THE CONSTRUCTABLE STRUCTURE IN STEEL

F. Maatje, ICCS bv, The Netherlands H.G.A. Evers, ICCS bv, The Netherlands ABSTRACT
Nowadays engineers still tend to optimize a structure to a minimum of kilograms, which is the only hard criterion that is available for an engineer during the design of the structure. In the end this criterion leads to structures that are expensive and have poor quality. In this article it is illustrated that selection of a deeper top- and bottom chord member and the use of 3D-analysis software leads to a reduction of costs of the total project. Furthermore, it results in improvement of the quality of the structure as a whole.

THE ISSUE For most of the structures it applies that they are established in the same way for many years. An architect makes an architectonic design, a design engineer designs the main structure and a steel fabricator takes care that the construction will be detailed, fabricated and erected. These phases are mostly sequential and do not have much overlap. Consequence is that the expertise and involvement of the several parties is restricted to his/her own specialty. Because of this strict separation, but also because of ignorance and incapability, the engineer often disregards the phases that come next. Most of the times the result is that the detailing of the structure becomes very complex and that the structure will be difficult to fabricate. These things do not have a positive effect on the project financially, constructively, aesthetical, as well as systematically. By keeping the detailing of the steel into account in an early stage, a better and more cost effective structure can be designed. From their own disciplines, ICCS bv and IDCS bv are involved with a lot of steel structures and they observe that the abovementioned issue frequently occurs. Furthermore, it increases the last couple of years because the quality of a main design decreases strongly. STARTING POINTS Inspired by many examples from the daily practice, the issue will be illustrated by discussion of a standard truss. Based on drawings of the architect the design engineer designs a steel structure. This structure consists of a large amount of trusses that span a large space in two directions. Therefore, both in longitudinal and transverse direction the main structure is modelled by trusses that lay on a concrete substructure. For the analysis the centre lines of the profiles are modelled. Members that come together in a node, thus theoretically intersect at one point. Result is that there is a simple transfer of forces and no secondary forces or moments

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arise. In a design phase this is a correct and also convenient choice, as worries about the detailing and fabrication arise in a later stage.

Figure 1a. Centre lines intersect (actual).

Figure 1b. Centre lines intersect (analysis model).

Figure 2a. Eccentricities e = 100 mm (actual). Figure 2b. Eccentricities (analysis model). ECCENTRICITIES AND FORCE LEAD-IN If the structure is made of concrete, the abovementioned approach can be followed. Because of weight reductions, costs, construction time and erect onsite most of the time the trusses are made of steel. But the problem arises when the engineer has realised an optimum design on the basis of a minimum of kilograms. For certain if, as in this outlined situation, high forces are involved. A small eccentricity, by moving the centre lines, leads to a considerable extra bending moment. NEN 6772, article 11.6.1 mentions that at determining the joint capacities the eccentricities may be neglected if:

0,55

e e 0,25 or 0,55 0,25 d0 h0

e=0 e=negative e=positive

Figure 3. Definition of eccentricity.

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When a section is loaded to its full capacity problems arise. The simple detail that the steel fabricator had in mind, cannot be realised. The centrelines of the profiles thus have to go through one point, as the profiles do not have the extra capacity to withstand the extra moments due to eccentricities. Moreover, problems are not only caused by shifting the gridlines, but the area of force application also deserves attention. When the diagonals and bottom- and top chord member have similar profiling, it is very difficult to realise proper force lead-in without stiffeners. The maximum allowable normal force in a profile is many times higher than the maximum allowable shear force. Moreover, this is being reduced considerable when it concerns a web that is sensitive for local buckling. Proper force lead-in without stiffeners is almost impossible when the maximum allowable normal force in the diagonal is higher than the shear force capacity of the bottom- and top chord member. So not only does the bottom- and top chord member need to have an capacity left in order to withstand the extra moments due to eccentricities, but, to prevent the need of stiffeners, they also need to have a shear force capacity that is higher than the normal force capacity of the diagonal. The engineer often seems not to be aware of this. In the design he does not, or too little, take this into account. If he chooses profiles with little reserve capacity in the design stage, it results in fairly complicated, laborious and therefore expensive details.

Figure 4. Concrete. THE CONNECTIONS MAKE THE COSTS

Figure 5. Steel, complex details.

The last couple of years the awareness that costs are caused largely by the connections has sunk in. See former publications (1) regarding costs comparisons in the steel industry. Additional stiffeners must be prevented because these components are labour-intensive. Preference is given to simple connections with fin plates, angle cleats or endplates. The recent price increase of the material is the reason that saving on material becomes an important item. A good insight in total costs is and stays essential. In order to come to a structure that is acceptable for all parties, there is a number of solutions. Every party has its own preference for the ideal structure. An engineer does not want (m)any eccentricities, a Steel fabricator wants the most simple fabrication possible without a lot of labour and an architect wants an aesthetical justified structure, especially when the steel structure remains visible. There is a number of methods to decrease the amount of labour in the construction afterwards. Below you will find a few possible solutions. Dealt with is the detail in the bottom chord member, but the same is applicable to connections at the top chord member.

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Solution 1: Rotating profiles by 90 degrees If the starting point remains that the centre lines have to go through one point, the profiles can be rotated 90 degrees. If necessary, the thickness of profiles must be locally adjusted at the joint because of the various profile dimensions. In a truss it only concerns tension or compression members. By detailing the joint with two plates on the flanges and not bothering the centre lines, no extra forces are introduced and the connection can be realised with sawing and drilling as main labour. During the processing stage the tolerance on the clearance between bolts and boltholes have to be taken into account. This can be done by shortening the tension members or by use of injection bolts. Furthermore the introduction of holes in the bars means a reduction of the cross section area. If the tension members are used up till their full capacity, the weakening due to holes lead to a reduction of the capacity, so that the profile will fail. The thickening of the profiles, as mentioned above in connection with various profile dimensions, gives as a side-advantage an increase of the tensile force capacity, so that the profile complies again. Applying this solution mostly only make sense when the truss in the nodes is directly loaded by purlins or floor beams. If a floor or roof rests on the top or bottom chord member and this causes moments, it is possible that the profiles do not meet the requirements anymore in connection with moments about the weak axis of the profile.

Figure 6. Rotating 90 degrees. Solution 2: Strengthen/deepen bottom chord member (and top chord member) When the diagonals are shifted away from the node simple endplate connections are made possible and the connection no longer overlap. To enable this, the bottom chord member in the truss must be deeper than is strictly necessary for transfer of the normal- and shear forces that appear. This solution cuts both ways: because of the overcapacity of the bottom chord member it is easy to take up eccentricities. The top flange moves upwards so that the eccentricities of the diagonals become smaller.

ho

e ho/4

Figure 7. Deeper beam.

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Moreover, the web of the deeper profile has a higher capacity, so that use of additional components in order to lead in the forces properly can be prevented. This will be illustrated by an example. Suppose: a truss with a span of 20 meter, completely built up from HE200A profiles both for the bottom- and top chord member and the diagonals.

. Figure 8a. Analysis model.

e = 100 mm

Figure 8b. Analysis model due to detailing. If the diagonals are connected to the bottom- and top chord member via endplates, the eccentricity, that occurs at the connection of the diagonal on the bottom chord member will have to be somewhat like100 mm. Suppose: a maximum normal force (Npl HE200A) in the diagonal of 1200 kN. This gives a vertical force of 1000 kN and thus a moment of 100 kNm. The maximum moment a HE200A can transfer is 101kNm, without keeping into account the buckling lengths and moments that are already present as a result of the direct load. So the extra moment cannot be withstood by the bottom chord member. In this realistic situation the maximal normal force is 600 kN and thus the vertical force is 500 kN. As a result of the eccentricity this leads to an extra moment of 50 kNm on the beam. When the Head engineer has totally utilized the bottom- and top chord member, this moment too cannot be withstood. Not any extra moment can be absorbed, so that the steel fabricator is forced to connect the diagonals in the centre lines, which results in a complicated and above all laborious connection design. But what is the maximum normal force that can be absorbed without application of stiffeners in the bottom and top chord member ? According to article 14 of the NEN6770 the bottom chord member should be checked for: Yield of the web Local buckling of the web
F u ;1; d = ( c + d )t f 1 w y; d

tf t c 2 + 3 w Fu;2;d = 0.125 t w Ef y;d t f h 2t f tw

tf t c 2 Fu;2;d = 0.5 t w Ef y;d + 3 w t f h 2t f tw

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Global buckling of the web

N c ; s ;d

y;buc N c;u;d

1 with bef = h 2 + c 2 met

In which tf = the thickness of the flange fy;d = the value of the yield stress tw = the thickness of the web h = the depth of the profile c = the length over which the force is being exercised E = the value of the elasticity modulus From this follows a maximum normal force in the diagonal of 337 kN without the need of stiffeners in the bottom chord member, whilst the maximum allowable normal force for this diagonal is 860 kN (HE200A with a buckling length of 3.60m). By strengthening the bottom chord member to HE240B the normal force in the diagonal becomes 700 kN without application of the necessary stiffeners in the bottom chord member. A side-advantage is the increase of the moment capacity of the profile. The moment capacity now becomes 247 kNm. The eccentricity that has become even smaller because of the deeper profile, now does not give any capacity problems anymore. By only using a deeper profile for the bottom chord member (and top chord member) the connections are much easier to fabricate. Table 1. Comparison profile capacities.
Profile bottom chord member HE200A HE240B Npl [kN] in diagonal with buckling length of 3.6 m (HE200A) 860 860 Vu;d [kN] in bottom chord member without stiffeners 280 582 Maximum allowable N in diagonal [kN] 337 700 Mpl [kNm] Bottom chord member 101 247

Solution 3: Supplementary web plates If the first two solutions are not possible, web plates can also be chosen. The shear force capacity of the profile will then increase. The truss built up from HE200A-profiles is taken as an example again. Increasing the web thickness of the HE200A into 20 mm (original 6.5 mm), the extra moment as result of eccentricities can be absorbed without problems, as a result of the eccentricity. With the available analysis tools it is simple to check if the selected profile complies.

Figure 9. Web plates. The search for alternative detailing afterwards can be avoided totally, if the engineer in his/her main design takes account of the fact that he tries to design a simple constructible structure. In other words: a structure that not only is optimum according to his own criteria, but is also perfect for the steel fabricator as well as the client. Nobody, not even the client, is waiting for a design that has an optimum weight, but has complicated details that make the steel structure unnecessarily expensive.

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For comparison, a calculation has been made of the truss including detailing, whereby as starting point the connection with members joined in the centre with complex modelling has been taken. Table 2. (-- very complex, - complex, + simple, ++ very simple) (2).
Simplicity Connection Starting point: join members in centre, complex details Solution 1: Rotate 90 degrees Solution 2: Deeper bottom member Solution 3: Web plate(s) on bottom chord member -++ + Erection 100 % 99 % 78 % 84 % Material use 100 % 117 % 128 % 97 % Welding/ Production 100 % 51 % 63 % 74 % Total costs 100 % 87 % 58 % 72 %

The conclusion is that all three outlined solutions show a considerable reduction of the total costs in comparison to the original detail. Despite an increase of using material, due to solutions 1 and 2, the connection has become a lot less complex in comparison with the original connection design. DESIGN STAGES By going through the design stage of a construction once again, there will be indicated how such problems can be prevented. The client and the architect set up a list of requirements for the building that has to be constructed. In the light of this list in combination with the building regulations and the building code a certain material or a combination of materials to execute the design will be selected. Every material has its own features. Timber and especially concrete are suitable to withstand compressive forces, whilst steel is preferably suitable to withstand tensile forces. The choice of material defines the shape of the main structure it is important that the right material is used on the right spot. Points for attention must be: Is there taken care of the stability of the structure by means of rigid plates, portals or bracings Are high vertical forces transferred, by trusses with compression-, tension or compression and tension members Is there any concentration of forces, as is the case with structures with large spans. How are forces lead in into the structure below. In daily practice it often seems as if during the main design no account is taken at all of the fact that the members must be joined. When the engineer has made the first calculation and thus has an idea about the profiles, he has to think about how the several profiles must be joined. By choosing for example a deeper (=stronger) profile a lot of (detailing) sorrow can be prevented. An engineer also can insert the eccentricities in his calculation and base profiling there-upon. But this is not the usual procedure for calculations of steel constructions; moreover it gives a considerable increase of the shear forces and moments in the top chord member and bottom chord member. Also separating the nodes is a rather laborious for the constructor.

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See below an example of a truss and the moment- and shear force diagrams.

Figure 10a. Model without eccentricities.

Figure 10b. Moment diagrams (Centre lines intersect).

Figure 10c. Shear force diagrams (Centre lines intersect).

excentriciteit is 100 mm

Figure 11a. Summary of truss with eccentric connections of the diagonals, eccentricity = 100 mm.

Figure 11b. Moment diagrams (Eccentricities).

Figure 11c. Shear force diagrams (Eccentricities).

These diagrams show clearly that the maximum moments and especially the shear forces increase considerably by introducing eccentricities. A design engineer, who thinks before designing about the way the beams and colums have to be connected, enables the steel fabricator to construct an efficient and constructible structure with the use of simple connections. This results in benefit for all parties concerned. CONCLUSION Nowadays engineers still tend to optimize a structure to a minimum of kilograms, the only hard criterion that is available for an engineer during the design of the structure. Finally this criterion leads to structures that are more expensive and have less quality. Working together in a design and built-team in which the fabricator also has to assist in the design stage can prevent these problems.

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This design and built-team is not always possible, that is why a design engineer has to be aware that his design also has to be constructed. He has to think whether or not simple connections are possible with the profiling that is being determined with a calculation program. He has to start a discussion with the client why sometimes there has to be chosen for a heavier profile with some overcapacity and why the aim to a minimum weight has to be left. If, moreover, a 3D finite element program is used, considerable material saving can be achieved, because of the insight in the spatial distribution of forces. REFERENCES (1) H.G.A. Evers, F. Maatje, ICCS bv, Cost based engineering and production of steel constructions, Proceedings of the Fourth International Workshop, Connections in steel structures IV, Behavior, strength and design, published 2002, Actas do II Entrocontro Nacional de Construo Metlica e Mista 2, published 1999. F. Maatje, ECCS bv, Voorcalculeren met behulp van de computer (Cost estimation with the computer), Bouwen met Staal 1989

(2)

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