Esteban Eredia AP Biology Summer Assignment

Topic 1: Study of Life 1. One unifying theme is the theory of evolution by natural selection. This theory states that organisms change over. A second unifying theme is that all living organisms are made up of cells. In other words, cells are the smallest unit of a living creature. 2. There are ten different levels of biological organization. They are atom, molecule, cell, tissue, organ, organism, species, population, community, and ecosystem. 3. 1. Order. Organisms are highly ordered, and other characteristics of life emerge from this complex organization. 2. Reproduction. Organisms reproduce. Life comes only from life. 3. Growth and Development. Heritable programs stored in DNA direct the speciesspecific pattern of growth and development. 4. Energy Utilization. Organisms take in and transform energy to do work, including the maintenance of their ordered state. 5. Response to Environment. Organisms respond to stimuli from their environment. 6. Homeostasis. Organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain a steady-state, even in the face of a fluctuating external environment. 7. Evolutionary Adaptation. Life evolves in response to interactions between organisms and their environment. 4. Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus that is bound by a double membrane. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Eukaryotic DNA is linear while prokaryotic DNA is circular. Eukaryotic DNA is complex with proteins and is organized into chromosomes. Prokaryotic DNA is much simpler and has no proteins associated with it. 5. In a system with positive feedback, the system will respond to a change by trying to increase the change. In a system with negative feedback, the system will respond to the change by working to cancel it out. 6. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning basically states that when you are faced with a problem, you start with a general theory of all possible factors that might affect an outcome and deduce from it specific hypothesis about what might happen. Growth the development of an organism. Development the series of changes which animal and vegetable organisms undergo in their passage from the embryonic state to maturity. Metabolism the totality of an organisms chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways, which manage the material and energy resources of the organism. Homeostasis the steady-state physiological condition of the body.

Stimuli that which influences or causes a temporary increase of physiological activity or response in the whole organism or in any of its parts. Adaptations inherited characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific environments. Prokaryotic of, or pertaining to, or characteristic of a prokaryote, which is basically an organism lacking a true nucleus. Eukaryotic of, or pertaining to, or characteristic of a eukaryote, which is basically an organism possessing a membrane-bound nucleus. Evolution the idea that living species are descendants of ancestral species that were different from the present-day ones. Community an assemblage of populations of different species living close enough together for potential interaction. Ecosystem all the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic factors with which they interact. Population a localized group of individuals of the same species that can interbreed, producing fertile offspring.

Topic 2: Basic Chemistry 1. The four elements essential to life are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. 2. An atom consists of a nucleus and electrons. The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons crammed together. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in orbits.

3. The most important consideration is valence electrons. Since all atoms want a full outer shell like the noble gases, they will react in order to lose, gain or share electrons. 4. The octet rule states that atoms tend to strive to have 8 electrons on their outer shell. Depending on the amount of electrons in the outer shell, the atom will form single, double, or even triple bonds in order to reach 8 valence electrons. 5. A covalent bond is a bond that occurs when valence electrons are shared between atoms. Some examples would be chlorine, hydrogen, and hydrogen chloride. A polar covalent bond is a bond between two non-metals with different electronegativity. The higher the difference in electronegativity, the more polar the bond is. Some examples would be water and carbon trioxide. An ionic bond is a bond that occurs when electrons are

transferred between atoms. Some examples would be sodium chloride, magnesium fluoride, and sodium sulphide. 6. A hydrogen bond is a special type of dipole-dipole force that exists between an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom bonded to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine. This type of force always involves a hydrogen atom and is very weak. A covalent bond is about 20 times stronger than an intermolecular hydrogen bond. The hydrogen bond is weaker than covalent, ionic and metallic bonds. 7. The more concentrated the solution of reactants is, the more the reaction wants to push right making more products. The more concentrated the solution of products is, the more the reaction will push left producing more reactants. 8. Oxidation and reduction must occur simultaneously because for oxidation to take place the electrons lost by the substance that is oxidized must be accepted by atoms or ions of another substance. Matter anything that takes up space and has mass. Mass the quantity of matter in an object. Element any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance. Atom the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element. Compound a substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio. Proton a subatomic particle with a single positive electrical charge. Neutron an electrically neutral particle. Electron a subatomic particle with a single negative charge. Atomic number the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Mass number the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atoms nucleus. Isotope an atomic form of a chemical element. Energy the capacity to do work. Electron shell an energy level representing the distance of an electron from the nucleus of an atom. Orbital a specific wave function for an electron in an atom. Valence electron the electrons in the outermost electron shell. Chemical bond - an attraction between two atoms resulting from a sharing of outer-shell electrons or the presence of opposite charges on the atoms. Molecule two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds. Reactant a starting material in a chemical reaction.

Product an ending material in a chemical reaction. Covalent bond a type of strong chemical bond in which two atoms share one pair of valence electrons. Polar pertaining to a compound exhibiting polarity or dipole moment that is a compound bearing a partial positive charge on one side and a partial negative charge on the other. Ionic bond a chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions. Cation an ion with a positive charge. Anion an ion with a negative charge. Ion an atom that has gained or lost electrons. Hydrogen bond - a type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule. Reduction the addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction. Oxidation the loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction.

Topic 3: Water 1. Water is life, and life is water. Living cells are made almost entirely of water. No living things can exist without water as far as we know. Without water there is no fitness of any environment to support life. 2. Water molecules are simply two hydrogen atoms that are joined to the oxygen atom by single covalent bonds. The water molecule is shaped something like a wide V.

3. Water contains two O--H bonds. This bond is very polar because oxygen is very electronegative and will pull electrons away from hydrogen. This means that the hydrogen end will be slightly positive and the oxygen end will be slightly negative.

Molecules of water will then form hydrogen bonds where the positive end will attract to the negative end of another molecule. 4. Five characteristics of water that are a result of hydrogen bonding are surface tension, water as a solvent, high boiling point, adhesion and cohesion, and ice being able to float. 5. Water has a high specific heat capacity, meaning it requires a huge amount of energy to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 degree celsius. This maintains metabolic processes occurring in at optimum temperature at all times despite fluctuations in the temperature of external environment. High heat of vaporization means a lot of energy is required to turn water to steam. So, this helps in cooling effect when we sweat. Expansion upon freezing affect means water has max density at 4 degrees celsius. During winter, the surface of pond water freezes and insulates the water beneath. The water beneath the ice is much warmer and thus enables aquatic organisms to survive. 6. Water is a versatile solvent because of hydrogen bonding in water and because water is polar in nature. The partially positive and negative charges developed on the water molecule attract respectively the negative and the positive ions of the substance to be dissolved thereby breaking its chemical bond. Cohesion the binding together of like molecules. Surface tension a measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. Adhesion the attraction between different kinds of molecules. Hydrophobic having an aversion to water. Hydrophilic having an affinity for water. Specific heat the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temperature by 1C. Heat of vaporization the quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1 gram of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state. Evaporative cooling the property of a liquid whereby the surface becomes cooler during evaporation, owing to a loss of highly kinetic molecules to the gaseous state. Solvent the dissolving agent of a solution. Solute a substance that is dissolved in a solution. Solution a homogeneous, liquid mixture of two or more substances.

Topic 4: Acids and Bases 1. The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.

2. Acids are substances that release their hydrogen ion(s) while bases grab hydrogen ions to themselves. So, adding acids will increase the H+ concentration while adding bases will decrease the H+ concentration of the solution. This would be considered a direct effect. 3. A solution of 5 would be more 10,000 times more acidic than one with a pH of 9 and 100 times more acidic than one with a pH of 7. 4. Buffers work by accepting hydrogen ions from solutions when they are in excess and donating hydrogen ions to the solution when they are depleted. In the bicarbonate buffer system, the chemical equilibrium between carbonic acid and bicarbonate act as a pH regulator. If the H+ concentration in blood begins to fall (pH rises), more carbonic acid dissociates, replenishing hydrogen ions. When H+ concentration begins to rise (pH drops), the bicarbonate ion acts as a base and removes the excess hydrogen ions. 5. Acids consist of a large amount of hydrogen ions, causing them to be very acidic. Bases consist of a large amount of negative hydroxide ions, allowing them to neutralize acids. Salts are formed when acids and bases are combined and completely neutralized. In the body, salt helps to regulate blood, body fluids, and heart activity. Hydronium ion simplest type of oxonium ion. Hydroxide ion a water molecule that lost a proton. Acid a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. Base a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. pH scale scale used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. Electrolytes a conducting medium in which the flow of current is accompanied by the movement of matter in the form of ions. Buffer a substance that consists of acid and base forms in a solution and that minimizes changes in pH when extraneous acids or bases are added to the solution. Acid precipitation - rain, snow, or fog that is more acidic than pH 5.6.

Topic 5: The Chemistry of Carbon 1. Carbon has 6 electrons, 2 in the inner energy level, and 4 in the outer. Since all atoms strive for 8 in the outer shell, carbon will bond with atoms that can share electrons. Carbon can bond in many combinations with atoms of other elements, some common ones being hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. 2. Covalent bonds link carbon atoms together in long chains that form the skeletal framework for organic molecules. These carbon skeletons may vary in length, shape, and number and location of double bonds. This variation in carbon skeletons contributes to the complexity and diversity of organic molecules. 3. Structural Isomers Geometric Enantiomers

They all have the same They are noncovalent partnership yet superimposable mirror they have a difference in images of one another. their spatial arrangement. Geometric isomers occur from the inflexibility of the double bonds. 4. Functional groups help to organize organisms into small groups. Three of these groups are the alcohol functional group, aldehyde functional group, and amide functional group. 5. Functional Group Hydroxyl Structure Description ROH

Different because of the covalent arrangement of their atom.

Carbonyl

RCOR

Ketones and aldehydes

RCOR and RCHO

Carboxyl

RCOOH

Amino Sulfhydryl

RNH2 RSH

Phosphate

ROP(=O) (OH)2 R2NH

Methyl

Ester

RCOOR

6. Condensation reaction creates a covalent bond between 2 interacting subunits, linking them to each other while hydrolysis reaction is a catabolic reaction in which a water molecule is used to break a covalent bond holding subunits together.

Organic compounds any compound containing carbon atoms. Condensation rxn a reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a small molecule, usually water. Hydrocarbons an organic molecule consisting only of carbon and hydrogen. Hydrolysis a chemical process that lyses, or splits, molecules by the addition of water; an essential process in digestion. Isomer - one of several organic compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and therefore different properties. Monomer - the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer. Polymer a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together. Macromolecules a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a condensation reaction. Functional group a specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions.

Topic 6: Carbohydrates 1. A carbohydrate main structure is made of carbon and hydrogen. They are mainly classified by the number of and shape of their carbon. for example, benzene ring has 6 carbons and is cyclic, but ethane carbon is in long strait chains. Other distinguishing characteristics are types of bonds, reactivity, and solubility. 2. Four characteristics of sugars are multiple units of CH2O, the arrangement of their parts around asymmetrical carbons, multiple hydroxyls, and its carbonyl group. 3. A glycosidic linkage is a linkage between 2 or more monosaccharaides. It involves a condensation polymerization process, that is: a hydrogen ion detaches from a hydroxyl group that is attached to a carbon atom on the 1st monomer, leaving a free-for-binding oxygen ion.

4. Four biological functions of carbohydrates are that they provide energy and regulate blood glucose, spare the use of proteins for energy, breakdown fatty acids and prevent ketosis, and biological recognition processes. Glucose is the only sugar used by the body to provide energy for its tissues. Therefore, all digestible polysaccharides, disaccharides,

and monosaccharaides must eventually be converted into glucose or a metabolite of glucose by various liver enzymes. 5. In starch the linkage is alpha (1-4) and in cellulose is beta (1-4) linkage. Animals have the enzyme to digest alpha linkage but not beta linkages. This explains why we cant digest cellulose. Animals like cows can because they have bacteria that help digest it. Carbohydrate a sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccharides) or polymers (polysaccharides). Monosaccharide a simple sugar. Disaccharide a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharaides joined by dehydration synthesis. Polysaccharide a polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharaides, formed by dehydration reactions. Starch a storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose. Cellulose a structural polysaccharide of cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by b-1, 4-glycosidic linkages. Glycogen - an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals. Chitin a structural polysaccharide of an amino sugar found in many fungi and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods.

Topic 7: Lipids 1. Lipids are different because they are not soluble in water. Triglycerides (fats and oils) have a hydrophobic property and are only quite large because they clump together but they are relatively small molecules. 2. Unique properties Fats glycerol = alcohol w/ 3 C, each with a OH group Building block molecules carboxyl group at end; long chain of hydrocarbons - C-H bonds are nonpolar, producing hydrophobic molecule; 3 fatty acids join to the carbon skeleton head is hydrophilic, tail is hydrophobic; in Biological importance compact storage for animals on the move; storage, warmth and cushioning

Phospholipids

3rd hydroxyl group of glycerol attaches to

cell membranes are made of this;

negatively charged phosphate group; other small charged molecules can attach to phosphate group to form phospholipids

water, phospholipids self-assemble into bilayers to shield hydrophobic portions from H2O

form a boundary between cell and environment that is semipermeable

cholesterol is important, too much is bad 3. An ester linkage is a covalent bond formed by a condensation reaction between a -COOH group and an -OH group. They join fatty acids to glycerol and become a fat or phospholipid.

Steroids

functional groups vary

lipids w/ 4 fused rings for C skeleton

4. Saturated fats are hard at room temperature. Saturated fats are not essential to your health. They come from animals and are found in meat, eggs and cheese. They are harder to digest and full of cholesterol. Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature and have been divided into two groups. Monounsaturated fats such as olive oil, and polyunsaturated fats such as sunflower oil. Fatty acid a long carbon chain carboxylic acid. Glycerol - a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group on each carbon. Fat - a biological compound consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule. Phospholipid a molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail. Steroid - a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached. Ester linkage Any of a class of organic compounds corresponding to the inorganic salts and formed from an organic acid and an alcohol, usually with the elimination of water. Triacylglycerol - three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule.

Topic 8: Proteins 1. Proteins are made of amino acids. Carbohydrates, DNA and fat are not made of amino acids. Protein is the building block of life. Most of the structures (feathers, hair, the external skeleton of insects, etc.) found in nature are made of proteins. Even single celled organisms must rely on proteins. The cell membrane is made of proteins and lipids, and the flagellum of single cell organisms is also made of protein. 2. The basic structure of an amino acid is a carbon chain with an amino group (NH2) at one end, and a carboxyl group (-COOH) at the other. The differences between amino acids lies in the carbon chain in the middle; it can be as simple as one carbon or as complex as many carbon atoms with branches and forks. Side groups can be added, such as sulphur. You have the Aromatic R groups such as tryptophan and tyrosine phenylalanine, the hydrophobic r- groups which include the aromatics and leucine, valine, isoleucine and methionine. And you have the hydrophilic glutamine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and lysine. Essentially, the non-polar AA will predominantly hydrocarbons, whereas the polar AA will have electronegative elements such as F, O, Cl, and N. A protein will fold according to what R groups are involved. If you have a chain of Hydrophobic Amino acids and its in a water solution, the amino acid will fold in particular ways as to minimize contact with water. 3. A peptide bond is a covalent chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule, thereby releasing a molecule of water (H2O). This is a dehydration synthesis reaction.

4. Protein conformation is determined by the set of amino acids assigned to it. This is important because it specializes the protein to become either a transport protein or enzyme. 5. The primary structure of protein consists of a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. It is read from the N-terminal end to the C-terminal end. Its important because it will determine the 3-d structure of protein. 6. Alpha helix and beta pleated sheet are two types of secondary protein structures. Hydrogen bonding is between the carboxyl oxygen of one amino acid and the amino hydrogen of another. Large number of hydrogen bonds makes them highly stable. As a result, they increase the stability if the molecule as a whole and help define its shape. 7. Hydrogen bonding aids the formation of the secondary structures. Once these structures are formed, the R groups now can interact with other R groups. In the tertiary structure,

the weak interactions aid in the 3D structure of the protein. Disulfide bonds form in the tertiary structure which add extra stability to the overall 3D shape of the protein. 8. In hemoglobin, 4 subunits are associate by noncovalent interactions. In collagen, three chains associate in a triple helix by noncovalent interactions and the triplet helices are covalently cross linked by a series of reactions including lysine residues being converted to hydroxylysine by the action of ascorbic acid (vitamin C). The loss of this reaction is the cause of connective tissue breakdown in scurvy. 9. Proteins may be denatured by pH change, temperature change, and instance of heavy metals. Protein a three-dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids. Amino acid - an organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Polypeptide - a polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Peptide bond the covalent bond between two amino acid units, formed by a dehydration reaction. Protein conformation the characteristic 3-dimensional shape of a protein, including the secondary, super secondary (motifs), tertiary (domains) and quaternary structure of the peptide chain. Native conformation the conformation in which a molecule is biologically active. Primary structure - the level of protein structure referring to the specific sequence of amino acids. Secondary structure - the localized, repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bond formation between peptide linkages. Tertiary structure - irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges. Quaternary structure - the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide. Disulfide bridge - strong covalent bonds formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer. Denaturation a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. Fibrous protein Any of a class of highly insoluble proteins representing the principal structural elements of many animal tissues. Globular protein one of the two main protein classes, comprising "globe"-like proteins that are more or less soluble in aqueous solutions.

Topic 9: Nucleic Acids 1. Nuclei acids are different from the other major classes of macromolecules because they have pyrimidine and purine, store and transmit genetic information, contain ribose and deoxyribose sugar connected with bases, and are joined by covalent bonds called phosphodiester. 2. The function of nucleic acids is to store hereditary information and contain information for making all the body's proteins. 3. Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids. Each monomer of nucleic acid, is called a nucleotide, and consists of 3 portions: a pentose sugar, one or more phosphate groups, and one of five cyclic nitrogenous bases.

4. Purines are 2 rings (a 6-ring combined with a 5-ring) and pyrimidines are 1 ring (6-ring). 5. Five major functions of nucleotides are that they are components of nucleic acids, carriers of chemical energy in the cell, components of cofactors, intermediates in cellular communication and signal transduction, and donor substrates for glycobiology. 6. DNA is double helical in structure. Each spiral strand, composed of a sugar phosphate backbone and attached bases, is connected to a complementary strand by hydrogen bonding (non- covalent) between paired bases, adenine (A) with thymine (T) and guanine (G) with cytosine (C). Nucleic acid a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers. Nucleotide - the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group. Pyrimidine - one of two families of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides. Purine - one of two families of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides. DNA deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. RNA ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid present in all living cells. Pentose any of the class of simple sugars whose molecules contain five carbon atoms, such as ribose and xylose.

Phosphodiester bond a phosphodiester bond is a group of strong covalent bonds between a phosphate group and two 5-carbon ring carbohydrates (pentoses) over two ester bonds.

Topic 10: A Tour of the Cell 1. In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered the cell. Then Zacharias Jansen built the first compound microscope. In 1674, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observed the first living cell. After witnessing the cells, Ludolph Christian Treviranus and Johann Jacob Paul Moldenhawer came up with the idea that cells could be separated in to their own individual units. 2. Prokaryotic cells are different from eukaryotic cells because prokaryotic cells are much smaller and less complex, do not have a nucleus, has circular DNA, has smaller ribosomes, and do not have any organelles. They are the same because they are both enclosed by plasma membranes, contain ribosomes, have DNA, and are filled with cytoplasm. 3. The relationship between surface area and volume is the height of the depth. Surface area is a lot taller than volume. The more surface area a cell has the more space it has for organelles and other things. 4. Compartmentalization allows each compartment to perform specific functions without interference from other cell functions. It also allow enzymes and substrates to reach higher concentrations than if everything was diluted by the entire cytoplasm. 5. The nucleus contains 1 nuclear envelope (gateway to the nucleus), 2 Chromosomes (genetic containers), and 3 nucleolus (preassembly point for ribosomes). 6. The ribosome is made up of two subunits, a large one and a small one. Its job is to translate MRNA once it enters the cytoplasm, and make proteins using the information in the MRNA. 7. The endomembrane system consists of the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and several vesicles. This system compartmentalizes the cell so that particular enzymatic reactions are restricted to specific regions. 8. Lysosome contains enzymes which are catalytic, and these enzymes are used to degrade the stored food or the ingested matter inside the cells. As the cells divide, more and more deformed cells are created. 9. Mitochondria are very important organelles of eukaryotic cells, because they are involved in the manufacture and supply of energy to the cell. They are also known as powerhouses of the cell. Under compound microscope they appear to be vesicles, rods or filaments. Most mitochondria are usually 0.5-to1.0 micron in diameter and 2 to 5 micron in length. The size and number of mitochondria varies and depends on the physiological activity of the cell. A double membrane bound mitochondria. The outer most membrane is smooth, while the inner membrane invagination to form cristae. The cristae project into the matrix, an inner space filed with semi fluid medium that contains DNA, ribosomes and enzymes. The inner surface of cristae in the mitochondrial matrix has small knob like structure known as F1 particles. The mitochondrial membranes are similar in structure to other cell membranes. The space between inner and outer membrane is called inter membrane space.

10. The cytoskeleton maintains cell shape, protects the cell, enables cellular movement, and aids in cell division. 11. Cilia are short fibers that are used for attachment to surfaces (biofilms). Flagella are longer fibers that are connected to a complex base that rotates. Rotation requires ATP. This rotation causes the cells to move. Cilia are usually dispersed all over the cell's surface. Flagella are placed in more distinct areas (on the ends or sides). 12. Three major differences between a typical plant call and a typical animal cell are that plants have cell walls, plants can make their own food, and plant cells have vacuoles which allow them to hold a lot of water. 13.

Organelle - one of several formed bodies with specialized functions, suspended in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Cytoplasm the entire contents of the cell, exclusive of the nucleus, and bounded by the plasma membrane. Cytosol - the semifluid portion of the cytoplasm. Prokaryotic - a type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Nucleoid - a dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell. Eukaryotic - a type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles, present in protists, plants, fungi, and animals. Plasma membrane - the membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the cell's chemical composition. Nucleus - an atom's central core, containing protons and neutrons. Chromatin the complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic chromosome.

Chromosome - a threadlike, gene-carrying structure found in the nucleus. Nucleolus - a specialized structure in the nucleus, formed from various chromosomes and active in the synthesis of ribosomes. Ribosome - a cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Endomembrane system - the collection of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles. Endoplasmic reticulum - an extensive membranous network in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded (rough) and ribosome-free (smooth) regions. Smooth ER - that portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes. Rough ER - that portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes. Central vacuole - a membranous sac in a mature plant cell with diverse roles in reproduction, growth, and development. Vesicle - a sac made of membrane inside of cells. Golgi apparatus - an organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store, and route products of the endoplasmic reticulum. Peroxisome - a microbody containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide. Mitochondria an organelle found in large numbers in most cells, in which the biochemical processes of respiration and energy production occur. Chloroplast - an organelle found only in plants and photosynthetic protists that absorbs sunlight and uses it to drive the synthesis of organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water. Amyloplast a type of leucoplast found in the cytoplasm of a plant cell, and serves as storage organelle of amylopectin. Chromoplast a colored plastid other than a chloroplast, typically containing a yellow or orange pigment. Cytoskeleton - a network of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments that branch throughout the cytoplasm and serve a variety of mechanical and transport functions. Microtubules - a hollow rod of tubulin protein in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells and in cilia, flagella, and the cytoskeleton. Microfilaments - a solid rod of actin protein in the cytoplasm of almost all eukaryotic cells, making up part of the cytoskeleton and acting alone or with myosin to cause cell contraction.

Flagella a slender threadlike structure, esp. a microscopic whip-like appendage that enables many protozoa, bacteria, spermatozoa, etc., to swim. Cilia microscopic, hair-like projection on the surfaces of some cells and of certain organisms. Pseupodia - temporary cytoplasmic extrusions in amebae or characteristically sarcodine protozoa which function in locomotion and/or in feeding by engulfing food.