Endocrine System

Describe the methods of chemical communication. Both the nervous system and the endocrine systems provide a means for chemical communication within an organism. Although the nervous and endocrine systems have similarities, they perform intercellular communication in different ways (e.g. nervous system via neurotransmitters and endocrine system via hormones). What is the endocrine system? The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. Its function includes the regulation of metabolism, growth, development, puberty and tissue function among others. What are hormones? Hormones are chemical messengers that carry signals from one cell (or group of cells) to another via the blood. Hormones stimulate a response in target cells based on the specificity of the receptors on the surface of individual cells. Hormones are able to bind with receptors based on shape. What are target cells? Target cells are cells that respond to and are regulated by a hormone. Target cells have receptors that are specific to the signaling molecules. The binding of hormones to the receptors on or within in the target cell produces a response. Describe the differences between the nervous and endocrine system. Body Systems Distance Number of cells contacted Duration of time Speed of transmission Nervous System short distance one or few cells contacted instantaneous fast Endocrine System long distance millions of cells stimulated stimulus can last a day, week, or year slow

Describe the two basic mechanisms that govern hormone action. One Messenger Model Two Messenger Model Hormone type: steroid Hormone type: peptide Receptor location: In the cytoplasm of the Receptor location: On the cell surface target cell

Mechanism: (1) Steroid hormone diffuses readily through the cell membrane. (2) Steroid binds to the receptor within the cytoplasm. (3) Hormone receptor complex diffuses through the nucleus pore into the nucleus. (4) Hormone receptor complex binds with DNA to trigger protein synthesis. Which molecules will easily diffuse through the cell membrane? Steroids are four aromatic rings that are non-polar and hydrophobic. Steroids easily diffuse through the membrane. Protein steroids are polar and hydrophilic and are composed of a central carbon, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen and a variable group (R).

Mechanism: (1) The hormone (1st messenger) binds to the cell surface receptor on the target cell. (2) This activates the enzyme cAMP (2nd messenger). (3) cAMP amplifies the signal to the rest of the cell.

What is cAMP, the G Protein and adenylyl cyclase? cAMP is also known as cyclic adenosine monophosphate. cAMP is the second messenger of the two messenger model. G Protein is an intracellular receptor that receives a stimulus from the hormone receptor in order to activate adenylyl cyclase. It is turned on or activated by guanine triphosphate (GTP) and is turned off by guanine diphosphate (GDP). Adenylyl cyclase is the enzyme used to produce cAMP from ATP. What is the importance of the hypothalamus? The hypothalamus receives information from the nervous system. This information will deter whether hormones should or should not be released from the pituitary gland.

What is the pituitary gland? The pituitary gland is nicknamed the master gland because of the numerous hormones secreted by it and its impact on the body as a whole. Describe the anatomy of the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland consists of three lobes: the anterior pituitary, the posterior pituitary and the intermediate lobe. The anterior pituitary, also known as the frontal lobe, releases hormones from secretory cells. The anterior lobe contains hormone producing cells and blood vessels. The posterior pituitary, also known as the rear lobe, releases neurohormones. The posterior pituitary stores hormones from the hypothalamus. The intermediate lobe secretes a hormone that has no known effect on humans. What are the hormones released by the anterior and posterior lobes? The anterior lobe releases TSH, ACTH, LH, FSH, GH, and prolactin. The posterior lobe releases oxytocin and ADH. What is TSH and thyroxine? TSH is the thyroid stimulating hormone. It regulates the secretion of the thyroid. (1) The hypothalamus secretes thyroid releasing hormone (TRH). (2) TRH causes the secretion of TSH. (3) TSH stimulates the thyroid to secrete thyroxine (T3 and T4). The function of thyroxine is to regulate metabolism, stimulate growth and development, and to regulate heart rate. Iodine is absorbed by thyroid

cells and converted into two thyroxine hormones T3 (triiodothyronine) and T4 (tetraiodothyronine). Thyroxine consists of 20% T3 and 80% T4. What is the difference between positive and negative feedback? Positive feedback is the secretion of a hormone due to low hormonal levels; it is represented by the symbol (+). Negative feedback is the inhibition of hormonal secretion after homeostatic levels are reached; it is represented by the symbol (-). What is a feedback loop? A feedback loop occurs when the output of a system feedsback to reinforce or modify an action taken by the system. Feedback mechanisms are important for an organism to respond and change in an ever changing environment. A feedback loop can last for hours or months. What is goiter? Goiter is the increased cellular growth of thyroid cells caused by a diet deficient in iodine. What are ACTH, cortisol, and aldosterone? The function of ACTH, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, is stress management. ACTH causes the adrenal cortex to secrete two corticosteroids synthesized from cholesterol. These corticosteroids are cortisol and aldosterone. Cortisol aids in carbohydrate and protein metabolism and is known to increase abdominal fat. Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of ions and water in the kidneys. Describe the ACTH feedback mechanism. (1) Stress causes the hypothalamus to secrete corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH). (2) CRH stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete ACTH. (3) ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to stimulate cortisol secretion. (4) Excess cortisol inhibits ACTH and CRH secretion. Describe the functions of GH, FSH and prolactin. The growth hormone (GH) regulates the growth and development of bones and muscles. FSH is the follicle stimulating hormone. In females, FSH stimulates egg maturation. In males, FSH stimulates the maturation of sperm cells. Prolactin is necessary for the production of milk in the mammary glands. Describe the function of oxytocin and ADH. Oxytocin causes contractions during childbirth. ADH (vasopressin), the antidiuretic hormone, regulates water balance in the kidneys.

Describe the function of parathormone. Parathormone is produced by the parathyroid. It regulates calcium metabolism. Parathormone releases calcium from the bones when calcium levels are low in the blood. Calcitonin (from the thyroid gland) stores calcium in the bones when calcium levels are high in the blood. Describe the function of the epinephrine and norepinephrine. Epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced by the adrenal medulla in the adrenal glands. Epinephrine is used for the fight or flight response. Norepinephrine is used to counteract the effects of epinephrine. What is melatonin? Melatonin is produced by the pineal gland and regulates daily cycles. Describe the hormones produced by the ovaries and the testes. The ovaries produce two hormones: estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is needed for the development of secondary sex characteristics in females (e.g. enlarged hips, breast development). Progesterone regulates the menstrual cycle. The testes produce testosterone. Testosterone is needed for the development of secondary sex characteristics in males (e.g. beard, body hair, deep voice, lean muscles). What are the islets of Langerhans? The islets of Langerhans are areas of the pancreas that have an endocrine function. The islets of Langerhans produce two hormones: glucagon and insulin. Glucagon is produced by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans and releases glucose. Insulin is produced by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans and stores glucose. What is the difference between hyposecretion and hypersecretion? Hyposecretion is the undersecretion of a hormone. Hypersecretion is the oversecretion of a hormone. What is hypoglycemia? Hypoglycemia is a glucose metabolism feedback disruption where there is a lack of glucose in the blood. An example of hypoglycemia is diabetes insipidus. Hypoglycemia can be caused by: (1) Bodys glucose being used up too quickly (2) Glucose is released into the bloodstream too slowly (3) Too much insulin is released into the bloodstream

Symptoms include extreme thirst, sweating, weakness, tiredness among other. A treatment would be to consume carbohydrates. What is hyperglycemia? Hyperglycemia is a glucose metabolism feedback disruption where there is an excess amount of glucose in the blood. Diabetes mellitus is an example of hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia can be caused by: (1) Skipping/forgetting insulin (2) Eating too many carbohydrates (3) Illness and infection Symptoms include damage to nerves, blood vessels and other organs. Treatments include drinking more water, exercising and taking medication during a set time every day. What is hypothyroidism? Hypothyroidism is the undersecretion of thyroxine caused by the inflammation of the thyroid. Symptoms include sensitivity to the cold, dry skin, and brittle hair and fingernails. A treatment for hypothyroidism is life time medication that replaces lost thyroxine levels. Hypothyroidism also causes sluggishness and weight gain in an individual. What is cretinism? The hyposecretion of the thyroid in infants is known as cretinism which causes the infant to be disproportional and mentally retarted. What is hyperthyroidism? Hyperthyroidism is the oversecretion of thyroxine caused by either Graves disease or a growth on the thyroid. Symptoms include clammy skin, diarrhea, itching, an irregular pulse and protruding eyes. Treatments include medication and surgery to remove a portion of the thyroid. Hyperthyroidism also causes excessive weight loss, irritability, insomnia and goiter in an individual. What is dwarfism? The hyposecretion of the growth hormone in children is known as dwarfism which causes the individual to be small, but proportional. What is giantism and acromegaly? The hypersecretion of the growth hormone in children is known as giantism which causes the individual to be tall and normally proportional. The hypersecretion of the growth hormone in

adults is known as acromegaly which causes the individual to have abnormally large hands, feet and facial features. What is Addisons disease? The hyposecretion of the adrenal cortex is known as Addisons disease which is the inability to maintain a normal blood glucose level. Symptoms include sluggishness, weakness, weight loss and a decreased tolerance to stress. What is Cushings disease? The hypersecretion of the adrenal cortex is known as Cushings disease which consists of excess fat deposits on the upper body. Symptoms of include excess facial hair, a puffy face, high blood glucose levels, and a decreased immunity to disease. What is tetany? Tetany is the uncontrollable twitching of the muscles caused by the hypersecretion of parathormone from the parathyroid. Describe the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands. Endocrine Exocrine Ductless Have ducts Secrete hormones into the blood Secrete substances Ex.: pituitary gland, thyroid gland, etc Ex.: sweat, mammary and saliva glands What are prostiglandins? Prostiglandins are local hormones that affect target cells in the area (e.g. histamine). What is the difference between Type I and Type II diabetes? Type I diabetes is known as diabetes mellitus is caused by an insulin deficiency. It is treated though the use of injections. Type II diabetes is caused by insulin resistance. Injections have no effect on this type of diabetes. Summary The nervous system and the endocrine system work together to produce a coordinated response to stimuli. Target cells respond to hormones that are able to bind with specific receptors. All multicellular organisms produce hormones including plants. There are two types of hormones that control intracellular communication.

Steroid hormones (one messenger) which are membrane permeable and affect the cells DNA Peptide hormones which require two messengers (hormone and cAMP) in order for the target cell to be activated Feedback (negative/positive) is integral in the maintenance of equilibrium, or constant conditions, in a biological system. The increased (positive feedback) or decrease (negative feedback) or a hormone depends on the amount of hormone present in the blood. When the feedback loop is interrupted hormones may be hyposecreted or hypersecreted.