Sources of Radiation

Energy levels Ground state Maximum energy level Photons

E hf where : E photon's energy in joules f frequency of radiation (Hz) h Plank, s constant h 6.26 10 34 ( Js )

En Eo / n 2 or En 13.6 / n 2 where En energy level at the n - th orbit (eV) Eo ground energy level Eo 13.6(eV ) n orbit number

Delta E represents the amount of energy released that is transferred into a photon

E hf

The photon wavelength expression can be determined if frequency is converted to wavelength and eV is converted to joules.

hc /( En En )
'

1eV 1.602 1019 J

Semiconductor Junction
Semiconductor atoms organized into shells K,L,M, and N. Pauli exclusion principle calculates the maximum number of electrons that can occupy an energy level. N=1 level - up to 2 electrons N=2 level up to 8 electrons N=3 level up to 18 electrons Each level can take 2n 2 electrons.

Semiconductors

Conduction Band Ec

Ev Valence Band

Highest energy level at 0K.

Semiconductors
2 types of materials : 1. Intrinsic 2. Extrinsic Valence band Forbidden energy gap Conduction band Common substrates: silicon, germanium How is conductivity increased in a semiconductor? 1. Apply thermal excitation. 2. Increase free electrons by doping method.

Semiconductors
Method 2: introduces materials that add carriers, either negative ions (excess electrons) or positive ions(shortage of electrons). Result: either n-type or p-type semiconductor. Minority and majority carriers: p-type holes are majority carriers, n-type electrons are majority carriers. What is covalent bonding? Doping materials: Arsenic, gallium, boron.

Semiconductors and Optoelectronics

Radiation source is a p-n junction At p-n junction electrons and holes diffuse toward each other and combine. This develops a Depletion region.(non conducting). On the n-type side there is a group of positive ions due to electrons diffusing to the p side.This creates a Barrier potential preventing further diffusion. On the p-type side the barrier is negative.The two conditions develop a Barrier Voltage.

Semiconductors and Optoelectronics

A reverse bias increase barrier voltage. This increases the depletion region and current does not pass. A forward bias decreases the depletion region. When forward bias exceeds barrier potential current will flow due to electrons and holes combining.(recombination) Electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher level than the holes in the valence band. Therefore energy in the form of radiation is released. When the wavelength is in the visible range it is called Electroluminescence.

Semiconductors and Optoelectronics

Wavelength of emitted radiation depends upon: 1. Energy gap or barrier voltage between p and n determined by semiconductor material. 2. Mode of Recombination: a.) direct from conduction to valence band or b.) trapped in iso-electronic centre. In both cases the wavelength depends upon the energy gap.

1240 / E where wavelength of radiation( nm)

E energy gap (eV)

Semiconductors and Optoelectronics

Energy Gaps: Silicon 1.09 eV (1140 nm) Infrared Germanium 0.66 eV (1880 nm) Gallium arsenic Higher energy gaps Phosphorus Indium Antimony

Classification of Radiation Sources by their Primary Characteristics Flux Output Wavelength and Colour Source Excitation

Classification of Radiation Sources by Primary Characteristics

Flux Output: 1. Point Source small (narrow) emission area.Incidence and illuminance are subject to square law effect. Ex. LED, small filament bulb. 2. Area Source Large emission area. Ex.light bulb. Electroluminescence display. 3. Collimated source flux lines are parallel. Square law relationship does not apply. Ex. Searchlight. 4. Coherent source point or collimated source. Waves are in phase. Ex. Laser.

Classification of Radiation Sources by their Primary Characteristics

Wavelength and Colour: 1. Hue blue, red etc. Wavelengthof radiation is one of the determining factors. 2. Saturation describes the fact that colours are not pure single wavelengths. They contain some amounts of white light decreasing saturation of colour. Ex. Pink is mixture of red and white. 3. Intensity flux density of a radiating source or the luminance of a reflecting surface.

Radiation Spectras of Sources

Continuous Spectrum Line Spectrum Single wavelength Monochromatic

Classification of Radiating Sources by their Primary Characteristics

Source Excitation: 1. Thermal 2. Electroluminescence 3. Vacuum fluorescence 4. Chato-luminescence 5. Lasing

Radiation Sources
Incandescent Light Emitting Diode Electroluminescent Vacuum Fluorescent Gas Discharge Lamps