyin their courses other do academic fields offer evena partial parallel
(Kuhn i963b: 344).

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a and to within a receives paradigm in doingso learns operate Thus theneophyte and set He to well defined of concepts procedures. is trained do 'normalscience', a and i.e. to solveproblems within paradigm, thistypeof activity, claimsKuhn, the of research. comprises mainelement ongoingscientific doesnothowever proceed without disturbance. expectaThe 4. Normalscience fromtheparadigm not alwaysfulfilled; tionsderived are anomalies and contraoccur. These problems, which existonly in the lightof the paradigm dictions are withtheobjectofreassimilating Reassimilation occur itself, attacked them. may them or by a by further empirical studyof the anomalies,by reinterpreting elaboration theparadigm. of secondary of can lead to 5. The existence anomalies sometimes instead a different developdescribed Kuhnas a 'scientific in ment, by revolution' whichtheexisting paradigm as and is is recognised inadequate allegiance transferreda new one. Thisprocess to occuras a result dispassionate of scientists doesnotnecessarily objective evaluation; to howeverunsatisfactory, shouldno cling tenaciously theircurrent paradigm, alternative available; new paradigms be may gain supportnot becauseof any demonstrable over becausescientists welcomethe superiority theold but sinmply of to opportunity a new tryat explanation; again polemic opposition new or thoseheavily committed existing to beliefs. Moreover paradigms maycomefrom to the transfer a new set of theoretical tramrailsdoes not necessarily involve individual changes mind.Kuhn quotesscientists of themselves support this in of point:
A new scientific doesnottriumph convincing opponents making truth its and themsee by thelightbut rather because opponents its eventually and a new generation die growsup is withit (PlanckI948: 22). that familiar I of Although am fully convinced thetruth theviewsgivenin thisvolume... I by no of means to expect convince experienced naturalists whoseminds stocked are witha multitude all offacts, viewed, a to during longcourse years, of from pointofviewdirectly a opposite mine... but I look withconfidence thefuture-toyoungand rising to naturalists, who willbe ableto viewbothsides thequestion of with impartiality (DarwinI929: 402).

The acceptance a newparadigm of completes cycleanda newperiodofnormal a science full commences; textbooks rewritten give theneophyte confidence are to in thelatest 'truth',and theperiodof confusion becomesreinterpreted one of as rationally achieved progress.
* * * * *

To whatextent thisview of science accepted? can be Certainly is dangerous it to generalise from Kuhn'sparticular studies thenature all scientific to of disciplines, and similarly is dangerous assume it to that scientific activity doesnotchangeover time.'Furthermoreis probably it incorrect think terms one paradigm to in of per within discipline; psychology instance for cumulative progress beingmadeonthe is basisof a behaviourist Kuhntends paradigm also alongFreudian and lines.Finally to a rather that dubiousformof relativism some of hiswritings, in asserting one is paradigm pretty muchof thesamevalue as any other, none beingcompletely true;thisleadsto an over-emphasis thearbitrary of nature paradigm of changes. Nonetheless and there points thediagnosis arewell backedby evidence are in that whichI need to assert trueforthepurpose my argument. as of

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is as I. Themajority scientific of research activitywelldescribedproblem solving taken granted. a and for within setofconcepts procedures usually as Kuhndescribes Little is it. scientific 2. Formal training today substantially to or is scientistsbe 'objective', 'rational', effortmadeto teach 'sceptical' 'openminded' such.z as and and 3. Paradigm changes, more specific conceptual theoretical changes, do the characteristics. occurin science usually and possess following before another available. original is The a. One paradigm notabandoned is this is until timeand undergoes a paradigm retained secondary elaboration, in process quite acceptable science. in scientists to believe one theory tend b. Individual onlyand bendtheir to it alternatives. A change belief from in is efforts defendingor attacking one to a of not detachment. theory another directly, throughperiod complete than within more c. Dominant theories science change rapidly thebeliefs of the scientist toadopt tends Particularly important wayinwhich individual isthe onetheory a time work at to seem with. Scientists tobe abletotolerate empirical are dissonance-an that anomalous occurrence-and able to believe it empirical or will be explained but dissonance ambiguity not is eventually: theoretical accepted.3 his which makes thought scientist less Thusa picture theindividual of emerges of than Mostof thetimehisawareness individually distinctive Horton allows. in islow alternatives andherefuses accept dissonance ambiguity categories and to The and theories; utilises he secondary elaboration. gap withtheprimitive is that narrowing perhaps cannarrow a little and we it more remarking paradigm by in take and howconvinced of changes science placeovera number years asking I to to we ought be about stability primitive the over of beliefs long periods.want a create further byextending notion a paradigm. notion a set link The of the of ofcategories, with theories procedures inconnexion concrete and learnt examples, in with to accepted the by entire reference andapplied deal group problems concrete situations be extended, held whole can I think, various to societies. beliefs through Cannot action people, applying concepts voluntary involuntary orseeking of and to determine whetherperson responsible hisbehaviour, described a be as is for withsocialparadigms? if thisis accepted cannot term And the be operating or extended say,Azandeconsulting to, witchcraft oracles Kalabari diagnosing disease? Thisbehaviour of to the seems me to fallwithin definition problem but solving activity conducted within setof rules a givenby socialconsensus in applied an openended way.If theanalogy a strong it should is one, prove in to and are and profitable lookat howparadigms articulated developed science how theyare overthrown, enquire whatextent similar are to and processes in some societies.4 argument be that will possible primitive My paradigm change are for is in the reason this not processes favoured modern societies that major and individual awarenessalternatives differentiation andinstitutions. inroles Thus of but I shall looking differences so much 'types thought' intheconbe as for not in of texts within which thought that the operates. is sometimes It suggested primitive in has thought distinctive featuresa far at more fundamental than level this; so far asthis is it view correct analogy beweakened, my will thoughdonot I think would
4-M.

individual scientists.

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in everbecomevalueless. Howeverifanthropologists correct suggesting were that primitive thought notconceptual, theway in whichprimitives anomaly is then see and ambiguity thenotionof what a rule is forthemwould have to be reand considered. Levi-Strauss writes:
in Signs resemble images being in concrete entities they resemble of but concepts their powers reference. Neither concepts signs nor relate exclusively themselves: to either maybe substituted something Concepts, for in else. however, have an unlimited capacity thisrespect whilesigns havenot. . . theengineer and works means concepts thebricoleur means of by by ofsigns. The sets which eachemploys at different are distances from poleson theaxisof the opposition between nature culture and (I966: I8-20).

Worsley(i964) has quoted Vygotsky's work on the development of (I962) conceptsin children make a relatedpoint (strangely to enough againstLeviStrauss). Worsleywantsto distinguish and conceptual thought complexthought and quotesVygotsky:In a complex, are in mindnotonlyby hissubjective individual objects united thechild's the impressions alsoby bondsactually but existing between these objects.... In a complex bondsbetween components concrete and its are and factual rather thanabstract logical Whilea concept the to the groups objects according one attribute bondsrelating elements ofa complex thewholeandto oneanother be as diverse thecontacts relationto as may and of ships theelements in reality are (I964: 62).
(I964: 6i).

Worsley claims that aboriginaltotemic classifications indicate 'complexrather in than'thinking concepts' he usestheterms a sense in thinking' but entirely fromVygotsky's thathe is referring relationships different in to betweenthings labelledwhereas already Vygotsky describes relationships the between objectsall underthesameword-label. verbalthought comexisting Thus,forVygotsky, in plexesmisses and discriminations betweenobjectsin thecomplexes, is genuinely non-conceptual, whereasin Worsley'sexamplethe aborigines aware of disare tinctions betweenobjectsin theircomplexesand the existence conceptual of is in thought notprecluded. of Only an interpretationprimitive of thought terms own positionwould provide a genuinealternative conceptual to Vygotsky's and thought Vygotsky himself this provides (i962: 7I-2). He postulates complexas on thinking an explanation Levy-Bruhl's of material participation, thefact e.g. thattheBororo tribeclaimto be red parrots. to this According Vygotsky claim the a represents incorrect translation a term of labelling complexofpeopleandred parrots. does not give a detailed his Vygotsky to empirical analysis justify position and it mustbe considered proven: its implications anthropological for not practice would be enormous henceit can be concluded and thatanthropologists implicitly have rejected it. Levi-Strauss's position embodies manyseparate claimsbut theydo not involve an alternative form thought theway that of in Vygotsky's position does.Thought in signsseemsto be analogousto conceptual with certainlimitations. thought Signsare 'preconstrained restricted thefactthattheyare drawnfromthe ... by language wherethey already possess sensewhichsetsa limiton their a freedom of manoeuvre' (i966: i9) unlikeconcepts which'possesssimultaneous theoretiand callyunlimited relations withother entities thesamekind' (i966: 20). Thought of

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becomesmore 'transparent reality'(I966: 20). Levi-Strauss to recognises that the claim restsupon an unbreakable metaphor acknowledging thateven the scientist 'nevercarries a dialoguewithnature on pureand simple'(I966: I9). As the metaphor cannotbe reducedit is reinforced; concepts 'open up' sets,signs merely reorganise them;scientists alwaysattempt go beyondthe constraints to ofa particular ofcivilisation, state bricoleurs remain within them. Thesearguments are such excellent piecesof bricolagethatit seemsstrange thatLevi-Strauss has not realised importance thisactivity the of within natural science;his definition of conceptual is thought clearly too stringent. Despite thisthe argument quite stresses impersonality modern validly the of science-a characteristic it shares with muchother Western thought-andconsideration this of leadsbackto thetheme of differentiation. To be meaningful through entire an society statements mustrelateto a set of held experiences. rolesdifferentiate, in commonly As statements meaningful the context one specific willcommunicate successively of role to sections the of smaller society;universally meaningful statements mustrefer a smallerand smaller to will diminish rangeof commonexperience. Specific sharedcultural experience and that partofcommonexperience whichLevi-Strauss 'reality' calls will become as Differentiation tendto will increasingly important a basisforcommunication. lessen subjectivity. Another important effect differentiationbeendescribed Douglas (I966). of has by Differentiation to the creation specialised leads and of agenciesof social control of in thegrowth organic the of solidarity; theabsence these agencies mainclassifiof cations thesocialorder symbolically are in of reinforced other systems classificaand tionand belief, notions pollution, of avoidanceand taboo arepresent danger, in in thesesystems so faras theyare partof the central socialinstitutions. Thus leads and organic solidarity to a weakening taboosandavoidances, differentiated of scientific and devoid of general activity, usingclassifications beliefs increasingly contains themonly to a smallextent. so faras theyexist, In social significance, of confirmation Douglas'sviews.Horton(I967) however, they provide interesting hasrightly described insistence science itsapplication keptseparate the be that and as a purifying science but besides concernwith the science/not movement, for in existof taboo and avoidancewithinscience, instance boundary, examples boundaries:one example of this was the reception maintaining disciplinary accorded chemists methods chemical to of the by analysis involving useofenzymes; less the of to theories fermentation each another, recently, resistance biological (in and theories case the resistance on the grounds was were not thatthe methods besidesproviding It to specifically chemical). is important note thatparadigms, for and rules scientific workalso provide criteria whichrecognition reward the by are allocatedamongscientists. is Thus theparadigm a sourceof socialorderbut are there no institutionalised for to mechanisms dealing withthreats it; attacks upon characterin fashion paradigms drawsanctions may uponthemselves theautomatic isticof tabooed actions.A recent and extreme exampleof thisis the strongly of emotional scientists theworkofDr I. Velikovsky to response American (Grazia etal. I963). Such clearcut examples not easyto find, avoidance behaviours are as occurinvisibly science, adverse in via refusal publication, of normally refereeing,

insigns seems turn conceptual to into thought itfrees from culture as itself its and

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lackofcitation general and withdrawalrecognition. procedures of These normally usedto maintain standards to within paradigm be usedsimply protect the can it from threat danger-and and sometimes butattacks scientific are; on paradigms none less I want consider succeed the and to why.
* * * * *

To start whatis involved action abandoningparadigm? the in with, a All for activities governed theparadigm haveto be changed matter will no by how or ingrained habit involved themaintenancerelationships hierarchies in of by and those activities be.Now a scientific of may activities anesoteric paradigm governs andrestricted andactivities nature which on haveno bearing thegeneral pattern ofthe scientists' life. social Social on other hand tend beextremely paradigms the to and pervasive to structure activities which wouldbe greatly it to disadvantageous or alter, evenactivities which individual incapable altering. for the is of Thus the actor social more the action more and paradigm governs action the significant than one. scientific Abandoning, themolecular orbital of means say, theory chemistry a lotless than the of abandoning notion responsibility example, or,for abandoning in oracles youareanAzande. if belief poison But paradigms whenan alternative onlyseemto be abandoned is theory of presented a capable being newparadigm. do Where these newtheories come in from science? sources new paradigms thetheories deviant of Among are of groups continually within discipline existing the itself. Sometimes theseare previously rejected paradigms; of among professorszoology this in country, for the Lamarchian instance, last evolutionist intheI960's. Thewavetheory retired of was for light discarded thecorpuscular of at but theory thetime Newton wasstill number scientists eventuallybecame usedby a small of it until dominant again. Atthe time of present a small Max group physicists are including Bohm following procedures to contrary theexisting of paradigms quantum and physics these are related a paradigm to in earlier thecentury. directly rejected But probably mostimportant the of source new paradigms metaphorical is ofa from outside discipline. source such the transposition theory One of theories scientific for is other and disciplines; physics instance information have theory models physiology psychology.such provided for and In cases certain patterns can be discerned. one will its Occasionally discipline extend empirical and range its will paradigms come overlap those another to with of discipline. Another common is occurrenceforindividuals movefrom field another lower to one to of status andcontinue apply techniques their to the of former paradigms (Ben-David I960). As science and grows becomes more in differentiated this of type process increases frequency. Science, however, often very theories adopts present within general the social structure. many scientific Very theories trace backto common sense analogies. was visualised a fluid, alsowasheat, as Electricity first so was valency first thought of ofin terms balls hooks thekinetic and and of did theory gases literally depend on at first theanalogy between theoretical its entities billiard and balls.Hesse in (I96I) hasshown detail howanalogy from familiar thelessfamiliar the to has beenand still vitalto thedevelopment thetheories mechanics; is of of those

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closest axiomatic to deductive in whichare thought paradigms systems their to and seem vital construction use.The ability handle and not metaphor analogy and of but articulation extension given onlyfor paradigm change for paradigms involved doingthis. and theproblem in Thisimplies in terms that of solving our and of of the between science 'thescience the degree abstraction difference and the of is than Levi-Strauss concrete' a gooddealless implies, alsothat absence of is of of awareness alternativesa dubious explanation thestability primitive it should lessadept extending be beliefs-for seetns that at unlikely theprimitive and than science itsowndevelopideas analogy metaphor we.5Although by by numbers theoretical of ment generated has enormous and structures, concepts in which turn accelerate growth an institution, wholeprocess its as the images to and to mustbe related therestricted specialised of relationship action the of and paradigms science thedifferentiation that it. process produced The basis thecaseI havemadeso far of rests that uponthenotion theappliof to is In cability scientific situations. a concepts limited specialised peripheral sense isnottrue: of and in strict this logical concepts space time physics challenge oureveryday of behaviourist has conceptions these things, psychology immense for and implicationspersonal other current relationships sodoes every psychological and paradigm, similarly, physiological paradigms involve logically conceptions what really Two points tobe made we are. about need here. first that The is when are for suchbeliefs disseminated general socialconsumption can arouse they and social opposition at onetime specialised wouldbe agencies controlling order invoked them. second The is against scientists point that themselves remain unworried their at whilst thesametime socialparadigms by paradigms using apin parently logical contradictionthem. to Rules of content apparently prevent his thescientist in of making concepts fully general terms action. is rather He likethenotorious who that philosopher announced his nextlecture 'The on of 2 unreality time'hadbeenputbackfrom o'clock 5 o'clock. to Fewscientists about a whethertable anillusion is a worry of or hiding reality atoms whetheris it realandrepresented atoms a useful in by two fiction; beliefs operate different in and judged so far they their contexts are in as do separate Whenbeliefs jobs. enter thegeneral social their structure, however, relevance theaction thescientist to of cannot appreciated they be and be must judgedin thecontext social of activities andtheir as are controlling paradigms,these theonly criteria available theoutto Thusdissonance opposition far sider. and are more to likely occur.
* * * * *

Thisarticle presented has a viewofWestern science which its links growth with theexistence permissive of socialstructural features minimises distincand the of tiveness thethought theindividual of scientist. datahavenotbeenspecifiMy drawn from social cally but anthropology: thesimilarities between twofields the be to will,I think, ofinterest anthropologists canreadbetween lines who the of I what havehere presented.
NOTES

I am indebted Dr MaryDouglas and to Mr David Bloor of the ScienceStudies to Unit, of for University Edinburgh, discussion manyofthepoints this of in article.

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I I believe that is awareofthewayinwhich there evidence somescientists havebecome today i.e. in this theories changed, havebecome a wayconscious whatKuhndescribes; awarehave of scientists thereby and nessalters behaviour these the of invalidates Kuhn'sdiagnosis. ' 2Horton takes opposite the view,he quotes . . . anEnglish medical student, newly exposed as 'You seemto be as ifwhenlearning skate, to thescientific attitude,' saying to trying find to a nicehard on of how pieceofice which youcanstand upright instead learning to moveon it. You continue trying find to something, foundation some piecewhich willnotmove,whereas on everything moveand you'vegotto learnto skate it' (Abercrombie will I960). However, attitude' this that student beingfaced was with. it wasnot'thescientific The teaching contents whichshookhim were so unusualthatAbercrombie wrotea book about themand their how students had onlyexperienced normal results. book in fact The records who the of forms of to scientific training responded a 'be suspicious everything' ofapproach. type 3 The examination scientific of controversies provides good support these for views. Take betweenDarwinianand Lamarchian or the nineteenth evolution earlier century disputes and or the the molecularbetween Plutonist Neptunist geologists; morerecently valence-bond or in state orbital controversychemistry,againthesteady cosmology opposed its'expanding by In have and hurled universe' alternative. all thesecasesscientists takensidesin the dispute these cases evidence eachother at are where existing the (andsometimes polemic too). Further has insufficient time) decide favour oneviewandsomeofthe to in evidence beenclearly of (atthe have boththeories limited themselves allowing controversies resolved by validity. for of science leadtotheviewthat to 4There is anunfortunate a tendency thesuccess modern of must havebeeninvolved. itself argument In distinctive method thought this must due fail material factors have favoured that to thenumber independent of modern science, the e.g. thatgrewin thewest,theuniquetechnological of elites increasingly numbers leisured large based on a complexeconomyand the greatly resources, refined the quantitative concepts of that the of increased efficiencyinformation language. stQrage follows adoption written 5 There seemsto be a disagreement here among anthropologists. Evans-Pritchard and stress in and Hortonforinstance equilibrium beliefs socialinstitutions; contrast by Douglas worlds stresses diversity individual of the of and (i966) in herdiscussion primitive beliefs their are stability in so faras they socialinstitutions. only

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