Bulletin of The John Rylands Library, Volume 5, August 1918 - July 1920.

JINDING LIST JAN
1981
BULLETIN
OF
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY

VOLUME
5
PUBLISHED FOR THK JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY AT
THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

12
(H. M. MCKECHNIE, Secretary) LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD, MANCHESTER
LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY

NEW
LONDON 39 PATERNOSTER ROW YORK: 443-449 FOURTH AVENUE, AND THIRTIETH STREET CHICAGO: PRAIRIE AVENUE AND TWENTY-FIFTH STREET BOMBAY: HORNBY ROAD CALCUTTA: 6 OLD COURT HOUSE STREET
:
MADRAS
167
MOUNT ROAD
Jf
BULLETIN
OF

MANCHESTER
EDITED BY
THE LIBRARIAN
VOLUME
AUGUST, 1918
JULY, 1920
MANCHESTER:
LONDON,
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY NEW YORK, CHICAGO, BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, MADRAS
1918-1920
v.5"
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Notes and News
187,
407
The Reconstruction
of the Library of the University of
Louvain
1,
395, 504
121
Classified List of Accessions to the Library
Short Articles
386
Bruton (F.
A.).
E.).
The Story
of Peterloo
254
in
Crum (W.
Library
New
Coptic
Manuscripts
the
John Rylands
497
Fawtier(R.).
Harris
(J.
The Jews
in the "
Use of York"
.381
.
Rendel).
Metrical Fragments in III Maccabees

of
The Origin and Meaning

flower"
Apple Cults
Bill
Three Letters of John Eliot and a
The Woodpecker
Herford (C. H.).
in
Human Form
..... ......
.
195
29
of Lading of the "
May-
102
480 418 75
Gabriele D'Annunzio
in
Norse Myth
English Poetry
List of Persian Kings
in the
.
Mingana
(A.).
A New
.116
296
119
Synopsis of Christian Doctrine

ing to Theodore of Mopsuestia Poel (W.).
Shakespeare's Plays
Powicke
(F. J.). Story and Significance of the Rev. Richard Baxter's " " Saint's Everlasting Rest
R.).
....... .......
Fourth Century accord-
445
Rivers (W. H.
Mind and Medicine

Dragons and Rain Gods
Rylands
235 317
Smith (G.
Souter
Elliot).
(A.).
List of Abbreviations and Contractions in the

. . .
MS.
Tout
of St. Cyprian
Ill
.
(T. F.).
Mediaval Forgers and Forgeries
.208
THE TRUSTEES, GOVERNORS, AND PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.
TRUSTEES.
The RIGHT HON.
WILLIAM CARNELLEY.I LORD COZENS HARDY OF LETHERINGSETT,

K.C., B.C.L., LL.D., etc.
P.C.j
GERARD N. FORD, J.P. SIR ALFRED HOPKINSON,

WILLIAM
[SIR
A.
LINNELL.
LL.D.|
SIR
GEORGE WATSON MACALP1NE, J.P.. THOMAS THORNHILL SHANN, J.P.

EVAN SPICER, J.P. ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD,
SIR SIR
Lrrr.D., LL.D.
JWILLIA.M CARXELLEY.j
REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNORS.* SIR HENRY A. MIERS,

etc.
D.Sc., F.R.S.,
GERARD N. FORD, J.P. CHARLES HAROLD HERFORD,

LlTT.D.
L. E.
M.A.
KASTNER,
LL.D.
M.A.
SIR
GEORGE WATSON MACALPINE,
HENRY PLUMMER, J.P. THOMAS T. SHANN, J.P. THOMAS F. TOUT, M.A., F.B.A. CHARLES E. VAUGHAN, M.A., LiTT.D.
SIR
J.P.,
CO-OPTATIVE GOVERNORS.*
The REV. C. L. BEDALE, M.A. SIR ALEXANDER PORTER, J.P. The REV. ROBERT MACKINTOSH, M.A., The REV. F. J. POWICKE, M.A., PH.D. D.D. The REV. J. E. ROBERTS, M.A., B.D. The REV. J. T. MARSHALL, M.A., D.D. The RT. REV. BISHOP J. E. WELLDON,
A. S.
PEAKE,
M.A., D.D.
D.D.
HONORARY GOVERNORS.t
The RIGHT HON. LORDCOZENS-HARDY
OF LETHERINGSETT,
The RT. REV. The BISHOP
JCAXON
SIR A.
H. D.
RAWXSLEY,
Lirr.D.,
P.C.
W. WARD,
M.A.j LL.D.
OF
LIN-
COLN, D.D.
SIR
The The
SIR
ALFRED HOPKINSON,
etc.
K.C.,
LL.D.
LORD MAYOR OF MANCHESTER. MAYOR OF SALFORD. WILLIAM VAUDREY, J.P.
CHAIRMAN OF COUNCIL VlCB-CHA 1RMAN

HON. TREASURER HON. SECRETARY LIBRARIAN
CL-RATOR OF MAKUSCRIPIS
SIR
SIR
HENRY
A.
A. S.
PEAKE,
THOMAS GERARD N. FORD, J.P. HENRY GUPPY, M.A.
MIERS, D.Sc., F.R.S. M.A., D.D. T. SHANN, J.P.
GUTHRIE VINE, M.A. RENDEL HARRIS, M.A.,
D.Lnr.,
etc.
*Th
Representative and Co-optative Governors constitute tb

t
Council,
Honorary Governors are not Members of
the Council.
RULES AND REGULATIONS OF
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

1.
The use
is restricted to purposes of research and reand under no pretence whatever must any Book, Manuscript, ference, or Map be removed from the building.
of the Library
2.
The Library is open to holders of Readers' Tickets daily, as follows Mondays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays, from 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Tuesdays and Fridays, from 10 a.m. to 9 p.m. Saturdays, from 10
:
a.m. to 2 p.m.
The Library
will
New
3.
Year's Day,
be closed on Sundays, Good Friday, Christmas Day, Bank Holidays, and the whole of Whit-week.
in
Persons desirous of being admitted to read

in writing to the
the Library must apply

for
Librarian, specifying their profession or business,
their place of abode,
and the particular purpose
which they seek
admission.*
4.
Every such application must be made at least two clear days before admission is required, and must bear the signature and full address of a person of recognised position, whose address can be identified from the ordinary sources of reference, certifying from personal knowledge of the applicant that he or she will
make proper use of the
Library.
5.
If
such application or recommendation be unsatisfactory, the Librarian shall withhold admission and submit the case to the Council of
Governors
6.
for their decision.
The
Tickets of Admission, which are available for twelve months, are not transferable, and must be produced when required.
7.
No
special order
8.
person under eighteen years of age is admissible, except under a from the Council of Governors.
Readers may not write upon, damage, turn down the leaves, or make any mark upon any Book, Manuscript, or Map belonging to the Library nor may they lay the paper on which they are writing upon
;
any Book, Manuscript, or Map.

9.
The erasure
is strictly
of any
mark or writing on any Book, Manuscript, or Map
prohibited.
10.
No
tracing shall be allowed to be
made without
express permission of
the Librarian.
11.
Books
in
the
Open Reference Shelves may be consulted without any

left
formality, but after use they are to be being replaced on the shelves.
12.
on the tables instead of
Other books may be obtained by presenting to the Assistant at the counter one of the printed application slips properly filled up.
Forms
of Application for Reader's Ticket
may
be had on application to the
Librarian.
/
13
RULES AND REGULATIONS

Readers before leaving the Library are required to return to the Assistant at the counter all Books, Manuscripts, or Maps for which Readers are they have given tickets, and must reclaim their tickets.
tickets
held responsible for such Books, Manuscripts, or remain uncancelled.
Maps
so long as the
14.
Books of great value and rarity may be consulted only of the Librarian or one of his Assistants.
Readers before entering the Library must deposit
umbrellas, parcels, etc., at the Porter's
receive a check for same.
in
the presence
15.
Lodge
in
all wraps, canes, the Vestibule, and
16.
Conversation, loud talking, and smoking are strictly prohibited in every part of the building.
17.
Readers are not allowed in any other part of the building save the Library without a special permit. Readers and visitors to the Library are strictly forbidden to offer any fee or gratuity to any attendant or servant.
18.
19.
Any
The
infringement of these Rules will render the privilege of admission
liable to forfeiture.
20.
privilege of admission is granted upon the following conditions at any time be suspended by the Librarian. (a) That it may
(b)
That
it
may
at
any time be withdrawn by the Council of
Governors.
21.
Complaints about the service of the Library should be made to the Librarian immediately after the occurrence of the cause for complaint, and if written must be signed with the writer's name and address.
22. All
communications respecting the use of the Library must be addressed to the -Librarian.
HENRY GUPPY.
N.B.
earnestly requested that any Reader observing a defect damage to any Book, Manuscript, or Map will point out the same to the Librarian.
It is
in or
ADMISSION OF THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND VISITORS.

The general public are admitted to view the Library on Tuesday and Friday afternoons between the hours of two and six, and on the second Wednesday of each month between the hours of seven and nine in the evening. Visitors to Manchester from a distance, at any other time when the Library is open,
will be admitted for the the Librarian.
same purpose upon
application
to
BULLETIN OF THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY
MANCHESTER
VOL.
5
LIBRARIAN
AUGUST, 1918-MARCH,
1919
Nos.
1-2
THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN.

AN APPEAL FOR FURTHER
CONTRIBUTIONS.
BY THE EDITOR.
NOW
that
Belgium has been freed from the hateful presence
of
the barbarian invaders,

it
whose
brutal tyranny has received
the answer
richly
deserved, the Belgian people are re-
turning from exile, having their hearts filled with a new-found but
aching pride in the immortal glory which their country has acquired, as a result of their noble and heroic sovereign's lofty conception of his
duty to remain true to his pledges of neutrality, and by so doing to vindicate his country's honour.
The
first
care of these brave people will be the rebuilding of their
country, once so fair
and prosperous, but during four years ravaged by
the savage hordes of despoiling marauders,

like
who
swept
down upon
it
a mighty devastating torrent, obliterating

it
many
of its ancient land-
marks, and laying

It is
waste and desolate.

is
evident that no' time

for the
to
be
lost,
for already preparations
have been commenced

sumption of business.
Allies
work
of replenishment
for
and
for the re-
Never, indeed,
one moment, did our noble
abandon hope.
They
faced the future with a courage and a
determination coupled with
self-sacrifice,
which have been not only

their
abundantly
justified,
but have evoked our admiration and our envy.

four years of
its
The
captivity
spirit
which sustained them throughout

is
and
exile
revealed in a moving editorial, with
confident
note of faith in the justice of their cause, and in the ultimate success of
their arms,
which appeared more than four years ago

the exiled
in the first
is
Lonits
don
most
issue of
striking
"
:
Independence Beige
".
Here
let
one of
it
paragraphs
"So
shall
we
return
us doubt
not

We
shall raise
to our liberated country.

factories afresh
in
anew our towns,
set
our
motion, repair our railways and our harbours, resume our rank among productive nations, and make a new and industrious
Belgium great by her works, and high
in
the
whole world's
esteem."
But
it
is
not the industrial reconstruction with which
we
are im-
mediately concerned,
much
as
we
appreciate the need for organizing
the country's resources to meet the entirely
new
It is
set of
conditions which
are emerging from this dreadful conflict.
with the replacement

for
and
restitution of the treasures of art
and
literature,
which the
museums, and libraries of Belgium were admittedly famous, which have been either wantonly destroyed, as was the case many at Louvain, or looted and carried off to Germany, by the train load,
galleries,
of
by
the
more discriminating of the vandals. Not only should the Germans be made
or in kind, from their
to disgorge these stolen
treasures, but they should

in
be compelled to provide an equivalent, either
money
own
well-stocked galleries, museums,
and
"
libraries, for
"
objet d'art
every picture, manuscript, printed book, and other

senselessly destroyed
in this
which they so
pation of
the country.
Only
of
way
during their occucan they be made to realize

;
the
futility
and heinousness
their crimes
that active steps have already been taken in
and we are glad to learn this direction by Monsieur

of Belgium,
Paul de Zambotti, the Director of the Art Galleries
whose
avowed
intention
it is
to reclaim all the pictures
and other
art treasures
carried off
by
the Germans.
for
Monsieur de Zambotti has ample precedent

taken
his action in that
by
the Allies after the battle of Waterloo, in September, 1815,
when
the Allied
pictures
Powers ordered the formal restitution of all the illegitimately removed during the Napoleonic conquests, and
commissioners from fourteen states were appointed to inspect the collection at the Louvre, with the result that no fewer than 2065 pictures
were reclaimed and earned

It is
off,
leaving only
270
in the gallery.
not too
much
to ask, surely, that a similar course of
procedure
may be adopted by
the
Peace Conference, and that commissioners may

to
be appointed with powers not only
secure the return of the stolen
treasures, but also to exact from the various national collections in the
enemy
countries
an equivalent
for
every picture, manuscript, and other

It
treasure destroyed
by enemy
action in the ravaged territories.
must
RECONSTRUCTION OF LOUVAIN LIBRARY

be borne
in
amends, and
mind, however, that the object of such a toll is to make that on no account must it be allowed to develop into
truly, that
all
actions for reprisal.

It
has been said, and said
history will
pay homage
for
all
time to the nation which sacrificed
but honour to preserve her
own
independence, and at the same time safeguard the liberties of But it must not be left to history alone to compensate Europe. for having at such tremendous cost retarded the march of the Belgium
It is
barbarian invaders and frustrated their plans.

needs, and repay,
it is
a present help she
fitting that
we, who owe more to

in
her than
we
can ever
who
feel
sympathy with her

in the
the hour of her
affliction,
and
who
hour of her triumph, should seize every opportunity of repaying at least a portion of our debts, by enforcing
rejoice with her
expiation, as far as in us
lies,
of
some
of the
many
crimes against
humanity, of which the Germans have been guilty. One of the earliest of the senseless acts of vandalism perpetrated by the self-constituted apostles of culture, whose motives have now been
so manifestly exposed,
was
the destruction of the historic

;
Library of
the University of Louvain, and the University Halls

of this article
is
and the object
to
renew the appeal which has been made from time

in
act.
if
to time in these pages in support of the scheme, inaugurated as long
ago as December, 1914, to assist collection of books involved in that

It
the replacement of the famous
may
possibly be argued by some of our readers that
the Ger-
mans are
to be required to make good the damage which they have what need is there to proceed further with any such indewrought,
pendent schemes of reconstruction as the one
we
propose.
To
such
we would
damage
point out that considerable time must elapse before the can be assessed, and the work of restitution entered upon. In
the meantime the authorities of the University will be anxious to return

to the devastated scene of their former activities and triumphs, there to reassemble their scattered students, to resume their accustomed work,
and
to
take a prominently active part in the immediate business of
effecting a transition to a
peace footing, as well as in the educational
and other schemes
of reconstruction
One
university
of the
is
first
essentials in the organization
which are already taking shape. and equipment of any

"
:
library, for
as one of the old writers has said

is
monastery [university] without a library
like
a castle without an

:
" C'est comme armoury," or, as Thomas a Kern pis has expressed it un jardin sans flews, une bourse sans argent ". The une table sans mets, methods of modern education have undergone so complete a revolution
in
recent years,
that
an ever-increasing part
of
its
energies
is
now
devoted to the encouragement of investigation and research, with the result that the library has acquired a much more important place in the
organization than heretofore.
It
is
now
the centre of activity,

of
and has
been appropriately described as
"
the laboratory
the
humanistic
departments
thing so
".
There was a time when the
university library
was innocent
of
mundane
as the literature of trade
and
industry, but such
anyhave
been the developments of the modern up-to-date institution that it is no longer limited to things academic. Perhaps it would be more correct
to
say that the term
"
academic," under modern conditions, has ac-
quired a
new and
broader significance.
ening conception of the scope of education,
demand
for vocational
training,
any case, under the broadand to meet the public the modern university has developed
In
into a place
where everything
useful
may be
studied,
and
as a conse-
quence the
the useful
crafts.
demand has sprung up for the literature of technology and arts, surrounded by a whole new literature relating to various
is
Nothing
is
now
upon
alien to the university library, which, in

to give shelter to universal literature.
con-
sequence,
It is
called
this
with
liberal
view
of the scope of
the
modern
university
before us that
we
are aiming to assist the authorities of the repatriated
University of Louvain in their heavy task of making good the ruin
wrought by the war, by providing them as early as possible with, at least, the nucleus of a new library, in the form of a live, up-to-date collection
of books, designed to
meet the immediate requirements
of a progressive
general university, in
thing useful in
which provision is made for the study of everyIn order that the development of mind and matter.
books
shall
this collection of
be available
for
immediate use the contri-
butions are being catalogued as they are received, so that they may be ready to be placed upon the shelves of their new home as soon as it
is
ready.
It
will
be perfectly clear from the foregoing remarks that
it
is
no
part of
our intention to relieve

her
Germany
of her
obligation
library,
of,
to
make
is
reparation for
misdeeds.
The
already
in a state of preparation, will
proposed gift be independent
which
and precedent

to,
5
is
any compensation which may be exacted from Germany
and
intended to serve as a tangible proof to the people of Belgium of the

high and affectionate regard in which
for their
we
hold them and honour them
that
it
incomparable bravery. naturally anxious, therefore, should be in every sense a worthy expression of our grateful
We are
appreciation.
have been living amidst such tremendous happenings during the four years that have elapsed since the burning of Louvain, that our
memories, which
will not
at
We
best are short,
have become a
little
dulled,
and
it
be out of place to
recall the circumstances of that
savage act
of barbarism.
It
was on
the 25th August, 1914, that the
Germans
set fire to
the library of the University of Louvain, and totally destroyed not
only the printed books numbering from 250,000 to 300,000 volumes
and nearly
000
manuscripts which the library contained, but also the
famous University Halls, thus destroying in three days that which had taken five centuries of faith and intellectual effort to build up. Only
once before
has such a disaster been inflicted upon the world, when, in A.D. 643, the Caliph Omar, with blasphemy only equalled
in history
by that
of
of the Kaiser, destroyed the library of
Alexandria
in the
name
God, and even that instance is of very doubtful authority. There have been those who have persistently sought to condone
crime by suggesting that the burning of the library of
this insensate
Louvain was an unfortunate accident, whilst others with equal persistence have contended that the contents of the library were only partially
destroyed,
and
that portions
have been removed
to
a place of
safety.
Unfortunately, these views are not shared by such trustworthy eyewitnesses as Monsieur Delannoy, the Librarian of the University, who
himself witnessed the deliberate destruction of the library
soldiers provided with special apparatus,
by German
without any attempt being
made
to spare the contents.
Indeed, so complete
was
the destruction
few days of the disaster not a single entire leaf could be recovered from amongst the debris. Several charred volumes, we are
that within a
told,
which had retained

as soon as they
their
shape were found, but they crumbled to
Other evidence of the crime powder was furnished by Monsieur Henri Davignon, Secretary of the Belgian
Commission
of
were handled.
Inquiry,
in
a communication to the Editor of
"
The
Times," which appeared
in
the columns of that journal on the 19th
6
October,
us

1916, where,
facts
in
the interest of truth,
we had
placed before
many
witnesses,
and even by Germans themselves,

Secretary of
the
which had been established by Belgian and neutral in a manner which would
prove satisfactory to any court of inquiry.
Monsieur Lamy,
death
Academic
in
Franchise,
whose
we
"
regret
in
to see recorded,
last,
writing
the
"
Revue des deux
Mondes who were
September
made
a most telling indictment of those
responsible for that savage act of barbarism.
He
pointed
out that the reason
why
the destruction of manuscripts remains in the

cities is
memory when
because for
the destruction of
no longer remembered,
is
It is
is
man
is
during his brief
life
here the essential thing
to live
not merely in the present but also in the future.

present,
in the visions.
the duty of the
which
constantly passing, to bequeath to the future a heritage

its
form of a record of
knowledge,
its
achievements, and
its
Each age has its own seers and interpreters, who are able with the aid of the most fragile materials to give permanence to their and transmitting by means of a little paper and a little ink records
;
the course of their destiny, the recital of their achievements

struggles,
and
their
with a confession of their
failures,
they
become
gift of
the instructors
of successive generations.
To
destroy these witnesses

of
is
to revoke the
the dead, to
impoverish the inheritance

longer with
us.
the living,
of that
to rob
those
who
are
no
This robbery
those to
which belongs
it
to the past
and
to the future,
for the fleeting
by moments
whom
the custody of
is
has been entrusted
of the present,
like
a violation of the tomb,
which
It
is
a profanation and a sacrilege.
will enable readers the better to understand the enormity of this

if
crime against civilization,
we
sketch for
them
in the barest outline
the history of the University, and its library, with incidental references to some of the vicissitudes through which it has passed.
The University of Louvain was founded under the authority of a Bull issued by Pope Martin V, bearing date of the 9th December, " " Studium generate at 1425, which provided for the foundation of a
Louvain
;
and
in
1432 the
"
the University the
city authorities placed at the disposal of Halle aux draps," dating from 1317, to provide
them with the necessary accommodation for the teaching of theology, an addition to the "Studium" sanctioned by Pope Eugenius IV, which raised the number of the faculties to five, namely Arts,
:

the
Medicine, "
Canon Law,
Civil
"
Law, and Theology.

seat of
Thenceforward
Halle aux draps
became the
Low
Countries, and an international centre of science
academic authority in the and learning
attended by students of all nations. It may be of interest to explain that the commerce in cloth was, in the middle ages, a source of great prosperity for the city of Louvain.
From
the
end
of the twelfth century the city possessed a cloth hall, in the old
which was located
market place, but
at the
commencement
of
of the fourteenth century trade
had increased
to such an extent as to
necessitate the construction of a building
which should be capable
accommodating the great crowds which thronged the city during the
which were held each year in the month of September, and at the same time be more imposing. To meet this need a new "Halle " aux draps was erected in 1317. During the latter half of that century a bitter and sanguinary struggle broke out between the patricians and
great
fairs,
the plebeians,
city, since
which caused a rapid decline in the prosperity of the many of the merchants and cloth workers were driven out
and found a refuge in Holland and England, where they set up their looms to the great advantage of the countries in which they settled. " With this decline of trade the " Halle aux draps lost the animation
of earlier days,
and the
city
authorities,
it
as already stated,
had the
happy
inspiration of offering
to the University.
But for more than two centuries the University could not boast of a central general library, so that the professors and the students had of
necessity to
make
use of the rich libraries attached

city.
It is
to the
numerous
colleges
and
religious houses in the
clear,
however, that the
various constituent colleges

libraries, since, in the
and
faculties
had
their
own
is
Acts
of the University, reference
departmental made to the
regulations relating to the Faculty of Arts, dating from 1466, in
which
the use of lights and the removal of
books are
strictly forbidden.
Added
to this,
according to the humanist Puteanus,

live
all
the professors
themselves were
libraries,
and the books which they had written

Indeed,
it
were alone worth
the riches of a library.
was
not until
the seventeenth century that the taste for public libraries grew up in
Belgium.
The
University library proper owes

of
its
origin to a former student,
Laurent Beyerlinck, Canon

the University his library,
Antwerp, who, in 1627, bequeathed to which was rich in history and theology.

of the library
This bequest constituted the foundation

deplore.
In
whose
loss
we
1635 the Professor
of
Medicine, Jacques Romanus, son of the
celebrated mathematician, transferred to the library the rich mathematical collection of his father, in addition to his
own
medical books.
At
that rime the
Jansenius, to
whom
Rector of the University was the famous Cornelius belongs the honour of having organized this first
nucleus of the library,

in
which was duly

it
installed in the University halls,
the theatre of the Faculty of Medicine, and Jacques Boonen, Arch-
bishop of Malines, assigned to
an annual sum
for
its
upkeep and
The custody of the books was entrusted to Professor development. Valere Andre, the eminent historian and bibliographer, who presided
at
the public opening of the library on the

of his nomination,
22nd August, 1636, and

:
who, on the occasion

de Minerve
et
delivered an oration extolling " the priceless advantages of a library, which he described as Temple
des muses, arsenal de toutes
les sciences ".

1
Before the
close of the year
Andre had
two
first
published a catalogue of the
762 volumes
bequeathed by the
benefactors, Beyerlinck
and Romanus.
Andre the library was allowed when attention was directed to it by the gift of Dominique Snellaerts, Canon of Antwerp, who bequeathed to it the 3500 volumes composing his own library, which was extremely
Unfortunately, after the death of
to fall into neglect until 1719,
rich in Jansenist literature.
When
his
Snellaerts, during his lifetime,
was
invited to give his library to the University,

like
to encounter of the
books bearing
he replied that he did not name at the doors and in the
windows
second-hand
dealers.
He
had
often,
he
said, seen in
Louvain and elsewhere books lying about bearing the names of brated men, which had been left by them to the University.
cele-
The
bequest of Snellaerts necessitated the construction of a
new
which was undertaken by the Rector Rega, a man of great initiative, who was the founder of the Anatomical Museum, and who also was instrumental in obtaining a fixed revenue
for "
building, an enterprise
the library.
Consequently, a
new wing was added

in
to the
old
Halle," the construction of which was completed

story of
1730, the entire
upper
which was
A
tion of
allotted to the library.
new element
of progress
C. F. de Nelis,
who became
to
was introduced during the administraHis first act 752. librarian in

1
was
to ask the
Government
impose on the Belgian printers the

obligation of depositing in the library at least
one copy
of their publica-
tions, a request which was acceded to, with the result that the effects It was also during the regime of the concession were soon apparent.
of
De
Nelis that a printing press and a publishing department were
established in connection with the library.
Paquot succeeded
library
De
Nelis in the
office of
librarian, so that the
was administered
successively
by two
scholars,
who may be
described as the best

Countries.
It
known
litterateurs of
that
period in the
Low
was on
the initiative of
1
De
Nelis that the representatives of the

literary society,
Austrian Government, in
of
769, created in Brussels a
which
five of the
foundation members belonged to the University of

this
Louvain.
In
1772
society
:
was
"
installed
in
the
Bibliotheque
Academic imperiale des sciences de Bourgogne, under the title et belles lettres," and ultimately blossomed into the "Academic royale
de Belgique
".
Under
1 1
the administration of Jean
Fraôis
Van de Velde
library,
(1
1
771-
of
797) which were acquired by purchase

suppression.
6,573 volumes were added to the shelves of the

at the sale of the
2,000
libraries of the
Jesuits after their
At
that time the library contained
about 50,000 volumes.
Then came
University,
the Austrian regime with all
its
vexation and torment.
In those tragic days
Van de
Velde,
who
incarnated the soul of the
Countries.
was deprived of his charge and banished from the Low 788 the Austrian Government removed to Brussels In
1
108 waggons
Lorraines, at
reinstated,
full
of furniture
and
scientific instruments,
and eighteen
"
Eglise des
cases of precious volumes,
which were deposited Grand Sablon ". Two years later

to secure
in the
Van
de Velde was
and was able
the return of the books which
had
been removed.
In
1
795, at the time of the entry of the French into Belgium, the
commissioners of the French Republic,

propriated some
of the manuscripts of the
Le Blond and De Wailly, ap5000 volumes, amongst which were the most precious
Louvain Library the manuscripts and the the printed books belonging to the Bibliotheque de
;
most precious of
Bourgogne
to the
at
Brussels were also transported to Paris, deposited pro-
visionally in the Bibliotheque des Cordeliers,
and afterwards
transferred
to
Bibliotheque Nationale.
The
manuscripts belonging
the
10
Bibliotheque de Bourgogne were restored after the battle of Waterloo, but there is no evidence that the 5000 volumes removed from Louvain
were ever returned.

library
was placed
in
1797 the University was suppressed, the charge of a commission, and the librarian of the
In
Bibliotheque Royale de Bruxelles, De la Serna Santander, obtained authority to make a selection of all the works, which, in his estimation,
would be
of service to the library in Brussels.

of
The
result
was a
further
appropriation
718 volumes, none

this
of
which were ever
restored.
Writing with reference to
appropriation
De
la
Serna Santander
expressed surprise at the richness of the collection which he found at " Louvain in the following terms : Ce que j'ai trouve dans les
. . .
depots des
dit les
livres
existant
dans
le
batiment de
".
la
ci-devant universite,
Halles, a surpasse
1
mes esperances
In
805, by an imperial decree of Napoleon, the library of the
University became the property of the municipality, and in the following year
it
was placed under the

1
control of a commission,
irregularities in
and opened
to the public, but in

it
consequence of
the administration
was
In
closed in
1
8 6
1
the
807 by order of the library was placed at
Prefect.
the disposition of the State Uni-
Louvain by the Government of the Low Countries, versity, and in the report of the commission entrusted with the transfer it was said to contain the works most essential in nearly every department of
founded
at literature for a public library.
In
1835 the State University was supof the
pressed,
and upon the re-establishment
present independent
University in
posal of the
library, of
the following year, the city authorities placed at the dis-
Alma Mater the

it
"
"
Halle aux draps
and the precious
which
remained
in
undisturbed possession until August,
1914.
It is
computed
that at the time of the disaster the library contained,
as already stated,
books, and about
between 250,000 and 300,000 volumes of printed 000 manuscripts, of which unfortunately there is no
1
satisfactory record.
Professor Delannoy,
it
is
true,
was
at the time
actually engaged upon a revision of the catalogue, but the result of his labours perished in the conflagration. In the course of the rearrange-
day passed without there being brought to light from the obscurity of some corner important volumes which had lain there for a couple of centuries uninvolved,
ment
of the
books which
this
work
scarcely a
recorded, and consequently unknown.

The
Thomas
collection of
replaceable treasures.
a
manuscripts included many priceless and irthe autograph volume of sermons of Notably
:
Kempis
said
to contain
the
of
life
of
Sainte Lidwige,
viris
of of
Schiedam; a
extant
of
fifteenth
"
century copy
De
illustrious"
Cornelius Nepos, which

that
;
was regarded
;
as the most important text then
author
two autograph
of
manuscripts
of
;
Dionysius
Carthusiensis
fine
an eleventh century copy

of
Prudentius
several very
examples
;
the beautiful post-Caroline writing of the twelfth

of manuscripts relating of to the
century
a large number
history of
various religious houses
Belgium and Brabant, many and a considerable number

;
which
dealt with the history of the

of liturgical
and
other illuminated manuscripts of the thirteenth, fourteenth,

centuries.
and
fifteenth
most interesting of these manuscripts provided M. le CHanoine Reusens with the material for his studies, which resulted in " Elements de paleographie," where may be found descriptions his
The
accompanied by reproductions
of them.
of a
number
of the most representative
But the
loss
most
to
be deplored
is
the total destruction of the
Archives of the University, including that most precious of all muniments, the foundation Bull issued by Pope Martin V, in 1425, which
renders for ever impossible the complete and documentary history of the Alma Mater of the new foundation, which was in contemplation
at the
It
outbreak of war.
was not only

of
in
manuscripts that
the library
was
rich.
Its
printed books included a remarkable collection of Incunabula, numbering
upwards
of
800 examples,
Westphalia, the
large proportion of
which were
of
printed in the
Low
Countries, comprising
first
many specimens
"
the
work
first
John
of
printer in Louvain, including the
dated work printed by him

of
in
1474, and the
"
Vocabularius
of
1483,
lections of
taining
which apparently only one other copy is known. The colmathematical and medical works were equally notable, con" " the vellum copy of De corporis humani fabrica of Vesalius,
to the
which was presented
The
of
splendid collections of
"
University by the
Emperor Charles V.
by or
in
Jesuitica," comprising publications
relating to the Jesuits not only in the
Low
which
Countries but
is sufficiently
Europe
and
of
"
every part
Jansenistica,"
explained by
of
the part the University played in the history of Jansenism, are said
to
have been quite unequalled, and were amongst the possessions which the University was justly proud.
12

Then,
too, the
University took a very active part in the religious
struggles for reform in the
Low
Countries, and piously preserved the
records of these struggles, together with the polemical literature sur-
rounding the
there
conflicts of
was
built
up
at
In that way opinion to which they gave rise. Louvain a very complete and valuable collection
of material, said
to contain
many unique
sources for the history of
theological doctrine.
is said, by have been quite unique. There were also many bibliographical rarities, and early bindings of great interest, in addition to rich collections of oriental, philological, theological, and
The
collection of
Bibles which the library possessed
Monsieur Delannoy,
to
historical literature, the destruction of
which
is
a serious loss to scholar-
ship.
These
sufficient
tents,
are but a few of the outstanding features of the library, but

its
has been said to enable readers to form some idea of

destruction of
con-
the
civilized world,
and
at
evoked the indignation of the the same time to afford them some guidance
has
lines
which
as to the character of the

similar to
its
works required for its rehabilitation on those along which it has been consistently developed
of reconstruction to
since
original foundation.
The scheme
some
which
this
appeal
refers originated
with the desire of the Governors of

practical expression to their
The John Rylands

feelings of
Library to give
authorities of the University of
deep Louvain
in their irreparable loss,
sympathy with the which
found expression at the meeting of the Council of the Library held in the early part of December, 1914, of which Sir Alfred Hopkinson
was, at that time,
expression of
Chairman.
It
was forthwith decided
that
this
sympathy should take the form of a gift of books to be selected by the librarian from the stock of duplicates in their possession, which had gradually accumulated through the purchase from time to
which invariably contained a number of works of which copies were already to be found upon the library shelves together with a set of the printed catalogues and other
time of large
and
special
collections,
publications which had been issued under their auspices. list of works forming the first instalment of the proposed
gift,
200 volumes, was drawn up to accompany numbering upwards the offer, when it was made to the Louvain authorities through the medium of Dr. Carnoy, Professor of Zend in the University
of
RECONSTRUCTION OF LOUVA1N LIBRARY

of
is
13
Louvain,
at
that
needless to say,
was
acknowledging the gift been effectually given to the future

very
first
The offer, it Cambridge. and Professor Carnoy in gratefully accepted, " described it as Actually the first which had
time
resident
in
:
library of
Louvain
one of the
acts
which tend
to the preparation of our revival ".
As the exiled University was for less, we undertook, at the request of

the volumes until such time as the
the time dismembered and homethe Louvain authorities, to house

buildings
new
were ready
to receive
them.
It
was then
that
it
occurred to us that there must be
many
other libraries and similar institutions, as well as private individuals,
who would welcome

practical
;
the opportunity of sharing in this expression of
in the subsequent sympathy announced our willingness to be responsible
and
issue of this
for the
BULLETIN we
suit-
custody of any
able works
which might be entrusted

that
it
to us for the purpose.
We
also
announced
was our
intention to prepare a register of the
names
and addresses
of their
gifts,
of the various contributors, together with

for presentation
an exact record
with the library at the appropriate time,
to serve as a
permanent record of this united effort to repair some of the

the most
damage which has been wrought. Our appeal met with a ready and generous gratifying feature of which was that all classes of
only in this country but in
response,
the community, not
many
parts of the English-speaking world,
and
also in several of the allied
and
neutral countries participated in

list
it,
evidence of which will be found in the accompanying

containing, as
it
of donors,
liberal
;
does, the
names
of institutions
which have made
contributions of eminently suitable
works from
their stock of duplicates
the
names
their
;
of individual collectors,
who have
given, with equal liberality
from
rarity
own
a
shelves,
volumes of great
students,
in
interest
and often
of great
and
also of
struggling
whose
gifts
partake of
the
sanctity of
sacrifice, since,
many
cases, they consist of treasured

of
strict
which have been acquired through the exercise economy and self-denial.
possessions
the encouraging nature of our report of the first-fruits of our appeal came to the knowledge of Dr. Leon Van der Essen, Professor of History in the University of Louvain, and writer of the article
When
which appeared
in the BULLETIN for April, 1915, he wrote in the " terms of grateful appreciation following Writing as a professor of
:
the University of Louvain,
let
me
thank you
for all that
you have done
14

crime of Louvain.
It is
for us since the
such a wonderful thing in

all
this
time of horror to see
how
the scholars of
countries
the central
have manifested their friendship, and proved empires excepted, alas to us by so many deeds and words, that scientific international solidarity
is still
alive,
and among that work

if
as one of the most

in
not the most
effective.
rank your initiative I had indeed opportunity

.
what your appeal was bringing forth, and how by It is noble your kind intermediary practical help was being prepared. are doing, work that will have a fine result, and I can aswork you
America
to see
of
I
you that never will the University appeal went out from Manchester. ...
sure
to
Louvain
to
forget that
the
hope
come
and
to witness the rebirth of our poor library,
have the pleasure on the
Kultur has destroyed your splendid and glorious country. it is a fact full of the treasures of Louvain consequence that what has been destroyed, will have been restored by the kind intermediary
very
soil of
:
of
...
English culture."
In one of the earliest reports of the progress of our scheme
we
ex-
pressed the hope that the
new
that
library,
which was
far richer
rising
phoenix-like
out of the ashes of the old one,
than
its
predecessor,
and
and more glorious the agencies through which that was to
would be
It was be accomplished would be as widely representative as possible. a source of great encouragement, therefore, to learn with what promptitude a number of societies and learned institutions had resolved to
participate in this
In
its
scheme of reconstruction.
to
December, 1914, the Classical Association made an appeal

to assist in the reconstruction of the classical
members
side of the
library, and about the same time the Victoria University of Manchester forwarded to the authorities of the University of Louvain an address
of sympathy,
and resolved
to set aside a set of the publications of the
University Press, together with a considerable number of duplicates
from the Christie Library. Similar resolutions have since been passed the Trustees of the British Museum, the Bodleian Library, the by
Signet Library, the National Library of Wales, the Universities of
Aberdeen, Cambridge, and Durham, University College, Oxford, and many other institutions, the ultimate results of which will be a considerable accession of strength to the
In the early part of
new
library.
1916 the
British
Academy
by
initiated
a further
movement, fraught with great
possibilities,
calling
together repre-

sentatives of the principal
libraries
15
and learned
societies of
the United
Kingdom under
the presidency of Viscount Bryce, to consider the adInstitut
visability of co-operating with the
de France
in the formation
of an International Committee,
whose aim should be the

its
restoration of
the University of Louvain and
Burlington
House
meeting was held at and resulted in the formation of a small executive

library.
The
:
committee consisting of the following members

G.C.B., K.C.,
Sir J.
Lord Muir Mackenzie, P. Mahaffy, G.B.E., C.V.O., Sir F. G. Kenyon,

Davies, K.B.E., C.B., Sir
K.C.B.,
Sir
A. T.
A. Hopkinson, K.C.,
Dr.
I.
Edmund
Gosse,
Esq.,
C.B.,
Hugh
Butler,
Esq.,
Gollancz,
Henry Guppy, Esq., Dr. M. R. James, Provost of Eton, C. G. Kekewich, Esq., Dr. J. W. MackaU, F. Madan, Esq., Dr. Norman Moore, Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S., Master of Christ's College, Cambridge,
H. R. Tedder,
Esq., Dr. C.
Muir Mackenzie
the
as Chairman,
T. Hagberg Wright, with Lord and the Librarian of the House of
Lords as Honorary Secretary, to consider the best way of organizing movement effectively, and to take whatever steps were considered
necessary.
meeting of the Executive, which was held in the Library of the House of Lords, it was decided to co-operate with the
the
first
At
Governors of the John Rylands Library in the development of the scheme which they had already inaugurated. Several appeals have since been made on behalf of the Committee by Lord Muir Mackenzie,
the result of which has been to give a
As
soon as our
it
of 1915,
new impulse to the movement. reached America, in the early months appeal was welcomed with enthusiasm, and we were much enfirst
couraged
in
to receive
from Miss Green,
Librarian to
Mr. Pierpont
Morgan, a cablegram in which the offer was made to provide a centre New York to which contributions from that side of the Atlantic
might be sent
an
offer,
and
gratefully accepted.
written communication in
it is needless to add, which was promptly Miss Green followed up her cablegram by a which she generously offered to do everything
in her power to further the objects of our scheme, and at the same time informed us that Mr. Pierpont Morgan with great cordiality had set aside a number of duplicates of Incunabula, and other works of great
interest
from
his
own
library, together
with a
set of
such of his
available.
own
printed catalogues
and other publications as were
still
A
it
committee was subsequently formed, but after careful consideration,
16

United States maintained her position neutrality it was obviously unwise to take any outwardly active part It is now quite evident that whilst outwardly active the movement.
that so long as the
was decided
of
in
participation in the
scheme was,
for the
time, suspended, our friends

for the
were quietly organizing their resources active co-operation would be possible.
in readiness
time
when
National Committee representing the best interests of that great country was formed, under the Chairmanship of the President of Columbia University, Dr. Nicholas
that
influential
To
end a strong and
Murray
Butler, to co-operate with the International Committee, in the
restoration of the Library of the University of Louvain.
On
was
the eleventh of
November, the day on which the Armistice
signed, an appeal was issued, and one of the first active steps to be taken was to commission the Secretary of the Committee, Mr.
Clifford
N. Carver,
to wait
upon the Rector

the library.
of
It
the University of
is
Louvain, with an
that the offer
offer
to rebuild
needless to say
was
gratefully accepted,
and steps have already been
taken for the designing of an up-to-date building by one of America's leading architects, whose plans will be submitted to the authorities of
the University for their approval.
At
ship of
the
same time a sub-committee was formed under the chairman-
Dr. Herbert Putnam, the Librarian of the Congressional Library, to co-operate with the other national committees in the matter of Dr. providing the literary equipment of the projected new building.
Putnam,
who
is
at present in
Europe, has been
in
communication with
the writer, with a view to making arrangements between the

mittees, so that duplication
two com-
and overlapping may be obviated.

the scheme described in the preceding pages,
to replace the contents of
When we inaugurated
our aim, as
the library, and
we have explained already, was we had little doubt of the
success of our project, but
we
did not dare to anticipate any result so completely satisfactory as that which has been obtained through the enlightened generosity of our
friends in
America.
it is
But
for their timely intervention

its
unlikely that the library build-
equipment could have been restored with anything approaching the same thoroughness and dispatch, for although the
ing as well as
Peace Commissioners have announced

the
their intention of exacting
from
Germans
full
compensation
for
the
damage which they
inflicted

upon Belgium, considerable time
pensation will
is
17
likely to elapse before
such com-
in
be forthcoming. In the meantime the work of reconstruction and replacement will, all probability, have been accomplished, but it must not be assumed,
for that reason, that the
Germans
are to be relieved of their obligation

at
to
make
reparation
for their
misdeeds
Louvain.
On
it is
the contrary,
full
compensation will be exacted from them, and
hoped that the
funds so obtained will be devoted to the strengthening of the endowments of the University, so that the authorities may be relieved from
financial anxiety in the laying of their plans for the future.
Singularly appropriate,
and even
prophetic,
were the words which

:
stood inscribed over the principal entrance to the University Halls
Sapientia adifaavit sibi
domum
be hoped that the same words, embodying as they do a confession of the faith which has sustained our friends throughout the years of their exile, will be given a prominent place over the main
and
it
is
to
portal of the
new
library.
is
The
chief purpose of this article
to invite further contributions

gift library
either of books or
money,
in
order that the
which the English
Executive Committee, in co-operation with the Governors of the John
of the building
Rylands Library, have in contemplation, may, in every sense, be worthy which the United States National Committee have so
generously undertaken to provide.
Hitherto the response to our appeals has been most encouraging, evidence of which is to be found in the accompanying list of contributors,
which includes the names
of
280
individuals
and
institutions,
who have
made
gifts
ranging from single volumes to substantial collections of some
hundreds
of volumes.
The value of
the
gift
it
cannot always be estimated

consists, since
from the number of volumes of which
many
of the
The single volumes represent works of great importance and value. volumes which we have actually received and registered number approximately 14,000, but each day brings fresh promises of help, and these are likely to increase rather than to diminish now that the fate of
Louvain has been decided.

definite offers of help
If,
therefore,
we
take also into account the
that
we
are within reach of not less than

is
That
which have been made and accepted, we may say 20,000 volumes. a very substantial beginning for a new library, and we are
18

who have
it
most grateful to those

collection
;
assisted us in the formation of such a
but
when
is
compared with the

it
library
which
we
are
anxious to replace, comprising as
did at least a quarter of a million of
volumes,
can only be described as the nucleus, and it is obvious that much more remains to be done if it is to approach anything like very
it
the equivalent of
its
predecessor.
In renewing our appeal ing in
should like to explain that whilst keepview the general character of the library which we have in
we
contemplation,
we
are at the
same time anxious
that
it
should be
its
thoroughly representative of English scholarship, in other words, that equipment should include the necessary material for research in the
history, language,
and
literature of this country, together
with the con-
tributions
which
British
scholars
have made
to other
departments of
of
their
learning.
In the attainment of that object the learned societies of the

sets
Empire could render very material aid, by contributing

transactions
and
publications.
A number of these societies have already

:
responded
to
our former appeal, notably
the Dilettanti Society, the
Egypt Exploration Fund, the Henry Bradshaw Society, the Polynesian Society of New Zealand, the Malone Society, the Society of Franciscan Studies, the Royal Society of Literature, and the Society of Psychical
Research, whilst Professor Gollancz, on behalf of the Early English
Text Society, has promised a set of still many others whose co-operation
sure that this appeal needs only to
their publications
but there are
we
be
should welcome, and
we
feel
brought to the notice of the
responsible authorities to ensure a
prompt and sympathetic response.

any
assistance they
We should
can render
be
grateful, therefore, to our readers for
in that direction.
Amongst
lowing
:
whose help we should appreciate are the folThe Bibliographical Society, the Catholic Record Society, the
the societies
Society, the
Chetham
Cymmrodorion
Society, the Folk- Lore Society,
the Hakluyt Society, the Harleian Society, the Society for the Promotion
of Hellenic Studies, the Society for the
Promotion
of
Roman
Studies,
the Royal Asiatic Society, the Royal Historical Society, the
Huguenot
Society, the Irish Texts Society, the Scottish Texts Society, the Scottish
History Society, the Society of Antiquaries, the British Academy, and

the
many
scientific
and
local historical
and
archaeological societies.
We are
lishers,
who
anxious also to enlist the sympathy and help of the Pubhave it in their power, more than any other section of the
RECONSTRUCTION OF LOU VAIN LIBRARY

community,
side.
19
to assist us in the building
up
of the collection
If the library is live," up-topurpose it date collection of books, in other words, it must be equipped with the its
to serve
must be a
on "
its
modern
latest
authorities in every
department of knowledge.
Messrs. King
&
Co., the Parliamentary Publishers, of Westminster, very generously
invited us to
make an
unrestricted selection of the
works announced
in their current
catalogue, and as a result the collection was enriched by the addition of 75 volumes, which in themselves constitute a library Mr. of sociological literature of considerable interest and importance.
1
Fisher
Unwin
has also offered a selection from the
list
of his
own
from other publishers. publications, Presses of Manchester and Liverpool have already The University contributed sets of their publications, and we venture to express the
and
we should welcome similar offers
hope
that the presses of
Oxford and
example
of
Cambridge may
see their
way
to follow the enlightened
of those
The
to the
Trustees of the British
Museum
younger foundations. have made a most liberal and
valuable contribution of the catalogues and other publications relating
Departments
to
at
Bloomsbury, numbering 257 volumes
and
have promised
make a
further contribution of similar publications
relating to the Natural History
Museum.
There are many other Government Departments whose assistance would tend greatly to the enrichment of the collection, and it is our
intention to
appeal to the India Office, the Board of Education, and
the Master of the Rolls, for sets of the publications issued under their " the Calendars of State Papers," the series of authority, such as " " Chronicles and Memorials," the Historical Manuscript Commis:
sion's
Reports," to mention only a few of the most important of these

interesting feature in the
is
desiderata.
Another
accompanying
In this
list,
which should
not be overlooked,
the number of contributions which have been

friends.
made
as
in
memory
of
deceased
way
the
names
of several
prominent scholars,
:
recently deceased, have been commemorated, such
Dean Church, Canon
Scott
Holland, Professor James
Hope
to sug-
Moulton, Dr. Swete, and Professor

gest that there could
Emmott
and we venture
be no more appropriate
way
of perpetuating the
gift, in this
name
their
of a relation or friend than
by dedicating a
way,
to
memory,
in the interest of scholarship.
We
appeal also for contributions of money to meet the
many
20
expenses incidental to the organization of such a library. For example, there are a large number of the books already contributed which require binding, rebinding, or repairs at the hands of a binder, before
they can be regarded as ready to be placed upon the shelves of the new Then, too, it often happens, in the course of our daily building.
perusal of booksellers' catalogues, that sets of very important authorities,
which are indispensable to the efficiency of any University library, come under our notice, and might be purchased with great advantage to the
collection,
had we the funds
at
venture, therefore, to appeal for contributions
our disposal for such a purpose. towards a fund to meet
We
these
and other
contingencies.
In order to obviate
tributors
any needless duplication of gifts, would-be conare requested to send lists of the books they are willing to offer
to
LIBRARIAN OF THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY, MANCHESTER or, to THE LIBRARIAN OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS,
: ;
THE
WESTMINSTER, LONDON, S.W., who
will collate the
lists
with the
register of books already presented, write as to the acceptance of the
volumes, and ask for them to be forwarded to
THE LIBRARIAN OF
the
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY, MANCHESTER, where

library
is
new
in process of formation.
We welcome
press, that
the news, which reaches us just as
we
are going to the 21st of
the University of Louvain
was re-opened on
January, under the presidency of
Monsieur P. Ladeuze, Recteur

is
Magnifique de 1'Universite, and

the end of the year, the
it
confidently anticipated that,
by
full
whole
of the
departments will
be
in
working, with their usual complement of about
3000
students.
Few
need
both the
further
words are needed
to
emphasize the urgency of the

contemplation, for without
it
for the
staff
library
which we have
will
in
and the students
work.
appeal.
We
plead therefore for
be seriously handicapped in their a prompt and liberal response to our

CONTRIBUTORS TO THE NEW LOUVAIN LIBRARY, DECEMBER, 1914, TO DECEMBER, 1918.
(The
the figures in Brackets represent
21
number
of
Volumes.)
(3)
G. H. ABBOTT, Esq., Sydney,
New South ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY LIBRARY.

Thomas P. ADIN, Esq., Manchester. The Rev. Dendy AGATE, Bowdon.
F. Harrington
Wales.
(633)
(1) (9)
ARDLEY,
of
Esq., Teddington.
(8)
for the
The ASSOCIATES
Dr.
BRAY.
(Through the Society
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.) Arthur B. BALL, Esq., Manchester.
(95)
(1)
M. BARLOW, Marple. The RCT. Dr. W. E. BARNES, Peterhouse, Cambridge. H. BARON, Esq., Blackburn.
Miss E.
(6)
(5)
(6) (1)
(I)
Percy E. BATES, Bart. Dudley BAXTER, Esq., Geneva.

Sir
Mrs.
BEARD, Manchester.
Esq., Glou-
(48)
(14)
The Right Honourable Earl BEAUCHAMP, K.G. Members of the Family of the late John BELLOWS,
cester.
(7) (I)
The Rev. Dr. M. BERLIN, Manchester.

BETTS, Esq., Pontefract. The Rev. H. P. BETTS, Steep, Hants.
F.
(9)
(24)
(14)
The Committee The Committee
of the
of
BIRMINGHAM PUBLIC LIBRARIES. the BOLTON PUBLIC LIBRARY.

Esq.,
(10)
(22)
(1)
Henry BRIERLEY,
Wigan.
The Rev. Dr. F. E. BRIGHTMAN, Magdalen College, Oxford. The Trustees of the BRITISH MUSEUM, London. The BRITISH SCHOOL at Rome. The BRITISH SOCIETY of FRANCISCAN STUDIES. (Per P.
Miss E. L.
(257)
(8)
DESCOURS, Esq.) BROADBENT, Manchester. Miss K. F. BROTHERS, Haverthwaite.
(9)
(7)
(2)
(9)
Anthony
W.
S.
BROWN,
Esq., Balgowan, Natal.
Miss F. N. BRUCE, London.
(6)
(1)
The Rev. D.
S. S.
P.
BUCKLE, Manchester.
Esq.,
BUCKMAN,
Thame.
Woolwich.
(52)
(19)
Philip C.
BURSILL,
Esq., the Public Library,
22

The
Mr. and Mrs. J. Laird BUSK, Westerham, Kent. Right Reverend Dom CABROL, The Abbey of
Farnborough.
:
(12)
St.
Michael,
(105)
(71 vols.
CALCUTTA The INDIAN MUSEUM. John J. CARDWELL, Esq., Northenden.

William
and
pts.)
(1)
CARPENTER, Esq., J.P., Bowes Park, London. William Henry CARPENTER, Esq., Palmer's Green, London. The Rev. T. N. CARTER, Manchester. Monsignor CARTON DE WlART, Archbishop's House, Westminster.
(6)
(2)
(I)
(2)
C. G.
CASH,
Esq., Midlothian.
(1)
Senora Aurelia
CASTELLO DE GONZALEZ, Habana,

of
Cuba.
(2) (7)
The
Samuel CHICK, Esq., Buxton. Miss Mary CHURCH, London. (In memory
late
Dean CHURCH.)
(361 ) (47)
(3) (6) (3)
(3)
The CLARK UNIVERSITY, Worcester, Mass. Sir Ernest CLARKE, London. Miss CLAYDEN, Ipswich.
Robert H.
Dr.
J.
CLAYTON,
Esq., Manchester.
Gray CLEGG, Manchester.

Esq., Carlisle.
A.
W. COATES,
(60)
(1)
(1)
(1 1)
Miss E. Asher
COHEN,
London.
The CONVENT of OUR LADY of LORETO, Manchester. The CONVENT of the GOOD SHEPHERD, London. Professor R. S. CONWAY, Manchester. The Rev. Ernest HAMPDEN-COOK. Dr. Ananda K. COOMARASWAMY, Salisbury. Mrs. C. E. COWARD, London. Charles Edward COWARD, Esq., London.
T. CRAIB, Esq., Public Record Office, London. The Rev. J. W. CRAKE, Gloucester.
(63)
(5)
(9)
(6)
(5)
(1)
(30)
(2)
The Rev. H. E. CRANE, Bath. The Honourable Mrs. CROPPER, Kendal.

John Charles CROWE, Esq., Manchester. T. C. DALE, Esq., Croydon.
Professor T.
Sir
(22)
(29)
(2)
Rhys DAVIDS, Alfred T. DAVIES, London.
W.
Cotterstock, Surrey.
(8) (I)
The Rev. Rudolf DAVIS, Gloucester. W. G. DELL, Esq., Brixton Hill.

Mrs.
(6)
(94)
(30)
W.
B.
DENDY,
Manchester.
Lines.
The Rev.
Jos.
DlCKESON, Ulceby,
(5)

The DILETTANTI SOCIETY.
Esq., London.)
23
(Per George
A. MACMILLAN,
(8)
Miss DlXON, Cambridge. The Rev. Arthur DlXON, Denton.

Miss
(65)
(245
vols.
and 21
pts.)
DOUGHAN,
Birkenhead.
(I)
The Right Reverend the Abbot of DOWNSIDE ABBEY, Bath. (21) DURHAM UNIVERSITY LIBRARY. (329) The Rev. John F. DURWARD, Baraboo, Wisconsin, U.S.A. (4) The EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND. (96 vols. and 34 pts.)
Colonel G.
ELIOT,
Islip,
Oxon.
(10)
The Very Reverend Aloysius EMERY, Rugby. The Master and Fellows of EMMANUEL COLLEGE, Cambridge.
Mrs.
(107)
(About 650)
EMMOTT, Birkenhead. (In memory of the G. H. EMMOTT, of Liverpool University.)
late Professor
(36)
(4)
Arundell ESDAILE, Esq., British Museum. Frank FALKNER, Esq., Bowdon.
(1) (9)
Miss Helen
FARQUHAR,
London.
M. FARRALL, Chester. W. FARRAR, Esq., Pendleton. J. Mrs. Lucy FELLOWS, Wolverhampton. Miss A. B. Ochiltree FERGUSON, Glasgow. A. Norvell FFARINGTON, Esq., Leyland. Mr. and Mrs. FlGAROLA-CANEDA, Biblioteca
The Rev.
L.
(1) (8)
(1)
(2)
(1)
Nacional,
vols.
Habana, Cuba.
Professor
(143
and 31
pts.)
FlNLAY, Glasgow. Mrs. Buckley FlSHER, Oxford. Lady FOLLETT, Hemyock, Devon. Sir Charles FOLLETT, Hemyock, Devon. G. N. FORD, Esq., J.P., Colwyn Bay. G. H. FRANK, Esq., The University, Leeds.
for the
(68
(1 1)
(2) (2)
(13)
(Cheque
of
purchase of books.)
The Rev. G.
W. FROGGATT,
Bristol.
Sunderland.
(3) (3)
Miss Agnes FRY,

Dr. Mercier
The Rev. A. FULLER, London.
(99)
(9)
(7)
GAMBLE,
F. E.
Manchester.
Mr. and Mrs.
GARSIDE, London.
Herts.
H. GASELEE, Esq., London. The Rev. Dr. A. S. GEDEN, Harpenden,

Miss E.
(2)
(25)
(19)
M. GELDART,
St.
Leonard's-on-Sea.
24

H. T. GERRANS,
Albert B.
Esq., Oxford.
(151)
(24)
GHEWY,
Albans.
Esq., Buckfastleigh, Devon.

F.
The Honourable and Venerable Kenneth

of St.
GlBBS, Archdeacon
(8)
GLASGOW
UNIVERSITY. The Class of Logic in Queen Margaret

(2)
College.
GLOUCESTER PUBLIC LIBRARY.

R.
P.
(87)
Esq., of London, with
HOWGRAVE-GRAHAM,
associated in the
gift of
whom
:
were
8 volumes, the following Mrs. BAILY, Messrs. DAVIS and ORIOLI, Mrs. GARSIDE, The Rev. H. GOW, E. GRUNDY, Esq., H. J. R. HER-
FORD,
Mrs.
Esq., Miss C.
HOLLAND,
J.
T. OSLER, Esq.,
Esq.,
PEARCE-CLARKE,
G.
PHILIPP,
Esq.,
W.
Esq.,
SPILLER, Esq., J. and E. WALLIS, Esq.

John Mrs.
W.
TEN N ANT,
H.
WADE,
GRANT, Esq., M. E. GRAY,

GRIMALDI,
Edinburgh.
Chester.
(65)
(1) (4)
(1)
A.
B.
Esq., London.
The Rev.
GUNNING, Winchester. Henry GUPPY, Esq., Manchester. Dr. Karl HAFNER, Zurich.
(13)
(I) (2)
Emmett HAILWOOD,
Esq., Manchester.
The Rev. Andrew HALDEN, Inverkeilor, Forfarshire. Andrew HALKETT, Esq., Ottawa, Canada.
(25)
(1)
HALL, Glasgow. Bernard HALL, Esq., Manchester. T. Walter HALL, Esq., Sheffield. The Misses and C. A. HANKINSON, Woodlands
Mrs.
(58)
(162)
(3)
Park,
Altrincham.
(In
memory
of
their brother, the
late
G. H.
(29)
HANKINSON, Esq.) Mrs. R. Prescott HARRISON, Great Malvern. (In memory of the late Rev. J. W. HARRISON, D.D.) Sydney E HARRISON, Esq., Public Library, Cheltenham. Sir William HARTLEY, Southport (In memory of the late Professor James Hope MOULTON.)
Mrs. Winstanley HASKINS, Knutsford.
(5) (3)
(232)
(59)
H. L.
Mrs.
HAYMAN, Esq. (Per favour TON DE WlART.) W. H. H EATON, Croydon.
of
Monsignor M.
CAR(1)
(2)
HEFFER & SONS, Cambridge. A. HENDERSON, Esq., Glasgow.

Messrs.
(24) (12)

Mrs. T.
25
(33)
W. HEYWOOD,
Darwen.
East Bridgford, Nottingham.
The Rev. A. Du Boulay HlLL,

Mrs.
Mrs.
(35)
(44)
HODSON, Coventry. HOGG, Manchester.

H.
(In
memory
of
the late Professor
C.
In
J.
W. HOGG.) HOLDSWORTH,
(I)
Esq., Alderley Edge.
(63)
memoriam Henry Scott HOLLAND. C. H. TURNER.)
(Per favour oT Dr.

(94)
(1)
(1
1
The Rev. R. E. HOLMES, Tynemouth. Miss HOPKINSON, Bowdon, Cheshire.
HORDERN, Canterbury. C. H. St. John HORNBY, Esq., London. Miss HORNIMAN, London and Manchester.
Mrs. Caroline F.
Eliot
(38)
(2)
(2)
The
Esq., Buckhurst Hill, Essex. Rev. Canon J. Clare HUDSON, Horncastle.
HOWARD,
(31)
(6)
Mrs. Charles
J.
HUGHES, Manchester. D. HUGHES, Esq., Manchester.
(11)
(2)
The Misses HUMPHRY, London.
(101)
(28)
(8) (9)
HURRY, Reading. Edward M. HUTTON, Esq., Guildford.

Dr. Jamieson B.
E.
I.
IVES, Esq., Croydon.
H. A. JACOBSON, Esq., Lordine Court, Hawkhurst. Mrs. JAMESON, of Bowdon, Cheshire. (In memory of the
John
W.
(128)
late
W. JAMESON,
Esq.)
(16)
(5)
T. JESSON, Esq., Cambridge.
The JOHN CRERAR LIBRARY, Chicago. The Governors of The JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY. The Governors of The JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.
of their colleague, the late Professor
(27)
(372)
(In
memory
James Hope
MOUL(89) (25)
TON.)
Charles
JOHNSON, Esq., London. Walter J. KAYE, Jr., Esq., Harrogate.
(10)
KEMP, London. R. LI. KENYON, Esq., Oswestry. Messrs. P. S. KING & SON, Westminster. A LADY. Mrs. C. A. LANDON, Winchester. Dr. Walter E. LANG, Allentown, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
The
A. C. LEE, Esq., Waltham Abbey, Essex. favour of F. P. N. LEE, Esq., and Miss LEE.)
late
Miss
(135) (156) (175)

(1)
(107)
(2)
(Per
(73)
26

The Rev.
John LEES, Esq., Manchester. LE MARE, Fleetwood.
(1)
(10)
(1)
Reginald V. LENNARD, Esq., Banbury. Howard C. LEVIS, Esq., London.
(15)
(3)
(3)
Mrs. Jane Chester LEVIS, London.
Wm. REED-LEWIS,
Esq., Bexhill-on-Sea, Sussex.
The LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY PRESS. The LONDON SCHOOL of ECONOMICS and POLITICAL
SCIENCE.
(90)
(100)
(I)
(2)
LONSDALE, London. The LUTON PUBLIC LIBRARY. Sir George W. MACALPINE, Accrington.
Miss
R. H.
(12)
(1)
McCREA, Esq., Chesterfield. MACDONALD, Esq., Edinburgh. Mrs. MACKINLAY, Edinburgh. (In memory MACKINLAY, Esq.) Messrs. MACMILLAN & Co., Ltd., London.
W.
R.
(3)
of the late J.
M.
(3)
(1)
The
MALONE SOCIETY, London. MANCHESTER HIGH SCHOOL for GIRLS. MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS.
Murray MARKS, Esq., London.
(44)
(2)
(150)
(1)
Oliver
MARSDEN,
Esq., Leeds.
(20)
The Rev. Roland G.

Professor Dr.
J.
MATTHEW,
Wigan.
(10)
(7)
Lawrence H. MILLS, Oxford.
G. MlLNE, Esq., Farnham.
(153)
(151)
(2)
The MITCHELL LIBRARY, Glasgow.

John Miss K.
NEWTON,
of the
Esq., Stockport.
M. NlCHOLL, London.
Family of the
late
(4) Sir Charles
Members
Bart.
NICHOLSON,
(488) Brevet Lieut. -Colonel John P. NICHOLSON, Philadelphia, U.S.A. (1) R. Barnes NAYLOR, Esq., London. (2)
Edmund OGDEN, The Daughters of

Co. Dublin.
Esq., Sale, Cheshire.

the late Rev. T.
(14)
O'MAHONY,
Drumcondra,
(20)
G.
Sir
F.
A. OSBORN, William OSLER,
Esq.,
Bart.,
Colwyn Bay.
Oxford.
(1 1)
(367
vols.
and 67
pts.)
C. T.
OWEN,
Esq., Hampstead.
of
(6)
The Master and Fellows

Miss Wyatt
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OXFORD.

London.
(194)
(1 1)
PAPWORTH,

Professor
27
(83)
(40)
(1)
H. H. PEACH, Esq., Leicester. A. S. PEAKE, Manchester.

Mrs.
PEARSON, Prestbury, Miss E. L PETO, Oxford.
Macclesfield.
(250)
(67)
(1)
Mrs. G. PETRIE, Bicester, Oxon.

Francis
W.
PlXLEY,
Esq., Wooburn, Bucks.
John Thorp PLOWMAN, Esq., London. The Rev. E. POPE, Woodham Ferrers, Essex.
(17)
(21)
(2)
M. E. POPE, Woodham Ferrers, A. T. PORTER, Esq., Chelsea. James PORTER, Esq., Manchester.
Miss
Julius J.
Essex.
(5)
(4)
(1)
PRICE, Esq., Toronto, Canada. Frederick J. PRIEST, Esq., Liverpool. The PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE, London.
Miss Ella PYCROFT,
(5)
(225)
(2)
Wear
the
Gifford,
N. Devon.
Ryde,
The Very Reverend

I.O.W.
Herbert V.
ABBOT OF QUARR ABBEY,
(35)
(151)
(2)
READE, Esq., C.B., Ipsden, Oxon. H. REYNOLDS, Esq., Bramhall, Cheshire. J. Prince ZBAWCA-RlEDELSKI. Professor W. Rhys ROBERTS, Leeds. W. Wright ROBERTS, Esq., Manchester. Lieut.-Col. R. P. B. RODICK, Hampstead, and Mrs. M. BROOKE, Slingsby, Yorks. Mrs. H. W. K. ROSCOE, Streatley, Berks. H. W. K. ROSCOE, Esq., Streatley, Berks. The ROYAL COLLEGE of PHYSICIANS. The ROYAL SOCIETY of LITERATURE. The Rev. H. E. SALTER, Abingdon, Berks. Mrs. SANDERSON, Belturbet, Ireland. W. L. SARGANT, Esq., Oakham.
Sir Ernest
(2)
(1)
(1)
E.
(3)
(6)
(76)
(278)
(101)
(45)
(1)
(3)
Mason SATOW, K.C.M.G., Ottery
St.
Mary.
(37)
(3)
Mrs. SCOTT, Glasgow. John SCOTT, Esq., London.
(13)
Surrey.
Miss E. L.
SEAWELL, Farnham,
(158)
(20)
A. SHAW,
Esq., Wells, Somerset.
The
Right Honourable Lord
SHEFFIELD.
(113)
(71)
(3)
Mrs. SHELLY, Plymouth. R. P. SHEPHARD, Esq., London.

Messrs.
SHERRATT & HUGHES,
Manchester.
(53)
28

The SIGNET LIBRARY, Edinburgh. Mrs. H. G. SLADE, Heytesbury. M. T. SMILEY, West Kirby, Cheshire. The SOCIETY for PSYCHICAL RESEARCH. Miss A. SPENCER, London. The Rev. Reginald STOWELL, Kirkby Lonsdale. Miss C. M. SULLIVAN, London. The Rev. H. B. SWETE MEMORIAL FUND. (Per
Rev.
Dr.
(Ill)
(4)
(2)
(26)
(I) (1)
(144)
favour of the
W.
E.
BARNES,
Peterhouse,
Cambridge,
(241)
(88)
Treasurer.)
Arthur SYKES, Esq., Leeds.

Esq., Glenageary, Co. Dublin. Henry J. The Misses Dora, Margaret, and Eva THOMAS, Llandudno.
'
SYNNOTT,
(6)
(55)
George
Charles
THOMAS,
Esq., J.P., Irlam Hall, Manchester.
(Also a
(48)
cheque
for a guinea
towards expenses.)
Esq., M.P., Preston Manor,
THOMAS-STANFORD,
Brighton.
J.
(17)
Esq., Cambridge.
Day THOMPSON,
(10)
Carlisle.
Messrs. Charles
THURNAM &
SONS,
(I)
Duncan TODD, Esq.,
Purley, Surrey.
(1)
The TORQUAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. Dr. C. H. TURNER, Magdalen College, Oxford. See also In Memoriam, Henry Dr. C. H. TURNER.
(1%)
(3)
Scott
HOLLAND.
The UNITARIAN
T. Fisher
Robert
HOME
MISSIONARY COLLEGE,
Manchester. (42)
(13)
(2)
UNW1N,
Esq., London.
WARDLE,
Esq., Manchester.
The
Library of the
SURGEON-GENERAL'S OFFICE, WASH(I)
INGTON, U.S.A. Vernon James WATNEY,

Mrs. Isaac
Dr. G. C.
Esq., J.P., Cornbury Park.
(I) (3)
WATTS,
Altrincham.
WILLIAMSON, London. W. J. WILSON, Esq., Dairy, Ayrshire. John WINDSOR, Esq., Mickle Trafford,
G.
Miss
(76
vols.
and 28
pts.)
(I)
Chester.
(32)
W. Rayner WOOD, Esq., J.P., WOODHOUSE, RUSHOLME,
Manchester.
Manchester.
(154)
(76)
SARCOPHAGUS FROM VISCONTI: " MUSBO PIOCLEMENTINO," VOL.
V.,
PLATE 16
ORIGIN
BY
J.
AND MEANING OF APPLE

M.A.,
CULTS.
RENDEL HARRIS,
some recent
investigations
Lirr.D., D.THEOL., ETC.,
HON. FELLOW OF CLARE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

which
I
made
into the origin
of
the
IN
Greek gods the suggestion was made that a number of the Olympian Divinities were personifications of or projections from
the vegetable world.
The
plant or tree
was
first
thought of animistic-
ally as being the residence of
some
virtue or potency, helpful or hurtful
as the case might be, capable of being propitiated
on the one hand, or
employed
trace,
life
in
human
service
on the other
and
it
was not
difficult to
in individual cases, the
process of personification as the
hidden
of the plant or tree
ultimate deity.
became an animal form, a human form, or an Amongst the cases which were discussed one of the
light
most interesting was that of the great god Apollo, the lord of
healing
:
and
it
was
suggested that the
god was
the personification of the
healing virtue
and
it
solar attributes of the mistletoe,

is
and
particularly of
;
the mistletoe as
found growing upon the apple-tree

tolerably certain that
and
that the
apple and
its
mistletoe are his original sacred symbols.

it
Apollo in the Greek religion is a migration from the more northerly regions, and his mythical home is somewhere at the back of the North wind, it was not unnatural
Moreover, since
is
to suggest that the

is
not a Greek
:
tribe
and
it
name by which he was known in the Hellenic world name at all, but itself a migration from some northern was audaciously affirmed that Apollo was only our apple
not be surprised that such revolutionary views provoked
in disguise.
One need
was
sharp opposition.
The
lost
religious conservatism of the scholarly

still
world
offended, for scholars are

faith in
have never really

1
the
more pagan than Christian, and more decent of the Olympian
An
elaboration of the lecture delivered in the John

29
Ry lands
Library
on 23 October, 1917.
30
deities.

The
degradation of the great god of light to a spray of mistle-
toe, or to an apple-tree
would have been blasphemy
in ancient
times,
and
academic blasphemy still. Even those who were not the victims of hereditary religious conservatism found it hard to believe that there had been a northern
is
apple-god,
when no
It
trace of such a divinity

parallel to
had even been detected, nor up

in
had any
to
satisfactory
Apollo turned
the northern
mythologies.
was
not an unreasonable request, therefore, to be asked
produce one's apple-god in a definitely northern form,
and
to
find
the missing links between himself

of the present lecture
is
and our
lord
Phoebus.
The
object
to try
and meet these
criticisms
and
questionings.
CHAPTER
ON THE
ALL
aware
linger
I.
EXISTENCE OF APPLE CULTS.

that, in collecting
students of folk-lore are

still
and comparing
the quaint customs which
on the country-side, they are not
merely dealing with customs, but with cults that underlie them, with in many cases the rituals and misunderstood rituals and lost divinities
;
worships which are thus embalmed
the amber of unchanging or slowly-changing popular habit, turn out to be the very earliest beliefs
like flies in
and the most

it
primitive religious acts of the
human
will not
be easy to find anything that
For example, takes one further back rerace.
ligiously or ritually than the Corn-baby, Corn-child, or Corn-mother of
the harvest-field, of which so
much has been

is
written in recent years.
Every
surviving fragment of such a ritual
as valuable to us as a page
of an early gospel
which time has

see
blurred, or
it,
whose
first-hand has been
overwritten.
We
through
down
long vista
across
which
many shadows
are cast, the reasons which

superstitions that
made man
so.
a religious animal,
and not merely the
keep him
Of
the customs
;
is not much more, perhaps, to be said the matter has had such exhaustive treatment at the hands of Mannhardt,
of the corn-field there
Frazer,
and
others, that the field
may be
considered well reaped and

to
satisfactorily
gleaned, and there does not seem
be any
last
sheaf
whose
In the cutting might make the reputation of later investigators. case of the fruit-orchard, the inquiry has not gone so far, nor been so
it should turn out, as we have recently suggested, that the ancestry of the god Apollo runs back into the apple-tree, in the same way as Demeter disappears into a peculiar bunch of corn-stalks,
effective.
If
we
can only say that Apollo was

identification of
his
and the
much more elusive than Demeter, origin is much more easy to contradict.
associated places
Let us try to find out something more about apple-cults and the where apple-sanctity has been recognised. will
We
begin with our
own
country where there are traces of recently expired

31
32
customs relating to the apple, which are in some respects parallel tothose which occur, or used to occur until recently, in the harvest-field. If we turn to Lysons* Magna Britannia, which is a storehouse
of valuable observations of ancient customs,
we
shall find
him describing
in the
practices
which prevailed
at
a certain time of the year,

:
orchards
of Devonshire.
He
tells
us that
"
is
In
most parts of the cyder-district a custom

'
still
prevails of
what
called in ancient times
wassailing the apple-trees '.
This custom
of
was accompanied by a
(see Herrick's
superstitious belief, in the
words
an old poet
Hesperides\
That more or less fruit they will bring, As you do give them wassailing.
This ceremony
some places is performed on Christmas-eve. It consists in drinking a health to one of the apple-trees, with wishes for its good bearing, which generally turns out successful, as the best-bearing
at
tree in the orchard
is
selected for the purpose.
It is
attended by the
'
singing of
thee,
some
verses apposite to the occasion,

'.
beginning
Health
to
good apple-tree
put roasted apples or toast

contents of the
'
bowl are
which
is
The potation consists of cyder, in which is when all have drunk the remainder of the The old Saxon sprinkled on the apple-tree.
; ' :
'
term
wassail
fined in the glossary of
known to imply drinking of health is thus dethe Exmoor dialect a drinking song sung on
Twelfth-night eve, throwing toast to the apple-trees in order to have a fruitful year, which seems to be a relic of the heathen sacrifice to
Pomona '."
So
of
far
Lysons,
who
goes on to describe the cutting of the
"
neck"
the
harvest in
Devonshire, which
a tradition from the earliest strata of
we now know so well to be So we naturally ask how religion.
Is that also are to interpret the wassailing of the apple-trees. " " ancient ? The use of the term wassail for the ceremony shows that
it
we
has
come down out
of
Saxon times
but there
is
much more
in the
account than can be explained by a Saxon habit of drinking health to It is clear everybody and everything at a particular time of the year.
that
what the Devonshire
rustics
were engaged
solid
in
was a
veritable
sacrament, in which they brought their deity to their deity and partook
of their deity with their deity,
1
under
and
liquid symbolism.
Lysons,
-
Magna
Apparently
this is
Britannia (Devon), ccclir. from Grose, Provincial Glossary,
790,
v. infra.
ORIGIN
Evidently
ing custom.
AND MEANING OF APPLE CULTS

must
try
33
we
and
find out
some more about
this interest-
Faiths and Folk-lore, which incorporates most of the Popular Antiquities of Brand and Ellis, we shall find several accounts of apple-wassailing. We transcribe first an article on
If
we
turn to Hazlitt's
"
Apple"
H owling "
In several counties the custom of

refers in
Apple-howling (or yuling)
to
which Herrick
troop of boys
parts,
lines
:-
his Hesperides, is still in observance. round the orchards in Sussex, Devonshire, and other go
and forming a
ring
about the
trees,
they repeat these doggerel-
Stand
Pray God
bear well top, send us a good howling crop Every twig, apples big Every bough, apples enou ; Hats full, caps full ;
fast root,
; '
Full quarter sacks full."
Hasted says There is an odd custom used in these parts about Keston and Wickham (in Kent) in Rogation-week at which time a number of young men meet together for the purpose, and with a most
: :
hideous noise run into the orchards, and encircling each

these
tree,
pronounce
words
Stand
God
fast root, bear well top send us a youling sop, Every twig, apple big, Every bough, apples enow.
For which incantation the confused rabble expect a gratuity in money, or but if they are disappointed in both, they drink, which is no less welcome
:
with great solemnity anathematize the owners and trees with altogether as significant a curse." It is clear that we have evidence here, at least
as far back as the
his
end
of the eighteenth century,

for the occurrence of
when Hasted wrote

surviving ritual
History of Kent,
Hazlitt continues
:
some
and
magic
arisen
in reference to the apple-tree.
"
It
seems highly probable that

of
this
custom has
from the ancient

they
one
perambulation
among
the heathens,
when
fruits
1
made
prayers to the gods for the use and blessing of the

for
coming up, with thanksgiving
those of the previous year
No
reference
is
given, but
it
is
clear from
what follows
that
he
is
quot-
ing Hasted* s History of Kent.

3
34

of the winds, for his favourhis
still
and as the heathens supplicate Eolus, god

able blasts, so in this custom they
small variation
;
this
ceremony
is
called
name with Youling, and the word

retain
a very
is
often
used
in their invocations."
Brand- Hazlitt on the custom of apple-howling. need not spend time over Eolus he is certainly not the deity involved
far
;
Thus
We
the texts are clear for Yule-tide, and this again takes us back to Saxon times, and shows us that if the youling-custom
in the act of
youling
was attached
Rogation-week, it has been transferred to it from the So we need not spend further time over the perChristmas season.
to
ambulations of the
Incidentally
Ambarvalia,
or the chants of the
Litania Major.
we note that, as we are not deriving our apple-ritual from we may remove the reference which Lysons has given us to Rome,
Pomona.
Now
in
let
us see
what Hazlitt has
to report elsewhere.
heading of Twelfth Night we are told that "formerly it Devonshire on this night to drink hot cyder and eat cakes, and after the company had partaken of this entertainment to their satisfaction,
Under the was custom
they proceeded into the orchard, where they offered a portion to the apple-trees and pear-trees by laying a piece of cake on a bough of
each,
and pouring over

to
it
happened
be present then
a libation of hot cyder. fired a salute, and the
The men who women and girls
sang in chorus, Bear blue, apples and pears enou' Barn fulls, bag fulls, sack fulls.
Hurrah
Hurrah
Hurrah
There are
is
several versions of the subjoined song
but that here given
correct in Devonshire
on Twelfth
Day
Apple-tree, apple-tree,
Bear apples for me Hats full, laps full,

Sacks
full,
caps
full.
Apple-tree, apple-tree, Bear apples for me.
"
In the
South-hams
of
Devonshire, on the
Eve
of the
Epiphany,
the farmer, attended

to the orchard,
by
his
and
there,
workmen, with a large pitcher of cyder, goes encircling one of the best-bearing trees, they
:
drink the following toast three several times
ORIGIN
Here's

to thee, old apple-tree,
!
35
Whence
And
thou mays't bud, and whence thou mays't blow whence thou mays't bear apples enow
!
Hats
full,
caps
full
Bushel
bushel
sacks
full to
full,
!
And my
"
pockets
Huzza
"
!
On the Eve of Twelfth Day, as a Cornishman informed Mr. Brand, on the edge of St Stephen's Down, 28 October, 790, it is the custom for the Devonshire people to go after supper into the orchard,
1
with a large milkpan full of cyder, having roasted apples pressed into Out of this each person in company takes what is called a clayen it cup, i.e., an earthenware cup full of liquor, and standing under each of
the more
fruitful apple-trees,
it
passing
he addresses
in the following
by those words
:
that are not
good
bearers,
Health
to thee,
good apple-tree,
!
Well
to bear, pocket-fulls, hat-fulls,
Peckfulls, bushel-bag-fulls
And
set
then drinking up part of the contents, he throws the rest with
its
fragments of the roasted apples at the tree.
At
each cup the company
up a
This
shout."
last
reference appears to be taken from Pennant's
Tour
in
Scotland?
Now
suppose
we
turn to Grose's
(I
almost contemporary with Hasted " 1 Watsail. 790), we shall find,
Provincial Glossary, which quote from the second edition
is
of
A drinking song,
day Eve, throwing

year
:
toast to the apple-trees, in
sung on Twelfthorder to have a fruitful
which seems
to
be a
relic of
the heathen sacrifice to
Wassail. sail
is
Exm.," which concluding words I take to wassail, and that the custom referred to is an Exmoor custom.
it
Pomona. mean that wat-
Grose has probably taken
We
learn something
fresh
from a Glossary of the Exmoor Dialect. from this reference. The custom is
called wassail,
and so
is
connected naturally (but not exclusively) with

it
Yule-tide.
line in
The
throwing of toast must be noted, for
explains the
Hasted's account,
when
prayer
is
made
that
;
God
i.e.,
send us a good youlmg sop
a Yule-tide
toast, as
we
shall see
more
clearly presently.
Pomona
'Ed.
Chester, 1771, p. 91.
36

dismissed,
may be
and Yule has
clearly the right of
way
against the
howling Eolus, as already pointed out.
Now
let
us see whether
we
can get some further evidence as to the
wassail-song and the wassail-customs in reference to the apple-trees
on the Eve of Twelfth Day. quoted just now from Hazlitt- Brand a reference
We
for
appleis
howling
follows
:
to
1
the
Hesperides
of the poet
Herrick.
The
passage
as
You many
Wassaile the Trees, that they may beare a Plum, and many a Peare For more or less fruit they will bring As you do give them Wassailing.
:
From
the
this
verse
authority for the
we learn West of
1
several things
Herrick
for
may be
taken as an
;
England, and
its
Devonshire
is
in particular
Hespendes, which,
in
as
name
implies,
a Western production,
was published
648.
So
the custom of wassailing the trees preIt
vailed in Devonshire in the middle of the seventeenth century.
not at this time limited to apple-trees, but

all fruit-trees prolific in
was a
general charm
of
to
was make
the coming year.
The name
of the
"
wassail" by
which the custom

It is
is
covered goes back naturally to Saxon times.
interesting to notice the modification
word
in
country
districts
where
it
was no
longer understood.
In Mrs. Latham's
:
West
Sussex Superstitions we
"It
trees
is
find the following statement
the custom in the cider districts of Sussex to worsle the apple-
on
New
Year's Eve, and for several succeeding days, and

5
it is
considered unlucky to omit doing so."
Here worsle
parently, in
is
a debased form of wassail in Sussex dialect.

the term wassail
Ap-
some
parts of Yorkshire, said that
was corrupted
to vessel ; for
"
it
it is
was
usual to carry about the vessel-
with a view to collect money. This cup was done in 1813, and perhaps later, at Holderness and in other parts of Yorkshire. The cup was sometimes accompanied by an image of
at Christmas,
and
sing carols,
Christ
and roasted apples? 8

see presently that the roasted apples are properly a part
We shall
of the ritual of wassailing the orchard,

1
and
it is
significant that
an image
'-'
'
Ed. Moorman, p. 264. Quoted also in Folk-Lore Record (1878),

Hazlitt-Brand, p. 620.
13.
ORIGIN
of Christ
is
37
Does this belong to the wassaila reminiscence of Christmas generally ? ing of the trees, or is it merely At all events the roasted apples should be noted, and the disappearcarried in the procession.
ance of the ancient word which covers the ceremonies. " To return to Mrs. Latham's account of the " worsling of the
trees in Sussex
:
she continues
"
Farmers give a few pence to the worslers,
who
:
form a
circle
round the trees
and
sing at the top of their voices
Stand fast root, Bear well top,
Pray God send us good howling crop. Every twig
Apples big, Every bough, Apples enow.

Hats
full,
caps
full,
Full quarter sacks Holla, boys, holla
full,
!
Huzza
and then
a loud
sick
all
shout in chorus, with the exception of one boy
who
blows
blast
on a cow's horn.
Last
New
Year's
Eve
and
the mother of a
boy
told
me
that her poor child
was sadly put out because he was

;
not able to worsle his grandfather's apple-trees

that both
it is
quite certain
mother and child expected a
total failure of the
apple-crop in
the grandfather's orchard to follow the omission." can add something to Mrs. Latham's account of the Sussex
We
ceremonies
a writer in
Notes and Queries
tells
us that
"in the
neighbourhood of Chailey (some miles to the north of Lewes) . . . a troop of boys visit the different orchards," and after repeating the " chant before-mentioned, they shout in chorus, one of the boys accompanying them on the cow's horn trees with their sticks *V
In
:
during the ceremony they rap the

the
West Somerset
sticks.
:
they
fire
guns, apparently, at the trees
point should be taken in connection with the just-mentioned beating of
the trees with the

is
The whole
custom
for this part of
Somerset
described as follows
"
On
it
phany,
Old Christmas Eve (5 January), or the Eve was the custom not long since, and may be
1
of the
still,
Epi-
for the
N. and
Q. (1852),
1st
Sen,
v.,
293.
28

to
'
go out into the orchard, and to place toast ' with a jug of the liquor, up in the vork of along then all say, the biggest apple-tree, by way of libation
farmer, with his men,
steeped in
cider,
Apple-tree, apple-tree, I wassail thee

!
To blow
Hat
Tulls,
and
to bear,
vulls,
cap
Dree-bushel-bag-vulls.
And my
Hip
(Bang with one or more
well
!
pockets vull too

1
Hip
Hooraw
guns.)
This ceremony and formula
is
I
re-
peated several times at different trees, with fresh firing of guns.
can
remember
:
quite a fusillade from various orchards
on Old Christ-
mas Eve."
in the
There are very ancient

presentation of
features in this account

villagers.
which do not appear

is
customs of the Sussex

the toast
is
First
and foremost there
the
and
cider to
the
biggest apple-tree in the

;
orchard, which
supposed to partake of the offering
the ritual
is
now
turned into a communion service.
As we
custom.
go further West
we come
across
more
traces of this curious
are told with regard to the " on Twelfth Night Eve," that in the drinking to the Apple-trees eastern part of Cornwall, and in western Devonshire, it was the cusIn Hunt's
Popular Romances? we
"
tom
to take a milk-pail full of cider, into
which roasted apples had been
This was placed as near the centre of the 3 each person, taking a clomben orchard as possible, and cup of the
broken, into the orchard.
drink, goes to different apple-trees,
and addresses them as follows

;
Health to the
Well
(/. thee) good apple-tree to bear, pocketfuls, hatfuls,
Peckfuls, bushel-bagfuls.
Drinking part of the contents of the cup, the remainder, with the fragments of roasted apples, is thrown at the tree, all the company shouting aloud."
Mrs. Whilcombe
in
Bygone Days of Devon and Cornwall*'

a
tells
P. 175. Îworthy, West Somerset Word-Book. 8 dome for China is still in use in W. Cornwall, or was in my
days.
4
early
P. 27.
ORIGIN
the

They carry with them to and some cake. They hang pieces of
:
39
the
this
same
story with slight variations
"
orchard a pitcher of cider
on the branches of one of the trees, roots"

It is
and
sprinkle the cider over its
some parts to fire at the apple-trees, and several guns are called into requisition for this
further noted
that "it
is
customary
in
purpose
".
Here
the pieces of cake in the branches replace the toast in the
primitive account.
A special tree
"
it
is
the centre of the

fired
ritual,
and our
conjecture that the trees

toast
is
were actually
at
is
confirmed.
That the
in
actually soaked in the cider appears from the statement
Tozer's
Poems
that
was
the custom for the country people to
sing a wassail or drinking song,
and throw the

have a
is
toast
from the wassail-
bowl
to the apple-trees, in order to
fruitful
year 'V
The
editor of
'*
general question of wassailing
Folk-Lore
of
i.,
in the
The custom
Brand,
in Ellis's
as follows by the 1902 (pp. 95-6) year wassailing and carrying a vessel-cup are noticed Henderson (2nd edn., 64-8), and Gent. 1, 45
: ;
summed up
Mag. Library {Popular Superstitions], 16, 76. Wassailing, given may be summarised as follows
:
The
information
or health-drinking
from a bowl or loving-cup was a usual accompaniment of Christian The favourite feasting, sometimes extended to the orchards and oxen.
liquor
was
'
lambswool,' a mixture of
ale, spices,
and roasted
apples.
In
many
places parties of wassailers
went about
visiting the neighbour-
ing houses singing their
good wishes and carrying a bowl with apples, which the hosts were expected to fill with ale, or money to purchase it. But the custom of carrying a representation of the Madonna seems to
have been confined to Northumbria, where the name
once accompanied
' '
vessel-cup
and
the apples are the only relics of the wassail-bowl which, one supposes,
it."
The
and
"
in
writer did not get very far in his researches into the origin of
wassailing, but
the roasted form.

".
he sees that the apples belong to the original function, How else could one explain the term
lambswool
Here
is
another small indication of the importance of the apple in

:
the composition of wassail
'The Antiquarian Repertory (1775)

'Tozer,
contains a rude
woodcut
of
Poems
(\Q63), p. 65.
40

The
vessel rests
a bowl carved on an oaken beam, which had formed a portion of an

ancient chimney recess.
on the branches of an apple-
tree, alluding, perhaps, Sir
Henry
Ellis suggests, to part of the materials
of
which the liquor was composed
"
(Hardwick,
in
Traditions, Superthe
stitions, p. 61).
Another point
carrying of
here, again,
that
comes up
the Folk- Lore
Summary
is
an image,
this
time of the
Madonna
in
is
Northumbria.
But
we
cannot assume that the image
an archaic feature of
the ceremony, for the Yule-tide includes Christmas, and so the
Madonna
and the Christ may

link
It is
have come
in
on
their
own
account, without any
with the sacred apple-tree.

likely that
a good deal of confusion has arisen in the wassail
ceremonies through the change in date of the Christmas festival from the Twelfth Night or Old Christmas Day (the Epiphany) to its present
position.
The
wassail-bowl
moved back when
the date for Christmas
receded, and the wassail-ceremony for the orchards remained on the old Christmas Eve. In modern times the wassailing date underwent, perhaps, another slight change in some quarters
Twelfth Night Eve

country talk reported
to
in
Twelfth Night
itself
was moved from here is a bit of West;
it
Thicky Twelfth Night is not the Her should be doned on hraight day for wassailing the arpul trees. Old Twelfth Night, not on old Christmas Day," said the ancient sage
of Stockland in January,
1908:
"
Apparently this means that the old custom had moved forward a day. West-country There is, however, some evidence from Somerset that the wassail1
908.
ing of the orchards
was moved back with
the wassail-bowl,
it
and perhaps
to this that
the Christmas ceremonies, to Christmas Eve, and
may be
the aged rustic

trees
Lysons, Christmas Eve. In Poole's Customs, Superstitions, and the County of Somerset, 1877, pp.6, 7, we find the Legends of following account of the Yule-log and the wassailing " The burning of the Ashen Paggot on Christmas Eve is an
refers.
whom we
quoted above, wassails the
on
ancient ceremony transmitted to us from the Scandinavians, who, at

their feast of
of
Thor.
The
Yuul, were accustomed to kindle huge bonfires in honour faggot is composed of ashen-sticks, looped round with
tree,
bands
1
of the
same
nine in number.
When
placed on the
fire
fun
C. N. Whistler,
"
Sundry Notes from West Somerset and Devon,"
Folk-Lore, 1908, p. 91.
ORIGIN
and
jollity

. .
41
of
commence.
fire, all
Every time the bands crack by reason
the heat of the

cider,
is
present are supposed to drink liberally of the
or egg-hot, a mixture of cider, eggs, etc.
The
reason
why
ash
it
selected in preference to
any other timber

it is
is,
that tradition assigns
as the
wood
with which
In
Our Lady
kindled a
fire in
order to
wash her
customary yeoman and his family to proceed to the orchard, one of the party bearing a hot cake and cider, as an offering to the best-bearing apple-tree, and after
new-born Son.
some places
for the
depositing the cake on the tree the cider the firing off of guns
is
poured on the
latter
amid
and
pistols, the
women and
children shouting,
Hurrah
Bear blue, apples and pears enough, Barns full, bags full, sacks full, "
!
Hurrah
Hurrah
Here again
Christian side,
the
Madonna
appears to be an intrusion from the
and the date
of the wassailing has receded in accordance

itself
is
with later Christian reckoning, but the ceremony
very archaic.
it is
One
tree stands out clearly
as the object to be feted,

is
and
difficult
to resist the feeling that the shooting of the guns
meant
for the tree,
or for
In
this
some
1
representative of the tree.
686 Aubrey
little
published his
Remains of
(it
Gentitisme, and in
in
invaluable
book
for the folklorist
has been reproduced

notes as follows
recent times
by the Folk- Lore Society)
we
find reference to the wassail:
ing of the apple-trees in Somersetshire.
Aubrey
that non obstante the change of Religion, the and also the Schooleboies will keep-up and retaine their Ploughboies, old ceremonies and customes and priviledges, which in the West of
"
Memorandum
England
shire
is
used
still
(and
believe) in other parts.

is
So
in Somerset-
I think Twelve- Eve) the and they go into the Ox-house to Twelve-cake, the Oxen, with the Wassell-bowl and drink to the ox with crumpled home, that treads out the corne they have an old concerved rhythme
when
the wassaile (which

their
on ...
Ploughmen have
and afterwards they goe with

goe about the
trees to blesse
their
Wassel-bowle
into the orchard

tost
and
them, and putt a piece of
upon the
roots in order to it"
Here we
again have seventeenth century evidence for the custom of
wassailing the trees of the orchard in the
by a curious extension of the wassailing to the
West of England, accompanied cattle. Aubrey notes
42

is
that for the participation of the tree in the offering, the toast
placed,
not in the branches, but at the roots.

viously.
We
had one case
of this pre-
Similar results to our
own have been
reached by Mr.
in fact,
A.
B. Cook,
who
has studied the legends in the Celtic literature with such astonish-
ing industry
and
effect.
He
finds out,
from these legends,

it
that the apple-tree
was almost
as sacred as the oak, that
had nearly
as
good a claim as the oak to the title King of the Wood, that on the one hand it represented the Sky-God, and on the other the life of a
Mr. Cook suggests that king or hero with whom it was associated. " or mythological transition from oak-tree to apple-tree the religious
Tribes corresponds to an actual advance in pre-historic civilisation. that were once content to subsist upon acorns and wild fruits in general
learnt
latter,
gradually the art of cultivating the
more
edible varieties of the
and so came
.
in the course of
many
centuries to keep well-stocked

fruit-tree
orchards.
in
The
to
apple
in
particular, the oldest cultivated
be the equivalent to the oak." Europe, between Mr. Cook's views and those of Dr. Frazer
is
felt
The
is
divergence
it is
not serious,
a case of the expansion of an argument, not of its contradiction. Our confirms Mr. Cook's results from an opposite direction, own method
viz., the
unnoticed survival of an apple-ritual, the centre of whose deapple-spirit.
votion
was an
At
there
this point
would be more
at the
where
we may review the evidence which we have collected of but, unfortunately, my notes are lying somebottom of the Mediterranean, and so we suffer from in;
it,
completeness at the hands of the war-god. Enough has been brought forward to show that we have unearthed a genuine ritual of which the
apple-tree
is
the centre.
best or oldest of
(if
This apple-tree, by preference the biggest or the orchard, and on that account entitled to be called
the
High
Priest of
is
Nemi
will permit the appellation) the
King
of
regarded as a sentient being capable of sacramental with its worshippers under two species toast soaked in participation cider, with roasted apples form the one species ; cider, which is the
the
:
Wood,
life-blood of the tree, forms the other.
The
offering
is
shared between
the
divinity
Every
1
side of sacrificial
and the worshippers, and the offering is the divinity. communion is here represented. The offering
on the
" "
refer to the papers

etc.
European Sky-God
in
Folk-Lore, TO!.
XT.,
1904,
ORIGIN
43
has an especial magical value ; it is a charm for fertility, and perhaps a reminiscence of previous fertility. For our purposes the most important point
fication of
is
that the
whole
of these ceremonies involve the personi-
the tree
itself,
which cannot be thought
of as partaking of
apples and cider, except by

point that
humane
analogy.
This, then,
is
was
the
first
we had
to establish, namely, that there
evidence of a surinevitably result in
viving ritual of the apple-tree,
which would almost
the projection of the tree into a personal form, just in the

the oak-tree inhabited
ultimately
same way as
evidence to
by
the lightning becomes the woodpecker and
Zeus
himself.
We
have
not, as yet, supplied
enable us to say whether there was an annual death of the apple-spirit nor can we say celebrated, nor whether it was a death by violence
;
whether the image of Christ, which
appears to
have been carried about

Further
by wassailers
investigations
in
Yorkshire, has replaced an earlier image.

light
may throw
on these
points.
spirit
All that
we have
say that
proved
is
the existence of an apple-tree

first
as an object of cult.
to those
That
there
is is
the reply, the
stage of the reply,

in the
who
no trace
of
an apple-god
north of Europe.
Let us see
whether
we
can take further steps to capture
this elusive apple-spirit*!.
CHAPTER
II.
THE APPLE-BIRD AND THE APPLE-BOY.
WE
may supplement
the apple-trees in
our statements as to the custom of wassailing Devonshire by extracts from a special report made
on the subject by a Committee on Devonshire Folk- Lore, whose report is printed in Transactions of the Devonshire Association for 905
1
(vol.
xxxvii.).
The
extracts
still
which follow
be extant
will
I
show how
late
the
custom persisted (it may duce to us the apple-spirit under a new form.
for all
know), and will introMr. R. H. Jordan of
Teignmouth says
younger days (a long time ago) being told of the custom of firing at the apple-trees on the night of
:
"I remember
in
my
Twelfth Day, being carried out in several country places in Devonshire and I especially remember an old gentleman, who had resided
;
for
many years at Bovey Tracey, informing me that when there was a song sung, a part of which I remember
:
it
was done
Bear and blow, Apples enow,
Hats
full,
caps
full,
bushels
full,
etc."
In Devon Notes and Queries, vol. iii., p. 113, Mr. Henry Gibbon communicates (1) a curious parallel to the cult of the fruit-tree from Japan, (2) a report of the Devonshire custom taken from the Christmas
number
1.
of the
Illustrated
London News
where there are
day
for
90
1 .
Dr. Aston, late British Consul at Seoul, writes

in
"
:
There
is
a
to
custom
Japan,
in places
fruit-trees, for
two men
go to the orchard on the
last
of the year.
One of the men
climbs
up a
latter,
tree, while the other stands at the bottom, axe in hand.
The
addressing the
; '
tree,
asks whether
it
it
will bear fruit well or not in
the coming year
otherwise
I
will
be cut down.
'.
Then
the
man up
drama
in the tree replies,
will bear well

44
The
effect of this little
ORIGIN
is

We
45
add an illustration of the Japanese said to be very satisfactory." 1 custom from a Carian coin, which appears to have a similar meaning.
PLATE
2.
In this case (the Devonshire custom) the
bribery,
and
on
his
means adopted was On Christmas Day the owner of the orchard not intimidation. people place a cake on the fork of an apple-tree and pour wine
it,
while the
full ".
women
chant a chorus,
"
Bear barns
full,
sacks
full,
bags
The
Japanese parallel
is
ployed is put up he is the tree-spirit.

2
into the tree to
very interesting, as one of the men emFor the occasion answer for the tree.
(Parallels not very remote can be found in the
Gospels.)
Mr. Gibbon inquired

educed a shoal of
It is
for
further details as to
of
the custom,
and
references,
many
vol.
noted that Mrs. Bray in
which have been already alluded to. 832 in her book Borders of the
first
Tamar and
mention "
"
Tavy,
879,
placing
bits
290, was apparently the of toast on the branches **.

i.,
p.
to
A writer in
Notes and Queries

:
for
1851
(1st series,
iv.,
p.
309) later in the evening a cake was were dipped in the cider and eaten deposited on a fork of the tree and cider thrown over it, etc."
speaks of a preliminary feasting, at
which hot wheat
flour cakes
We come next
Pinchard
[of
to a very important communication, taken
from the
Transactions of the
Devon
Association,
vol.
viii.,
p. 49.
"Miss
hoisted
up
a
into the tree,
Tor, Torquay] in 1 876 says that and seated on a branch.

'
little
boy
was
He was
'
to represent
torn-tit,
and
sit
there crying
Tit,
tit,
more
to eat
on which some
of the
1
bread and cheese and cider was handed up to him."
See British Mus. Coins, Caria, ri., 7. Professor Elliot Smith draws my attention to a statement in Gubernatis, " Pres de Messine et lorsque le Mythologie des Plantes (i., 5, n. 1); Christ est ressuscite, les paysans qui ont des arbres steriles, ront pour les
2
couper un compagnon qui est toujours present intercede en faveur des arbres qu'on laisse vivre dans 1'espoir que le Christ resuscite les a fecondes ".
;
46

Mr. A. P. Chope, who draws
attention to this feature,
makes the
parallel with the Japanese custom described above and says acutely " the boy is evidently the personification of the spirit of the applethat and the libations and offerings are intended to propitiate the spirit tree,
coming year. The firing of guns be intended to frighten away the evil spirits of blight and may possibly disease but, as this seems to be a recent addition to the custom, its
in order to obtain a
good crop
in the
object
is
more
likely to
emphasise the shouting."
What
the writer did not see
was
that there
was another
personi-
fication of the tree looking
out upon
us, just
as the
out from the oak-tree over the shoulder of Zeus.

torn-tit
!
woodpecker looks This time it is a

sacrifice of
The
suggestion arises that there

still
was an annual
an
apple-tree bird, just as there

of a
survives an annual ceremonial slaughter
woodpecker
in the
the boy
eats the sacramental

is
The account in which Carpathian mountains. bread and drinks the sacramental cider on
behalf of the tree

firing of
guns was
Mr. Chope saw clearly that the very suggestive. but here he drifted into rationalism, not suspectlate,
weapons
of attacking the tree-
ing that the guns had replaced earlier

spirit
We might
whether
note that,
if
the trees are actually fired at or beaten,

it is
in their
own
bodies or in their personifications,

it is
just as cor-
rect to speak of the ritual as intimidation as
to call
it
bribery.
Mr. Chope's communication brought out one from Mr. P. F. S. Amery, showing that the custom was common in the Ashburton disAll the down to the fifties, and continued for some time later. The old men spoke of it as having been usual in their younger days. last occasion in which I took part was on 5 January, 1887, when a party of young men proceeded to our orchard and vigorously saluted
trict
"
the trees with volleys from shotted guns, accompanied

ing, shouting the old
by
cider drink-
charm
Here's to thee, old apple
tree, etc."
Then
In
follows some
more unnecessary
guns
in
rationalism as to the possible

etc.
good
effect of the firing of
detaching insects from the bark,

vol.
iil,
Devon Notes and Queries,

writes that the trees are
p.
56,
Mr. H. C.
at different
Adams
places.
charmed
in
in different
ways
"
I
never saw
it
done
Devonshire, but in
lived in Somersetshire, in
the parish of
my early days I about four miles Winchcombe,
over the border from Devonshire, and the custom was regularly kept
ORIGIN
up
there,

it is still,
47
cere-
and
believe
:
and
have often seen
it,
and the
mony was
"
as follows
On
the evening (query, on the eve) of Twelfth

circle
Day
;
a number of
people formed a
round one of the apple-trees
some old
tin kettles,
or any tin tray or other thing
some had guns, that would make a
loud noise
when
struck with a poker or fire-shovel.
Then
the leader
:
of the party sang a song of
which
can only remember one verse
There was an old man, And he had an old cow,
And how
And
keep her he didn't know how built up a barn To keep this cow warm, a little more cider would do us no harm.
to
:
So he
A
The
'
little
Harm, my boys, harm Harm, my boys, harm more cider would do us no harm.
! !
guns were
fired
and
tea-kettles
and trays banged, and then all
stooped down, and raising themselves up three times shouted, Now, now, now : hats full, caps full, three bushel bags full, and a little heap under the stairs please God send a good crop,' and then
; 4
Now, now, now,'
again,
and more
gun-firing
and
kettle-banging, after
which the cider
was passed round and another verse was sung with the
this.
same ceremony '." There are some archaic touches about

three times
The
people stooping
and
lifting
themselves up,
represent the
lifting
and carrying
sympathetic magic to of heavily laden bags of apples. It

is
bit of
seems to be a part of the primitive

three bushel bags in the chant,
In this account
ritual,
and
to
be connected with the
which
is
we
have found elsewhere.
the gun-firing
that
is
clearly a case of
making as much
replaced arrows.
I
noise as possible
shown by
the accompaniment, but this idea
need not be regarded as archaic.

Note.
note the "
of
*
The
guns
may have
is
As Miss
Pinchard's communication
:
so important,
print in a
full text
as follows
Blessing of Apple-trees.
'
A few years ago, hearing that the ceremony
blessing the apple-trees had been celebrated a night or two before in an orchard close to my house, in the parish of Tormohun, I sent for one of the party who had been officially engaged in the affair to tell me all particulars
concerning "
it.
He
told
me
that, after
owner
of the orchard, they all,
partaking of a good supper provided by the men, women, and children, proceeded to the
48
orchard, carrying with them a supply of bread, cheese, and cider. They then, all being assembled under one of the best apple-trees, hoisted a little He, it seems, was to represent a boy up and seated him on a branch.
more to eat Tit, tit on which some crying out of the bread and cheese and cider was handed up to him. He still sitting in the tree, the whole party stood round, each being provided with a little cup, which was forthwith filled with cider, and they then sang the following
tom-ttt,
sat there
: ;
;
and
'
toast:
Here's to thee, good apple-tree, bear and blow, apples enow, This year, next year, and the year
To
after too
And
"
Hatsful, capsful, three-bushel bagsful, pay the farmer well.

all
fired a salute to the trees, making as the pistols, guns, or other old firearms they could collect ; or, failing such, with explosions of gunpowder placed in holes bored in pieces of wood, accompanying the salute with loud cheering and
They
then drank
round and
all
much
noise as possible with
then firing into the branches of the trees. " They then again stood round, and, after another cup of cider, sang
To your And joy
wassail,
and my
wassail,
;
be
to our jolly wassail
which concluded the ceremony. This is done in dead of winter and in some cases, buckets of cider with roasted apples floating in them are carried out, and the apple-trees pelted with the apples ; but I am not sure whether he said this was done on the occasion of which I write."
;
Here
is
one more account which has reached
me
from an old
newspaper cutting, describing the custom of wassailing. It is valuable, because it contains a new method of making the apple-tree drink its
own
cider.
the liquid,
This time, the branches of the tree are actually dipped in There is no doubt instead of pouring it out over the root.
that the tree drinks.
Evidence on that point
is
cumulative and
final.
"
Quaint
New
Year Customs.
"Wassailing ihe orchard.
A
be
New
Year custom
in
the cider
'
After serenading the farmer, the rustics make a cheerful counties. noise* in the orchard, dipping a branch of each apple-tree into a jar
of cider,
and exhorting them
to
fruitful
during the coming season.
"
It is in
the cider-producing counties in the

that
West of England, Devon,

of the
Gloucester, Somerset, and Hereford

of old-time
*
one
most picturesque
is
New
Year customs
and
still
it is
survives.
The ceremony
to ensure a
first
called
wassailing the orchard,'
supposed
good crop of
serenade the
apples for the ensuing season.
body
of villagers
ORIGIN

come
:
49
farmer whose apple-trees they have

verses in length, of
to bless with a song several
which the
first is
all
Wassail, wassail,
over the town,

:
The cup is white and the ale is brown Our bowl is made of the good maple-tree,
And
For
so
it's
is
the beer of the best of barlie.
And
"
jolly
your wassail, and our wassail, come to our merry wassail.
Having been
refreshed, the wassailers proceed to the orchard

trees,
and
surround various chosen

tongs,
making a
'
'
cheerful noise
with pokers,
and any piece
of metal that
may
be at hand.
There they dip
a branch of each tree in a large jar of cider which has been brought for the purpose, and afterwards place a little salt and some crumbs in the
angle formed by the tree in the lowest bough.
This ceremony
is
ac-
companied by the singing of

l
Cadbury tree I am come to wassail thee, To bear and to blow,

Apples enow,
Hatfuls, capfuls,
and three cornered

!
sackfuls,
Hollo, boys,
Ho
This quaint custom is rendered by the full strength of the company. carried out both on New Year's Eve and New Year's Night, and in
some
districts
on Old Twelfth Night
also."
The
trees
study of the folk-lore of the
custom of wassailing the apple-
has involved frequent repetitions, and some of the writers quoted

It
it
are not independent of one another.

references as
was
necessary to collect as
many
one
were
accessible,
because
often
happens
in the pursuit of
lost
custom of antiquity that one fragment of the
rite is
found
in
place and another fragment in another, so that

collection of the fragments that
we
it is only by a careful can restore the original mosaic, so as
to
make
intelligible history.
For example,
in the
preceding inquiry,
fertility
we
found
little
more
at the
first
search than a charm for
which
appeared
not until
the tree
in the
guise of a
communion
service,
with some traces of

:
violence offered to the tree which
was the
centre of the rite
and
it
was
we
and pretending
unearthed the Torquay custom of sending a boy up into that the boy was a bird, that we had the
parallel personification to the

1
woodpecker as Zeus
in the oak-tree.
Query, the charm as performed
in the village of
Cadbury.
50
If

the object of putting the bird-boy into the tree the tree for ritual purposes,
ritual
is
it is
is
the personifica-
tion of
also clear
:
from what has preentitled
ceded that the
a charm for
fertility
and we are
to
make
For example, the parallels with similar cults in other quarters. practice of the Huzuls in the Carpathian mountains is to ceremonially Is there any trace of kill and eat the sacred woodpecker once a year.
a similar sacrifice of the apple-bird
tit
Did they
kill
and
eat the
tom-
in
recall
As soon as we state the question, we primitive Devonshire ? the curious custom of killing the wren on St. Stephen's to mind
still
Day, which
elsewhere.
prevails in the Isle of
Man,
in Ireland, in
France, and
It is
wren.
The
a natural supposition that the torn-tit may really be a custom of killing the wren has been carefully studied by
a number of investigators, notably by Sir J. G. Frazer in the second volume of the Spirits of the Corn and the Wild (p. 3 9).
1
We
learn that in the Isle of
Man
on Christmas Eve the wren

"
is
hunted
and
to
carried in procession with quaint rhymes.
Boys went from door
door with a wren suspended by the legs in the centre of two hoops, which crossed each other at right angles and were decorated with evergreens and ribbons."
On
is
St.
Stephen's Day,
26 December,
"
the
wren
was
buried, but
it
is
significantly reported that
the bearers say certain

".
lines in
which reference
made
to boiling
rite,
and eating the bird

is
No
doubt
this
was
the earlier form of the
before the practice of bury-
ing the bird.

close.
The
coincidence with the woodpecker cult
here very
The
all birds
Irish sing
:
a song over the wren describing him as the

wren, the wren, the
King of
The
St.
King of all
birds,
:
Stephen's
Day was
caught in the furze
Although he is little his family's great, I pray you, good landlady, give us a treat
France the ceremonies of King Wren are practised on Twelfth Day, which brings it very close to the In one district in France the person wassailing time of the apple-trees.
Elsewhere
in
South Wales and
in
wren becomes himself the King, is decorated with mock " fastened on the top of a royalty, and the wren is carried before him is adorned with a verdant wreath of olive, of oak, and pole which
who
finds the
The transition known as a torn-tit.
is
quite easy
in Norfolk, for instance, the p. 35.
wren
is
actually
Swainson, Folk-Lore of Birds,
ORIGIN

grown on an oak
".
51
the
sometimes of mistletoe
Here we have
second degree of personification which answers to the Devonshire boy
who
is
the torn-tit.
Suppose then we replace the torn-tit by the wren, and agree that the cult involves an actual sacrifice can we see any further through the mists of antiquity and into the beliefs of the past ? Perhaps we
;
can get a step or two further.

It is
natural to suspect that

it
if
the
wren has been replaced by the

:
torn-tit,
has
itself
is
replaced the robin

the mate
of the
for according to
;
popular tradi-
tion
the
:
robin
wren
according
to the
popular
rhyme
The robin and the wren Are God's cock and hen.
This takes us at once into the region of known thunder-birds, who There is, however, are sacred on account of their colour symbolism.
another reason which can be adduced for the displacement
:
it
will
:
be
remembered
that
what we are studying
is
a charm for
fertility
now
:
in such charms, the
cause the
agriculture
woman
is
:
female has the right of way against the male beis the fertile element in humanity, and in that sense
necessarily of the
if
woman.
That
is
why the wren

girl
;
replaces
repre-
the robin
sentative
but
this
be
so,
we
should expect that the

but a
human
would be not a boy

this consideration,
in the tree,
or at least, that
the sacrificial representative of the tree should be a
girl
by preference.
to a feminine
Apart from
ing,
is
the tree
itself,
considered as fruit-bear-
commonly regarded
as feminine,
find
which leads again
personification.
Do we
?
any
trace of
such a choice, or of an
alternative
custom
The
evidence which
we have
some
so far collected does not help us to
answer the question, and the only modern custom that suggests something of the kind
is
that, in
parts of the south of France, there

of a district as to
is
a rivalry between the
men and women

wren
for the
which
of
if
them
there
shall capture the

is
Twelfth
Day
ceremonies.
But
from France, when

find
1
no evidence from Devonshire, and no conclusive evidence we turn to Greek Archaeology, we can readily what we are in search of.
but
The wren is called the King of Birds in the ceremonies for his slaughter, am informed that in some parts of the Isle of Man, it is known as the Queen of Birds, which expresses its feminine nature, and connects it, as
I
above, with the robin, as the original
King
of Birds.
52

Up
to the present point in the discussion,
we
have not drawn
at
all
on
classical parallels,
being content to restore from modern practice
and
tradition the apple-cult
with
sacrifice.
Let us
now
see
if
we we
its boy-and-bird personification and can find Greek illustrations of charms
for fertility involving the placing of a
girl
in
the branches of the tree

illustrations
that
is
to
be
fertilised.
If
can find such
they will be
a just parallel to our apple-boy.

to search
for,
The
tree in question,
it
which
we
are
need not be an apple-tree, but
should be, one would

is
naturally suppose, a fruit-tree, for otherwise there

in its fertilisation.
no
special object
Those who are

a superb
series of
familiar with
Greek numismatics know
that there
is
Cretan
of
coins, chiefly of the city of Gortyna,
which
have on one side
them a female
figure seated in the branches of a
tree, variously described as
Europa or Britomartis.
The maiden
is
visited or at all events
the eagle of
Zeus
accompanied, by a bird, variously recognised as (i.e., Zeus in the form of an eagle), or some much
PLATE
smaller bird (which
II
PLATE
III
may be
setting
the eagle again, on the hypothesis that
Zeus made
himself small to avoid scaring the
maiden
!).
Mr. A. B.
Cook
life
points out,
by
some
of these coins in series, that the conis
junction of the bird
and the maiden

1
and
leaf of the tree.
Here
are
5),
two
accompanied by a bursting into of such coins, one from the
British
lection.
Museum
I
(Crete, PI.
X.
the other from the Maclean Col-
All that
the
that
am
concerned with at
this point, is that

is
the presence of
fertility,
girl in the tree
accompanied by the bird
a charm for
and
we have
: 1
before us the exact parallel to the Devonshire boy and

or
if it is
the torn-tit
not quite exact, the variation, may, perhaps,
lie
He thinks it is a pollard willow, which is something like transplanting Cambridge into Crete. According to Theophrastus it was a plane-tree, a statement which appears to hare had wide currency.
ORIGIN

boy
is
53
in the fact that the
sacrificed,
is
and the
girl,
perhaps, ceremonially
married.
The end
let
in either case
the same, the securing of the next
year's crop or harvest.
Now
us go a
little
further
and
see
if
we we
can find the boy
in
the
tree as well as the girl.
Among
a god, or
the coins of Phaestos in Crete
find representations of
a tree-spirit equivalent to a god, seated in a tree and The figure is commonly described as Zeus holding in his hand a cock.
at least
Felcanos, the latter
name
being inscribed across the coin.
Here, then,
PLATE IV
we
tree-form.
;
have the same conjunction of bird-form and human-form with the The tree is evidently the same leafless tree as in the Gortyna coins like these coins too (it is a point to be noted), the tree has a
strongly defined hollow,
In
which may be an
original
woodpecker-hole.
any
case, the tree
is
hollow.
coins with those of Gortyna,
Comparing the Phaestos

in
we
see that
each case
we have
tree-spirit
posing for
fertility
in the
branches
The under the twofold representation of bird and human being. Phaestos-figure is called Zeus, on the faith of a gloss of Hesychius that
Felcanos
is
Zeus,
of gods and men. if it is Svoronos describes him as follows : " Zeus Felchanos represent 2 comme jeune komme nu, assis a gauche sur un arbre, posant la main droite sur un coq, debout a gauche sur ses genoux, s'appuyant
Zeus among the Cretans. Zeus, and certainly not the father
of
name
It
is
a very young
de
la
gauche sur
1'arbre."
is
The
any
as
boy-Zeus, as
to the Devonshire lad

coins of
find
may now call him, who is both tree and

I
the proper Greek parallel

If
torn-tit.
there
had been
we
1
Torquay, they would have shown the same kind 2 in the coins of Gortyna and Phaestos.
of features
We
The
give a reproduction of the British
Museum Coin
to the
(Crete, PI.
XV,
is
10).
-
reference which
is
was made above
hollow in the tree
imla
portant, for the hollow
clearly conventional
and stands
for something.
54

As
a result of our investigations
the
killing of the
we
are
now
entitled to restore the
ritual
of
wren
to connection with
the ritual of the
wassailing of the apple-tree.
The wren
is
missing in the
They are parts of the same ceremony. Devonshire ceremony, because the bird has
been replaced by a boy (or perhaps a girl). The crossed hoops, however, in which the body of the wren is suspended, we have seen to be
a part of the ritual of wassailing among the Wiltshire rustics and a cow-horn which is blown by a lad in the Sussex orchards was an especial feature of the ceremony of killing the wren in Manxland.
;
1
The
charms
is
parallelism
is
of the corn-field,
between the apple-cults, the oak-cult, and the cult now seen to be very close. In each case we have
addressed to the
spirit
for fertility,
(corn-spirit, tree-spirit) that
involved.
Thus we have a
series of personifications
Oak-tree or Thunder. Woodpecker or Thunder-bird (probably killed and eaten at an annual ceremony). Zeus or Thunder-god (perhaps preceded by an intermediate stage of The latter, perhaps, the Cretan Europa.) oak-boy or oak-girl.
For the
corn-field,
we
have the
corn-spirit as
Last sheaf in the

times eaten.
field
Corn-dolly or corn-animal (wolf,
cat,
pig,
man)
sacrificed
and some-
Corn-mother or Corn-maid.
(Demeter and Persephone.)
For the
apple-cult,
which
is
clearly related to the oak-cult,
we have
at
Apple-tree (containing Sky-god through mistletoe). Apple-bird (Robin, Wren, Tom-tit), probably killed and eaten annual ceremony.
an
Apple-boy or Apple-girl. Apple-god (Apollo, Balder, or some

It
similar identification).
has been suggested above that the killing of the wren was a preliminary to the eating of the wren ; that is, that the bird really
its
ently this central spot
forms an incuse square with a well-defined central spot. Apparonce stood for the head of a bird see plate 23 of Svoronos. 1 " The custom of wassailing is still Britton, Beauties of Wilts, 1825
later
:
AR
and having obtained a cheese-bowl, decorate it with two intersecting hoops, covered with ribands, In Train's History of the Isle of Man, we are told that in 1842 etc."
continued.
A party of men assemble in the evening,

boys engaged
in hunting the
no
the
less than four sets of
wren were observed
in
town
of Douglas, each
parly blowing a horn.
ORIGIN

the tree-spirit.
is is
55
In
in
was eaten sacramentally as the representative of Manxland the wren is buried, but the song which
evidence for another land of sepulchre. in Train's History of the Isle of
sung over
it is
This song
given as follows
Man
(vol. iL, p. 141,
1845)
THE HUNTING OF THE WREN.

We'll We'll We'll We'll
away away away away

will
to the
to the
to to
woods, woods, the woods, the woods,
Robin the Bobbin Richard the Robbin. says says Jackey the Land
says
: :
What
we do
says every one. there ? says Robin the Bobbin,
Repeat as before.
We'll hunt the wren,
says, etc.
Where
In
is
he,
where
is
he
? says, etc.
yonder green bush, says, etc. How can we get him down, says,
sticks
etc.
and with stones, says, etc. He's down, he's down, says, etc. How can we get him home ? says, etc.
We'll hire a
With
Whose
Johnny
cart, says, etc. hire ? says, etc. Bil Pel's says, etc.
cart shall
we
How
With
He's
How
In the
we get him in, says, etc. iron bars, says, etc. at home, he's at home, says, etc.
can
will
we get him
boiled ? says, etc.
brewery pan, says, etc. we get him eaten ? says, etc. With knives and with forks, says, etc.
How
will
Who's to dine at the feast ? says, etc. The king and the queen, says, etc. The pluck for the poor, says, etc.
The legs for the lame, says, etc. The bones for the dogs, says, etc.
He's eaten, he's eaten,
says, etc.
The
music of the wren-song
is
given in Barrow's
Mona
Melodies,
in the
killed.
1820.
For our present purpose, the important point is the survival song of the tradition that the wren should be eaten as well as
It is
as well to record the existence of a musical element in the cereof the
mony, over and above the noise
cow-horn.
CHAPTER
III.
PERSONIFICATION OF THE APPLE-TREE (Continued).
WE
ways
may perhaps
infer
from the occurrence of the two different
of disposing of the bird,
lore, that
the burying of
which are suggested by Manx Folkthe wren has replaced the eating of the wren.
Folk-songs appear to be in evidence for both forms of the cult. For, example, there is a song, which is still sung by children in the
London, which tells of an old woman who killed a robin, and then planted an apple-tree over its grave. This may very well
East
End
of
be another
way
of saying that the robin

1
as apple-bird
was buried
at
the roots of the apple-tree.

1
The
song, as far as
can gather,
is
is
to the following effect
Old Robin
!
Hum Ha
!
dead and gone to his grave, gone to his grave,

! !
They planted an apple-tree over his head, Hum Ha over his head.
The
apples were ripe and ready to drop, Hum Ha ready to drop. There came an old woman a-picking them up, Ha picking them up.
!
Hum
Old Robin
!
got
up and gave her a knock,

!
Hum Ha
Which made
!
the old
!
Hum Ha
It
gave her a knock, woman go hipperty-hop,
hipperty-hop.
who
people of the North Country to know that the Robin buried and comes to life again in the folk-songs of the Blast End of London, is represented on the coat of arms of the City and the University of
will interest the
is
Look, for example, at the University shield, which is supposed to Glasgow. represent the miraculous deeds and virtues of St. Kenhgern alias St. Mungo the early British saint. have no space to show that St. Mungo is one of
We
the great and glorious company of Twin Saints, but a glance at the shield will show the thunder-bird, as robin, perched on the top of the thunder-tree (in
56
ORIGIN

is
57
We
Manx
to
ought not to ignore another feature which

:
suggested by the
song, viz.
the presence of the
King and the Queen, who are
evidence not merely for the eating of the but also for the participation in the ceremony of a Twelfthapple-bird,
eat
the bird.
This
is
Night King and Queen, whose ceremonial union

for fertility.
is
an added charm
if
Some
have
its
such charm was almost inevitable,
sympathetic
magic
there
is is
to
proper place in the ceremony.
In the Isle of
is
Man
and
an
evidence enough that Twelfth Night
Eve
a time of general
first
license,
which may
easily
have been
religious in the
instance,
perhaps confined to a single pair, who, like sented the union of the sky-god and the
account
reprint,
Zeus and Europa, Here tree-spirit.

1731
:
repreis
from
1865,
Waldron's Isle of
p.
Man
(A.D.
Manx.
Soc.
49) :is
"
Christmas
ushered in with a form
much
less
meaning and
infinitely
more
fatiguing (than the

all
May-day
festival).
On
24 Decem-
ber,
towards evening,
the servants in general have a holiday, they
go not to bed all night, but ramble about till the bells ring in all the Churches, which is at 12 o'clock prayers being over, they go to hunt the wren, and having found one of these poor birds they kill her, and
:
lay her on a bier with the utmost solemnity, bringing her to the Parish
Church, and burying her with a whimsical kind of solemnity, singing

dirges over her in the
Manx
language, which they call her knell, after

is
which Christmas
begins.
There
not a barn unoccupied the whole

;
twelve days, every parish hiring fiddlers at the public charge
and
all
the youth, nay, sometimes people well advanced in years, making no At this time, there never scruple to be among the nocturnal dancers.
fails
some work being made

;
for
Kirk Jarmyns (the

girls
St.
German's
prison)
so
many young
have
fellows
and
meeting
in these diversions,
etc. etc."
As we
A.D.,
is
said, the license of the
youth
in the eighteenth
century
not exactly parallel to that which prevailed in the eighteenth

B.C.,
century
when
oak)
;
religion, as well as passion,
prompted the expression
this case, the
shall tind that the robin
In by the saint. rubesca (sc. rubecula) dicitur. Thus the raising to life of the robin is quae There is much more to be a companion legend to the hunting of the wren. said on the folk-lore of the Glasgow seal and the University coat of arms.
and when we turn to the legends of St. Kentigern, we had been killed, and miraculously raised to life again the Aberdeen Breviary it is described as quaedam avicula
58
of
life in

acts that might affect the prosperity of the
It
whole
of the en-
suing year.
would be a mistake
ourselves,
to think of primitive people as vastly
and as belonging to a time when there " " if there was no aren't no ten commandments decalogue, there was a of taboos which preceded the ten. After all, the ten commyriologue
more wicked than
mandments
If
are a
mere abbreviation
of
supposed
duties.
we
are right in regarding the Devonshire boy
up the apple-tree
as a fertility
demon
parallel to the
Cretan Europa or Felcanos, the
apple-boy being the key to the understanding of the Cretan oak-boy
and
oak-girl,
we may now
take a further step with the assistance of the
Cretan coinage. have examined the coins of Gortyna and of Phaestos, and have seen the way in which these cities have represented
the tree-spirit,
in
girl
We
or
boy as the case may
be.
There
is
another city
Crete not yet identified, which struck a similar series of coins, the place of the tree-spirit being now occupied by Apollo himself.
The
coin to which
we draw
attention
is
in
the Hunter Collection at
Glasgow, and is figured in Percy Gardner's Types of Greek Coins, PL IX, Nos. 15 and 16. The following is the description in
G.
Catalogue of Greek Coins in the Hunterian Collection, Glasgow, 1901, ii., 200, PL XLIII, 7.
Macdonald,
PLATE
Uncertain (Town) of Crete.

Silver.
Fourth Century
B.C.
/Eginetic standard Stater.
Obverse.
Reverse
Apollo, seated r. head facing, amid the branches of a laurel he holds
;
Male
r.
figure,
naked
to waist, seated
;
amid branches
of a tree
r.,
he sup-
ports himself with
large wreath in
If
while he holds extended 1.

that the tree
that the
lyre in
I.,
and plektron
in
r.
we assume
reverse,
on the obverse
in
is
identified with the tree
on the
and
god
the tree
is
the same on both sides,
ORIGIN
then

call
59
we
have to
the god Apollo,
and the
tree a bay-tree.
Analogy
with the coins of Gortyna and Phaestos suggests that he is in the tree as a part of a cult for fertility. The difficult point is to determine what
possible object there could
tree displaced
lief
:
be
in
fertilising
?
a bay-tree.
is
Has
the bay-
some
earlier
in
form
There
much
to favour this be-
we
have shown
the Lecture on Apollo in the book called
The Ascent of Olympus, that at Delphi, where Apollo has his own way with regard to trees and the like, the laurel was not primitive, for,
as
Ovid pointed out
in describing the fight of
Apollo with the python,
nondum
laurus erat
and Apollo found his victor's wreath in a neighbouring oak. This should be the very wreath which he is holding on one side of the coin.
We are
type of
is
now
very near to finding Apollo as an oak-boy, of the
Zeus Felcanos.
The
next step from the oak to the apple-tree,
a missing link in numismatic identification.
We
can find coins refind
presenting the god holding the apple,
and we can
the sacred
apple-tree at Delphi, but the evidence lacks completeness, and

leave the case in the following form
:
we
must
Apollo
let
in
Crete
in the fourth
century
B.C.,
was a
tree-boy, the tree being a bay-tree, with a possible

1
earlier form,
not yet identified.

if
Now
us leave a blank at this

let
point for further evidence,

return to the Isle of
such should be forthcoming, and
us
Man.
across in the
The
next thing
we come
Manx
ceremony
is
a comdirects
bination of music
and mantic,
in the person of the fiddler
who
the dance.
He
young men and maidens Waldron :"
proceeds to tell the fortune of the coming year to the This is described as follows by assembled.
the fiddler lays his head in
On
Twelfth
laps,
Day
some one
of the
wenches'
maid,
and a
third
person asks
who
such a maid, or such a

;
shall
marry, naming the
girls there present one after another
to
which he answers according to
his
own whim,
or agreeable to the
intimacies he has taken note of during the time of merriment.
But
;
whatever he says
and
if
is
as absolutely depended on as
an
oracle
other,
1
he happens to couple two people who have an aversion to each tears and vexation succeed the mirth. This they call cutting off
is
There
some evidence
that at
Olympia
also the primitive prize
was
an apple.
60

this,
the fiddler s head, for after
he
is
dead
for the
whole
year.
This
custom
still
continues in every parish."

is
The
force.
foregoing account
very
striking,
it is
almost unbelievable that
the ill-assorted unions suggested by the fiddler should
have oracular
of the
What
and the
force they possess has certainly

fiddler
come down out

and be a
it
past,
figure.
must have
religious
sanction
religious
The
is
oracle appears as the
Luck of the Year;

fertility for
is
congru-
ous with the charms that determine

fiddler
the fruit-tree.
The
a primitive Apollo, with a fiddle in place of a lyre, not a wide

;
variation in music
and the suggestion
arises that
Apollo was
head
is
originally
oracular at a particular time of the year,

quiescent.
and
that at other times he
was
The
girl in
whose
lap the fiddler lays his
the proto-
type of the
Pythian priestess
who
gives the responses for the god.
Those who have read the study of Apollo in the Ascent of Olympus will recall the place which the apple takes in Greek Folklore
is
;
in this connection, the story of

is
Hermochares and Ktesulla which
there quoted,
very edifying.
The
apple which
Hermochares
that
is
throws to the dancing maiden has an oracle inscribed on it to the effect " This Ktesulla will marry an Athenian named Hermochares ".
just
the sort of thing which the

It is
Manx
"
fiddler
would have
said
upon
occasion.
a reply to the question,
Whom will Ktesulla marry ?

!
"
Alas
that such
an
interesting
custom should have disappeared
Apollo from his shrine Can no more divine.
We have to
get our answers in another

:
way.
force,
The
girls
give the re-
sponses themselves
they have oracular
For
if
And
Traces
of
if
she will, she will, you may depend on't, she won't, she won't, and there's the end
on't.
the same practice of divination

the Ardennes, the
is
may be
Sunday
noted at the
Frazer
Lent,
:
Lenten
fires
in the district of
and elsewhere.
in
has described
these
fires,
kindled on
109).
first
in
Balder the Beautiful^,

1
Here
a striking passage
The
oracular element survives in the old-fashioned
game
of
"
in
"
forfeits
at
Christmas time,
lap,
when
a person
is
blindfolded, or hides his
head
some one's
type
One as a preliminary to guessing the answers of certain questions. is, Here is a thing, a very pretty thing, and who is the owner of this
"
The punishments for wrong answers have often an oracular " about them, such as Bite an inch off the poker ". ambiguity
pretty thing ?
ORIGIN
"

first
61
Epinal in the Vosges, on the used to be kindled at various places both

of the
At
in
Sunday in Lent, bonfires the town and on the banks

sticks
Moselle.
They
consisted
of
pyramids of
and
faggots,
which had been collected some days earlier by many folks going from When the flames blazed up, the names of various door to door.
couples,
called out,
whether young or old, handsome or ugly, rich or poor, were and the persons thus linked in mock marriage were forced,
it
whether they liked
or
not, to
march arm
in
arm round
the
till
fire
amid the laughter and jests of the crowd. The festivity lasted fire died out, and then the spectators dispersed through the
of
the
streets,
stopping under the windows of the houses and proclaiming the names
had assigned
htfe'chenots and fechenottes or valentines whom the popular voice These couples had to exchange presents to each other.
:
the mock bridegroom gave his mock bride something for her toilet, while she in turn presented him with a cockade of coloured ribbon."
The
serious,
foregoing account
is
parallel in
many ways
to the
Twelfth
Night divination in the Isle of
and the oracular force
is
Man, much
but the ceremonies are not so

diminished.
true of the Hallowe'en divinations, of
which
The same thing is we have the following

of
statement in Frazer : " In the Highlands
of Scotland,
as the evening
Hallowe'en
wore
on, young people gathered in one of the houses and resorted to an almost endless variety of games, or rather, forms of divination, for the purpose of ascertaining the future fate of each member of the com-
Were they to marry or to remain single, was the marriage to pany. take place this year or never, who was to be married first, what sort
of
husband or wife he or she was to
get,
the name, the trade, the

these
colour of the hair, the
amount
of property of the future spouse
were questions that were eagerly canvassed and the answers

furnished never failing entertainment."
to
them
Here
be
also there seems to
be a lack of seriousness which can hardly
primitive.
1
Op.
a'/.,
i.,
234.
CHAPTER
IV.
GANYMEDES AND HEBE.
WE
have shown that
the Devonshire custom of placing a boy in
the branches of an apple-tree as a representative of the tree, and as a

substitute for a previous bird-representative,
is
strictly
parallel to the
development of the oak-cults and thunder-cults, which we were able are now going to show that our to trace in Crete and elsewhere.
We
investigation
of
is
capable of throwing some further
light
on the problems
Greek mythology.
Returning for the moment to the Torquay custom, we see that the apple-sacrament by which the rustics share with the tree the life of the
tree,
has developed a
human
representative,
who
stands for the tree on
the one hand,
and
for the agriculturist

tree.
on the
other,
who
is
operating
with sympathetic magic on the

intermediary,
into a visible act
This representative acts as an

of the tree-spirit
and makes the communion

;
and the people
he eats and drinks the products of the tree with the The cup of people on the one hand, and with the tree on the other. cider which is handed to him is a communion cup and a libation vessel.
He
will give
what he
gets, in part at least, to the tree.
Since the boy is, admittedly, a bird one degree removed, it is evident that if the bird were to be in the tree at the same time as the
boy, then the bird
circle of
would
itself
have to be fed
in
order to
make
the
communion complete.
turn from the apple-tree to the oak-tree,
When we
we
naturally
ask what has become of the meal in which the participation of the
worshipper and
also eat
his cult object
is
accomplished.
Does the
oak-tree
it
and
drink, or does any bird or boy eat and drink with
This brings to our mind one of the perplexing features of the Greek mythology, of which no satisfactory explanation has ever been offered
:
the presence of a pair of cup-bearers, male
Olympian
gods,
named
respectively
62
and female, among the Ganymedes and Hebe. They
ORIGIN
63
are evidently closely related, for Hebe has sometimes the title of Ganymeda, and she stands in relation to Hera, much in the same
light as
Ganymedes
in
to Zeus.
Each
of
them
is
a cup-bearer of the
gods.
Now
Greek
art,
it is
easy to see that

off,
bearer to the eagle that earned him
Ganymedes has been cupbefore he has himself become

find
an adjunct of Olympus. senting the bowl of nectar
We constantly
to the eagle
it
;
him represented as preand away from

the thunder-bird,
is
certainly the eagle stands for

in disguise,
Zeus
in this connection, but

1
is
Zeus
Olympus.
Ganymedes
is
really giving drink to
who
precedes the thunder-man,
and the thunder-bird
the oak-bird.
PLATE VI
We
a
can see
this
expressed in
many ways by
against
of
it.
the Greek
artists,
who
is
will place
an oak-tree
in the field of view,
near to Ganymedes, or in
position
where he can lean up

by the depicting
then, clearly that
is
Sometimes the oak

it,
further specified
acorns upon
and sometimes
Ganymedes
cup.
actually giving the eagle to drink out of
an acorn;
represents the spirit of the tree,
is the oak-tree boy he he propitiates through the bird by the food and drink which he has with him, exactly as the Devonshire apple-boy does. This was the way in which he became cup-
We see,
Ganymedes
whom
bearer to
Zeus
;
thunder-bird
to
he was cup-bearer to the thunder- tree and to the the oak-tree and to the oak-bird.' Thus he is
in being
something
like
Dionysos
of the
diminished, King upon one of the earliest Greek vases, we find him crowned by Hera, Zeus looking on, and Hebe, his female counterpart, standing behind
;
Wood
and
a visible Zeus, a palpable, though that it is as such a little Zeus,
The gem which

52.
is
here represented will be found in Furtwangler,

TO!,
ii.,
;
PI.
LXV,
2
The accompanying plate (Robert
PI.
twice over, and the oak-tree also in duplicate

noted.
II, Fig. 4) shows the eagle the acorn-cup should also be
64
Hera
just
:

the cock, as thunder-bird,
is
in the picture instead of

1
the eagle,
he appears on the Felcanos coins of Phaestos. The only in which there is a want of parallel, is that Ganymedes does direction
as
not actually
Felcanos.
sit
in
is
the branches of a tree, as
do Europa and Zeus
This
is
not a very important omission in view of the fact
that the tree
so often in the representation.
We
take
it,
then, that
Ganymedes and the eagle are practising an annual charm for fertilisation of the oak-tree, and that what is represented on the coins and gems
we have given which we have been describing is a religious ceremony back Greek art to Greek religion, and restored Ganymedes to respect:
ability.
This
is
not
all
that
we
learn from our apple-cult in

It
its
Devonshire
found out
and other related forms.

that food
will
be remembered that
we
is
and drink were given
to the tree, or to the representatives of

itself.
the tree, from the products of the tree
The
tree
medicined
from the food and drink which

being the food
the oak-tree,
its
own
is
nature supplies, apples and cider
and drink
in
question.
When we come
it is
to the case of
we
see that the eagle
actually being supplied with drink,
but what
is
is
the drink in question ?
Evidently
the same drink that
supplied to the
Olympians, the nectar of the gods, which answers
very closely to the Soma that is offered to the Vedic deities. can this drink be in any way connected with the oak-tree, or indeed
How
any drink,
the riddle.
for
we
can hardly suppose that a brew was

directions in
made
of acorns.
There are only two
which
see
any
possibility of solving
The
(cf.
drink must be
made
out of the sacred honey, which
leads at once to the identification of nectar with

ing
some form
of intoxicat-
mead
ptOv and
/xe#vo>)
or else
it is
a drink prepared from
the ivy, ivy being considered as a part of the oak-tree, and related
to
it
as Dionysos to Zeus.
It is
not impossible that the two points of view

just as in
may have been
combined,
the ivy-ale at Ascension-tide in Lincoln College,
Oxford.
1
The
nectar can hardly have been fermented ivy-juice, pure
Hackl says of the Munich vase that Hera (?) holds a crown over the If that be correct it is perhaps a crown of oak- leaves, head of Ganymedes. Mr. A. B. Cook objects that and Ganymedes is the King of the Wood. " a black-figured vase of this early date would certainly represent a wreath
as a black circle
thinks that Hera is holding a plate of apples or more over Ganymedes' head. probably pomegranates
".
He
t-t
a
a
z.
ORIGIN
and simple
for
;

it
65
:
yet
can hardly have been without the presence of ivy

it,
Hebe who
administers
her cult centres,
and
at Phlios in particular,
appears to have worn an ivy-crown at which is her chief place of

of
ivy-cutting,
worship, there
was an annual ceremony
which must
surely be related to the Cult of
Hebe
herself.
Thus
the suggestion arises that in the composition of the original
Soma-drink, which makes and maintains the immortality of the Aryan Its combination with honey-mead gods, ivy had a prominent place.
will explain all the references
which have hitherto been brought forward
to prove that
that
it
Soma was
a honey-drink.
We
is
was, primarily, the juice of a plant. From the description in the Vedas, it
The
know from the Vedas plant was the ivy. easy to infer that Soma
;
that it grew on the plant, a mountain plant, with long tendrils rocks and apparently also on trees that it was crushed between stones,
;
was a
strained through a wool-strainer,

refer
was yellow
in
colour (which
may
either to the juice or to
the berries of the plant, and would

intoxiin
answer very well to some kinds of ivy), and that it became an cant and was as such personified and took its place by Indra
the
Vedic pantheon. For the supposition
that the
Soma-drink was composite
in character,
we may refer to Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, who " Soma was mixed with mead that the term madhu
: .
remarks that
.
is
"
especially
applied to the Soma-juice
(p.
humaf].
honey,'
The
latter expression
105) seems to have meant

:
that
"
the juice
is
'
homed (mad-
sweetened with
some passages pointing

question as follows
to the
admixture."
He
sums up
If
the
Soma
it
"
The
belief in
an intoxicating divine
beverage, the
so,
home
of
which was heaven, may be Indo-European.
to earth from
must have been regarded as a kind of honey-mead, brought down its guardian demon by an eagle, the Soma-bringing eagle
Zeus, and with the
of
of Indra agreeing with the nectar-bringing eagle of
eagle which as a metamorphosis
Odhin
carried off the
mead.
This
Madhu,
or honey-mead,
if
Iranian period by
Soma
but
Indo-European, was replaced in the Indomay have survived into the Vedic period
" "
(p.
is
1 1
by amalgamating with
"
Soma
Soma
4).
of the
the
way of saying that the juice Soma plant was sweetened with honey, in some fermented form. The equation between Soma and nectar appears to be established The latest explanation philological interpretations are more obscure.
;
Amalgamation with
another
66
of

neitar explains
it
in terms of the immortality
which
'
it
confers, as
"
death-destroyer, from the

1
two
roots VZK (as in VCKVS, veKpos, Lat.

'
necem), and a stem which underlies the Greek " wear out
M.
reCpta
to rub,'
to
It
stands,
therefore, not for the products out of
which
it
it is
made
(honey, ivy, or both), but for the intoxicating quality which
possesses.
just
For the Devonshire wassailers

equivalent of
suppose that cider
would be a
Soma.
title
Another
sense
then,
1
of
Soma
"
is
amrta," which conveys
exactly the
and very nearly the form
of the
Greek a/x^Soorvs.
with nectar.
Philologically,
we
are entitled to equate
Soma
See Boisacq, Diet. Etym. de la langue Grecque (Paris, 1913), followof Prellwitz, Etym. Wort. d. Griech. Sprache ing closely on the track 1915), equates the meaning of "nectar" with that of "Am(Gottingen,
brosia ".
CHAPTER
V.
THE NAME OF THE APPLE-GOD.
WE
have shown that there was a tendency towards personification

ritual
in the
of the apple-orchard
it
was, indeed,
difficult
to resist
such a tendency
conduct, or
when one had to ask questions of a tree as to its future when one had to share with a tree its life-blood, and apply
life
that life-blood to the
of the tree
itself.
We pointed out
that in the
was in the first place through a bird (male or female) that was a denizen of the tree, and, in the next case, through a boy or girl substituted for the bird, or thought of in
case of the apple-tree, the personification
connection with
it.
Amongst such
and
laurel
or,
tree-boys
and
tree-girls for repre-
sentatives of oak, apple,
we were
able to recognise by
name
Europa,
according to some,
Britomartis.
Ganymedes and Hebe, and

Apollo.
The
first
three
were oak-boys and
oak-girls
laurel-boy or bay-boy, with a probability that
was behind the form which we

admitted to be incomplete, but
certainly
discovered.
it
the last appeared as a an oak-boy or apple-boy The Cretan evidence was

;
was important
in
as far as
it
went.
It
disclosed
Apollo as a tree-boy,
Returning
a form not unlike the

of
Devonshire apple-boy.
now
to the north
Europe,
take up the inquiry as to the meaning of the Balder legend. story of Balder the Beautiful and of his tragic death by an arrow of
mistletoe
is
we The
well known.
He
was the
darling of the northern gods,
and
from
of
the goddess Frigg in particular.
"
She, Frigg,
took an oath
fire
trees,
and water, iron and all metals, stones and earth, and from sicknesses, and from poisons, and from all four-footed beasts,
things,
birds,
this
and creeping
that they
would not hurt Balder.

:
When
amused
was done, Balder was deemed

67
invulnerable
so the gods
68

'
themselves by setting him in their midst, while some shot at him, others hewed at him, and others threw stones at him."
But Frigg had forgotten to include the mistletoe among the posso had not the malicious Loki, who fashioned sible enemies of Balder
:
an arrow out of mistletoe, and showed the blind god Holdr how to aim it at Balder. So Balder died by the mistletoe, and there was
much
wailing of gods and goddesses on his account. " Upon the whole story Frazer remarks that whatever
historical kernel
may be
thought of an
underlying a mythical husk in the legend

it
of Balder, the details of the story suggest that
belongs to a class of
myths which have been dramatised in ritual, or to put it otherwise, which have been performed as magical ceremonies for the sake of producing those natural effects which they describe in figurative language ".* Frazer thinks that Balder is the personification of a mistletoe-bearing oak,
of
and
that
he was burned
at
midsummer, perhaps
in
the form
an actual
sacrifice.
We suggest that the mistletoe-bearing oak be changed to a mistletoebearing apple-tree, and that midwinter be substituted for
midsummer
in
as
the time of the sacrifice of the tree-boy.
The
curse of Frigg will then
be a description of the spells which are said over the apple-tree such form as the following
:
some
No fire touch thee No water drown thee No iron come near thee No blight affect thee No beast beset thee
: :
:
Good
apple-tree.
The gods
will then represent the rustics attacking the tree
with
sticks
and stones which are not meant

or apple-boy with sticks
life
to hurt
it,
and stones
that are
and attacking the apple-bird meant to hurt, so that the
of the personified tree

itself.
may be
given for the annual reinforcement
of the tree
Another reason why we say

and the
personified apple-tree
is
that
Balder
is
the Northern Apollo
that his
name
abal,"
invited the supposition.
We have shown (in the Ry lands Library Lecture on " Apollo ") that the
word
"
apple," in
1
its
primitive form
"
had the accent on the

i.,
Frazer,
Balder the Beautiful,

105.
101.
,i.,
ORIGIN
second syllable
;

when
suffixes
69
were attached
to the
word, the forward
accent released the
initial
Now
the
name
Apuldre," closely related to Appledore," place-name in the form which are the forms Apfalter, Affalter, Affolter, in the Middle High Dutch. Upon these names I remarked as follows in the Rylands
" Cult of Artemis ": Lecture on the " It has occurred to me that perhaps the
'
" bal ". vowel, and left the syllable " " is found in early charters as a for apple-tree " "
'
'
apel-dur,'
apel-dre,*
and
appeldore,' which
Balder (and of
have been considering may be the origin of Paltar of Grimm's hypothesis), in view of the occurrence
mentioned above
in the
we
of the corresponding forms

If,
Middle High Dutch.
for instance, the original accent in

syllable, then
it
on the second
to lose
would be easy
its initial
vowel, and
in
apple (abal) is, as stated above, for a primitive apdl-dur that case we should not be very far from
originally
the form Balder, which
would mean the apple-tree

is
and
nothing more."
According to these suggestions Balder

Balder
is
the apple-boy, because
apple-tree.
It
is
interesting to see
whether the beautiful
Northern god has

in this country.
mark on the place-names or personal names For instance, there is a personal name Baldrewood
left his
(an English novelist) and another Balderston, but these are clearly Balderwood, for instance, occurs place-names used to denote persons.
in the
New
Forest.
On
the other hand, Balderson appears to be a
real personal
shire
in
name, corresponding to the Greek Apollonides. In Yorkhave Baldersby as a place-name, certainly Scandinavian, and The Greek parallel would be Apollonia. Lancashire, Balderstone.
we
In Cheshire
and Notts
we have
I
Balderton.
There
is
another near
or Bolders
Wrexham
in the
It is
in
North Wales.
do not know any Balders
Midlands.
possible that the arrow-struck apple-tree spirit has
in
been per-
later
petuated than Twelfth
the Christian St. Sebastian,
whose
festival is
is
Day
(ii)
shower
of arrows,
this
to beating
(Epiphany), and whose death with clubs.

examination.
a fortnight due, (i) to a
But
requires closer
Was
not
the
tomb
of
Sebastian found in the

It
Catacomb
if
of St. Calixtus ?
are correct in interpreting Balder as the apple-tree, and the oath taken by Frigg as the spells for the good
will be asked whether,
1
we
P. 64.
70

and the beating
of
luck of the apple-tree,
Balder with
sticks
and stones
as a part of the rustic ritual,
ought Balder story, where his wife Nanna insists on accompanying him to the lower world. According to the Edda, when Balder's body was
placed upon the funeral pile upon his ship, his wife
of grief,
It is
we
to omit
the pathetic part of the
Nanna saw
Nanna
is
it,
died
and was
laid
on the same funeral
pile as her husband.
not an unnatural question as to whether
merely a
lay-figure in
the mythology, or whether she also has to be interpreted.
The
only directions in which an interpretation seems possible are (I)
that the sacrifice of Balder the tree-boy has been
accompanied not only
by a mystical marriage with the view

the tree-girl as well as the tree-boy
;
of fertility, but
by a
sacrifice of
(2) that a pair of trees might
have been associated together, and thought of as married, in which case the rites for fertilising the first would naturally apply to the second.
The two points of view suggested are not necessarily The marriage of trees is still practised in India
:
exclusive.
let
us see
what
is
said
on
"
this curious
custom.
(or
The aswatta
pipat)
tree
is
consecrated to Vishnu, or rather

.
it is
is
Vishnu himself under the form of a tree. solemnly married. Generally a vepu or margosa
Sometimes
is
it
tree
selected for
its
spouse, and occasionally a plantain or banana tree. same formalities are observed for this curious marriage as
Almost the
in
the case of
a marriage between Brahmins.
Here and
there on the high roads and
elsewhere the aswatta and vepu trees may be seen planted side by side on little mounds. This union is not an accidental one, but the
result of
an actual marriage ceremony. Not thirty yards from the modest hut where these pages were written were two of these trees, under whose shade I have often reclined. Their trunks were so closely entwined that they had become incorporated one with another. The inhabitants of the village could remember to have seen them planted
together
at the
some
fifty
years before,
and
said that they
wedding
festivities,
which
]
lasted several
had been present days, and were cele-
brated at the expense of a wealthy person of the neighbourhood at a cost of more than 500 rupees."
1
There
marriage.
1
is,
then, nothing impossible in the idea of an actual tree-
The
explanation of this quaint belief
may
lie
in
various
Dubois and Beauchamp, Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies
(3rd ed., p. 653).
ORIGIN
directions
;
71
it
would be
quite natural in the case of a pair of trees of
the
same
species,
one of which was male and the other female (as the
:
wild fig-tree and the fruit-bearing fig-tree)

the union
but
how
are
we
to explain
it
where the
trees are diverse ?
The
was
suggestion arises that
may be due to the use of a pair of might be made from the same tree,
different trees, a
tree.
fire-sticks,
male and female, which

often the case, from
relatively
softer
or, as
two
hard-wood male
tree
and a
female
In
some such way,

at.
then, the idea of the tree-marriage might

practice certainly assists the im-
have been arrived

agination
in
The Hindu
It
finding a place for
Nanna
the Faithful by the side of
Balder the Beautiful.
also helps us,
by
in
its
identification
of
the
aswatta
tree with
Vishnu, to understand better the personifications of
the tree-spirit which
we
have come across
Western
folk-lore
and
mythology.
APPENDIX.
SlNCE
"
writing the preceding essay
I
have received the following
in-
teresting
communication from a South Devonian "

the apple-trees
who
has
actually
wassailed
Mr. P. G. Bond,
of
Plymouth (a mem-
ber of the
Plymouth
Institution),
who
also reminds
of cutting the
me
"
of the preof the
valence in his youthful days of the custom

harvest
for the
;
neck"
of this corn-ritual there
is
much more
surviving evidence than
"
wassailing" of the apples.
His reminiscence may very well
be added to the general folk-lore
tradition.
WASSAILING THE APPLE-TREE.

BY
P. G.
BOND.
M.R.C.V.S.,
PLYMOUTH.
remains of
this local
What was no
doubt the
last flickering
custom
of
confined to the cider
district
of the
South Hams,
in the
County
Devon, came under my

years ago.
I
notice in or about the year
1860,
fifty-eight
may be
said to
have taken part
in
it,
although
did not
anything about the custom, its origin, its significance, or its At the time I was eight years old. The scene was procedure. an old farm called Henacres Farm, an off- farm of Rack Park either at
know mode of
Farm
miller,
I
in the
occupation of
my aunt,
I
near
Washbrook Mill
in the parish
of Dodbrooke, or at the mill.
had as schoolfellow a son
of the
Stephen Cole.
very frequently spent the Saturday at the mill with him and his family, returning home about 4 o'clock in the afternoon.
it was entered by a apple orchard adjoined the mill The gate from the main road, and also by a gate from the mill yard. 2 to 15 feet in from the roadway gate. best apple-tree stood about
The
mill
Another apple orchard was

the
in connection
it
with Henacres Farm, and

called
the best and most prolific tree on
was one bearing the apple
"Royal Red Streak".

72
ORIGIN
On
I

it
73
this
occasion
am
not in doubt.
callers,
was Christmas Eve not Twelfth Eve, of that On Christmas Eve there would be usually a
;
good many
customers of the miller, and friends of the house
The
they called to give the compliments of the season and receive them. drink offered was warmed cider in which were placed baked
apples.
The
deficiency of fruit.
cake offered was a good currant cake, there was no The health of the household was drunk, and the
health of the apple-trees.
Words
"
fulls,
I
said to
have been used

to the
Here's a health
pocket
fulls,
good apple-tree, may
we
all
have cap
sack fulls," or words to that effect.

;
do not remember them myself the cider cup was passed around I do not remember to all and sundry with the cake. any gun being this was a Somersetshire custom, not usually fired off at the tree
;
done
in
Devon.
"
The
wassailing died out and did not maintain

".
:
its
hold as did the

In a note
I
crying of the neck
made some years ago, I find as follows "I heard the Knack cried in 1865 at Dudbrooke Hills on Cranch's ground, part of Aunt Bond's farm, it was cried by a man
called William
'
Hodge who repeated the following words We've ploughed and we've sowed, we've reaped and we've
: '
mowed.
Neck.'
walked slowly round a sheaf of corn. the last sheaf of wheat cut on the farm
This was said three times, and those looking on The knack was called over
for that harvest.
William Hodge was foreman and horsekeeper at Rack Park Farm, the Home Farm, and at Dodbrooke Henacres Farm. Cranch's ground where the "neck" was cried was an off-part
of the farm.
Hodge was
I
the arch priest of the folk-lore.
In looking back so long to pick
begin to think
I
heard more of
this
up the memory of the past, I old custom and wassailing than

I
saw
of
I
tain.
have not any note in connection with it, so have heard of it, though, from many a source.
it.
I
am
uncerfather
My
was born
1754,
father in
in
1806,
my
grandfather
in
1
1774,
my
great-grandfather in
my great-great-grandfather in
1
730,
my
great-great-great-grand-
697,
all
on farms
all
old custom has been passed on.

fifty-five years.
I
were farmers, and the account of the I have not heard of it during the past
regret very
much
the passing
away
of the old
folk-lore
and
74

On
a winter's evening to
sit
legends of the past.
around the old
and drinking warm cider in the fitful light of the burning wood, and where the conversation became general, dulness did not take hold of the company, and tradition was passed on
hearth-fire eating apples
as in the old Icelandic Sagas.
How
charms
can
we
resuscitate
?
English country
life
with
all
its
old
fast
disappearing
also
Mr. Bond
ably from
quoted.
draws
my
attention to the following passage in

that
it
Hawkins' History of Kingsbridge, 1819, and shows
is
prob-
Hawkins
that
Lysons obtained the tradition which
we have
Hawkins,
"
loc. cit.
pp. 71,
72
custom of great antiquity prevails in these districts for the ciderist, on Twelfth Eve, attended by his workmen with a large can or pitcher of cider, guns charged with powder, etc., etc., to repair to
the orchard, and there at the foot of one of the best bearing appletrees drink
the following toast three times repeated, discharging the

:
firearms in conclusion
Here's to thee,
Old
apple-tree,
Whence
And And whence
thou mayst bud, whence thou mayst blow,

thou mayst bear
!
Apples enow, Hats full
Caps
full
Bushel bushel sacks
full
And my
4
pockets
!
full,
too
Huzza
The
pitcher being emptied, they return to the house, the doors
of
which they are certain to find bolted by the females, who, be the weather what it may, are inexorable to all entreaties to open them till
some one has divined what

thought
of,
is
is
on the
spit
which
is
generally a rarity not
and,
if
edible,
the reward of him
who
first
names
it.
The
roast
party are then admitted,

is
and the lucky wight who guessed
at the
recompensed with
it."
NORSE MYTH
IN
ENGLISH POETRY.*
BY H. HERFORD, M.A., Lirr.D., PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER.
I.
Tale
teller,
who
Had
With
That
heart to turn about

faint half
and snow and show smile things great and small

twixt
fire
in thy fearful
land did
fall,
Thou and
That thing
thy brethren sure did gain

for
which
long in vain,
The
spell,
Was
whereby the mist of fear melted, and your ears might hear
Earth's voices as they are indeed.
W. MORRIS,
Prefixed to his Translation of the Eyrbyggia Saga.
wrote William Morris,
in
SO
theme.
one of the
finest
sagas of the
the preface to his English version of "

fearful land ".
And
his
words
may
serve as a clue to guide us to the heart of our present

felt
For no other English poet has Norse myth none has done so much to
;
so keenly the
its
power
of
restore
terrible beauty, its
heroism,
its
pathos, to
I
earth-shaking humour, and its heights of tragic passion and a place in our memories, and a home in our hearts.
;
say to restore
for
it
will not
be
in truth
new
gift,
but in some
sort the recovery of

stories
which
we
call
The mythic a vanished and forgotten possession. Norse were in great part a common heritage of
;
the Germanic peoples

told the other day,
and the
tale of the
Volsungs, which Morris
had been sung twelve
or thirteen
before in the old English epic of

*
Beowulf^
in
hundred years But between the day

Rylands Library on
Based upon a lecture delivered

1918.
75
the John
13 March,
76

these tales
when
were
last
chanted at English
feasts,
perhaps on the
first
eve of the Conquest, and that on which they were

again by English antiquaries,
lie
fully
six
centuries
deciphered during most of
are like kindred parted in which they were utterly unknown. as perfect strangers, in advanced age. The infancy to meet again,
We
whole Scandinavian world passed, during those centuries, for almost Our faces all literary and even cultural purposes, beyond our ken.
were turned the other way,
to
France, to Italy
and the
vast arc of
northern lands sweeping from
Denmark
to Iceland,
beyond the broad
No spaces of estranging sea, lay in every sense beyond our horizon. one dreamed that a poetry and a prose, unsurpassed in their kind in
Europe, had grown up
island.
in
the lonely fastness of the great Atlantic
A single
its
northern legend did, indeed, towards the end of the

into our literature,
period, find
way
and with such
effect that
Denin the
mark and Elsinore became

permanent culture
points of dazzling brilliance
and import
of the world."
Hamlet
story stands absolutely alone
But the triumphant intrusion of the and even this solitary though
;
glorious waif of Scandinavia
came
to
to us with
its
Scandinavian char-
acter overlaid,
if
not obliterated, by alien romance elements which
certainly helped to
the Norse sea-giant
commend it Amloth to
European
taste.
It is
a far cry from
the mediaeval emulator of Livy's Brutus
who
spoke to the Elizabethans through the ambitious Latinity of Saxo,
or the polished French of Belleforest.
But before the beginning

cultural estrangement, there
of these centuries of complete literary
and
was
at least a
lively intercourse
between
the Northern and the English stems.

intimate.
Some
of
it
was
disastrously
The
Vikings
in
who swept away
the lettered and devout cul-
ture of
Northumbria
the ninth century were not persuasive heralds
of the richer
the North.
and stronger but still unshaped cosmos of the poetry of But from the time of Alfred onwards, with the permanEngland by Scandinavians, more
ent settlement of a large tract of
humane
that the
relations diversify their encounters.
The Old
English found
Norsemen could make a song as well as fight, and that those formidable galleys of theirs were sometimes launched, like the bark of
the aged Ulysses, for voyages of exploration not of plunder.
We have
Nansen
made analogous
the
discoveries in our
own
time
and
it is
easier to parallel
Norwegian enthusiasms
of the later nineteenth century in the tenth
than at any intervening date.
Just a thousand years before
NORSE MYTH
came
tion
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
and kindled the
77
as
Norway's ambassador
his
to the English court, another
Norwegian
explorer, Ohthere,
visited Alfred,
king's quick imagina-
with the story of

region of
man
voyage round the North Cape into the Mur3 the White Sea. And one of the most romantic of
and as
stane.
Viking adventurers, Egil Skallagrimsson, equally renowned as warrior singer, became the trusted henchman and warm friend of AthelAfter doing him yeoman's service
4
in field
and counsel, and
re-
ceiving royal rewards, Egil improvised a Norse panegyric (drdpd) in his

praise at the palace board.
fee,
but there
is
no
hint that
Athelstane gave him two gold rings as poet's any English scop who listened to the
Icelander's staves thought of emulating in his
own
tongue their
brief,
weighty rhythm and bold imagery.

English court
that
is
Norse song chanted to the
the nearest recorded approach to a literary

;
and and England before the Conquest more even contact so casual and seemingly fruitless as this, becomes
contact between Scandinavia
and more inconceivable
after
estrangement of England from
The new Northmen completed the the old. The two Germanic civilizations,
it.
so profoundly akin despite their deadly encounter,
drew
definitely apart.
England,
herself
after
a century of tragic and impotent
silence,
awoke
to find
bound
in the
web
its
of continental culture,
emulating strains of
island colony
of their
at
alien
song.
and rudely or childishly While Norway and her great
had been working out undisturbed the splendid promise chaotic and unbridled youth, and creating the great monument
their heroic traditions
once of
and
of their national art, in the
Eddas
and the Sagas.
Iceland has kept even her language almost unchanged

5
to the present day. " "
Undisturbed
of
that
is
at
bottom the clue

it
to this startling inif
equality
literary fortune.
And
has to be borne in mind
we
would appreciate the energy of the impact, when it came, of Norse Unstory upon the imagination of civilized and Romanized Europe.
disturbed, above
Christ,
all,
until the
very close of the
first
1
millennium after
by the powerful solvent of the Christian faith.

certain
'
The
fascinating
Norse myths are transformations of Christian legends, caught up by the Viking marauders in Christian lands, does not affect the truth of this contention. Christianity, even on that
theory of Bugge, that
hypothesis, only enriched the
it,
pagan myth world without

of
disintegrating
last
or lessening
its
power
in the
of resistance.
Scandinavia was the

its
re-
treat of
paganism
West
Europe, and behind
successive
78

and mountain and sea again, the
its
barriers of sea
faith of
Thor and Odin
and Walhalla held
The
further
we
ground against the onsurging tide of Christianity. go north and west, the more freely its primeval tradi-
tions are unfolded
and elaborated
its
stories of
gods and men, of the
beginning of the world and

their
halls.
death
In
its final doom, of the feats of heroes and crowned by an immortality of feasting in Odin's Sweden and Denmark paganism was soonest submerged, and
in battle,
has
left
the fewest and the faintest traces.
Norway,
in
its
deepset
fiords, guarded a rich treasure of lays and sagas.
But the
real capital
of old
Norse
literature,
as of
its
republican statecraft,
the
was
the great
island of fire
and snow
in the far wastes of

its last
North Atlantic, which
might seem destined to be
and
loneliest outpost.
Here, and
in
Norway,
the Christian missionaries
won
their difficult
And even after the conversion, their triumph only after A.D. 1000. or patriotism saved the myth literature from the fate which sagacity almost completely blotted it out elsewhere, and has reduced us in
England
of
to attest
our primitive paganism by a few empty names
Wednesday and Thursday, Wednesbury and Thoresby, and the legend Wayland the Smith, and the pre-Christian core of Beowulf. The result was, in the first place, the great collection of lays known
Older Edda, written partly in Norway in the ninth century, then in Iceland in the tenth and eleventh. They were collected in
as the
the thirteenth, and
first critically
edited at the end of the eighteenth.
of historic occasions.
Secondly, a great mass of songs, still mystic in colouring but arising out In its extant form the Edda consists of some
falling into
thirty-five distinct pieces,
of the gods,
and
stories of
the heroes.
two nearly equal groups few cognate lays
stories
are pre-
sented in certain sagas.
Three only
of these stories
have counted as
creative or even stimulating forces for English poetry.
These are
the story of Balder, the beloved son of Odin, treacherously slain by Loki ( Voluspd, 32, f.) ; (2) the story of Odin's descent to the under-
world to procure
his
reform {Baldrs
draumar)
(3) the great heroic
story of the Volsungs,

its
of Sigurd the Achilles of the
North, and Bryn-
hild, Lady Macbeth, and Gudrun and her vengeance for But several others have powerfully his death (Grippisspd etc.). contributed to mould our impressions of the scope and reach of this
Medea
or
northern poetry
(
notably, in the
first
Volusp<), a sublime
hymn
of the beginning
group, (4) the Sibyl's prophecy and the end of the world,
NORSE MYTH
of
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
;
79
which the story of Balder is only an incident (5) the story of Thor and the giant Skirnir, a huge piece of Aristophanic humour, man makand (6) the great Waking of ing sport of his gods (Thrymskuitha)
;
Angentyr, where Hervor the warrior maid goes to her father's burial mound in the burning island to demand from him the sword which, he
knows, will be ruin to her race {Hervar saga). Further, from the partly historical class, two must be mentioned (7) the death-song of Ragnar
:
Lodbrok, a chieftain of the twelfth century, thrown into a
pit of serpents
(Krakumdl\
From
this
and (8) the song
of the
Norns after the

us
battle of Clontarf
(DarratharljotK).
introductory
summary
let
now
turn
to
watch the
fortunes of these primeval

their mysterious
and rugged strangers from the North, with
and witching beauty, in enlightened and prosperous England, when the youngest of them was already almost half a mil-
lenium old.
II.
For the
first
report of
them concurs with the famous Revolution

sense.
which ushered
in
Dutch William and Whig government, John Locke

of
and the philosophy

Sir
common
in
W.
Temple, the chief agent in the negotiations

Holland, and read
in
with William,
met Scandinavian scholars

in Latin the
a northern chronicle
something, he
death-song of
Ragnar Lodbrok.
Here was
;
thought, fine
it
a text of his Essay,
and heroic among these barbaric peoples and he made "on Heroic Virtue," 1690 much as Sidney,
;
a century before, had confessed how 7 at the rude lay of Chevy-chase.
his heart stirred as
with a trumpet
But erudition
too, at
Oxford
in particular,
had
felt
the sting of the
new
curiosities.
The
old Germanic world, overlaid and almost ob-
literated,
was beginning to be tracked out and pieced together. Junius, the friend of Milton, was the first thoroughly to master Old English, and his fount of types, bequeathed to the Oxford press, were used to
print the
first
first,
Icelandic grammar,
in his great
by George Hickes.
But Hickes was
also the
\
689, to print
and
translate a
Thesaurus of the Northern Languages, Norse poem in English. And fortunately

the
it
was one
in
of the grandest of all
Waking of Angentyr;*
Hervor s
and
1
was widely admired, 763 was included with Ragnar Lodbrok (No. 7) and three
Incantation, as
it is
also called,
80

Five Pieces
But one
better qualified than
1
others by Bishop Percy, the editor of the Religues, in his
of Runic Poetry.
Percy had already
been touching these things to
made
his
noble paraphrases,
finer issues. About 760 Thomas Gray The Descent of Odin and The Fatal
Sisters, the best result of
Norse poetic influence which the whole
Gray knew something of Icelandic, and eighteenth century can show. his verse comes as near as eighteenth century English could to the brief, " " unmuffled In phrasing of the original. pregnant style, the sharp this Norse poetry he found fulfilled an ideal of poetic writing which he
had
all his
life
been
feeling after,
and
it
enabled him to
strike a
new
note in English poetry.
In the
"
Spear Song," the
original of
Gray's
The Fatal Sisters, we hear the Valkyries, the divine maidens of Odin who gather up the slain after battle, sing their weird Fate song before
the battle of Clontarf, where a Norse chief
Irish king.
is
about to
fight
with an
The
ing of a woof,
is
old image for the making of human fate, as a weavwhich the Norse notion of Fate shares with the Greek,
"
here applied with an intense abrupt imaginative power which recalls
the
Book
of Job.
Weave
we, weave we, the
web
"
of spears
is
the recurring refrain.

of the
And
in
one grim powerful stanza the symbolism

fates of
loom
of battle,
where the
men
are wrought,
:
is
thrust
upon
us with remorseless vividness
and
precision of stroke
This
web we
the
And
warp
are weaving of human entrails, is weighted with heads of men
Blood-besprinkled spears be the shafts, Iron-bound the stays, and arrows the shuttles
With swords Such
we'll thrust close this
web
of victory.
'poetry sharply traversed the conventions of

style.
off.
century
further
Abstract phrase and
"
"
English eighteenth
glossy
diction could not be
But Gray contrived to convey more of it into his English It verse than his own antecedents would have seemed to warrant.
fulfilled, clearly,
the half-unconscious bent of his
own
taste, the ideal
of a
sublime or mysterious matter conveyed with

is
Greek
precision.
This
how he
turns
it
See the
grisly texture
grow
('Tis of human entrails made) And the weights that play below
Each a gasping Warrior's head
NORSE MYTH
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
81
Shafts for shuttles, dipt in gore, Shoot the trembling cords along.
Sword that once a Monarch Keep the tissue close and

"
bore,
strong.
Gray could not indeed wholly escape the poetic rhetoric of his day. " Shoot the trembling cords Sword that once a Monarch bore," or
still
along," are
for shuttles
in the vein of this rhetoric.
"
But a phrase
like
"
Shafts
has a
new
ring,
caught from the short emphatic
alliterat-
ing poetry of the
North.
In such phrases, too, though
Gray
possibly
did not
his
he was recovering the manner of the oldest poetry of own country, for Old English and Old Norse verse and phrasing
know
it,
were
built
upon the same
plan.
The other
tragic
piece rendered
yet further into
the heart
of
of
by Gray, the Descent of Odin, takes us Norse mythology. It has more of the
of the battle spirit of the spear song.
poignancy
Hervor than
the northern gods, and the most moving and Odin, fascinating personality among them, has heard that his son, Balder, is doomed to be slain. He resolves to go down to the nether world and
the greatest of
force the buried Sibyl to disclose the secret of his son's fate
and what
con-
should follow.
child that
Here, as in Hervor,
it
is
the father's anxiety for his

intense,
makes the
situation dramatic
and
though
it is
veyed, with the reticence of great

swift thrust
art, solely through the action, the
and parry between the urgent god and the reluctant proAll kinds of without a hint of exclamation or sentiment. phetess,
obstacles beset him.
of
As
he
rides
down towards
come
out,
Niflheim, the
its
hound
in
Hell, the Cerberus of the North,
jaws dabbled
But Odin rides on, the blood, and bays at the greatest of the gods. earth trembling at his tread, to the eastern gate of Hell's mansion,
where the dead

dead,
it
Sibyl's
mound
rises,
lay.
He utters
the spells that

:
wake
"
the
is
until
reluctant she
and her dead body speaks
Who
:
of mortals to
?
me unknown,
that has laid this grievous constraint
on
me
I had lay on me, rain beat on me, dew was shed on me He tells her that he is one Way-wise, a wanderer long been dead." He sees the preparations for a feast. " For whom," (like Ulysses).
Snow
he
"
asks,
"
are these golden seats prepared ?
"
Here
I I
for
Balder,"
:
she answers,
"
the
mead
is
ready.
now
thee
will
I
speak no more."
all
:
"
Unwillingly have
spoken
and
till
know
this further
Speak on, Sibyl I would know Who

! :
will question
will
become the
82

"
slayer of Balder,
and take the

tall
life
of
Odin's son
"
Hoder," she
"
answers,
will
hold the
bough
life
of fate (the mistletoe

of
branch which
he shot
1
at
:
Balder) and take the
Odin's son.
Unwillingly have
spoken
now
will
I
speak no more."
all
:
"Speak
I
on,
Sibyl
:
will
will
question thee
till
know
a child
;
this
further
would know
Who
avenge the death of Balder, and lay his slayer on the funeral pyre ?
"
She
replies that
"
is
his avenge Odin's son he bear to the pyre the slayer of Balder. Unwillingly have I now I will speak no more." She seems to have told him all, spoken " I will but the most wonderful touch remains. Speak on, Sibyl
till
:
!
one day old will hands he will wash not, nor comb his hair,
yet to be born
who when
question thee
till
know
all
this further
would
their
know
Who are the

"
?
maidens
who weep for him, 'Thou art not Way- wise, as

sire.
.
casting
I
up
snoods to heaven
trowed," she burst out, "but thou art

in
Odin, the ancient

for
Ride home, Odin, and glory
thyself
no man again shall hold discourse with me till Loki breaks loose from his bonds, what time the Destroyers come, at the End of the World."
a noble poem. Without surrendering anything of English poetic instinct, as a quite literal version must have done, he has yet, in contact with this new
Gray's version of
this,
as of
the Spear-song,
is
poetry, enlarged the

lines in
which the
:
of English poetic expression. Take the roused unwillingly from her death-sleep, meets Sibyl,
bounds
the intruder
What call unknown, what charms presume To break the quiet of the tomb ? Who thus afflicts my troubled sprite, And drags me from the realms of night ?
Long on
these mould'ring bones hare beat
The The
winter's snow, the
summer
heat,
!
drenching dews, the daring rain Let me, let me sleep again.
is he,
Who
That
with voice unblest,

the
calls
me from
bed
of rest ?
But Gray's Norse studies told also upon his original poetry. Both his two famous Odes, The Progress of Poesy and The Bard, written about 755, betray the growing dominance in his mind of the
1
poetry of the primeval peoples, which
emerging above the horizon
of his generation.
was now from many sources That illustrates the
NORSE MYTH
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
83
complexity of the literary forces which went to emancipate our poetry from the pseudo-classicism of the Augustans, and to shape the great
poetic renascence of the early nineteenth century.
For these very
Odes were
in
form
the result of
an
effort
to recover the bold ima-
ginative closely ordered structure of the Greek lyric Ode. in spite of a certain constitutional timidity and reticence, a Gray was, discoverer and a pioneer of the highest rank not merely because his
;
speech and
instinct for
new and
rare sources of poetic effect
was
exquisitely delito attach the
cate
and
new
aries,
because he understood perfectly to the old, so that it seemed to grow out of it.
sure, but
it is
how
true,
complained that
his inversions,
His contemporthe Odes were obscure, and Johnson
severely blamed
and other departures from prose order. Yet we can easily recognize that these were criticisms natural to a But generation which had forgotten what the language of poetry is.
at the very
moment when Gray was
thus trying to bring the boldness
and splendour, together with the ordered symmetry, of Greek art into English, he had begun to be aware of the treasures of poetry lurking
among
other ancient peoples, less familiar to us, but nearer both geo-
graphically,
in the first
and
in race
the
Welsh and
power
the Scandinavian.
of poetry
Hence,
Ode,
his allusion to the
In climes
beyond the
solar road
Where
But
in
shaggy forms o'er ice-built mountains roam.

is
the second
witness to
creatively.
Ode, The Bard, there the stimulus given by his Norse
more unequivocal studies. It has worked

far
The
is
great
Norse manner
of song, in
which a
story, tragic
and
intense,
not told, but conveyed through the talk of the persons

this
engaged, has helped to fashion
Ode,
in
which almost
all is
told
by
the impassioned prophetic lips of the Bard.
But more than
that, the
very motive of a prophecy delivered has its analogues, as we have seen, both in Hervor and in The Descent of Odin, while the idea of The
Fatal Sisters
invoked
in the
(the Valkyries) weaving the fates of battle,
is
expressly
:
grim refrain
which runs through the Bard's prophecy

and weave the woof.
Weave
It is
the warp,
here the slain Bards
who
are to rise from the
dead and avenge
their country,
and the Bard
sees
them
arise
84

No more weep. They do not sleep. On yonder cliffs, a grisly band
I I
see them
sit,
Avengers
they linger yet, of their native land

join,
With me in dreadful harmony they And weave with bloody hands the
just
tissue of thy line,
" " red woof of slaughter woven the grim Norse notion of the by the terrible battle-maids, the daughters of Odin. " " runic poems appeared in 1 768, and fairly started the Gray's
Norse vogue.
Solid help
was provided,
nearly at the same time, to the
growing host of dilettante admirers and imitators, by the translation in 1770 of Mallet's Introduction to the History of Denmark. Mr.
Farley, of Harvard,
9
has shown that a flood of forgotten translations

It
and adaptations poured from the press during the next fifty years. rang the changes on, especially, the lay of Hervor and Lodbrok
;
less
often on Odin, Thor,

great part of the
10
W.
Herbert.
A Balder, and The Twilight of the Gods. Edda was translated, with solid merit, by the Hon. The fashion ran to seed. The sublimity of Norse
became a standing
found
11
heroics
was
feasts in
danger of toppling over into the ridiculous, and those Valhalla once felt so thrilling, where drink was quaffed in the
in
jest.
skulls of enemies,
Several distinguished
in
men
of
letters,
it
is
true,
their good, incidentally,

in the
Scott puts a song of
Harald Harfager
L. Bowles, a
;
mouth
of
Norse myth. Halcro in The
Pirate.
Landor
verse.
cast
an episode from the Gunnlangs
Saga
into his
marmoreal
W.
Tory clergyman,
to write a
indicted a
to the heathen
; Southey hoped and George Borrow, doughtiest of translators, rendered passably the kindred Danish ballads (1826).
Wodan
"
hymn
Runic song"
III.
But
to create
new and
noble poetry out of the Norse stories
was
reserved for the second half of the nineteenth century, and for three
men,
and line of approach Matthew Robert Buchanan, and William Morris. The first two owed Arnold, little but their material to Norse myth. Arnold, like his Greek, in " the Grande Chartreuse is of his own gods" as he stands thinking " beside the northern strand," and his Balder Dead, though a noble
utterly unlike in genius, temper,
poem,
is
noble in the Homeric, not the Eddie way.
And
if
Arnold
NORSE MYTH
is
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
new
85
antique,
is
Buchanan
is
defiantly modern.
filled
His Balder the Beautiful
(1877)
an old wine-skin
a fervid Scot
suffering
who
wine, the heady vintage of turned the story of Odin's son into an epic of the
with
and
sacrificed Christ,
and
ostentatiously disclaimed indebted-
ness to the vulgar
myths
of the
Edda.
William Morris, on the other

his
hand, was, as
story
we know,
a devoted, even a fanatical, lover of northern
and
of the northern land.
And
own
elemental grandeur
and
simplicity of nature
made him more
instinctively
and
easily at
home
there than either the fastidious Hellenist or the neo-theologian
could ever have become.
field to
Moreover, Morris devoted his most sustained poetic labour in this the story which was at once the most neglected among us, and
its
the most rich and various in

its
tragic intensity, of all the stories of the North, perhaps
scope and movement, the grandest in even of the

is,
world.
And
his
Sigurd the Volsung
when
all
reserves
have been
made, a great and splendid poem, the one adequate presentment to-day in English of the story which Wagner has so magnificently clothed for
the world in the universal language of music.
it is
On
all
these grounds
by far the most significant Norse myths, and it will be not

this discourse.
result in
unfitting that
our poetry of the influence of it should occupy us for the
remainder of
only the kernel or nucleus of the story of the Volsungs, as told in the Edda and in the
story of Sigurd
is,
The
and Brynhiid
it.
strictly,
prose Volsung saga based upon
It is
preceded and followed by

lesser value, the
two
story groups of distinct character

call
and
one
which
we may
the antecedent story
telling his
youth and early
feats
and
the
the career of his father Sigmund, the other
the sequel story
vengeance
for his death.

is
Heroism
the ground tone of
all three.
But the antecedent story
moves among primeval figures, with more of elemental and subhuman forces in them and less of man. There are dwarfs and giants, and you
can change into a beast, or a
daemonic,
less
dragon at will. Sigmund is more daemonic too is his sister Signy, human, than Sigurd
;
who,
a son
child,
fearful
lest
the Volsung race should die out, takes the shape of

seeks out her brother, and, unrecognized, bears
less,
another
;
woman,
him
daemonic, no
at ten
this
son,
Sinfjotli,
a marvellous, uncanny
who
does fabulous
sides.
feats, as
becomes one
who
is
of
Vol-
sung stock on both
86

on the other hand, primeval myth recedes, and When Sigurd has been slain by his are on the borders of history.
In the sequel story,
we
wife's brothers,
Gudrun
marries Attila, the

to his court,
Hun
king of the
fifth
cen-
tury
Attila invites
them
perish in
life.
a great battle
kernel story
;
in his hall, after
and they and all their retinue which Gudrun takes her own
has not only hero-
The
is
of finer stuff than these.
It
not only colossal daring or ruthless revenge, but love ism but tragedy and hate in conflict and in league. It will suffice to recall the crucial
situations
and moments.
There
is
(1) Sigurd's discovery of the Val-
kyrie Brynhild, on the wild mountain top, Hyndfell, where she has been laid asleep by Odin, within a wall of flames which the man who would win her must break through. They plight troth, exchange rings,
and
part.
(2) Sigurd's reception at the court of the Niblung kings on
the Rhine, the magic potion given him by their crafty mother which
obliterates the
memory
of
Brynhild, and his marriage with their

visit
sister
Gudrun.
(3) Sigurd's second
to Brynhild,
still
oblivious of the
past, to help
Gunnar, the eldest of the kings, to win her for his wife.
will not
When
his
Gunnar's horse
face the flames,
Sigurd assumes his
likeness, enters her bower,
and
receives from her, as
Gunnar, the
ring,
fire-
own, which she may not
refuse to the
man who
penetrates her
wall.
Gunnar and Brynhild, and their life, full (4) of sinister presage, side by side with Sigurd and Gudrun, in Gunnar's when (5) The quarrel of the two queens by the river side palace. Brynhild taunts Gudrun with being the wife of Gunnar's serving-man,
marriage of
;
The
and Gudrun
retorts that
it
was
this
serving-man, not Gunnar,

in
who had
re-
crossed the flame-wall,
and won her hand,

lover.
Gunnar's name, and
ceived her ring, and she shows her the ring.

for her betrayal
(6) Brynhild's vengeance

last
by her
first
In
one
:
consummate scene with
her, Sigurd tries all
possible solutions
12
her love will not be tempted
nor her hate appeased.

take his
life.
Then
she compels the unwilling
Gunnar
to
He
is
slain in
Gudrun's arms, and when Gudrun's shriek
is heard, a wild laugh the laugh of a woman who rings out in the court, has triumphed but whose heart is broken ; she plunges the dagger into her breast, and her body and Sigurd's, united at last, are burnt on the
same
pyre.
in
Such,
bald summary,
was
the complex Volsung story
a Ger-
man
legend blended, by steps
we
can only
in part decipher,
with Norse
NORSE MYTH
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
87
And as the kernel was German, so to Germany belong, apart myth. the twelfth from the Eddie lays, its most splendid embodiments in art
:
century Nibelungenlied, the
Ring der Nibelunge

than that the poet of
Sigurd and
relations
;
Nibelungen trilogy of Hebbel, and the Wagner. Of these I must say no more here the Nibelungenlied softens and humanizes the
of
;
mythic and savage elements
ignores in particular the
first
meeting of
Brynhild, thus completely changing the character of their
of
whole with the manners and the atmosphere the feudal and chivalrous age in which he lived. While Wagner,
invests the
and
glorying in
fearlessly
sphere of
Morris.
13
myth as the century of Jakob Grimm had learnt to do, draws gods and demons, dwarfs and dragons into the magic And this, too, was the way of William his music drama.
IV.
Morris's close concern with the North did not begin with his
work
upon Sigurd, but

not his
first
it
love.
was then still comparatively recent. His first poems, of 1858, are steeped
;
Iceland
in
was
French and
and Malory the gracious charm of French cathedrals and chateaux, and of tapestry and metal work, had capNorthern stories tured the artist in him, and they never lost their hold.
Celtic romance, in Froissart
are told,
alongside
Greek or eastern
ones,
;
by the mariners
of
the
Earthly Paradise, eleven years later and these included story of Gudruris Lovers from the Laxdaela saga, where
situation of Sigurd
the great the very
loves
and Brynhild the lover slain by the woman who him, by the hand of her unloved husband reappears, translated
the thirteenth century.
too, Iceland, like
artistry
into terms of the feuds of Icelandic farmers in
But here,
phere of delicate
Greece, shimmers through an atmosand gracious romance. Then came a great,
decisive experience.
In 1871,
two years
three years before Sigurd, he visited Iceland for the notes of this journey vividly reflect the
Earthly Paradise, first time. His it made on deep impression
after the
him
have seen many marvels, he writes, and some terrible pieces of slept in the home field where Bolli [the Gunnar of the Laxcountry
I
;
"
daela story]
was
killed.
...
was
there yesterday,
and from
:
its
door
you
see a great sea of terrible, inky mountains tossing about
there has
88

this
been a most wonderful sunset

1Ja
evening that turned them golden
though."
And how
sons
-
it
transformed his conception of the events and per"
Such a dreadful place," he says of Grettir's lair, that it gave a new turn in my mind to the story, and transfigured Grettir into quite an awful and monstrous being, like one of the early giants of the world."
"
Two
years
later, in
him with a sense
We can
of almost sacramental solemnity ". understand, then, that this experience threw a
"
873, he went again, and the land impressed
new and
in
transforming light upon
the
Volsung
story also,
which already
1870
he had proclaimed to be one of the great stories of the world, destined " was to the Greeks, and to to be to our race what the tale of Troy
those
who came
Troy
is
after,
when
our race has vanished, no
less
than the
tale of
to us ".
But these impressions, powerful as they were, did not and could not sweep away Morris's long and rich experience as a poet and artist
in
many
fields.
He
was
in the
full
maturity of a genius tenacious as
well as receptive, and the old familiar joys were not obliterated because
the
new and
fiercer joys
broke across them.
They were
only
momenfull
tarily put to flight, like birds at the
song again
when
it is
over.
The
coming " Morris who has seen the
of storm, to return
of
fearful
land," and that

is is
"
"
great sea of terrible inky mountains tossing about
there
all
the time and
we
;
never forget him for long.
But
there, too,
Morris the lover of old France, and Morris the weaver of tapestry and experimenter in dye there even, in germ, is Morris the socialist
orator,
by and by,
of a
at
London
Utopia.
street-corners, the great-hearted
herald
and builder
new
Brynhild's wild, flame-girt, mountain
bower
is
of the fearful land of fire

sister's
and snow
but
when
is
she has de-
scended to her
house
in
the dale, her dwelling

in its
some manor:
house of Touraine or Kent, embowered
gardens and orchards
A
The
close
is full
;
builded burg arising amid the leafy trees.

of fruit, the garden of roses
and
lilies
doves
flutter
about the roofs

to the
and
in the soaring
turrets the
casements stand open
summer Gudrun dwell,
breeze.
is
The Niblung
burg, again,
where Gunnar and
a ring of
many
a mediaeval town such as Iceland never knew, with " " towers standing up stark and sharp and cold above
NORSE MYTH
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
89
" dark red and worn, and ancient," and the a grim old girdling wall smoke of many dwellers rising over it.
Morris the art-worker, too, finds or makes

likes to tell us
his opportunities.
He
things
not merely, like your mere literary poet,
what
looked
halls
like,
but
how
they were made.

;
The
is
saga
tells
simply that the
had a golden roof

the door.
Morris, not content, adds that there were
silver nails in
His
furniture
of rare
and
costly materials,
and cunningly wrought. hall, he finds him sitting

mountain gold, and the
When
in
the young Sigurd goes to his uncle's

is
a chair of walrus-tusk, and his robe
of
floor of the hall
ripped with a crystal knob.
sea-green, and his royal staff The forging of Sigurd's sword (" The
Wrath
of Sigurd ")
is
full of
the zest of the metal-worker.
14
We
know, too, that Morris was experimenting with blue dye while engaged he tells us in his letters that he often wrote with blue on the poem
;
hands, and some

poetry.
of the blue seems, in fact, to
have come
off
on to the
The Niblung with her maids to visit When Gudrun goes warriors are blue-clad. on their dark-blue gear, and Brynhild rises to meet Brynhild, they put
Blue
is
the colour of every one's best clothes.
them from a throne covered with dark-blue

sleep
cloth.
And
at night they
on dark-blue
bolsters.
Even
the Valkyrie Brynhild's awesome,
bower, built by Odin on Hyndfell, has been provided by a 15 thoughtful upholsterer with a bed and bolster of blue.
fire-girt
If
Morris the art-worker found
his opportunities,
Morris the
socialist
was,
in
if
not made, certainly nourished and stimulated by
what he saw
in the
Iceland.
The
republican society of
which he read
sagas,
where the
greatest chief might
be met
in his hay-field
tedding his hay,
had already attracted his and problems to the fore

the land of the Volsungs
interest,
and begun
to thrust social questions
in
is
his
mind.
Thus
the curse that
lies
upon
conceived not as a pestilence, or an un-
appeasable blood feud, but simply as the present state of society, the economic system founded on labour and capital, under which we live.
So
that
when
the curse
is
removed,
and they cry, the sun shines now and they shall reap that sow ( P 53).
; !
.
Men's
hearts are fulfilled of joyance
With never
a curse to hide
it,
And when
Niblungs,
Sigurd goes forth
to battle with
his
new
social
kinsfolk the
his
victory will bring in the reign
of
equality
:
the lowly
man
exalted,
and the mighty brought alow
90

summer shall come aback to the land, on the fields of the tiller that fears no heavy hand The sheaf shall be for the plougher, and the loaf for him that sowed. Through every furrowed acre where the son of Sigmund rode.
the sun of
It
And when
shall shine
V.
But
Iceland,
it
was not or worked
as yet the society

creatively
which
chiefly attracted
It
him
in
on
his imagination.
itself, its
was, of course,
tragic intensity,
above
all
the great Volsung story
heroic
and
and
But it was also the scenery, the savage and daemonic horror. " terrible inky mountains" ; and it was, not less, wild tossing of those the grave, melancholy wisdom, penetrated with foreboding and the
its
sense of
doom
in earthly things,
which
rises like
an emanation, from
hours
the
of
lips of this tragic

crisis,
humanity
in the
midst of
this stern nature, at
or in the last encounter with death.
Let us see
first
what
Morris's Iceland looks like
when
his
eye
is
really
on
it.
There
"
is
a desert of dread in the uttermost part of the world,"
is a mighty water hurled, hidden head none knoweth, nor where it meeteth the sea And behind the green arch of the waterfall as it leaps sheer from the The hush of the desert is felt amid the water's roar,
Where Whose
over a wall of mountains
cliff,
And And
the bleak sun lighteth the wave-vault, and tells of the fruitless plain, the showers that nourish nothing, and the summer come in vain.
is
That
the haunt of the dwarf Andvari,
who
guards the fateful

Sigurd
treasure of the Niblungs.

is
And
here
is
Brynhild's Hyndfell.
For days he rides through this desert, longing in vain for the dwellings of man and the joyance of human speech. At one dawn, length,
riding towards
it.
From out of the tangled crag-walls, amidst the cloudland grey Comes up a mighty mountain, and it is as though there burns
A torch amidst of
and
at
its
cloud-wreath.
it
He
rides on,
noon
rise
is
covered with clouds.
Then, as the
day wears, the winds

And,
and
disperse the clouds,
lifted a measureless mass o'er the desert cragwalls high, Cloudless the mountain riseth against the sunset sky And the light that afar was a torch is grown a river of fire,
.
And And
the mountain
is
black above
it,
and below
it
is
dark and dim,

(P- 155).
there
is
the head of Hindfell, as an island in the sun.
NORSE MYTH
But even
desolation
in the
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
Thus hard by
91
southern type of scenery hints of this Icelandic

at
and awe
moments
intrude.
a black pool huge and awful, unfathomable, and lined with burg is " dark sheer crags (p. 339).
"
the Niblung
And when
the
men and women who

life
lived
amid these scenes
and death, it was in a sense which appealed powerfully to Morris, so that he would gladly have made it his own, a kind of intuitive and untaught philosophy, the philosophy of brave men, unconscious of Christianity, untouched by Christian hopes.
uttered their thoughts about
a glorious outcome of the worship of courage these stories are he once wrote after re-reading Njala, the greatest of them. And then,
!
'
What
"
to another correspondent
. .
.
"It
. .
may be
.
that
the world shall worsen

.
and
Evil break loose

die,
and
like
the kings and heroes

.
also the
gods must
think that
who made
that imperfect earth.

;
Somewould
the re-
times
it
we
not be enough that
we must live again we helped to make
yet
if
that
were
not,
this
unnameable glory and
lived not altogether heedless ?

ligion of the
This seems to
me
pretty
much
Northmen."
the temper of the
And
mouth
this is
wisdom
that Morris has put into the
of his
Valkyria
Brynhild, in the great troth-plighting scene
with
wis-
Sigurd on Hyndfell.
He
did not find

is
it
in
his source.
Her
"
dom
"
in the corresponding saga scene
of later origin
wiles of
on the whole a sound prudential morality. women, and drunken brawlers, beware
see that the
and represents She bids him avoid the

of provoking feuds,
and
dead have decent
burial
ideas quite out of keeping with

inspires
the magnificent contempt of
life
which
Sigurd's reply in the
genuine stanza just before, to her warning that their love will
their
mean
doom
be my fate, fly, though death Born I was not to blench All I would have is to love thee only
I
will not
As
long as
my
life shall last.
And
so, in
company with
ease.
Achilles,
but against
bliss
all
the moralists,
he
of
chooses a brief existence of supreme
instead of
many days
common-place
that
And
it is
in the spirit of this choice of Sigurd's his
Morris has framed the wisdom of
own
Brynhild.
In these
lines, for instance,
he has nobly expressed the great thought that heroism

vital
and courage are
to the
life
of the universe
that
they are the
92
sustaining
its fall
:

powers that keep the
fabric of
the world from tottering to
Know thou, most mighty of men, that the Norns shall order all, And yet without thine helping shall no whit of their will befall And the night of the Norns, and their slumber, and the tide when
;
the world
runs back,
And
Of
the
But the day
way of the sun is tangled, it is wrought of the dastard's lack when the fair earth blossoms, and the sun is bright above,
is it
the daring deeds
fashioned and the eager hearts of lore.

(P.
163).
Nor does
She
bids
she warn him, in the
spirit of calls,
Polonius, to keep out of quarrels.

neither repent his action
him
in
act
where need
it
;
and then
nor exult
it,
but abide
and then he
will
be enthroned above
all
the chances of time,
And
look on to-day
and to-morrow as those
that never die.
And how did
How
is
Morris handle these deeds and sufferings themselves ? did he shape and present them as an artist ? Here, too, there
;
no doubt, Iceland had her way with him he story tellers no less than of her makers of story.
to
felt
the spell of her

it
And
was
strong
make him defy very deep-rooted and authoritative canons of enough art. The great tradition of epic poetry would have bidden him concentrate
upon the supreme

is
central phase of the story
the subject of
the Iliad
not the siege of Troy, but an episode in
its last
years
the
action of the
Odyssey covers
six
weeks, that of Paradise Lost, from
the waking in
Hell to the expulsion from Eden, need not be more than a few days. Fastidious poetic artists, like his French contemporaries Leconte
de
poignant moment the waking of Angentyr or the slaying of Hjartan, and carved it in the flawless marble or onyx of their verse. But Morris, like the German
and Sully Prudhomme, had taken a single the death of Sigurd and Brynhild's terrible laugh,
Lisle
poet Hebbel, whose

before ( 1 862),
felt,
Nibelungen
trilogy
had appeared
thirteen years
cycle of lays, the story not of Sigurd
with the old saga writer, the grandeur of the whole only but of the House of the
Volsungs
into his
his
forbears
It
and
his
progeny
like
and he put the whole cycle

a vast piece of tapestry such
poem.
moves before us
as Morris
clared,
may have been weaving
as he
made
it,
for
no poet, he de-
was worth anything who could not make an epic while he wove where everything that belongs to the story is naively put into it,
NORSE MYTH
men and
of
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
human and subhuman,
93
the tragic
gods, trees
and
beasts, the
and grotesque. Every moment and incident has for him its own kind and value, and he accepts and renders it with the same largepower
This did not always tend to propitiate
Arthur, was
Victorian England, for which Tennyson had veiled in
allusion the incestuous birth of
hearted and equable serenity.

his readers.
distant
and awestruck
disconcerted to read at the very outset the primeval loves of
Sigmund
derided
and Signy
retort
told
at
length
and
his
friend
Rossetti angrily
Fafnir's transformation into a
from
"
dragon as
in
"
Topsy
".
Even
Wagner
silly," provoking a drastic the dragon has tried the
patience of the unelect.
VI.
Nevertheless,
the enduring interest

rest
of
Wagner's Niebelungen Ring, must

lyric
power
of the great central scenes.
Sigurd, as of mainly upon the tragic and Here, again and again, the
Morris's
equable flow of Morris's verse becomes close knit and weighty in answer
to the grip of the situation.
When
told that
Brynhild, for instance, coming into

Sigurd, once her betrothed,
restrained passion under the
Gunnar's
hall, as his bride, sees one far surpassing the Niblung brother,
seated beside them,
and
is
it is
she addresses him with a greeting

courtly
full of
words
All grief, sharp scorn, sore longing, stark death in her voice he knew, But gone forth is the doom of the Norns, and what shall he answer
thereto
. . .
And
he
replies,
with anguish no
less resolutely
kept
down
She heard and turned to Gunnar as a queen that seeketh her place, But to Gudrun she gave no greeting, nor beheld the Niblung's face.
Then
the discovery scene, in the river,

in,
where Brynhild suddenly
wading deeper
Gudrun
cries
Why wadest thou so deeps and upper waters, and wilt leave me here below ? Then e'en as one transfigured loud Brynhild cried and said So oft shall it be between us at hall and board and bed E'en so shall the gold cloths lap me, when we sit in Odin's hall,
In the
; ;
. .
.
While thou
shiverest,
little
hidden, by thy lord the Helper's
thrall,
By
the serving
man
of
Gunnar,
who
all his
bidding doth,
94

my mate
waits by the door of the bower, while his master plighteth the troth. is the King of the Kingfolk who rode the Wavering Fire, mocked at the ruddy death to win his heart's desire.
And
But
And
It is well, ye troth-breakers ! there was found a man to ride Thro' the waves of my Flickering Fire to lie by Brynhild's side.
Then no word answered Gudrun
till
she
waded up
the stream
;
And
stretched forth her
hand
to Brynhild,
and thereon was a golden gleam

:
White waxed
And And
"
I
the face of Brynhild as she looked on the glittering thing " " she spake By all thou lovest, whence haddest thou the ring ? " as one who clutches a knife ". she turns on the mocking Gudrun
:
And Gudrun
When
tells
the deadly secret.
had the ring Brynhild, on the night that followed the morn, the semblance of Gunnar left thee in thy golden hall forlorn."
in
For he cloaked him
Gunnar's semblance and
his
shape
in
Gunnar's hid
Thus he wooed
the bride for Gunnar, and for Gunnar rode the fire, he held thy hand for Gunnar, and lay by thy dead desire. have known thee for long, Brynhild, and great is thy renown In this shalt thou joy henceforward, and nought in thy nodding crown.
And
We
Now
is Brynhild wan as the dead, and she openeth her mouth But no word cometh outward.
. .
to speak,
Then
ing gloom,
for
follows the long, bitter brooding of Brynhild in ever deepen-
where Sigurd seeks her out, and begs her love despite the bonds which bind them both elsewhere. Like
great scene
and the
the sun-god he shines

looks eagerly to
upon her despair, radiant with the temper the future and will not succumb to the past
:
that
Awake,
arise,
Brynhild
for the
house
is
smitten thro'
of
With
But
the light of the sun awakened,
and the hope
deeds
to do.
all
hope
is
fled
from her.
And she cried "I may live no longer, for the gods have forgotten the earth, And my heart is the forge of sorrow, and my life is a wasting dearth."
:
Then once
pillar of light all
again spoke Sigurd, once only and no more golden he stood on the sunlit floor
;
And And
his
eyes were the eyes of Odin, and his face was the hope of the world,
:
" he cried I am Sigurd the Volsung, and belike the tales shall be true, That no hand on the earth may hinder what my hand would fashion and dp
NORSE MYTH
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
will
I
95
live, live,
Brynhild beloved
and thee on the earth
wed,
the Nibling, and all those shall be as the dead." put (But his breast so swelled within him that the breastplate over it burst,) And he saw the eyes of Brynhild, and turned from the word she spake
:
And
away Gudrun
" / will not
wed thee,
Sigurd, nor any
man
alive"
A great
she
is
line, terrible in its
naked
simplicity, preluding the ruin
which
about to bring upon them both.
Then,
is
after the
death of
her
Sigurd, Brynhild's
victim,
is
own
end.
Her vengeance
over
Sigurd,
now
to
be her bridegroom and she

Cleopatra, in her
his bride.
She arrays
herself, like the
more
last
is
wan
royal robes, dying then thrusts the blade into her breast, and delivers her
:
and her face no
charge to Gunnar helplessly standing by

"
I
pray thee a prayer, the

'
last
word
in the
world
speak,
That ye bear me
And
forth to Sigurd, and the hand my hand the blade that frighted death,* lay his sword, Betwixt side and Sigurd's as it lay that while agone,
would
seek.
my
When
once
in
one bed together
we
twain were laid alone
How How How

Clash
then then then

to
on the heels of Sigurd, as

cry
I
when the flames flare upward may I be left behind ? may the road he wendeth be hard for my feet to find ? in the gates of Valhall may the door of the gleaming ring "
I
follow on
my
in
king ?
With
"
that magnificent "

I
of
triumph
death,
like
Cleopatra's
Husband,
Morris's
come
close.
Sigurd can
literature.
hardly be counted
facile
among
the supreme
poems
of
troubadour eloquence of the born romancer was too deeply engrained in him to admit, save at rare
English
If we are to moments, the rigour and the economy of great style. compare the style of Sigurd with that of any of the great epics of the world, it is plainly not with the subtle and compressed manner, or the
The
high-wrought harmonies of Vergil or Milton, that

easy, spontaneous flow.
recall the simpler
we
must place
its
it
Nor, save
for its
spontaneous flow, does
art of
a flawless clarity of
Homer. outline and a
The
simplicity of
Homer
fits
goes with
limpid speech which

its
the meaning.
for
What,
poetry
(
1
then, has
Norse myth and

:
influence
meant
English
?
It
Two
to
1
things
brought to the cognizance of our eighteenth century poets, 760, with all their brilliant accomplishment in oratorical, expository, and satiric verse, knew neither how to sing a song nor to tell a story, a new and noble poetry of which song and story were the
)
who up
%
vital

breath and blood.
just
Percy's Reliques were

:
still
to come,
and
Burns was but
born
only the greatest of the old ballads and of
Burns' songs can match the finest Eddie lays in power, or in exemption The nineteenth century had learnt, from the vicious diction of the age. long before William Morris, to sing
;
but
its
mastery of story
in verse,
on a grand
are great in
scale,
was
still
faltering
and
uncertain.
Tennyson, Byron,,
single scenes,
whole.
Morris,
when
all
episodes, idylls, but cannot shape a larger deductions have been made, has left us the
nearest approach to great epic
made
in
our time.
(2)
The Norse
influence brought into a society fastidiously refined,
or sordidly gross, or good-humouredly prosaic, the tonic spectacle of a
humanity which was
where
far off.
colossal things
some indefinable way, great, simple, heroic, were dared and suffered, and the gods were never
in
And
if
our
own
age
is
rich with the intellectual spoils

it
more complex, more experienced, more and the spiritual treasures of the world,
has learned to see only the more clearly and comprehensively, this elemental poetry, where Life, and Death, and Love, the eternal themes
of all poetry, are thought of in so great
beauty,
there,
is
the beauty begotten of a

so superbly
"
and simple a way, and where fearful land," and only possible
wrung from
fear.
NOTES.
It (p. 75) Beowulf, 885 f. that the scene of the recital of the
1
is
unimportant for the present purpose
land
the story
was
in
Volsung song, is laid in a Scandinavian The any case made his own by an Anglian poet.
;
story of
well known to have Scandinavian analogues but the evidence does not justify us in reckoning it the first (and one of the greatest) examples of Scandinavian literary influence by assigning it to a Scandinavian
Beowulf
itself is
source.
The Volsung story as told in Beowulf differs from other versions in making Sigmund, not Sigurd his son, slay the dragon, and win deathless glory
thereby.
story.
1
But
Mullenhoff peremptorily dismisses this as a perversion of the original it has to be remembered that it emerges centuries earlier than
is
any other
(p.
version.
76) This
consistent with the occasional quotation of a story from

in
Saxo.
Thus Nashe
Piers Pennilesse
tells
story of the two friends Asmundus and Asuitus, buried in the other's grave, and is found, some
from this source the gruesome one of whom insists on being
days after, mutilated by the a mixture of romance and horror quite in the Elizabethan vein. 3 (p. 77) Inserted by Alfred into his translation of Orosius's History of the World, reproduced in Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader III, and elsewhere.
corpse
;
NORSE MYTH
4
IN
ENGLISH POETRY
c.
;
97
Norse
(p.
77) Egils saga Skallagrimssoner,
55.
Much
other
but it was intended for poetry was, of course, composed on English soil The Scandinavian kings of the tenth and Norse, not for English, ears. eleventh centuries all had fighting singers in their train some of them invaded
;
England, and had

there.
their battles, or their death, thus
commemorated then and
Thus Thjodolf Arnorsson sang the battle of Stamford Bridge (1066), of his master, King Harald, after fighting in it himself. Egil Skallagrimsson's own most famous poem, Hofudlausn (Corp. Poet, Bor., I, It is needless 266), was composed in a York prison, as the price of his life.
and the death
here to notice the contention of Vigfiisson that a great part of the Norse poetic literature was actually composed in these islands. He stood practically alone
in this
b
view.
(p.
77) Egil Skallagrimsson, who praised Athelstane, could have understood without great difficulty the praise of Shakespeare written two years ago, in the same measure, by the veteran Icelandic poet Matthias Jochumsson,
It arrived too late to for the Book of Shakespeare Homage. appear there and was separately published ( Ultima Thule Sendeth Greetings : Univ. of Oxford Press, 1916). 6a (p. 79) Though often translated and always admired, the Waking has Leconte de Lisle rendered it finely inspired no notable poetry in English. in LEpte cfAngentyr (Poemes Barbares], notice of it is subjoined in
Appendix
8
I.
(p.
77) Sophus Bugge, Studies on the Origin of the Scandinavian
Stories of Gods and Heroes, Christiania, 1881-9. The Heroic Poems in the Older Edda, ibid., 1896. The latter is translated by W. H. Schofield
is
of the Eddie Poems, London, 1899). good brief discussion H. Gering, Die Edda, Introd. given by 7 Middle Ages (p. 79) W. P. Ker, The Literary Influence of the (Camb. Lit. History, Vol. X, Chapter X), to which this section is otherwise
(The
Home
indebted.
(p. 81) It is interesting to remember that when Gray's lay was published 768, it was read by a clergyman in the Orkneys to the peasants there. After a few lines they said they knew it in Norse and had often sung it to
1
in
him when he asked them

9
(p.
10
(p.
to recite an old song. Scott, Pirate, XV. 84) Harvard Studies, Vol. IX, 1903. 84) Select Icelandic Poetry, 804. Byron notices him
\
in the
English Bards
Herbert
shall
wield Thor's hammer, and sometimes
In gratitude thou'lt praise his

11
rugged rhymes.
(p. 84) It " of skulls being

2
" crooked boughs curious misunderstanding, a poetic periphrasis for drinking horns. merely
was based on a
(p. 86) Of this scene, as known to us through the prose of the saga, Andrew Lang wrote (Homer and the Epic, p. 396, quoted by Professor Ker, The Dark Ages, p. 282) " Homer has no such scene, no such ideas. The
:
Brunhild's heart, her scene with Sigurd, where he ranges mastery choice before them, to live as friends, to live as lovers, her through every disdainful rejection of friendship, her northern pride of purity, his anguish,
of love in
98
is
her determination to stay and follow him ... all this is mere perfection, all on the loftiest level of Shakespeare, and has no parallel in Greek or Roman
poetry." This and several other crucial scenes, are known to us unfortunately only from the prose paraphrase, the corresponding verse having belonged to the
lost leaves of the great
3
(p.
13a
" The Wrath of Sigurd," 89) The forging of this sword, called with the famous Homeric making of the shield of Achilles suggests comparison Morris's love of showing how things are done and made, his insight into All the famous writers of epic arts and crafts, is in fact a Homeric trait were men of letters whose only artistry before him, Virgil, Tasso, Milton
14
(p.
of the story see Appendix 87) 88) Journals of Travel in Iceland, 1871.
On
the
Edda MS. German development
II.
(p.
was
verse
Morris alone was craftsman as well as poet.
It is
true that the
motive of Morris's forging scene is not only, like Homer's, the craftsman's " Master of the Masters in the smithyart; Regin, the Northern Vulcan, is
ing craft," but he is also cunning with all the cunning of the dwarf race, and does his best to cheat the boy of the sword he has promised him so when it is tried on the anvil it shivers into fragments. The scene is thus tense with
:
drama
but
we
feel the craftsman's instinct in the vivid rendering of that fierce

:
exposure of the fraud
Sigurd bids Regin try the finished weapon

shrank, so bright his eyes outshone and smote the sword thereon
Then Regin trembled and
As As
he turned about
fell
to the anvil,
But the shards
shivering earthward, and Sigurd's heart grew wroth " the steel flakes tinkled about him : Lo, there the right hand's troth
"
!
There is a closer parallel to the Homeric shield with its inwrought basreliefs of Greek life, in the description of Brynhild's weaving (Morris's special craft)
of a golden
web, with
tell
all
not forget to
5
us that the
And he does the feats of Sigurd wrought in it weaver of the glittering gold is seated on cloths
man
;
of dark-blue (p. 186).

(p.
89) Blue
is
for
it
was derived from
frequent in the early art of artistry not archaeology.
but Morris's turn
APPENDIX
THE WAKING OF ANGENTYR.

The
Waking of Angentyr
distinctly the savage grandeur greatness, as in concentrated
is one of the pieces which reflect most and the volcanic terrors of Iceland. In poetic
power of style, it surpasses anything in Old Hervor, daughter of the dead hero Angentyr has come across the sea English. to the island where her father lies buried, to wake him from his death-sleep and demand of him the magic sword Tyrfing, forged by the dwarfs, her It is a sinister heirloom, heritage. fraught with disaster to her race, and the
like Childe Roland's in Browning, is at once heroic and tragic, girl's quest, an undaunted thrusting on towards an end which, she knows, means her doom. And as only in the tragedies of the primitive myth world, and as in that wonderful fantasia on them, Ckilde itself, all the earth and heaven,
AWdW
man and
whole
nature, appears as grim onlookers scene with bodeful or mocking voices
at the
tragic
action
visions.
filling
the
and appalling
Nothing
is indifferent.
The whole
two
with a flock."
story is told in brief pregnant dialogue, with barely a line or " of narrative. At sunset in Munarvoe the young maid met a shepherd
turn back
weird haunting picture in itself. The shepherd bids her and seek shelter. She scornfully refuses, and asks the way to the burial mounds. He is horror-struck. " Ask me not that, thou art in evil case Let us run thence fast as feet can carry us for out of doors all is awesome to men's eyes." She offers him gifts to guide her. But the richest For all the island is ablaze with gifts would not keep him from rushing home. " flames the graves are opening, field and fen are all alight. What of " that," quoth Hervor though all the island be aflame, we must not let the dead men scare us so soon we have to parley with them." And so the " shepherd speeds away to the woods, but greater grows at the stress of peril the close-knit heart in the breast of Hervor ". She comes to the grave mound and calls aloud to her father through the flames: "Wake thou, It is Hervor Give me Angentyr thy only daughter that bids thee wake the sword out of the grave which the Dwarfs forged." There is no answer. She turns to scoff at all the buried chiefs. " Surely ye are become heaps of dust since ye will not answer me." And she calls again, and curses their
!
:
At last Angentyr unwillingly replies Hervor, daughter, why obstinacy. dost thou call and curse ? Thou art walking to thy doom : mad art thou She answers grown, and wild of wit that thou wakenest the dead?"
:
"
sharply of thee
was ever held to be " give me the sword

I
!
"
like other mortals
till
it
came
hither in search
;
He
pretends that
99
is
not there
for
foemen
100
Let her hurry back to her ship out of the buried him and kept Tyrfing. She only answers by threatening to lay spells on Barnes while she may.
them so that they would rot and be really dead. At last he confesses that the magic sword lies under him, all wrapped about with fire, and no maid on "I care nothing for the burning fire, the flame sinks earth dares brandish it.
it,
my eyes." And when she rushes forward towards the fire to clasp " for I cannot deny he thinks only of saving her and gives her the sword " She breaks into an exulting cry " Well hast thee, thou young maiden thou done, Viking chief me sees a happier lot is mine than if I had conBut the father answers sadly and scornfully he quered all Norway ". Thou knowest not, knows that her joy is vain and the prelude to doom. Thou shalt bear whereat thou rejoicest hapless are thy words. daughter, a son who shall wield Tyrfing, and it shall be the ruin of all thy race." " Little I reck how my sons may quarrel, the daughter of kings is of high heart." And she speeds away with a last greeting to the dead in the mound. But now, like Lady Macbeth, after the crisis she knows what she has gone through. "Truly I felt between life and death, she mutters, when all around
before
: !
:
'
me
the fires
were burning
"
APPENDIX
STORY.
II.
THE GERMAN AND THE NORTHERN VERSIONS OF THE VOLSUNG

epic the complex story has an artistic unity which it has on the other hand, the primitive sublimity of the tale has been attenuated along with its primitive paganism we are reading a romance of adventure, reflecting the Christianized manners, the brilliant court life, and Instead of the Valkyrie on the wild the chivalry, of the Minnesinger age. fell top, only to be won by riding through the ring of flames, Brynhild is a The whole princess in a palace, overcome by cunning in a test of strength. In particular, the antecedent is more concentrated and better organized. story of Gudmund and Signy, so loosely attached to that of Sigurd, and so
In the
German
:
not in the North
deeply tinged with the savage grandeur of the pagan age, falls away altoThe gether, and had probably quite faded out of the German tradition. sequel story, on the other hand, receives a new and powerful motive, which
for the first time knits it close to the story of Sigurd. For it becomes now the story of Gudrun's vengeance upon her brothers for the murder of her Whereas in the Northern version, Gudrun's passionately loved lord.
new chapter in a story already complete and on Gunnar is motived not by vengeance for Sigurd, but by hunger for the treasure he has won. Gudrun's passion of grief for the glorious hero she has lost is incomparably rendered in the northern poems but they have nothing parallel to the terrible heroine of the Second Part of the ibelungenlied, transformed by her loss from a tender woman into a pitiless avenger, insatiable in her consuming anger until the last of her guilty kinsmen is dead. The central story, on the other hand, has in the German version been impoverished by the loss of its most potent trait Brynhild and Sigurd have had no earlier meeting on Hyndfell, no exchange of vows nor of Hence, when he helps Gunnar to win her by personating him in rings. and name, he is not playing false to an old love, and the wrong she shape
marriage to Atli begins a
Atli's treacherous attack
; ;
suffers,
though mortifying to her pride,
is
not the deadly offence of the per-
jured lover. diminished.

It
The
tragic tension of the situation is therefore very sensibly to indicate the chief points in which the Norse and of the German legend go apart, in order to appreciate
was necessary
German developments
the great nineteenth century versions of the Volsung story. It is the strongest evidence of the superiority of the fragmentary but sublime Norse poetry to the rounded, coherent, and humanized German epic that the Norse form of the
Volsung
self,
nearly at the same time
German was chosen by the two great poets who were occupied with it, one of them a German himRichard Wagner and William Morris.
story rather than the
THREE LETTERS OF JOHN ELIOT AND A BILL OF LADING OF THE "MAYFLOWER".

BY
RENDEL HARRIS,
the
M.A., D.LiTT., ETC.
AMONGST
in
a number of valuable autograph letters, formerly possession of Mrs. Luke, the authoress of the
children's
I
hymn, whose
first
line
runs
think
when
read that sweet story of old,
John Eliot, the Apostle of the North American Indians, addressed to the Rev. Jonathan Hanmer of Barnstaple, England, and containing some interesting details as to the work of ChrisWith these letters there was a tianising and civilising the red man.
there lay three letters of
Bill of
Lading
friend
who
goods supplied to John Eliot, by an English took a keen interest in the work among the Indians, and
of the
communicated with John Eliot through Jonathan Hanmer. His name this Bill of Lading lies in the fact was Spragot. The main interest in
that the goods
in
were carried
in the
famous ship
"
1653
still
trading with
New
England, but
Mayflower," which was now under Puritan
ownership and a Puritan captain, Master Thomas Webber of Boston. Thus the famous ship, which carried the idea of a religious republic
westward, was
still
years after the Pilgrims
engaged in the North Atlantic trade thirty-three landed on Cape Cod.

;
first but sight it seems as if her point of departure was Bristol read the document through, it appears that the goods were shipped from London, having been (wholly or in part) forwarded thither from Bristol. Apparently Jonathan Hanmer's market for his
as
At we
cloth
and canvas
to clothe his
first
Red
Indians
was
:
Bristol,
and the goods

is
went thence,
in the
instance, by road
or,
perhaps, as there
special charge for carting to the water-side, as well as for carriage

Bristol, the goods
from
may have gone
to
London by some
"
coasting vessel
and been
transferred in the
Thames
to the
Mayflower ".
THREE LETTERS OF JOHN ELIOT

The documents
ing on
103
are thus of the
first
importance
they have a bear-
American History and upon the History of Missions. They have recently passed, by the agency of an American bookseller, at while we should Boston, into the hands of a Transatlantic collector
:
have been glad
to retain
them
in
England
for
an ornament
to the
proposed Mayflower University at Plymouth, their right place is clearly As to the source from which Mrs. on the other side of the water.
Luke derived
these documents,
letters of
it
is
clear,
from the
in
fact that there are
one or two other
Jonathan Hanmer
her collection, that
they must be derived ultimately from Barnstaple and the Hanmer family. Jonathan Hanmer was a great Puritan leader and preacher in Barnstaple up to the time of the ejectment in 1662, when he be-
comes the
first
Nonconformist minister of that town, to

It
whom
the
Barnstaple Dissenters refer their parentage.

sources that there
was known from other

the Puritan
for
was a
strong
missionary element in
churches of the seventeenth century.
Their associations
work
of a
religious character developed ultimately into the Society for the Pro-
pagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts.
It is
interesting to find the
name
of
John
Eliot
connected
in
some degree with the very un-
Puritanical S.P.G.
The
Shall we call it a case of Apostolical Succession ? churches of Puritan sympathy and tendency in the West of Eng-
land appear to have been keenly interested in John Eliot's apostolical labours contributions came in, not only from private persons like Mr.
:
Spragot, but from communities like the church at Exeter of which
Mr.
"
Nichols was minister.
John
Eliot designed
to
make
his converts
graduate
in
"
civility
before admitting
them
to
Church Fellowship, and
so his mission in-
volved town-planning, and the organisation of town-life.

of this town-life
The
centre
was the meeting-house, upon which the Indians were
already engaged
It is
when
Eliot wrote.
interesting
to note that the
Puritan zeal for learning was in
evidence on both sides of the water.
John
Eliot
begged books and
bought books, both for himself and for a colleague of his named Mahon, and the Devonshire churches (Exeter in particular) were
able to contribute the latest biblical literature.
his
We
notice that
Eliot
from Barnstaple or Bristol, and does expected goods " not ask that they should be sent by the Mayflower," but by any trading vessel carrying goods to Massachusetts Bay or to the Banks of Newto
either
come
104
foundland.

There
is
said to
be a fourth
Eliot's
letter in
the collection, which
relates to the ordination of

;
have no copy lacunae, where a word could not be read.

to the documents,
John those which are here transcribed
son to the ministry.

for
I
Of
this
me have
occasional
As
have not had access

a photograph
and have not yet succeeded

must be
filled
in getting
of them, the blanks
up by
conjecture.
LETTER
I
Dated
S*
19* of the
5'/52 (1652).
REVEREND AND DEARE
2. -5 have receiv^ your let r dated March. wherein the Lord hath made you an unexpected instrument and messenger of and supply unto this work of the Lord among these incouragm
1
1 .
1
poore Indians,
slow
:
and
that
it
may be when expected

to
help
may be more
acknowledg
of his.
It
that so the
for his
. . .
Lord might please

in all
show
I
himself the only guide

desire to
and ...
the Lord's
is
who
ways. people hath never failed me
their
in this
work
meete that
prayers
may
should informe you of the state of this work that your be with the more particular faith and fervor, be breathed
I
forth at the throne of grace, in the behalf of this
work, and those
who
your
labour therein.
cannot be so particular as
straights of time, the ship being quickly to sail after

let", if
would, by reason I have received
the
Lord
h
give
d
of intercourse
revn
you opportunity of going to Excestor, or Nichols by him you may heare somewhat
self,
more than
wards
civile
this
l
can
now
wright unto your
the revnd ministers, and

to-
christian people there having
now
these
two years contributed
in
work, and by whose supply a great pt of the work After charges and expenses hath been carried on.
desire
for the
several
years speaking to them, the

.
.
.
and to
Lord opened their hearts to desire baptism church estate and ministry, whereby to enjoy all
1
God's ordinances, and to enjoy cohabitation and civile govnm as subservient unto, and greatly conducing unto the spiritual ways and mercys in this order they have been taught they may have
,
visible civility before

astical
communion.
they can rightly injoy visible sanctities in ecclesiNow we looked out a place fit for to begin a
r r
towne, where a
in
the year,
1
... numb of people might have subsistence togeth 50, we began that work through rich grace, in the year
in
a day of fasting and prayer they entered into a covenant
tfl
God and
each oth
to
be ruled by the Lord
in all theire affaires civilian

making the Word of God theire only magna and all conversation and chose rulers of Bands
the platforms of
charta, for
105
nt
,
govm
laws,
50. and of an hundred,
holy governmt of Gods own institution, 1 have r Nicols for the reverend elders in exon, sent over this yeare unto and if the Lord give you opportunity I should gladly wish your self
wh
. animadvsions might also have a sight of it, that I might receive your on it, but in my poor thoughts I app^hend it would be a mercy to
. .
England,
if
govm'
wh
is
they should in this hour of time, take up that forme of a divine institution, and by wh christ should reigne over
I
them, by the word of his mouth, but

ing of the Indians
only,
forget
my
to
selfe.
am
speak-
ruled by
whom I his Word

nt
desire to traine
in
all
things,
be the Lords people up and the Lord hath blessed

1
.
This first yeare govm and guided them in judgm and prepare them for holy church covenant whereby they give themselves to be governed by the Lord ecclesiastically, in all his up ordinances and church administrations, but I shall walk by good advice
them
.
in this theire
before
do
this,
they are
it
now
building themselves a meeting house
wh when
it is
made,
may
of
please the
Lord
to call
them
forth to
be
built a spiritual house unto the Lord.
Touching w* you say
my
I
wrighting for a supply of books for

so,
my
brother
Mahn
it is
true
did
but soone after the Lord was
pleased to offer a comfortable supply both to him, and me also, for I bought two librarys of two ministers who left us and they are both paide for, by the Corporation in London, and my broth Mahn hath
"
beene possessd of his a good while, besides the revern d elds, ministers of exon have sent unto us new supply, and this yeare they sent unto
new annotations upon the whole bible, so through the riches of Gods bounty he is now supplyed but w* particular books he may further want I cannot tell. S you make mention of a liberal gift of a religious gentleman, whose name shall hope hereafter know that I may expresse my thankfullness in a few lines unto him and whereas you require to know in what comodity, it
"
us the 2 nd edition of the
may be most
because
in in
suitably laid out
anse r
r
in
two comoditys
chiefly
first
in
1
strong linen cloth, canvas,
and oth good hempen cloth and lokroms, the hot sumors the Indians delight to goo in linnon, and
if
work,
1
if
any garm', only a linnon garment,

is
they can get
it.
Locram
a coarse cloth imported from Brittany, from a town of that
name.
106

2'* in red,
blew, or white cottons, course and thick, some
call
it
trading cloth
sorts of
wh
is
the courses'- and some better.

.
Only
these
two
the way of sending may be comoditys are best for the from Barstable, who have often se hith r or by some Bristol by ships
.
.
ships
of
who
also trade hitlr,

r
if
mine
may
any such things to me, but it be the goods had better be taken up in your country, than to be
Butcher,
will conveigh
by London then
there
is
a faithfull friend
who
r bought in London S I do also request this, that if any ships come from Barstable you would please to appoynt some or othr discente
and Godly men, able

time, as to see with
to judg
wisely and
...
his
to set
ap so much
l
his eyes,
and heare with
owne
ears
how
the
matters are here and
what
is
he have a good allowance for furtherance of or work and comfort

to
done among the Indians, and should his paines, it would tend much to the
communicate
this
my
of your work, and may you please 1 motion to rev nd Mr Nicols and consi dr to
be done
in that case,
nay
if
some
of the churches should
send forth a
brethren on purpose to visit, and comfort, minister, and incourage such a work, I see not, but it were a worthy work, and well becoming the Spirit of the gospel but I can now go no further.
faithfull
I
and oth r
do humbly
bless the
Lord
for the prayers
that are
made
all
r*
1
in all
it.
I
the
Churches
in the behalfe of this
work, and us
who
labour in
beg
for the continuance thereof!
and so commending you and

1
your holy
labours unto the Lord, and to the blessing of his grace
your unworthy fellow labourer

in the gospel of Christ
JOHN ELIOT.
Roxbury
this
19
of the 5
52.
LETTER
I
II,
Dated 7 th
of the
8* Month 1652.
REVERN J AND MUCH RESPECTED

rec
d
let
1
IN
CHRIST
from you
couragm
these
in this
work
by the former ship

let*
love, both in acknowledgm* and inLord among the Indians to \fi last I have returned answ r according as you desired, but lest
full of
of the
should
faile
and miscary coming

I
so far,
I
and through
thought
if
it
so
many
hands before they can come

write by this ship also, as
at you, therefore
necessary to
shall
by the next
likewise
the Lord give

optunity.
107
the goodnesse of
of
your loving expression about books I thus answeH t' through God, wants are well supplyed by the purchase
two
library s
d
one
r
for
also
Revern
my
broth r
Mahon,
the other for
my
selfe,
as
Nicols of Excetor
th
the rest of the revernd ministers
there and christian people have made a good supply unto us, both in books blessed be the Lord and blessed be they, for the fittest disposal r of t 5f you mention, because o Indians are now come to cohabitation
l
and labour, they much delight in linnen to work in, in the summer especially, if therefore it be laide out in good canvas and other good
strong linnen for shirts,
etc.
it
and some
for
some cotton
present
about head cloathes

unless
is
will
best
accomodate us
for the
some be
laide
out in thick
in
it,
warme white
blanket cloth
wh
think
plentyfully
made
for the way of sending your country, such things will best suit us. I desire it be by your . . . shipping, and if none be bound for may
the
Bay
of Massachusett yet
great fishing place of

minister
N.E.
it
ld any be bound for the I of Shoals, the may be safely conveighed unto me for the
if
whom
r Brock, a godly man, unto p cheth there is named the care being comited I doubt not but he will carefully send r
who
them unto me, or

goods sent unto
if
they be bound to any other port with

of
will
us, let
and
Roxbury, easyly be notified, and if comited to them anybody of trust have the care conveighed. r the present state of o busynesse is through the grace of christ come up
. .
.
me who am
to this, that
day
to
if
of
th upon the 1 3 day of this month fasting and prayer, wherein we shall
(if
God
will)
we have
call forth
sundry Indians
make
confession of Jesus Christ his truth
they, to charity appear to
and grace whose confessions, be such as were not revealed to them by
flesh
and blood, but by the
fath r then
we
shall
proceed to build them

all his
into a visible constituted
church
for the
injoyment of Christ in
holy ordinances.
Now
t'
this businesse is
pressing on,
and
r I
filleth
me
so
th
ocupa" as
cannot attend
all
much
to writing
earnest beg your prayers,
and and
the prayers of
all
the people of the Lord, and so comending you,
your holy labours unto the Lord's blessing
and mercy
r81
r your affectionate broth and
fellow labourer in
the Lords vinyard
JOHN ELIOT.
Roxbury
this 7' of
the
8 month
l
652.
108
S>
"

form
1
in
my
let
was bold
now
.
.
contributors to this
move good work

to
t'
if
the Christian people
who
are
of the
Lord would please
to send
over some godly messenger

.
wh
they
who may see w th his eyes what is done have bestowed, it may much tend to theire satisfaction,
1
and incouragem
in so great
and good a work
as this
is.
1653.
6 Invoyce of Goods Sente on y May. Flower of Boston (Master Thos. Webber) for Boston in New England conr 6 John Eliott Pastor of y Church of Roxsigned onto r 6 Cost and fr Jonathan Hamner, y bury Chardges, viz.
Canvas N r 3 q r 180 Awnds Cost Ballott of Canvas n r 6 q r 210 awnds cost J 00 yards of Course Dowlis at J ^ p y^ is Z Chardges paide on those Goods at Bristoll is
5
1
Ballott of
qts of
for
Tourkinge Cloth of 45 yds ys. white cost 2 canvas and packinge ye Tourkinge cloth
:
p !pd d gp
Water Side Carryadge of y" Canvas from Bristoll e p^ for makeinge bills of entry and clearinge y Canvas at ye Custome House d p for Custome of 50 ells of Canvas, entered short pd for portidge, cartidge, craneidge, boatidge and warfe idge, and warehouse roome for y Canvas
6 Cartidge to y
d for
....
.
for
......
....
.
for Warehouse rooms, Warfidge, portidge Craneidge and boatidge for y e 2 q Tourk-Cloth Sp d for fraight, primadge, and p^ Several! petty chardges on those goods
^p^
Sum
p
d out of
is
........
: :
mony
out ye
Nuttall forming a Certificate P y Shippinge 2 ballotts of Canvas at shippinge office in london
made
*
Falstaff so
This again is Breton fabric from Dulas in Brittany " Dowlas, filthy dowlas ". angry Cloth dyed light blue, the Turkey blue of the day
it is
the cloth that
the form
is
from
the Italian turchino.

LETTER
That
and
III,
109
Dated 29'
IN
of the 6t
54.
REVEN d AND MUCH RESPECTED

his religious
THE LORD
Gentleman, Mr. Spragot,
great love, care,
liberal gift of that Christian
familie
th
your owne exceeding

I
did by the blessing of the Lord h safe and in good condition, in the end of the yeare 53 the receive, Lord sent me at such a season, as t' it was a singular comfort unto
paine and travaile about the same
us,
and furtherance
of
the work, provision for winter clothing and a

all
support to the
affordeth us
work
this
spring, untill
I
such time as the Lord
some more supplys and
doo send not only

1
my
thanks
but also an account of the improvm thereof unto the ends you appoynted the same and I have sent here inclosed one r account to your people and the same I have sent to Spegot himfor all this love,
r selfe inclosed in his let
wh
request you
to delivr to
him
It
pleaseth
come forward in civility in them a great measure of natural informity and ingeniosity there is only it is drowned in their wild and rude manner of living, but by
thus to
God
owne and
blesse the work, they
culture,
order, goveram'
forth unto
and
religion
they begin to be furbished up,

,
and drawn
I
hope they
1 .
will
be
in
some good imploymts and by Gods blessing these civile respects raised to some good im-
Religion is on the gaineing hand (I blesse the Lord) though provm in Church estate and affaires of ecclesiastical polity they come on but d slowly but in these matters they doo as they are order and guided
by
counsel,
and not according
to theire
have seen theire confessions
they
owne notions. made in the yeare
hope you
52, and the
reasons of our proceeding no further at that time, in the yeare 53
some 54 we have had anoth r meetThis yeare against this present yeare viz. for the examination of the Indians in poynt of knowabout it ing
I
did not
move
at all that
way
for
some
special reasons, only
ledge in the doctrinal pt of religion, they were examined principally by the Elders of the churches about us, as also by any other Christian
man,
who
it
did for
was an open and

tl .
thought good to propound any question to them, as some r free conference, t so t might be the fuller
l
satisfaction given to all
desired the
same
in conclusion
wherof the
Elders did give testymony of theire good satisfaction in what they had received from them, but a more particular relation of this days meeting,
I
have sent over to the Corporation to be published togethr w* h
110

we
stood
in,
the present state
touching o
furth r guiding in gath r ing
them
refer
into a
church estate and covenant unto
wh
must make bold to

yeare
I
you
for fuller information.
Also the
laste
sent over
the Indians thanks

love,
also a relation
unto the Christian

of
people
of
some judgm'*,
as the rulers
for theire Engi have executed

:
hope are published, wherin may be seen theire care to leade a conversation according to the word of God, and the light r lh they have received S my times are filled w ocupa", and cannot inupon
sinners
I
r large furth
.
wh
intreat the continuance of
your prayers unto the Lord

all
for us all
and
for
1
me and
so
comending you and

"
your holy labours
unto the Lord
rest
Your
loving broth
and
fellow labourer in the
Lords vinyarde
JOHN ELIOT.
Roxbury
this 29' of the 6'.
54.
LIST
OF ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS, ETC., IN THE JOHN RYLANDS LATIN MANU15.
SCRIPT No.
BY
ALEXANDER SOUTER,
IN
M.A., D.LITT.,
REGIUS PROFESSOR OF HUMANITY ABERDEEN.
THE UNIVERSITY OF
LATIN
Murbacen,"
fifteenth
manuscript No. 1 5 in the Rylands Library is noteworthy The occurrence of the wellfrom various points of view. " known subscription Orate pro domino bartolomeo abbate
partially defaced
by the notorious
in the
Libri, proves that in the
century the manuscript was Benedictine abbey at Murbach in Alsace. only about fifty or sixty volumes are now
there are only three in England.
2
splendid library of
its
1
the
Of
once huge collection
known
to exist,
and
of these
The
palaeographical interest of
the
Manchester
of
MS.
is
sufficiently indicated by the presence of photographs
pages in the Palaographical Society s facsimiles, Nos. 1 60, 161, from which a portion of one page has been selected
of
its
1
two
New
by Sir E. M. Thompson for publication as facsimile No. 29 in his Introduction to Greek and Latin Paleography (Oxford, 1912),
pp.
363
f.
Munich,
studied
has not escaped the attention of Dr. Paul Lehmann of nor of Professor W. M. Lindsay, who has collected and
It
its
abbreviations for his standard
work Notce Latince (Cam-
bridge, 1915).
But the
It
interest of the
it
manuscript
is
not exclusively palaeographical.
happens
that
is
one
of the oldest extant minuscule manuscripts of

it
the works of St. Cyprian, and that

1
was not used
for
the standard
See the
fullest
list
in P.
Lehmann, lohannes Sichardus und die von

1911),
ihm benutzten Bibliotheken und Handschriften (Miinchen,

164-75.
2
pp. 15
The
other
two are
in the Bodleian,
namely, Jun. 25
Add. C.
(24713).
3
See note
1.
in
112
Vienna
and
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY A considerable time ago Canon edition of Hartel.
a collation of
it
E.
W.
Watson made
his
which has been used by Dr. Sanday
coadjutors in
the preparation of a definitive edition of the
Testimonies,
1
ad Quirinum?
list
Dom
2
902
published a
of
its
contents,
John Chapman had already in and recently it has been carefully

is
studied
by another Cyprianic scholar. It Dr. Hans von Soden obtains the account
from
Dom Chapman
(Leipzig,
1
that
of the contents of the
manu:i
script in his
I
Die Cypnanische Briefsammlung
904).
of
have recently been privileged to spend about a week in the study the MS., particularly from the point of view of contractions and
orthography.
There seems no reason

Murbach,
as
to
doubt that the manuscript
was
written at
some
of the scribes
I
show the
writing of the
Murbach-Reichenau-St. Gall-Chur school.

1
have special reasons with
need not trouble the reader, to be greatly interested in the which earlier MS. products of these monasteries, and it is this interest which has
led
me
to
make what
trust is
a complete
list
of the abbreviations
and
contractions of the
MS.
will
A study of the valuable tables at the end of

show
at
the
Notes Latina
of
once that the

It is
MS.
belongs neither to
Britain, nor to Spain, nor to Italy.
the product of a considerable

it
number
scribes, but
it is
have not thought
necessary to distinguish
these in detail, as
in
the practice of the scriptorium, of which
we
are
may be remarked that Oxford Junius 25 and Paris B.N. 1853, which appears to be a Murbach MS., share with our It would manuscript the peculiarity that they have very many scribes.
search.
It
seem that towards the end

century
it
of the eighth
and the beginning
of the ninth
was a
practice of the
Murbach
scriptorium to hurry the pro-
duction of a codex by setting a large number of scribes to

simultaneously.
It is
work on
it
perhaps hardly safe to say
much about
the archetype or arche-
types of this manuscript.

later
Its tradition is
throughout good, for some of the
documents
in
it
perhaps particularly good.

in transmission
r.,
:
The
following spellings
suggest a Spanish stage
hospidem
(corr.)
47
v.,
srakel
(for
(perhaps an accident) 63
ergo),
1
catohcus (nearly always), hergo
orum
(for
Jtorum), ostes (for hostes\ hoccasionem, hominibus
has been employed to indicate the MS. cf. C. H. The symbol Turner, Journal of Theological Studies, TO!, vi. (1904-5), pp. 247 f. *Journ. Theol. Stud,, TO!, iy. (1902-3), p. 120, n. 3. 'Pp. 153 f.
:
ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS

(for
113
omnibus), ac
(for
hac\
ereticus, umilitas, quotidie (several
times,
It is
always corrected to cotidie), coerere (for cohcerere\ coibendos. only fair, however, to admit that there is no relic of the truly
Spanish
note that
aum (for autem) or nsr (for noster). dnm is rightly corrected to dns on fol.
r.,
1 1
It
1
is
interesting to
r.
04
and
on
to
dno
1 1
on
r.,
fol.
1
06
v.,
08
r.
r.,
while dns
is
rightly corrected to
dm
fol.
24
34
These phenomena
indicate,
think, that the archefor
type contained the old symbol and had to be handled cautiously

It is
DOM
which does duty

this
is
any
case,
when
converted to another system.
probable that the archetype containing such a conclusion than the sixth century
:
symbol was not
later
excellence of
the orthography
in
our
MS.
favoured by the great pusillianimis uni,
animis, susurrio (noun), solacium, catecumenus, Thubunas (indecl.), sallietur (" will be salted "), cottidie, obsetrix, Aron, exhomologesin, heiulare, perierare. Professor A. C. Clark, in his Descent of Manuscripts? has recently called attention to the importance of omissions for estimating the
length of the lines in an archetype.

this
Several of those that occur in
MS.
are
due
to homoeoteleuton, but the length of others suggests
that the archetype consisted of short lines of seventeen letters or there-
abouts each.
there
This means that the columns were narrow, and that

three columns to the page
:
were two or
"
three columns
is
re-
garded as a
35,
1
Spanish
Symptom
".
7,
35
letters respectively.
"ncl'
The figures are, 31, 16, 19, 17, The symbol * indicates omission,
is
50, but
on
fol.
37
r.
hie deest)
used.
LIST
autem
carus
:
OF ABBREVIATIONS.
f.
au, aut (once only,
21 v.
a doubtful example, "
f.
132
"
v.,
end
of
line).
krni,
"
"
carissimi
;
kme,
"
carissime
krme,
"
carissime
(once,
77
Y.).
Christus
confessor
: :
xps. conff
"
,
confessoribus
".
deus : ds. " " diaconus : dd, diaconos

dicit
:
(f.
f.
1
194
r.).
die, dl (once, in ras.
27
r.).
dixit
dix,
:
dominus
3 (three times). dns.

1
Oxford, 1918.
114
enu:
est
: :

ei
;
el,_e
:
(f.
30
"
Y.).
"
(once,
f.
episcopus
c.
eps, epis,
episcopus
" (once,
frais
f.
88
r.).
esse
"
ec, eet,
:
esset
".
;
203
frater "
fras
fri,
" fratres "
r.).
fratres
(thrice)
(end of
"
line),
"
fratris
(once,
f.
21
r.).
lesus
Israhel
(nobis
iEs, etc. ; ihus, etc. (the latter rare). : isrl, israR (end of line ; once, f. 54 v.)
:
isrlite.
Kalendis
:
Jkal.
nob.
UOD.
nt (5 times only)
\uobis
non
n.
:
noster
T.
r.),
"
"
nostram
ua,
f.
no, nis nra ; na, nm, nam, ni, nae, nf, 112 Y.) nri (later hand, f. 109 r., also m. 1
; ;
(f.
,
f.
109 149
nro.
uester
um,
65
:
uam,
ui,
u$, uo, uos, uas, uis

f.
ura
(f.
65
Y.),
uram
(f.
Y.),
uri(f. K)r.).
numerus
n,
"numero"
f.
(once,
f.
142
r.,
expanded
in
margin by contemp.
hand).
nunc : nc (twice, omnes : om.

omnipotens
:
Y.,
10
v.).
omnips, omnipo (end of
"
line),
omnipotent! ".
per
post
|>.
: :
p* (thrice),
jp.
(see/^J under us)

"
presbyteris
(once).
prae
"
:
"
(4 rimes)
;
presbyter
(f.
pfr,
(once each);
PRBS,
"
pr? sb,
"
pr,
(f.
presbyteris,"
presbytero" "
presbyteri
(f.
194
r.);
157 r.), 194 r.).
" presbytero " " presB, presbyteros
"
pro
y.
.
propter : pp (thrice); ppter (twice); ppE (once, f. 41 r.), ppt (17 times); prop (once, f 1 08 r.) jrter (once, f 1 77 v.). quae : q (thrice) ; q que : q ; q : qui : q (thrice). quod: qJ, qod (18 times) ; op (once in rasura, f. 44 r.). quoniam : quo (44 times) ; qum (30 times, once, f. 64 v., corrected by second hand to quo) qnm (18 times) qm (15 times) ; qn (twice, f.
;
.
Y.,
:
f.
47
r.).
.
sacerdos
saeculum
sanctus
:
sacer3s (end of line), (f 1 9 Y.). " " " " saecula saeculum secla, (once) sclm, (once).
;
scs,
:
etc., scus, etc. t scltas.

;
secundum
sicut
:
seed (18 times)
secdu (thrice)
secund (thrice)
se3 (once,
f.
110_Y.).
sic.
:
spiritus
sps,
:
etc.,
"
spus, etc. (rare)

;
"
;
"
spiritus
"
spis,
(once)
spun (4 times),
spiritum," splum (once)
spiritum ".
spiritalis
spitalis, etc.
(5 times).
ras.,
sunt
I. :
ffi
tamen
(once,
m. 2 in
f.
72
v.).
ABBREVIATIONS AND CONTRACTIONS

SYLLABLE SYMBOLS.
con
:
115
c.
en
: :
m,
t,
"
men
"
".
"
(only
T.).
f.
ent
ha!>,
habent
(f.
66
r. bis).
er:
is
:
"ter," f " "

bis
44
b,
ms,
//: c, x.
"
(once expanded, m. 2, once unaltered) mis" (end of line), (f. 16 Y.).
"
;
"
dis
(f .
1
cl,
50
r.)
nt
: :
suprascript stroke. suprascript "stroke.

:
urn
"
r,
rum
unt : r, ur: t, t (twice, f. 60 us : b. b D) (once)

;
"
" " dum (end of (22 times) " J, " bunt runt," b, (4 times).
;
line,
f.
19 T.)
cf.
secundum.
v.,
;
f.
67
IV
v.).
nv
m.
A NEW
LIST
OF THE PERSIAN
KINGS.
BY ALPHONSE MINGANA, D.D., OF THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.
FOREWORD.
was
in
1
879
that,
with the help of Syriac and Arabic docufirst
IT ments,
correct
is
Noldeke drew up the
complete
list
of the
kings of
the Sasanian dynasty of Persia.

of their succession, as stated
That the order and the date

Orientalist, are mostly
by the celebrated
proved
by the accurate synchronisms
with
Roman and
Byzantine Emperors, the general course of events, and some ancient

but newly published sources, such as the Synodicon Orientate made known by J. B. Chabot in 1 902, and the precious history of Meshiha-
Zeka
There
edited with a French translation by the present writer in

is,
1907.
however,
in the
(formerly Cod. Syr.

contains a
hitherto
longs,
list
146
John Rylands Library a Syriac manuscript in J. Rendel Harris's collection) which
of
these
same longs
difference
differing
considerably from
that
known.
The
extends (a) to the names of the
and
(b) to the date of their reign.
As
to the divergences of
dates they
given in
falsified
may partly be accounted for by the fact that these dates are numerical characters, which might easily have been misread or as to the changes found in a few by subsequent copyists
;
proper names,
ex.
gr.
'Amri, one must

is,
own
that
they are somewhat

of
more
puzzling.
Warahran
of course,
the
more ancient name
Bahrain.
The
composition of the
list
may be
ascribed to the thirtieth year of
Chosrau Anusharwan (A.D. 561), and if so, it is possible that we have before us the most ancient chronological table of the Sasanian monarchs.
The
1
manuscript, although modern,
contains tracts which could not
The
date of
its
transcription is
1861 of the Seleucids, corresponding

116
with A.D. 1550.
A NEW
have been written
vocabulary
of
LIST
after the
OF THE PERSIAN KINGS

Arab
invasion
;
117
short
for instance, in the

gives,
the Biblical words which

Persian, not Arabic
;
it
some vocables are

reason to
in
translated into
further,
we have no
list
1
question the intellectual proficiency of the author of the

to the successors of
relation
whom
he keeps silence
Chosrau Anusharwan (A.D. 53 to 652) concerning this is a proof that he was writing at a time
;
preceding their succession to the throne.
The
give
it
list
being certainly very ancient

it is
it
has been found useful to
for
what
worth, and for purposes of comparison

is
we
subjoin
the chronological table of Noldeke which
also reproduced in the
Encyclopedia Britannica
(s.v.
Persia).
TRANSLATION OF THE
Names
of Kings.
NEW
LIST.
of their
Years
Chronology According to the
Ardashir (son of Baksus) Sapor (his son)
....
.
Reign,
New
List.
l
6
31
Hormizd Warahran Warahran (Saga-nshih) Narsai (Karmnsh5h) Hormizdad

Sapor (his son) Ardashir (son of Sapor) Sapor (his brother)
.
2 10
.
.
.17
4
7
AmriWarahran
.....
. . .
.
... ....
. .
69
7 3 17
225-231 231-262 262-264 264-274 274-291 291-295 295-302 302-371 371-378 378-381
(his brother)
.17
21
Yezdegerd (son of Sapor) Warahran (son of Yezdegerd)
Yezdegerd (son of Warahran) Peroz (son of Yezdegerd)

Balash (his brother)
Kawada
1
(his brother)
....
....21 ... ....
Chosrau fas son)
22 29 27 42 30 3
381-398 398-415 415-436 436-457 457-479 479-508 508-535 535-577 577-607
our starting point the year 225 instead of 226 adopted we follow the exact chronology established by MeshihaZeka (in Mingana's Sources Syriaques, vol. i., p. 106). 2 No man of this name is mentioned in Noldeke' s list, and one is almost As tempted to think here of Omri, the King of Israel (1 Kings xvi. 6 sq.).
We take for
;
by Noldeke
in this
in the manuscript the preceding page is devoted to the Kings of Israel, it is possible to suppose that the copyist has by an oversight repeated in the list of
the Persian Kings a

3
As
stated
name which he had used in a previous list. above the list was written in the thirtieth year of Chosrau
Anusharwan.
118

NOLDEKE'S
LIST.
(From Geschichte der Perser und Araber,

Ardashirl
.
.
p.
435.)
Sapor
226-241 241-271
Hormizdl
Bahrain
I
Bahrain Bahrain Narsai
II
272-273 273-276 276-293

(Saganshah)
. .
III
.293
293-302 302-310 310-379 379-383 383-388 388-399 399-420 420-438 438-457 457-459 457-484 484-488 488-531 496-498
HormizdH
Sapor II Ardashirll
Sapor
III
Bahrain
IV (Karroanshah)
I
Yezdegerd
Bahrain
(Gor)
Yezdegerd II Hormizd III

Peroz
Balash
. .
KawadhI
(Djamasp) Chosrau (Anusharwan)
....
.
.531-579
SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS.
A TABLE
AN ANALYSIS OF ACT AND SCENE DIVISIONS IN THE 1623 FOLIO.

GIVING
BY WILLIAM POEL,
SOCIETY.
FOUNDER AND DIRECTOR OF THE ELIZABETHAN STAGE
THE
his folio in
printed text of the moralities

is
and
historical plays of the
sixteenth century
not divided into acts and scenes, nor are
the
first
printed copies of Shakespeare's plays so arranged.
Ben Jonson,
divisions
the classic, clamoured for reform, and the publication of

his plays into acts
folio of
1616, dividing
in
and
scenes, explain
why
al-
appear
in
the
1623
Shakespeare's plays.
And
though
some
of the theatres there
were evidently
intervals in the
is
dramatic performances which were filled up by dancing or music, there good reason to believe they were sparingly used in the Globe Playhouse.
There
is
besides internal evidence in the plays of Shakespeare
to suggest continuity of
movement.
view
Dr. Samuel Johnson (1765) in his preface to an edition of the

plays, supports this point of
:
have preserved the common distribution of the plays into acts, though I believe it to be in almost all the plays void of authority. Some of those which are divided in the later editions have no division
I
"
in the
first folio,
and some that are divided
in
the folio have no diviof the theatre requires
sion in the preceding copies.
The
settled
if
mode
four intervals in the play, but few,
any, of our author's compositions
can be properly distributed in that manner. An act is so much of the drama as passes without intervention of time or change of place.
pause makes a
new
act.
In
every real and therefore
in
every
imitative action,
may be more or fewer, the restriction of five acts being accidental and arbitrary. This Shakespeare knew his plays were written, and at first printed, in and this he practised
the intervals
;
one unbroken
continuity.
."
119
120

Of
the thirty-six plays which appear in the
division into acts
first
folio six of
them
a late
have no
Juliet
one.
is
and
scenes,
and
of
these six
Romeo and
is
an early written play, while
Anthony and Cleopatra

into acts
is
Ten
of the plays are divided
but are without any
further division of scenes,
and among these ten
Titus Andronicus,
a very early play, and Coriolanus, a very late one. Eight of the one has an act-division omitted are irregular in their divisions plays
;
altogether as in
The Taming of the Shrew

into
in
Henry VI. Part

;
I.
some
of the acts are divided
scenes
and not others
while in
Hamlet, after Act II. scene ii., there are no Out of the whole thirty- six plays, in this first
in the
further divisions
folio,
made.
there are only six

similar to those
volume having
in
divisions
in
acts
;
and scenes
six
shown
the printed editions to-day
and these
include
The Two
Gentlemen of Verona,
twenty years
later.
together with
it
Now
The Tempest, a comedy written seems incredible that this wide divergence
plays,
of treatment of divisions in Shakespeare's
collected under
one
cover,
should have been accidentally overlooked by the editors, or sanctioned by the publishers without comment. Perhaps the editors looked upon the inserted act and scene divisions as matters of
little
importance since
they were aware that twenty-one

in print, in
of the plays
had
separate quartos, without any divisions already appeared at all. And some of these printed plays were still being acted at the
"
Globe,"
if
also,
it
may be presumed,
mark the
without regular intervals.
Then
the editors realized that the divisions they the folio failed to
were adding
to the plays
in
conclusion of definite incidents, or even
to denote changes of locality, they
may have
intentionally
abandoned
the task of completion as an impossible one.
768) pointed out the need for a solution of this act and scene difficulty when he wrote in a preface to his edition of " Neither can the representation be managed Shakespeare's plays
Capell long ago
(
1 :
nor the order and thread of the fable be properly conceived by the Unfortunreader till the question of acts and scenes be adjusted ".
ately,
Capell could
prescribe
no remedy.
To-day
and
act
and
scene
divisions
appear
in all
modern
editions unadjusted
unintelligible.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF RECENT ACCESSIONS THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

The
classification of the items in
this
list is
TO
in
accordance with
the main divisions of the

interest of those readers,
Dewey Decimal System," and in the who may not be familiar with the system, it
"
may be
method
advisable briefly to point out the advantages claimed for this

of arrangement.
The principal advantage of a classified catalogue, as distinguished from an alphabetical one, is that it preserves the unity of the subject, and by so doing enables a student to follow its various ramifications
with ease and certainty.
Related matter
is
thus brought together, and

it
the reader turns to one sub-division and round

others
he
finds
grouped
lines
which are intimately connected with

of the great merits of the
it.
In this
way new
that
it is
of research are often suggested.
One
system employed
is
easily
capable of comprehension by persons previously unacquainted with it. Its distinctive feature is the employment of the ten digits, in their
ordinary significance, to the exclusion of
all
other symbols
hence the
name, decimal system.
The sum
Dr.
of
human knowledge and

main
classes 0,
1 ,
activity has
been divided by
Dewey
into ten
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
These
1
ten classes are each separated in a similar manner, thus

divisions.
An
extension of the process provides
000
making 00 sections, which
can be
still
further sub-divided in accordance with
the nature and
requirements of the subject.

at
Places for
new
subjects
any point of the scheme by the introduction of For the purpose of this list we have not thought
may be provided new decimal points.

necessary to carry
it
the classification beyond the hundred main divisions, the arrangement

of
which
:
will
be found
in
the
"
Order
"
of Classification
which
follows
122

ORDER OF CLASSIFICATION.
500 Natural Science.
510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590
ooo General Works.

oio 020 030 040 050 060 070 080
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
LIBRARY ECONOMY.
MATHEMATICS. ASTRONOMY.
PHYSICS.
GENERAL CYCLOPEDIAS. GENERAL COLLECTIONS. GENERAL PERIODICALS. GENERAL SOCIETIES.

NEWSPAPERS. SPECIAL LIBRARIES.
POLYGRAPHY.
BOOK RARITIES. 090 100 Philosophy. 600 1 10 610 METAPHYSICS. 120 SPECIAL METAPHYSICAL TOPICS. 620 MIND AND BODY. 130 630 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS. 140 640 1 MENTAL FACULTIES. PSYCHOLOGY. 650 COMMUNICATION AND COMMERCE. 50 1 60 LOGIC. 660 CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. ETHICS. MANUFACTURES. 170 670 1 80 ANCIENT PHILOSOPHERS. 680 MECHANIC TRADES. MODERN PHILOSOPHERS. BUILDING. 190 690 200 Religion. 700 Fine Arts. 210 NATURAL THEOLOGY. LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 710 220 BIBLE. ARCHITECTURE. 720 DOCTRINAL THEOL. DOGMATICS. SCULPTURE. 230 730 DEVOTIONAL AND PRACTICAL. 240 740 DRAWING, DESIGN, DECORATION. HOMILETIC. PASTORAL. PAROCHIAL. 750 PAINTING. 250 260 ENGRAVING. CHURCH. INSTITUTIONS. WORK. 760 PHOTOGRAPHY. RELIGIOUS HISTORY. 270 770 280 CHRISTIAN CHURCHES AND SECTS. Music. 780 AMUSEMENTS. NON-CHRISTIAN RELIGIONS. 290 790 800 Literature. 300 Sociology.
310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490
STATISTICS.
8 10
CHEMISTRY. GKOLOGY. PALEONTOLOGY. BIOLOGY. BOTANY. ZOOLOGY. Useful Arts. MEDICINE. ENGINEERING. AGRICULTURE.
AMERICAN.
ENGLISH.
POLITICAL SCIENCE. POLITICAL ECONOMY.
820
830 840 850 860 870 880
890
LAW. ADMINISTRATION.
ASSOCIATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS.
GERMAN. FRENCH.
ITALIAN.
SPANISH.
LATIN.
EDUCATION.
COMMERCE AND COMMUNICATION.

CUSTOMS. COSTUMES. FOLK-LORE.
GREEK.
MINOR LANGUAGES.
400 Philology.
COMPARATIVE.
ENGLISH.
900 History. GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION. 910

920 930 940 950 960 980
99<>
GERMAN. FRENCH.
ITALIAN. SPANISH. LATIN.
BIOGRAPHY. ANCIENT HISTORY. EUROPE.

ASIA.
AFRICA.
970^ NORTH AMERICA.
GREEK.
S SOUTH
MINOR LANGUAGES.
AMERICA. OCEANICA AND POLAR REGIONS.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF RECENT ACCESSIONS

500
123
NATURAL SCIENC
GENERAL.
WARD
New
prising
(Lester Frank) Glimpses of the cosmos. By L. F. Ward. (Comhis minor contributions now republished, together with bio.
. .
graphical and historical sketches of all his writings.) York and London, 1915. 8vo. In progress.
4.
[With
plates.]
40564
Period, 1885-1893.
1915.
540
NATURAL SCIENCE
...
CHEMISTRY.
Sir
THORPE
(Sir Thomas
8vo, pp.
Enfield Roscoe.
Edward) The Right Honourable

biographical
sketch.
Henry
Lon41 157
[With
portrait.]
don, 1916.
viii,
207.
570
NATURAL SCIENCE ARCH/EOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY.

:
BEUCHAT
.
. .
(Henri)
Manuel d'archeologie
. .
americaine.
. .
Amerique
.
pre-
historique-civilisations disparues.
xli,
Preface par H. Vignaud. tables and illustrations.] Paris, 1912. 8vo, pp. [With folding 773. 41967
.
R
.
BREUIL
Breuil
(Henri)
. .
.
La Pileta a Benaojan, Malaga, Espagne. Par H. et Willoughby Verner. H. Obermaier [With plates
. .
.
and illustrations.] Peintures et [Institut de Paleontologie Humaine. Gravures Murales des Cavernes Paleolithiques.] Monaco, 1915. 4to, R 35845 PP 65.
.
CAMERON
the
(A. A.)
note on the Palaungs of the
Kodaung
hill tracts
of
Mongmit
State.
[With
illustrations.]
Rangoon,
1912.
61.
8vo, pp. 41 303
CATLIN (George)
tion of the
Letters and notes on the manners, customs, and condiNorth American Indians. By G. Catlin. Written during eight years' travel amongst the wildest tribes of Indians in North With America, in 1832, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, and 39. illustrations London, 1841. engraved from his original paintings.
. . . . . . .
.
2vols.
8vo.
41 399
CROOKS
(William)
The
tribes
and
castes of the
andOudh.
of
[With
plates.]
Calcutta, 1896.
North-Western Provinces 4 vols. 8vo. R 41 280

his story
. .
ELLIOTT (George
illustrations
Francis Scott) Prehistoric
man and
a sketch
.
the history of
mankind from the
earliest
times.
With
&
diagrams.
[Story Library.]
London,
1915.
398.
R
New
8vo, pp. 41 118
HAVEMEYER
Conn., 1916.
(Loomis)
The drama
viii,
of savage peoples.
8vo, pp.
274.
. . .
R R
Haven, 41946
3
vols.
INDIA.
8vo.
Ethnographical survey of India.
Rangoon, 1909-10.
41297
Burma.
2.
3.
Carrapiett
(W. J.
1
S.)
The
Salons.
of habits
1909.
Jamieson (E.) Description 909. known as Lahus.

4.
and customs
1910.
of the Muhso's,
black and red, also
Lowis (C. C.) The
tribes of
Burma.
124
570

NATURAL SCIENCE ARCH/EOLOQY AND ANTHROPOLOGY.
:
. . .
KOCHER
la
(Auguste) De la criminalite chez les Arabcs au point de vue de pratique medico- judiciaire en Algerie. [Laboratoire de Medecine Paris, 1884. 8vo, pp. 244. Legale de la Faculte de Lyon.j
40527
1915.
PEARL (Raymond) Modes

8vo, pp.
vii,
of research in genetics.
New
York,
182.
R
R
41093
PlTTARD ATCC
.
(Eugene) Les peuples des Balkans.

. .
cartes et
figures.
Esquisses anthropologiques. 8vo, Paris, NeuchAtel, [1917?].
pp. 142.
41964
PLAYFAIR
(A.)
The
Bampfylde government of London, 1909. maps.
Fuller,
With an introduction by Sir J. Garos. Published under the orders of the K.C.S.I. With illustrations and Eastern Bengal and Assam.
.
.
8vo, pp. xvi, 172.

tribes
41
772
RlSLEY (Herbert Hope) The

pometric data.
and castes of Bengal.

2
vols.
Anthro-
Calcutta, 1891.
8vo.
41276
SIERRA LEONE.
cote
W.
Thomas.
8vo.
By NorthAnthropological report on Sierra Leone. Government Anthropologist. London, 1916.

. . .
vols.
2.
3.
41097
Timne- English dictionary. 1916. Timne grammar and stories. 1916.
SMITH
(William Ramsay) Australian conditions and problems from the

.
. Presidential standpoint of present anthropological knowledge. address to the section of Anthropology of the Australasian Association
.
for the
Advancement
of Science,
Melbourne, 1913.
Sydney, 1913.
8vo, pp. 24.
R
Mikirs
:
41
030
STACK (Edward) The
from the papers
of
... Edward
Stack.
Published Edited, arranged and supplemented by Sir Charles Lyall. under the orders of the government of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
Illustrated.
London, 1908.
8vo, pp.
xvii,
183.
India.
41 773
. .
.
THURSTON
plates.
viii,
.
(Edgar) Ethnographic notes

.
in southern
With
First edition.
Second
issue.
Madras, 1907.
580.
R
:
8vo, pp. 41 196
WEBSTER
and
(Hutton) Primitive secret societies a study New York, \9Q&. 8vo, pp. xiii, 227. religion.
in
early politics
41995
WlLKEN
(G. A.) Plechtigheden en gebruiken bij verlovingen en huwede volken van den Indischen Archipel. Eerste stuk. [Over" Bijdragen ' tot de taal-, land-en volkenkunde van gedrukt uit de 39255 Nederlandsch-Indie," 5, i.J Sgravenhage, 1886. 8vo.
lijken bij
*.*
No
more published.

580
125
NATURAL SCIENCE
BOTANY.
JACKSON
(Benjamin Daydon) glossary of botanic terms with their Third edition, revised and enlarged. Londentation and accent. 41018 don, 1916. 8vo, pp. xi, 427.
. .
590
NATURAL SCIENCE
it
ZOOLOGY.
:
ENGLAND.
stud.
A to the state [by W. Hall Walker] the national A memorial of compiled, edited & decorated by George A.
gift
Fothergill, with portraits
by Lynwood Palmer
luxe.
&
the editor.
burgh\
1916.
of
** One
Fol., pp. xv, 235.

This copy
is
R
No. 202.
\Edin-
41679
325 copies forming an edition de
NEWALL
(Charles
illustrations.
With F.) The problem of pain in nature. [With a foreword by C. A. H., i.e. C. A. Hall.]
. .
Paisley, 1917.
8vo, pp. 131.
41970
610
USEFUL ARTS
.
MEDICINE.
du
travail.
.
. .
AMAR
pp.
(Jules)
Organisation
.
.
physiologique
Preface
1917.
de
8vo,
Henry Le
xii,
Chatelier.
[With
idea
illustrations.]
Part's^
374.
(Joannes)
.
R
The
.
41984
JONSTONUS
. .
.
of
practical
.
physick in twelve books.

. .
Written in Latin by John Johnston. There is now added Nicholas Culpeper.

.
And
Englished,
for such as desire
by them
;
divers
physical treatises.
. .
.
And many
cures.
... By Abdiah
Cole.
The second
630
edition.
London, 1661.
:
Fol.
41 173
USEFUL ARTS
Handbook
ii, ii,
AGRICULTURE.
.
. .
MUKERJI
(Nitya Gopal)
of sericulture.
[With
illustrations.]
Calcutta, 1912.
SYO, pp.
298.
41273
650
USEFUL ARTS: PRINTING, PUBLISHING,
ETC.
GESELLSCHAFT FUER TYPENKUNDE DES

Beitrage zur Inkunabelkunde.
XV
JAHRHUNDERTS.
fur
4to.
Herausgegeben von der Gesellschaft

\Uppsalaprinted, 1907-12.]
urn das Jahr 1479.
.
Typenkunde des
progress.
1.
XV.
Jahrh.
In 14132
Lange (H. O.) Eine merseburger Buchdruckerei
(1907).
2.
3.
4.
Haebler (C.) Der Capotius-Drucker M. Landsberg. [19071. Lange (H. O.) Der Drucker J. Limburg in Munsler. .[1908]. Haebler (C.) J. Griininger der Drucker des Missale mil dem Kanon P. Schoffers.
.
[1911].
5.
Haebler (C.) Die merseburger Druckerei von 1479 und
ihr Meister.
[1912].
Veroffentlichungen der Gesellschaft fur Typenkunde des XV. Von Victor Madsen. Jahrhunderts. Typenregister zu Tafel 1-665. 4to. 14132 Halle. [1914]. *.* The title is taken from the wrapper.
126
650

USEFUL ARTS: PRINTING, PUBLISHING, ETC
GESELLSCHAFT FUER TYPENKUNDE DES

[A
series of plates giving
XV
JAHRHUNDERTS.
examples
of types
used
in the fifteenth century.]
[n.p., n.d.)
Obi. 8vo.
14132
LEGROS
printing- surfaces
(Lucien Alphonse) and GRANT (J onn Cameron) Typographical the technology and mechanism of their production. and illustrations.) London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 732. [With plates
:
R
LE VERDIER
la
41355
(Pierre) L'atelier de Guillaume

:
Le
.
.
Talleur, premier im-
primeur rouennais
histoire et bibliographic.
Ouvrage public pawRouen, 1916.
Societe francaise de bibliographic. 4to, pp. 178.
[With
facsimiles.)
R
GENERAL.
(Abbot) The
:
40580
**
300 copies
printed.
700 FINE
book
lace
of early
ARTS
and
EBERLEIN (Harold Donaldson) and

American
arts
MACCLURE
.
practical
crafts.
With a chapter on
.
early
illustrations the drawby Mabel Foster Bainbridge. With Abbot MacC lure. Philadelphia and London, 1916. 8vo, pp. ings by
.
.
iii,
339.
of.
42400
GONZAGA, Family
nel 1627-28.
La
galleria dei
Gonzaga venduta
all'
Inghilterra
ed
illustrati
vi,
8vo, pp.
Documenti degli archivi di Mantova e Londra raccolti da Alessandro Luzio. Milano, 1913. [With plates.) 324. R 42 179
HAM LIN
(Alfred medieval. .
. .
Dwight Foster)
history of
ornament
ancient and
With
illustrations.
New
York, [1916],
pp. xxiv, 406.
8vo, 421 57
PORTFOLIO.
Fol.
The
portfolio
an
.
artistic
periodical.
Gilbert Hamerton.
With
illustrations.
Edited by Philip London, 1870-93. 24 vols.
R
Tradotta ed
8vo.
41
444
S*ROUX D'ACINCOURT
risorgimento nel xvi.
.
(Jean Baptiste Louis Georges) Storia dell' arte dimostrata coi monument! dalla sua decadenza nel iv secolo fino al suo
.
illustrata
Prato, \S26-29.
vols.
da Stefano Ticozzi. R 42189

[With
plates.)
TIFFANY
Garden
francais
(Louis Comfort) The art work of L. C. Tiffany. 4to, pp. xxxi, 90. City, New York, 1914.
40749
UNION DE FRANCE
Exposition d'art Pays 1' Union de France pour la organisee par Album commemoratif compreBelgique et les pays allies et amis. nant planches en couleurs reproductions monochromes et les tableaux de Walter Gay. Etudes et catalogue ded'apres
pour
la
Belgique
et les
Allies.
du XVIII e
.
siecle
scriptif
par
...
L. Roger-Miles.
This copy
ii
Paris, 1916.
136.
4to, pp. 90.
41
654
**
300 copies
printed.
No.

700 FINE ARTS:
127
GENERAL.
described
USHER
(James
:
Ward)
An art collector's treasures illustrated and

.
. . .
by himself
formed by
tions
. . .
being a record historical and descriptive of the art collection

.
.
illustra1886-1914. J. W. Usher Containing reproduced from the author's own water-colour drawings. London, 1916. Fol., [With introduction by George C. Williamson.]
.
PP
xir,
223.
printed.
R 41490
fine arts
**
300 copies
WASHINGTON.
of the National
The
National Gallery of Art
department of
.
. .
Museum.
[Smithsonian Institution. Washington, 1909. 8vo, pp. 140.
By Richard Rathbun. [With plates.] United States National Museum. Bulletin 70.]
Washington, 1909.
of
its
R 21285
R410H
Reprint
with additions.
8vo, pp. 189.
WlCKHOFF
to
early
(Franz) Roman art Christian painting.

.
some
. . . . .
principles
and
.
their application
Translated and edited by Mrs.

plates
S.
Arthur Strong. London, 1900.
With
and
text
illustrations.
4to, pp. xiv. 198.
R 42360
:
.
WILLIAMSON (George
memorial
tribute.
.
Charles)
.
[With
illustrations.]
The Lord Ronald Sutherland-Gower a " " Khaki for April, 1916. Reprinted from 40600 8vo, pp. 267-276. [London, 1916.]
WlNCKELMANN
(Johann Joachim) Histoire de 1'art de 1'antiquite. Traduite de 1'allemand par M. Huber. [With illustrations.] Leipzig, 4to. 1781. 3vols. 34774
.
. .
720 FINE ARTS:
ARCHITECTURE.
.
.
COX
(J
!111
illustrations.
Charles) Bench ends in English churches. Oxford, 1916. [Church Art in England.]
With
8vo, pp.
vii,
208.
42321
GOODYEAR
mental architecture.
(William Henry) Greek refinements studies in temperaYale University [With plates and illustrations.]
:
Press, 1912.
Fol., pp. xx, 227.
R
SCULPTURE, ETC.
classified for
40988
730 FINE ARTS:
ANSON
(L.)
Numismata Graeca
.
Greek coin-types
London,
immediate
vols.
identification.
[With
plates.]
1910-11.
4to.
In progress.
R
R
35361
BARNARD
board
:
(Francis Pierrepont) The casting-counter and the countinga chapter in the history of numismatics and early arithmetic. 42106 4to, PP 357. Oxford, 1916. [With plates.]
.
CROSTHWAITE
vinces.
(H. S.) Monograph on stone carving in the United ProR 41286 Allahabad, \Wb. 4to, pp. 33. [With plates.]
128

730 FINE ARTS:
SCULPTURE, ETC.
et
ORGY
(Charles de)
Due
de Croy
aurea,
d*Arschot.
aerea,
.
Regum
a
.
et
Romanorum numismata
et
argentea,
Romulo
impcratorum et C. lul.
:
Caesare usque ad lustinianum
Arschotani
insigni
auctario
.
.
Caroli, ducis Croyiaci Aug. Cura nunc congesta, eerique incisa [by J. de Bie] brevi commentario illustrata [by A. locupletata,
.
.
Olim
&
Accessere Anfonii Augustmi, archiep. Tarraconensis, Romanar. Hispanarumq. in nummis veterum, dialogi. [Edited antiquitatum R 42197 by J. C. Gevartius.] Antverpia, 1654. Fol., pp. 103.
Rubenius.]
.
DONALD
(James) Monograph on ivory carving 8vo, pp. 6. Shillong, 1900. by authority.
in
Assam.
Published
R 41774
Du MOLINET
Innocentium
(Claude) Historia summorum pontificum a Martino v. ad XI per eorum numismata, ab anno. MCCCC.XVII ad ann. M.DC.LXXV1II. [With plates and illustrations.] Lutetia:, 1679.
Fol., pp. 226.

*,*
42200
The
engraved. In an armorial binding.

title-page
it
ENGLEFIELD (Sir Henry

lection of Sir
Charles) Bart.
.
Ancient vases from the col-
Henry
Plates.
Englefield, Bart.
.
.
Drawn and engraved by Henry

edition.]
Moses.
[Second
London
1848.
8vo,
pp.12.
*.* There
is
R
plate of
41608
the
also an engraved title-page.
EVANS
(John
Thomas) The church

;
Breconshire.
With
chantry certificates relating to the county of Brecon by the commissioners extracts from the returns of church goods in 6 of 2 Edward VI, 1 548
&
notes on registers, bells, and families; VI,- 1552-1553 and appendix on the saints of Breconshire, by ... A. W. WadeStow-on-the- Wold, 1912. Evans. 4to, pp. xviii, [With plates.]
Edward
.
160.
41498
The church plate of Carmarthenshire. With the chantry certificates relating to the county of Carmarthen by the commissioners of 2 Edward 7 Edward VI, 1 548 ; extracts from the returns of church goods in 6
&
VI, 1552-1553 and addenda and corrigenda to "The church plate of Pembrokeshire ". London, 1907. 4to, pp. xxxii, 148. [With plates.]
;
R41496
The church plate of Pembrokeshire. certificates relating to the county of Pembroke
; ;
To which is
added the chantry

of 2
Edward VI, 1548 extracts from the returns of church goods in 6 & 7 Edward VI, 1552-1553 and notes on the dedications of Pembrokeshire
. . .
by the commissioners
churches.
[With
plates.]
London, 1905.
4to, pp. xxxii, 147.
41646
With the chantry certificates replate of Radnorshire. county of Radnor by the commissioners of 2 Edward VI, 548 notes on registers, bells, and families and appendix on the primi. tive saints of Radnorshire by ... A. W. Wade- Evans. [With
lating to the
1 ; ;
.
The church
plates.]
Stow-on-the- Wold, 1910.
4to, pp. xxiv, 160.
41497

730 FINE
129
ARTS: SCULPTURE, ETC.
HENN1KER
[With
(F. C.)
plates.]
The gold and silver wares of Assam, a monograph. 41467 4to, pp. xxxiii, 13. Shillong, 1905.
LONGMAN
sellers
&
.
(W.) Tokens
. .
of the eighteenth century connected with bookbookmakers, authors, printers, publishers, engravers and paper
makers.
With
illustrations.
London, 1916.
8vo, pp. 90.
41406
MAFFEY
1903.
(John Loader)
4to, pp. 34.
vinces of
Agra and Oudh.
monograph on wood carving in the united proAllahabad, [With plates and illustrations.] R 41285
in
MAJID
(A.) Monograph on wood-carving
Assam.
Published by
authority.
[With
plates.]
Shillong, 1903.
8vo, pp. 10.

in
41469
plate.]
PRATT
(H. S.) Monograph on ivory carving

8vo, pp. 6.
in
Burma.
[With
Rangoon, 1901.
41301
RANGOON.
Catalogue of coins 1909. Fol., pp. 8. Rangoon,

of.
the
Phayre
Provincial
Museum. R 41296
drawn by by George R 42203
RUSHOUT, Family
Sicily.
.
. .
Specimens
of ancient coins of
Magna
text
Graecia and
:
Selected from the cabinet of
... Lord
Northwick
and engraved by Henry Moses. The Del Frate Fol., pp. 63. London, 1826. Henry Noehden.
. . .
TlLLY (Harry
Klier.
L.)
Modern Burmese
silverwork.
Rangoon, 1904.
Fol., pp. 8.
With photographs by P. R 41305

P. Klier.
The
silverwork of Burma.
Fol., pp. 22.
of
With photographs by
Ran41304
goon, 1902.
R
Klier.
Wood-carving
goon, 1903.
Fol.,
Burma.
.
With photographs by P.
Ran-
PP
of.
14.
WYNDHAM,
[With
Family
antiquities in the possession of
Catalogue of the collection of Greek Lord Leconfield. By Margaret Wyndham.
R 41471 & Roman R

42207
London, 1915. 4to, pp. xxiii, 142. plates.] *.* 200 copies printed for private circulation. This copy is No. 62.
750 FINE
ARTS: PAINTING.
The Royal
Scottish
ROYAL SCOTTISH ACADEMY.

1916
:
Academy, 1826-
a complete list of the exhibited works by Raeburn and by academicians, associates and hon. members, giving details of those works in Compiled under the direction of Frank Rinder with public galleries.
the sanction of the president and council. With a historical narrative of the origin and development of the Royal Scottish Academy by D. Preceded by an essay on academies and art by F. Rinder. M'Kay.
W.
[With
plates.]
Glasgow, 1917.
4to, pp. cxxxvi, 485.
41972
130

750 FINE ARTS: PAINTING.
(Willard
.
WRIGHT
meaning. 352.
Huntington)
.
Modern
painting
its
tendency
8vo,
and
pp.
With
reproductions.
London, 1916.
41
584
:
DELACROIX
(Ferdinand Victor Eugene) Delacroix, raconte par lui-meme etude biographique d'apres ses lettres, son journal, etc. Par tienne
Moreau-Nelaton.
cipales ceuvres. ** 450 copies
Accompagnee
Paris, 1916.
2
is
vols.
d'illustrations reproduisant ses prin4to. 41384
printed.
This copy
.
No. 128.
.
DURET
With
.
(Theodore) Whistler.
. .
Translated by Frank Rutter.

4to, pp. 135.
reproductions.
London, 1917.
R
R
41802
LAFOND
[With plates.] [Collection (Paul) Roger van der Weyden. des Grands Artistes des Pays-Bas.] Bruxelles, Paris, 1912. 8vo, 421 84 pp.127.
(Johann
.
PASSAVANT
Santi.
.
.
David)
Raphael d'Urbin
refaite,
et
Edition
franâise,
corrigee
.
son pere Giovanni et considerablement

.
augmentee par 1'auteur sur la traduction de Paul Lacroix. revue et annotee par.
. . . .
Jules
Paris,
1860.
Lunteschutz 2 vols.
;
8vo.
R
.
. .
42188
a pre[191 1].
SPARROW
face
(Walter Shaw-) John Lavery and his work. [With plates.] by R. B. Cunninghame Graham.
With
London,
4to, pp. xxxiv. 209.
41 641
760 FINE ARTS:
ENGRAVING.
Edited by
ARTISTIC CRAFTS
Lethaby.
series of technical
London, 1916.
8vo.
handbooks. In progress.
W.
R.
Fletcher (F. M.) Wood-block printing : a description of the craft of wood-cutting and colour-printing based on the Japanese practice. . . . With drawings and illustrations by the author and A. Seaby. ... 41 361
W.
BOSTON
from the Liber studiorum Mallord William Turner formed by ... Francis Bullard and bequeathed by him to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston. [With
:
A catalogue of the collection of prints
of Joseph
prefatory note
Boston
by Grenville Lindall Winthrop.] Fol., pp. 203. privately printed, 1916.
[With
illustrations.]
R 42
72
au
GUSMAN
(Pierre)
La gravure
sur bois et d'epargne sur metal
du
XIV
XX'siecle.
[With
illustrations.]
Paris,
1916.
4to, pp.
299.
40657
770 FINE ARTS:
PHOTOGRAPHY.
:
GOWER
record
(H. D.) The camera as
historian
a handbook to photographic
.
work
. .
for those
societies.
By H.
.
who use Gower

.
a camera and for survey or record and W. W. L. Stanley Jast

.
Topley.
pp.
[With plates and
illustrations.]
London,
1916.
8vo,
',259.
41338

780 FINE ARTS: MUSIC.
131
FOLK SONG SOCIETY.

don, 1904]
* *
Journal of the Folk-Song Society.
etc.
1
4to.
In progress.
which have been reprinted.
{Lon-
41337
Vol.
consists of parts
790 FINE
ARTS: AMUSEMENTS.
antique
EMMANUEL
painted
(Maurice)
. .
The
figures.
Translated
Greek dance after sculptured and With by Harriet Jean Beauley.
drawings by A. Collombar and the author. pp. xxviii, 304.
New
York, 1916.
8vo,
R 42384
FOURNEL
Les spectacles (Francois Victor) Tableau du vieux Paris. 8vo, pp. vi, 420. Paris, 1863. populaires et les artistes des rues.
R 22675
WINTER
(William) Vagrant memories

.
other days.
[With
plates.]
being further recollections of London, 1916. STO, pp. 525.

:
R
:
41 165
800
LITERATURE
GENERAL.
[Third edition.]
ADAM
[Collection Bellum.]
(Paul Auguste Marie) La litterature et la guerre. Paris, 1916. 8vo, pp. 131.
R 41961
DOUGLAS
(Charles Noel) Forty thousand quotations prose and poetical choice extracts on history, science, philosophy, religion, literature, etc.,
selected from the standard authors of ancient and
modern
times
classi-
fied
according
to subject.
London, 1916.
8vo, pp. 2000.
R
R
:
41326
LAMBORN
(E. A. Greening) 8vo, pp. 191.
The
rudiments of criticism.
Oxford, 1916.
42103
MOULTON
(Richard Green) The modern study of literature an introduction to literary theory and interpretation. 8vo, Chicago, [1915]. 40652 pp. xii, 530.
RALEIGH
(Sir
Walter
8vo, pp.
Alexander)
viii,
Style.
Twelfth
impression.
London, 1916.
129.
R
J.
42163
RANSOMS
ment
8vo, pp.
(Arthur)
xviii,
history of story-telling.
.
of narrative.
With
portraits
by
Studies Gavin.
in the
develop-
318.
London, 1909. R 42424
REICH (Hermann) Der Mimus.

Versuch.
[With folding
plate.]
Ein litterar-entwickelungsgeschichtlicher R 13207 8vo. Berlin, 1903.
810
LITERATURE: AMERICAN.
EASTBURN
(lola Kay) Whittier's relation to German life and thought : a thesis presented to the faculty of the graduate school of the University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy. [University of Pennsylvania. 8vo, pp. 161. manica, 20.] {Philadelphia}, 1915.
Americana GerR 41016
132

810
LITERATURE: AMERICAN.
The works
and
.
FRANKLIN
(Benjamin)
of B. Franklin.
Including the private,
correspondence, together with the unmutilated and correct version of the autobiography. Compiled and edited by John Bigelow. (Federal edition.) [With plates.] New 8vo. 12 vols. 40893 York, 1905.
as well as the
official
scientific
*,* There
is
also an
engraved title-page to each volume.
The
original
life
of B. Franklin, written
manuscripts and
by himself. Now first edited from from his printed correspondence and other
. . .
writings,
by John Bigelow. 3 vols. Philadelphia, \W\b\.

(Richard
plates.]
Fifth edition, revised.
Illustrated.
8vo.
41573
GlLDER
[With
daughter
Watson) Rosamond Gilder.
W. Gilder: edited by his [With prefatory note by Ferris Greenslet.j R 42 56 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. ix, 5 5.
Letters of R.
1
1
LINCOLN (Abraham) President of the United

coveries and inventions.
States of America.
Dis41 793
lecture
by A. Lincoln
delivered in 1860.
[With
portrait]
San
Francisco, 1915.
8vo, [pp. 24].
ROBINS (Edward) Benjamin
Franklin : printer, statesman, philosopher and [With facsimiles and plates.] [American practical citizen 1 706- 1 790. York and London, 1898. 8vo, pp. ix, 354. of Energy.]
Men
New
41600
SHEPHERD
upon
(Henry Elliott) The representative authors of Maryland from the earliest time to the present day with biographical notes and comments
their
work.
sociation.]
New
[With
portraits.]
York, 1911.
[Randall Literary Memorial As40910 8vo, pp. 234.
WlLSON (Thomas Woodrow)

Mere
literature;
President of the United States of America. and other essays. London, 1914. 8vo, pp. 247.
42298
811
LITERATURE: AMERICAN: POETRY.

of E. Field.
FlELD (Eugene) The poems

trait.]
Complete
553.
. .
edition.
[With por-
London, [1911].
(Percy)
8vo, pp.
xii,
.
R
York, 1916.
42377
2
vols.
MACK AYE
8vo.
Poems and
plays.
New
R
satires.
41 119
viii,
MASTERS
172.
(Edgar Lee) Songs and

the
London, 1916.
8vo, pp.
R 41407
portrait.]
MlFFLIN (Lloyd) At
London, 1901.
gates
of
song:
sonnets.
[With
8vo, pp. 150.
R R
42078
Edited
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY.
by Alfred Noyes.
A book of
vi,
Princeton verse, 1916.

8vo, pp.
xviii,
Princeton, 1916.
187.
42101
RAYMOND
(George Lansing) Dante, and collected

1
verse.
New
and London,
909.
8vo, pp.
329.
York 9603

812
133
LITERATURE: AMERICAN: DRAMA.
DREISER (Theodore)
1916.
Plays of the natural and the supernatural. 8vo, pp. 228, 4.
New
York,
41
798
820
LITERATURE
ENGLISH
GENERAL.
BEN HAM
(Allen Rogers) English literature from Widsith to the death of Chaucer a source book. [Yale University Henry Weldon Barnes Memorial Publication Fund.] New Haven, 1916. 8vo, pp. xxviii, 634. R 41 682
;
BlBLIOTHEK DER ANGELSACHSISCHEN PROSA. Begnindet von ChW. M. Grein. Fortgesetzt von R. P. Wiilker. Herausgegeben von Hans Hecht. R 9048 Hamburg, 1914. 8vo. In progress.
.
Die Hirtenbriefe Aelfries in altenglischer und lateinischer Fassung. und mil Ubersetzung und Einleitung versehen von B. Febr.
9.
Herausgegebei
BOYD
(Ernest A.) Ireland's literary renaissance. 1916. 8vo, pp. 415.
Dublin and London, R 41364

Sir
CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Edited by W. Ward ... and A. R. Waller. Cambridge, 1916.
. . .
8vo.
In progress.
13-14.
R
nineteenth century.
II (-III).
14263
The
DUNN
(Waldo H.) English

London, 1916.
biography.
[The Channels
of
English
literature.]
8vo, pp. xxi, 323.

[Publications.]
R 41 591
London, 1916-17.
EARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY.

In progress.
4668
Original Series. 1 32. Metham (J.) The works of J. Metham including the romance of Araoryus and Cleopes. (Edited from the unique ms. in the Garret t collection in the library of Princeton University, by 1916. H.Craig. . . 47. Jesus Christ. The northern passion : French text, variants and fragments, etc. Edited Introduction, Old French passion, variants and fragments, by F. A. Foster . . [Vol. 2.] notes and glossary. 1916. 1 50. Chrodegang, Saint, Bishop of Metz. The Old English version of the enlarged rule of Chrodegang together with the Latin original. An Old English version of the capitula of Theoduif together with the Latin original. An interlinear Old English rendering of the epitome of Benedict of Aniane. By A. S. Napier. . . . 1916. 151. Lantern. The lantern of lizt. Edited from ms. Harl. 2324 by L. M. Swinburv.
. 1 :
.
.1917.
Extra Series.
1 1
6.
Bible.
The
Pauline
epistles,
Cambridge.
Edited by
M.
J.
Powell
contained in ms. Parker 32, Corpus Christ College. 1916.

i
HEARN
Selected and edited (Lafcadio) Interpretations of literature. with an introduction by John Erskine. With frontispiece. London, 1916. 2vols. 8vo. 41 052
. . . .
Lectures on English literature chiefly of the nineteenth century. 2. Miscellaneous lectures chiefly on English literature.
1 .
KOERTING
(Gustav) Grundriss der Geschichte der englischen Litteratur von ihren Anfangen bis zur Gegenwart. [Sammlung von Kompendien fur das Studium und die Praxis. I Serie 1.] Miinster i. W., 1887.
xvi,
8vo, pp.
412.
R 41560
134

820
LITERATURE
ENGLISH
GENERAL.
1914.
8vo.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
progress.
General Rule.
[Publications.]
London,
R
A
. .
In 39025
fifteenth-century courtesy book. (A general! rule to teche euery man Edited willynge for to lerne. to serve a lorde or mayster in euery thyng to his plesure.) from the ms. by R. W. Chambers. . And, two fifteenth-century Franciscan rules. Edited
that
is
from the ms. by
W. W.
Seton.
RALEIGH
Clark
(Sir Walter Alexander) Romance: two

at
lectures.
Lectures
[Louis 84.
delivered
Princeton
University,
May
4th and
5th,
1915.
Vanuxem
Foundation.]
Princeton,
1916.
8vo,
pp.
R
SCOTT
(Dixon) Men of letters. Beerbohm. [Edited by A. St. London, 1916. [With portrait.]
104.
.
41681
With an
i.e.
introduction
St.
J.
A.,
Arthur
by Max John Adcock.]
8vo, pp. xix, 306.
41342
41
WATSON
8vo, PP
.
(William) Pencraft: a plea for the older ways.
London, 1917.
339
WATTS,
faces.
afterwards [With portraits.]
WATTS-DUNTON
(Walter Theodore) Old familiar R 39694 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. 303.
WELLS
manual of the writings in Middle English, (John Edwin) New 1050-1400. [Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.] R 41932 Haven, 1916. 8vo, pp. xv, 941.
.
821
LITERATURE: ENGLISH POETRY.

.
. . . .
EARLY
Die zweite Version der mittel-englischen ALEXIS, Saint. Alex.'us Legenden. Von J. Schipper. [Aus dem Jahrgange 1887 der Sitzungsberichte der phil.-hist. Classe der kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften, cxiv. Bd. II. Hft. S. 231, besonders abgedruckt.]
.
Wien, 1887.
Sir.
8vo,
PP
78.
41545
AMADACE, Ghost-thanks, or the grateful unburied, a mythic tale in its oldest European form, Sir Amadace, a Middle-North-English
metrical
romance
of the thirteenth century.

.
Reprinted from two

. .
texts,
[i.e.
with an introduction, by George Stephens. 8vo, pp. 74. Copenhagen}, 1860.
Cheapingfiaven,
41
550
BEOWULF.
kritisch
bearbeiteten
Beowulf nebst den Fragmenten Finnsburg und Valdere in Texten neu herausgegeben mit Worterbuch von
Grein.
.
Chrn.
W. M.
Cassel
&
Gottingen, 1867.
8vo, pp. 186.
41553
CVNEWULF.
By Richard
literal translation of
Francis
Weymouth.
Cynewulf's Elene from Zupitza's text. 8vo, pp. 38. [London], 1888.
. .
41
546
JACOBY (Martin) Vier mittelenglische geistliche Gedichte aus dem 13. Jahrhundert [With the texts.] Inaugural- Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doctorwiirde von der Philosophischen Facultat der FriedrichWilhelms-Universitat zu Berlin genehmigt und offentlich zu verteidigen am 18. Januar 890 von Martin Jacoby. 8vo, pp. Berlin, (1890J. 47. R 41 543
1
. .
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
821
RECENT ACCESSIONS
135

Poetical remains of James the First,
JAMES
246.
I,
King of Scotland.
.
.
Scotland.
[Edited by
W.
King
of
Tytler.]
Edinburgh,
I
783.
R
The
poetical remains of
8vo, pp. 41 674
King James
by
and an introduction
portrait.]
to the poetry
**
Edinburgh, 1873.
printed.
of Scotland. With a memoir Charles Rogers. [With 41316 8vo, pp. 96.
...
50 copies
KONRATH
(Mathias) Beitrage zur Erklarung und Textkritik des William von Schorham. Berlin, 1878. R41542'! 8vo, pp. 63.
LIBRARY OF ANGLO-SAXON POETRY.

8vo.
1.
Boston,
1889-92.
vols.
R
Beowulf.
I.
. .
. . . .
41
:
556
Beowulf: an Anglo-Saxon poem. II. The fight at Finnsburh a fragment. With text and glossary on the basis of M. Heyne. Edited, corrected and enlarged by and R. Sharp. Third edition. 1892. J. A. Harrison Elene an old English poem. Edited with introduction, Latin original, 3. Cynewulf. notes, and complete glossary by C. W. Kent. ... 41557
:
NAPIER
[With
facsimile.]
(Arthur Sampson) Notes on the orthography of the Ormulum. R 41547 Fol., pp. 4. Oxford, 1893.
RlTSON
dissertation on romance and minstrelsy. To appended the ancient metrical romance of Ywaine and Gawin. EdinVol. .] [Reprinted from Ancient English metrical romancees. R 404 4 8vo, pp. 208. burgh, 891 ** 500
(Joseph)
which
is
copies printed.
Sc HIPPER
Sein Leben und seine Gedichte in und ausgewahlten Uebersetzungen nebst einem Abriss der Analysen Ein Beitrag zur schottisch-englischen Literaturaltschottischen Poesie. und Culturgeschichte. Berlin, 1884. 8vo, pp. xviii, 412. R 41561
(Jakob) William Dunbar.
TRISTAN.
Die nordische und die englische Version der Tristan-Sage. 8vo. Heilbronn, 1882. Herausgegeben von Eugen Kblbing. R 41552
. . .
2.
Sir Tristrem.
Mit Einleitung, Anmerkungen und Glossar.
1862.
ELIZABETHAN.
pion.
CAMPION (Thomas) The

London
:
works
of
...
T. Cam\
Edited by A. H. Bullen. 8vo, pp. XXT, 405.
privately printed.
889.
**
41
365
120 copies printed.
This copy
is
No. 54.
CHAPMAN
(George)
translations.
A
J.
The works of George Chapman: poems and minor With an introduction by Algernon Charles Swinburne.
London, 1904.
8vo, pp.
Ixxi,
new
edition.
435.
41042
POST- ELIZABETH AN.
LlTHGOW
W.
(William)
The
Lithgow M., i.e. James Maidment].

.
. .
M.DC.XVIII.-M.DC.LX.
Now
poetical remains of first collected [by
**
Edinburgh, 1863.
4to.
42159
100 copies printed.
OLDHAM
Qohn) Remains
of
...
John Oldham
in
verse and
prose.
London, 1684.
8vo, pp. 130.
41623'4
136

821

Poems, and
J.
OLDHAM G^ n )
upon the
translations.
By
the author of the Satyrs
Jesuits fi.e.
Oldham].
London, 1684.
8vo, pp. 215.
R
.
41623-3
Satyrs upon the Jesuits.
Oldham.] pp.148.
The second
edition
more
Pieces by the same hand. [By J. corrected. London, 1682. 8vo, 41623-1
Some new pieces never before publish'd. Satyrs upon the Jesuites [i.e. J. Oldham].
. .
By
.
the author of the
pp.134.
London, 1684. 8vo, R 41623-2
SCOT
of
(Walter) Metrical history of the honourable families of the name Scot and Elliott, in the shires of Roxburgh and Selkirk. Gathered out of ancient chronicles, histories, and traditions of our
. . .
. .
fathers.
With prefatory notices Compiled by ... W. Scot. G. S., i.e. Thomas G. Stevenson]. (Reprinted.) [Scottish Edinburgh for private circulation, 1892. 2 pts. Literary Club, 2.] in R 41 673 4to. vol.
.
[by T.
1
NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER. POETRY. An annual of new poetry, 1917.

pp.
rii,
ANNUAL OF NEW
London, [1917].
8vo,
156.
R
Indian
1
42090
ARNOLD
BARRETT
to
popular edition.
(Sir Edwin) Indian poetry and London, 1915. 2 pts. in
idylls.
vol.
Complete R 42374
(Elizabeth), afterwards BROWNING (Elizabeth Barrett) Letters Robert Browning and other correspondents. Edited by Thomas London : printed for private circulation, J. Wise. [With facsimile.] 1916. R 41 433 8vo, pp. 53.
. . .
*.* 30 copies printed.
BLAYDS, afterwards CALVERLEY (Charles Stuart) Literary remains. With a memoir by Sir Walter J. Sendall. [With portrait and illustrations.] [New impression.] London, 18%. 8vo, pp. ix, 281.
.
42380
1897.
Translations into English and Latin. 8vo, PP xi, 259.

.
[New
impression.]
R
London, 1901.
London, 42382
8vo,
Verses
pp.
vi,
&
fly
leaves.
[New
impression.]
216.
R
The
death of Elizabeth Barrett Browning.
facsimile.]
.
42381
BROWNING
by T.
J.
(Robert)
[Edited
1
Wise.]
[With
London
4to, pp. 2 1 circulation, 1916. *,* 30 copies printed.
printed for private R 4 022
DAVIES (William Henry)
Collected
poems.
With
portrait
in
collotype from a pencil sketch author's script. London, 1916.
by Will Rothenstein, and facsimile of R 41401 8vo, pp. 160.

8ai
137

Lore
sonnets.
DOUGLAS
(Evelyn) pseud, [i.e. John E. Barlas). 8vo, pp. 72. ford, 1889.
Chelms-
42313
GIBSON (Wilfred Wilson)

8vo,
Livelihood: dramatic reveries.
PP
xii,
135.
London, 1917. R 41 565
GOSSE (Edmund
[With
1916.
plates.]
William) The life of Algernon Charles Swinburne. R 42 33 London, 91 7. 8vo, pp. xi, 362.
\ 1
:
HEWLETT
The
8vo, pp.
(Maurice Henry) Gai saber

song of the plow 242.
tales
and songs.
8vo, pp. 173.

;
London, 40937
being the English chronicle.
xi,
London, 1916. R 41 324
KEATS
1
(John)
tion
and
The poetical textual notes by

Sir
illustrations.]
works of J. Keats. Edited with an introducH. Buxton Forman. [With plates and R 41 349 1906. 8vo, pp. Ixxvii, 491. Oxford,
.
. .
LANG (Andrew)
1910.
Walter Scott and the border
minstrelsy.
London,
8vo, pp. x, 157.
R
London, [1916].
41
989
vii,
LAWRENCE
137.
(D. H.) Amores: poems.
8vo, pp.
40933
41638
MASEFIELD Qohn) Good

1916.
Friday
a play in verse.
Lollingdon, Cholsey,
8vo, pp. 77.
NICHOLSON
lish
(D. H. S.) and
LEE
Chosen by D. mystical verse. 8vo, pp. xv, 644. Oxford, 1916.
(A. H. E.) The Oxford book of EngH. S. Nicholson and A. H. E. Lee.
R
R
41933
PATMORE
Claudel,
Traduction de Paul (Coventry Kersey Dighton) Poemes. Paris, 1912. precedee d'une etude de Valery Larbaud. 41 152 8vo, pp. 87.
(Padraic Henry) Collected works of P. H. poems. [With an introduction by P. Browne.] Dublin, 1917. 8vo, pp. xix, 341, vi.
Pearse.
Plays,
portrait.]
PEARSE
stories,
[With
R R
R R
42519
.
PHELPS
With
how to (William Lyon) Robert Browning London, 1916. 8vo, pp. 381. portrait.
:
. . .
know
him.
41 454
REJECTED ADDRESSES.
poetarum. London, 1812.
[By
Rejected addresses, or the new theatrum Horatio and James Smith.] Fourth edition.
xiii,
12mo, pp.
127.
26737
SHAKESPEARE
8vo, pp. 42.
(William G.) Ypres and other poems.
London, 1916.
40928
SHELLEY
from
New facts and letters (Percy Bysshe) Shelley in England. Shelley- Whitton papers. By (Shelley's ms. notebook.) With illustrations and facsimiles. London, 1917. Roger Ingpen. 42 109 8vo, pp. xiv, 710.
the
. . .
SlGERSON, afterwards SHORTER (Dora) Love

ballads.
of Ireland.
Poems and
Dublin and London, 1916.
8vo, pp. 92.
42 153
138

821
SMITH
critical
The poetical works of A. Smith. Edited, with and biographical introduction, by William Sinclair. [With R 42383 Edinburgh, 1909. STO, pp. xliii, 412. portrait.]
(Alexander)
(J.
SQUIRE
C.) Tricks of the trade.
London, 191 -.
8vo, pp.
viii,
79.
R 41 797
STEPHENS
pp.18.
(James) Green branches.
printed.
4to,
**
R
This copy
it
41
379
500 copies
No. 349.
.
SWINBURNE
Edited
(Algernon Charles) The death of Sir John Franklin. a preface by Edmund Gosse [for T. J. Wise]. London: printed for private circulation, 1916. 8vo, pp. 21. R 40917
.
with
%* 20 copies
printed.
The
[for
triumph of Gloriana.
J.
T.
Wise].
London
Edited by Edmund Gosse printed for private circulation, 1916.

.
.
8vo, pp. 16.
R
Edmund Gosse forT. J.
40916
** 20
copies printed.
:
Wearieswa* a ballad. [Edited by London, 1917. 8vo, pp. 19.
R 41775
Theophanies
:
Wise.]
** 30
copies printed.
UNDERHILL, afterwards MOORE

verses.
. .
(Evelyn)
book of
London, 1916.
8vo, pp. x, 118.

:
41586
VERGILIUS
MARO (Publius) Ibant obscuri an experiment in the classical hexameter by Robert Bridges. (The vision of Aeneas a paraphrase of Aen. vi, 268-751 & 893-8 and a cento of previous translations. Priam and Achilles a paraphrase of Iliad, xxiv, 339-660 [With text.]
:
:
and a cento
4to, pp. 158.
of
previous
translations.
[With
text.])
Oxford,
1916.
R
The poems
[With
of
4 1969
WATSON
by
J.
(William)
W.
Watson.
A. Spender.]
portrait.]
[With an introduction London, 1905. 2 vols. 8vo.
R
. . .
42295
WIND- FALLS.
Wind-falls, two hundred and odd.

Linton.]
[Compiled by
Conn.,
William James 16mo.
\Appledore Private Press,
R
R
1882.]
422 12
YEATS
(William Butler) Responsibilities and other poems.

vii,
London, 1916.
41
1
8vo, pp.
188.
26
822-833
LITERATURE
ENGLISH DRAMA AND FICTION.
GENERAL.
GREG (Walter Wilson) Pastoral poetry pastoral drama : a literary inquiry, with special reference to the pre-restoration stage in 41555 London, 1906. 8vo, pp. xii, 464. England.
&

822-823
139
LITERATURE
BROOKE
xi,
ELIZABETHAN
don, 1916.
Elizabethan drama.
SYO, pp.
(Rupert Chawner) John Webster [With a prefatory note subscribed E. M.]

276.
&
the
Lon41402
CREIZENACH (Wilhelm) The "

Translated from
English drama in the age of Shakespeare. " Geschichte des neueren Dramas of W. Creizenach
...
PP
.
[by Cecile Hugon.]
[With
illustrations.]
London, 1916.
8va
41
xv, 454.
R
.
.
334
DlTCHFIELD
.
(Peter
Hampson) The England

London, [1917].
brief sketch of the life
of
illustrations.
8vo, pp.
Shakespeare. xiii, 315.
With
41706
GUPPY
(Henry)
and times
. .
of Shakespeare, with
chronological table of the principal events. " Catalogue of an exhibition of the works
arranged in the John Rylands Library, in centenary of the death of Shakespeare. [With portrait.] for private circulation, 1916. 8vo, pp. 30.
Reprinted from the Shakespeare "... commemoration of the Ter.
of
Manchester : R 42165
:
HATCHER (One
and
book for Shakespeare plays and pageants a Latham) treasury of Elizabethan and Shakespearean detail for producers, stage
Illustrated with pictures managers, actors, artists and students. London and Toronto, portraits, mostly from contemporary sources. 41917 8vo, PP x, 339. [1917?].
. .
HERFORD (Charles Harold) The first quarto Two essays to which the Harness Prize was H. Herford. ... II. By W. H. Widgery.
pp.204.
edition of Hamlet, 1603. I. awarded, 1880. by C. London, 1880. SYO, R 41551

. .
LVLY
.
(John)
.
Edited
Euphues the anatomy of wit. by Morris William Croll

:
Euphues & his England. and Harry Clemens.

.
London, 1916.
8vo, pp.
Ixiv,
473.
of
4 61 3
1
:
MADDEN
study
(Dodgson Hamilton) The diary

Shakespeare
Master William Silence

sport.
. .
of
&
of
Elizabethan
New
edition.
London, 1907.
8vo, pp. xxxii, 398.
R
:
42325
MANCHESTER.
the
John Rylands Library
Catalogue of an exhibition of
of his principal
works
.
of Shakespeare, his sources,
and the writings
contemporaries.
. .
With an
Second
introductory sketch [by
Henry Guppy], and
facsimiles.
edition.
speare, 1616, April 23, 1916.
Tercentenary of the death of ShakeManchester, 1916. 8ro, pp. xvi, 169.
40643
MONTGOMERY
"
(Charles Alexander) The Mystic Shakespeare stone" of 1616 at three centuries, deciphered by C. A. Montgomery. New York, 1916. [Shakespearean Anagrams, 1.]
on the original Epitaph Stratford-on-Avon now, after

. .
.
"
"
(First edition.)
Obi.
16mo.
** The
41436
title is
taken from the wrapper.
This copy
is
no. 408.
140
823-823

LITERATURE
:
NEW YORK
peareana held
PUBLIC LIBRARY. Catalogue of the exhibition of Shakesat the New York Public Library, April 2 to July 15,
1916, in commemoration of the tercentenary of Shakespeare's death. Compiled and arranged by Henrietta C. Bartlett. New York, 1917. R 41 795 8vo, pp. 161.
ORD
(Hubert) London shown by Shakespeare, and other Shakespearean including a new interpretation of the sonnets. [With maps.] R 41435 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. 86.
.
studies,
SHAKESPEARE
King Richard
1
(William)
II,
A new
598.
printed for the third time by Reproduced in facsimile from the unique
The tragedy of Shakespeare quarto. Valentine Simmes in

introduction
William Augustus White. London, 1916. 4to.

-
With an
copy in the library of by Alfred W. Pollard.
40588
of his
Shakespeare's England.
An
W\b.
account of the
life
and manners
[Studies by various writers, edited by C. T. Onions, in commemoration of the Tercentenary of Shakespeare's Death.] [With plates
age.
and
illustrations.]
Oxford,
vols.
8vo.
R 40733
The sonnets of Shakespeare. From the quarto of 1609 with variorum readings and commentary edited by Raymond Macdonald Boston and New York, 1916. Alden. 42146 8vo, pp. xvi, 542.
R
.
STONEX
Thesis (Arthur Bivins) The usurer in Elizabethan drama. presented to the faculty of the graduate school of the University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy. Reprinted from the Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, vol. xxxi, No. 2, June, 1916. 40921 8vo, pp. 190-210. {Baltimore, 1916.]
. .
R R
*,* The
title is

:
THOMPSON
[With
facsimiles.]
(Sir Edward Maunde) Shakespeare's handwriting 4to, pp. xii, 63. Oxford, 1916.
a study.
4 569
1
POST- ELIZABETH AN.

comedies of London
T.) study in Shirley's Thesis presented to the faculty of the graduate school of the University of Pennsylvania in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Ph.D. [Reprint from the Bulletin of the University of Texas, no. 371, November 15, 1914.] {Austin, 41013 8vo, pp. iii, 68. Texas, 1914.]
life.
.
. .
PARLIN (Hanson
PEPYS (Samuel) Pepys on

[With
plates.]
the
restoration
New
stage.
viii,
By Helen McAfee.
353.
Haven, 1916.
8vo, pp.
42104
NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER.

NlCHOLLS
by Thomas
(Charlotte)
J.
BRONTE, afterwards
The
Wise.]
red cross knight and other poems. [Edited London : printed for private circulation, 1917.
4to, pp. 17. *,* 30 copies printed.
41
777

822-823
141
LITERATURE

George Earle Lytton)
de
luxe.
.
BULWER,
afterwards
BULWER LYTTON (Edward

novels.]
Baron Lytton.
illustrations.
[Bulwer's
Edition
vols.
is
With
41356
London, [1891-92].
printed on large paper.
32
8vo.
no. 65.
R R
%* 500 copies
This copy
CROTCH (W.
xii,
Walter) The soul
of Dickens.
London, 1916.
8vo, pp.
227.
:
41411
EDGEWORTH
(Maria) Letters for literary ladies on the noble science of self- justification. essay London, 1814. 8vo, pp. viii, 232.
.
to
. .
which
is
added, an
The
fourth edition.
41564
HARRISON
STO, pp.
ix,
(Cuthbert Woodville) 240.
The magic
of Malaya.
London, 1916. R 41311

8vo>
KlPLING (Rudyard)
pp.
viii,
diversity of creatures.
London, 1917.
441.
R
Lost
42398
MASEFIELD
[1910].
nn )
endeavour.
[With
frontispiece.]
8vo, pp. 381.
R R
London, 41975
MONKSHOOD
familiar
The less (G. F.) pseud. [i.e. William James Clarke]. and Kiplingana. Illustrated. London, 1917. Kipling,
. . .
8vo, pp.
167.
41618
MOORE SHAW
(George) The brook Kerith. \London\ : Edinburgh printed, 1916.
Syrian story. 8vo, 471.

lion,
[Fourth edition.]
R R
42431
(George Bernard) Androcles and the London, 1916. 8vo, pp. cxviii, 205.
se ph
Overruled, Pygmalion.
40648
SHORTHOUSE
Shorthouse]. duction by J. Hunter
Edited by
Life, letters, and literary remains of J. H. his wife [Sarah Shorthouse]. [With an introLondon, 1905. 2 vols. [With plates.] Smith.]
Henry)
8vo.
i .
42324
Life and
letters.
2.
Literary remains.
:
SWINBURNE
(Algernon Charles) Love's cross-currents a year's letters. R 28339 London, 1905. 8vo, pp. x, 258. [Third impression.]
824
LITERATURE: ENGLISH ESSAYS.
GALSWORTHY
Qolm)
sheaf.
London, [1916].
8vo, pp. x, 308.
R R
41 155
THE HUMOURIST
author of
the
being essays
for
Apology
upon several subjects. ... By the Parson Alberoni [i.e. T. Gordon].

. .
London, 1720.
8vo, pp. xxx, 240.
41035
SYMONDS G
Symonds.
his son
xxxii,
[J.
.
hn
.
.
Miscellanies. Addington) the Elder. By J. A. Selected and edited, with an introductory memoir, by
A. Symonds].
[With
plates.]
Bristol,
[1871].
416.
8vo, pp.
42095
142

826
LITERATURE: ENGLISH LETTERS.

J.
YEATS 0hrf
60.
Butler) Passages from the letters of
B. Yeats
selected
by
Ezra Pound.
Churchtown, Dundrunt
Cuala Press, 1917.
R
**
400
copies printed.
8vo, pp.
40947
839
LITERATURE
MINOR TEUTONIC.
Scandinavian-Classics.
from
the Icelandic with
AMERICAN-SCANDINAVIAN
FOUNDATION.
In progress. 8vo. York, 1914, etc. The prose Edda by S. Sturluson. Translated 5. EdJa. introduction by A. G. Brodeur. ...
6. Sigurjonsson (J.) Modern Icelandic Plays. Translated by H. K. Schanche.
New
an
R
The hraun
41452
. . .
Eyvind
of the hills.
farm.
41
453
EDDA.
Edda Saemundar hinns froda. Edda rhythmica seu antiquior, Saemundina dicta. Ex codice Bibliothecae Regiae Hafniensis vulgo Pergameno, nee non diversis Legati Arna-Magnaeani et aliorum mem. . .
braneis chartaceisque melioris notae manuscriptis. Cum interpretatione Latina, lectionibus variis, notis, glossario vocum et indice rerum. [With
facsimiles.]
Hafnite,
787- 828.
1
3 vols.
4to.
40285
FLORIO.
Flores saga ok Blankiflur.

5.]
[Altnordische Saga-Bibliothek. 87.
Herausgegeben von Eugen Kolbing. Halle a. S., 18%. 8vo, pp. xxiv,
R
R
41
549
FRODING
Translated from the Swedish with (Gustaf) Selected poems. New York, 1916. an introduction by Charles Wharton Stork. 413 12 STO, pp. xxii, 168.
.
.
Dat kaetspel ghemoralizeert. [Translated by Jan van den Berghe JEU. " from the original French Le jeu de paume moralise ".] Proefschrift ter verkrijging van den graad van doctor in de Nederlandsche Letterkunde aan de Rijks-universiteit te Utrecht, op gezag van den RectorMagnificus Dr. H. Snellen tegen de bedenkingen van de Faculteit der Letteren en Wijsbegeerte te verdedigen op Vrijdag 11 Juni 1915, des namiddags te drie uren door Jacobus Anthony Roetert Frederikse.
. . .
Leiden, 1915.
8vo, pp.
cxii,
120.
40955
840
LITERATURE
FRENCH
GENERAL.
1873-1914.
PEGUY
1916.
4.
(Charles) Oeuvres completes de C. Peguy, 8 vo. In progress.

Victor-
R
A.
Suares.
Paris, 4 1 054
1916.
Oeuvres de prose. Notre jeunesse.
M arie, comte
. . .
Hugo.
Introduction par
RENE, King of Naples.
Oeuvres completes du roi Rene, avec une biole comte de Quatrebarbes, et un grand graphie et des notices par nombre de dessins et ornements, d'apres les tableaux et manuscrits Hawke. Angers, 1844-46. 4 vols. in 2. 4to. originaux par
.
. .
41019
VAN TlEGHEM (Philippe) Ossian en France. [Bibliotheque de LitteraParis. 1917. 2 vols. 42385 ture Comparee.] 8vo.

841
143
LITERATURE
The
FRENCH POETRY,
:
BAILEY
(John Cann)
greater French poets.
claims of French poetry nine studies in the R 42426 London, 1907. 8ro, pp. XT, 313.
BRENIER DE
du Sa
MONTMORAND
Anne de
.
.
XV
siecle.
.
Graville.
portrait.]
(Maxime de) Vicomte. Une femme poete Sa famille. Sa yie. Son oeuvre.
Paris,
posterite.
[With
1917.
870, pp.
x,
328.
R R
41940
CLAUDEL
Connaissance du temps, Traite de la (Paul) Art poetique. co-naissance au monde et de soi-meme, Developpement de 1'eglise. 4 1 45 Troisieme edition. 8vo, pp. 22 1 Paris, 1915.
.
Autres poe'mes durant
la
guerre.
Paris, 1916.
4to,
R
illustree
pp. 49.
41477
. . .
Le chemin de
la
croix.
Nouvelle edition
Paris,
de
rignettes de Sainte-Marie
Perrin.
[1914].
4to,
R
Paris,
pp. 41 150
35.
Corona
8vo, pp.240.
-
benignitatis anni dei.
Cinquieme
a
trois
edition.
1915.
41 146
R
voix
:
Deux
poe'mes
d'ete
La
cantate
Protee,
drame
41 147
satyrique.
-
3"e
edition.
Paris, 1914.
8 vo, pp. 205.
La nuit de Noel de 1914. [With a frontispiece by Marie Perrin.] Paris, [1915]. 4to, pp. 63.
-
A. Sainte-
R
R
41 151
L'otage: drame.
[Sixth edition.]
Paris, [191
1J.
8vo, pp. 205.

41 148
4to,
Trois poe'mes de guerre.
Septieme
edition.
Paris, [1915].
pp.26.
R
Mellusine
la
41 149
COULDRETTE.
de Lusignan],
Public pour
poeme relatif a cette compose dans le quatorzieme

: .
.
fee poitevine [Le livre

siecle
par
la
Couldrette.
premiere fois d'apres imperiale par Francisque Michel.
les manuscrits
.
de
Ntort, 1854.
Bibliotheque 8vo, pp. ii, 302.
40418
DONCIEUX
Choix de (George) Le romancero populaire de la France. chansons populaires franchises. Textes critiques. Avec un avantParis, 1904. 8vo, pp. propos et un index musical par Julien Tiersot.
. . .
xliy,
522.
(Paul) Ballades francaises.
R
/Wm,
Louijs.
41813
41 153
FORT
1914.
1898-1914.
8vo.
In progress.
R
1.
Avec unc
preface nouvelle de P.
Nouvelle edition revue
et
augmentee.
2.
3. 5.
6. 7. 8.
Montagne Foret Plaine Mer L'amour et 1'aventure D'anciens jours. 1898. Le roman de Louis XI. Deuxieme edition. 1896. L'amour marin. Deuxieme edition. 1900. Paris sentimental 1902. ou, le roman de nos vingt ans. Les hymnes de feu. Precedes de Lucienne petit roman lyrique. 1903. Coxcomb ou 1'homme tout nu lomW du paradis. Precede du Livre de visions, et de
: : :
Henri
1 1
1.
1906.
144

841
9.
I
LITERATURE: FRENCH POETRY.

et
le-de- France.
10.
Mortcerf.
Troisieme edition. 1911. Precede de Villes et villages Cantilenei
d'une e*tude surles

boil
"
Ballades
franchises" par L.
11.
Mandin. 1909. La tristesse de I'homme. Precede du Repos de I'ame au
de I'Hautil.
[New
edition.!- 1 910. 12. L'aventure eternelle.

13.
Livre i. Suivie de En Gitinais. 1911. Suivi de L'aventure eternelle. Livre ii. 1912. MontlheYy-la-Bataille. Suivi de Naissance du printemps a La Ferte'-Milon et de L'avenlure 14. Vivre en Dieu. Deuxieme edition. 1912. Livre iii. Eternelle.
15.
Chansons pour me consoler
d'etre heurcux.
Deuxieme
Edition.
1913.
JEANROY (Alfred) Les origines de la poesie lyrique en France au moyen Etudes de litterature franchise et comparee suivies de textes inedits. age. Deuxieme edition avec additions et un appendice bibliographique.
.
Paris, 1904.
8vo, pp. xxxi, 536.
R 4181
PELL1SSIER (Georges Jacques Maurice) Anthologie des poetes du XIXe 1800-1866 (18e mille). siecle [With facsimiles.] [Collection R 41809 Paris, [1916]. 12mo, pp. 563. Pallas.]
. . .
RlFFARD (Leon) Contes

. . .
et apologues. Illustres de dessins, dont de contemporains par Frederic Regamey. [With a preface by Henri Chantavoine.] Paris, 1886. 8vo, pp. xvi, 251. R 421 73
. . .
portraits
VAN BEVER
e siecle au XXe siecle. (Ad.) Les poetes du terroir du Textes choisis accompagnes de notices biographiques, d'une bibliographic et de cartes des anciens pays de France. [Collection Pallas.] R 41808 4 vols. 12mo. Paris, [1909-16].
. . .
XV
**
Vol.
"
1
is
Deuxieme
edition ".
VERHAEREN
by
-
(Emile)
The
F. S. Flint.
London, 1916.
love poems of E. Verhaeren. 8vo, pp. x, 94.

et
Translated
R 41041
8vo,
41
Poemes legendaires de Flandre

.
de Brabant.
mille.
Ornes de bois
graves par Raoul Dufy.
Quatrieme
Paris, [1916].
PP .226.
850
842
LITERATURE: FRENCH DRAMA.

Paris, 1912-1915.
CLAUDEL
1.
(Paul) Theatre.
serie.
vols.
8vo.
41 143
Premiere
Tle
La La Le
d'or.
2.
3.
ville.
1914. Premiere et seconde versions. Troisieme Edition. 1915. Premiere et seconde versions. Troisieme Edition.
Violaine.
4.
edition.
jeune repos 1912.
fille
L'echange.
jour.
Troisierae edition.
1914.
du septieme
L Agamemnon
d'Eschyle.
Vers
d'exil.
Deuxiemes
PARIS.
Gavault.
Conferences
.
M. Roustan. Les (emme Les precieuses ridicules: L. Claretie. L'ecole desmans: Ch. Chabault. Le Le bourgeois P. Souday. Les sincere* J. Ernest-Charles. Andromaque misanthorpe. Fr. Fundc-Brentano. Phedre L. Lacour. Esther N. Bernardin. La partie gentilhomme de chasse de Henri IV. La gageure impre'vue H. Welschinger. Le barbier de Seville M. Le Goupils. Le manage de Figaro F. Gaiffe. Le lion amoureux C. Martel.
Cinna.
: :
de 1'Odeon, 1915-1916. Paris, 1916. 8vo, pp. viii, 269. Le legataire universe! C. Le Senne. Nicomede
. .
.
Publiees
par
Paul
41510
savantes.
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
842
RECENT ACCESSIONS
The dawn
145
LITERATURE: FRENCH DRAMA.

of
VERHAEREN
Philip
II
(mile) The plays

:
E. Verhaeren.
(translated
by Arthur Symons)
(translated
The
Jethro Bithell).
by F. London, 1916.
cloister (translated by Osman Edwards) : Helen of Sparta (translated by S. Flint)

:
8vo, pp.
v,
325.
41525
843
LITERATURE: FRENCH FICTION.

Flaubert's
fou,
COLEMAN
(A.)
literary
Memoires d'un
Novembre, and Education sentimentale, version of 1845. [Elliot Monographs in the Romance Languages and Literatures, R 41139 8vo, pp. XT, 154. Baltimore, Paris, 1914. 1.]
Preface de (Henri Benjamin de) Adolphe. Variantes et bibliographie.
2.]
development
in
the
light
of
his
CONSTANT DE REBECQUE
A.
J.
Pons.
Eaux-fortes de Fr. Regamey.
[Petite
Bibliotheque
de Luxe,
Paris,
1878.
8vo,
pp.
228.
41
709
DAUDET
A.
(Alphonse) (Euvres completes.
Edition definitive illustree de
gravures a 1'eau forte d'apres les dessins
de Emile Adan, A. Dawant,
F. Gorguet, P.-A. Laurens et C. Leandre, et precedee d'un essai de 8vo. Paris, \ 909. 1 8 vols. biographic litteraire par Henry Ceard.
41814
Romans.
1 .
Le
petit chose.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Fromont jeune et Risler aine. moeurs conlemporains. Jack Le Nabab. Les rois en exil roman parisien. Numa Roumestan. L'evangeliste. Tartarin de Tarascon. Tartarin sur
:
les
Alpes.
Port-Tarascon.
8.
9.
Sapho.
L'immortel.
La petite paroisse. 10. Soutien de famille.

.
Rose
et Ninette.
Theatre. 1 La derniere idole. Tavernier.

2. 3.
Les'absents.
et
L'oeillet blanc.
Le
frere aine.
Le
sacrifice.
Lise
L'arlesienne.
Fromont jeune
Sapho.
Risler aine.
Le
nabab.
4.
L'obstacle. La menteuse. pour la vie. Contes et Nouvelles. 1 Les amoureuses. Lettres de mon moulin. Contes et Nouvelles. 2. Contes du lundi. Robert Helmont. Contes et Nouvelles. femmes d'artistes. La Fedor. Le tre'sor d'Arlatan. 3. La belle nivernaise.
lutte
Le La
char.
Jack.
Numa
Roumestan.
Poesies.
.
Les^
Legendes. et recits. Etudes et Souvejiirs. Trente ans de Paris. les frises et la rampe. Etudes et paysages.
Souvenirs, d'un
homme de
lettret.
Entre
HALEVY
Lemaire.
(Ludovic) L'abbe Constantin. Paris, 1888. 8vo, pp. 215.

(Paul)
Flirt.
Illustre
par
Madeleine
R
Lemaire.
41974
Paris,
HERVIEU
1890.
Illustre
par
... Madeleine
4to, pp. 213.
R
10
423 11
146

843
LITERATURE: FRENCH FICTION.
TOLDO
(Pietro) Contribute allo studio della novella francese del xv e xvi secolo considerata specialmente nelle sue attinenze con la letteratura
italiana.
Le
cent nouvelles nouvelies.
Heptameron.
xiii,
monde
adventureux.
Le grand parangon des

1895.
8vo, pp.
nouvelles nouvelles.
joyeux devis.
Roma,
153.
Les ccmptes du Les R 41845
844-847
LITERATURE
FRENCH ESSAYS, SATIRE,

de
Test.
ETC.
Paris,
CLAUDEL
1913.
(Paul) Connaissance 8vo, pp. 261.
Quatrieme
edition.
R
:
41144
PLATTARD G ean)
tion.
L'oeuvre de Rabelais
sources, invention et composi-
Pans, 1910.
8ro, pp. xxxi, 374.
221 38
QUINZE
Les quinze joies de manage. JOIES. [By A. de la Sale ?] [Reprinted from the edition of Jean Trepperel, with collations from the Rouen manuscript.] [With facsimile and illustrations.] Paris, 1837. 42158 16mo, pp. xlviii, ccviii.
**
126 copies printed.
ROGHEFORT-LugAY
Caran d'Ache.
(Victor Henri de) Comte. 4to, pp. 235. Paris, 1888.
Fantasia.
Dessins de
42222
SOCIETE DES ETUDES RABELAISIENNES.

15.
Publications.
Paris, 1913-
3vols.
Nouvelle
8vo.
tiecle.
37827
icrie.
Revue du seizieme
849
LITERATURE: PROVENCAL.
Recit d'un temoin de sa
LEGR
vie.
(Ludovic) Le poete Theodore Aubanel. [With an introduction by F. Mistral.]
Paris, 1894.
8vo,
423.
R
:
pp.
42338
ROUX
. .
felibre irlandais William Bonaparte(Jules Charles Theodore) . . Avec . . . illustrations. sa correspondance avec Mistral. Wyse,
.
Un
Pans, 1917.
850
4to, pp. 350.
42141
LITERATURE: ITALIAN.
Storia letteraria d'ltalia, scritta
GENERAL.
professori.
ITALY.
[With
plates
and
illustrations.]
da una societa di 8vo. Milano, [1904].
In progress.
Le vite di Dante, ... A. Solerti.
Petrarca. e Boccaccio scntte fino
al
R
secolo decimoseito.
38550
Raccolte da
POETRY.
[n.d.].
ANCONA
(Alessandro d')
precursori di Dante.
8vo, pp. 113.

(Luigi)
R
di
Firenze, 41 540
ASIOLI
1916.
La Vergine madre
nel
poema
Dante Alighieri.
Parma,
8vo, pp. 123.
41851
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
850
RECENT ACCESSIONS
Opere
cose
di
147
.
. .
CASA (Giovanni
della Casa.
della)
Archbishop of Benevento.
1'edizione di Fiorenza del
Giovanni
Dopo
6
MDCCVII.
inedite
e di Venezia
accresciute.
del
MDCCXXVIII.
\
molto
4io.
illustrate
di
Napoli,
733.
vols.
R
II
411 75
COSTANZO
(Giuseppe Aurelio)
Raccolta
fine piii
[Biblioteca Classica Popolare.J
Roma,
di
proprio della Divina commedia. 41657 1909. 8vo, pp. 337.
CRUDELI (Tommaso)
[With
poesie
1
del
T.
Crudeli.
**
portrait.]
Napoli, 1646 [error
for 1746].
746.
4to, pp. 71.
R
di
41952
Dante
lip
pasted beneath, giving the date
DANTE
ALIGHIERI.
original
text.]
Giuseppe
Castelli.
La
divina
commedia
Alighieri.
Ampiamente
3vols.ini.
minori
tradotta in prosa per uso del popolo italiano.

illustrations
[With
[With
8vo.
di
by O. Amadio.]
Milano,
[1916?].
41590
Le opere
retta.
annotazioni di Francesco Flamini.
Dante Alighieri ad uso delle scuole. Con Seconda edizione riveduta e cor.
.
[Biblioteca di Classici Italiani.]
Livorno, 1917.
vol.
8vo.
R
"
42405
1.
... La
vita nuova.
II
convivio
excerpta.
Societa pour la dantesca italiana Traduite avec une introduction par Michele Barbi. et des notes par Henry Cochin. Deuxieme edition, revue et corrigee. Ouvrage couronne par 1' Academic franijaise, Prix Marcellin Guerin. R 41388 Paris. 1914 [1916]. 8vo, pp, Ixxiv, 254.
Vita nova.
"
Suivant
le
texte
critique prepare
Manfredus Tarchi.
Ex Comoedia
Inferni cantus Latine versus.
Siena, 1916.
Dantis Aligherii vicesimusquintus 41023 8vo, pp. 7.
DANTE
SOCIETY, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 8vo. 1882.

Fay (E. A.) Concordance
of the
[Publications.]
Boston,
Divina commedia.
...
II
R
canto
41
530
del
FABBRICOTTI (Carlo Ahdrea) Saggi
Danteschi.
ottavo
L'incontro di Dante e Beatrice sulla cima del Purgatorio. Purgatorio. 42 1 42 Firenze, 1916. 8vo, pp. 1 25.
FlAMMA
Gabriel
(Gabriello)
Fiamma
in
Bishop of Chioggia. esposte da lui medesimo.

. .
Rime
Spiritvali
Del
Di nuouo
ristampate,
&
datte
luce.
MDLXXIII.
[16], 502, [40].
In device beneath title.] Presso a Francesco dt Franceschi Sanese.

. .
[Printer's
Vinegia, 8vo, pp.
R
II
.
41 176
. .
FLAMINI
2.
II
(Francesco)
vero
:
significato
.
il
fine
della Divina
commedia.
Seconda edizione.
Livorno, 1916.
8vo.
39773
I'allegoria.
GARRONE
media.
(Marco Aurelio) Vademecum per

Breve esposizione
Torino, [1916].
lo studioso della
Divina com-
mend
di ciascun canto corredata di opportuni e dichiarazioni conformi ai piu recenti studi . . 2 a edizione
.
com. .
.
riveduta.
8vo, pp.
x,
174.
42387
148

850
Rim
d'Zanbattista Gnudi.
. .
.
GNUDl (Govanni
Bulogna, 1776.
Battista)
[With
portrait.]
8vo, pp. 454.
41957
HOENES
[Sammlung Gemeinver[With portrait.) (Christian) Dante. standlicher Wissenschaftlicher Vortrage. 325-26.] Hamburg, 1899.
8vo, pp. 104.
MOORE
(Edward) Studies
in
Dante.
"
Oxford, 1917.
"
8vo.
R 40731 R 9302
Fourth leries. Textual criticism of the 1917. preface by P. J. Toynbee.]
Convivio
and miscellaneous
esiayi.
[With a
ORR, afterwards EVERSHED (Mary Acworth) Dante and

astronomers.
. . .
the
early
[With
plates
and
illustrations.]
London,
8vo, pp. xvi, 507.
R
. .
.
[1913]. 41 357
PERESIO (Giovanni Camillo) II maggio romanesco ouero il palio Poema epicogiocoso nel linguaggio del volgo di Roma.
1688.
8vo, pp. 446.
conquistato.
Perrara,
R R
41955
PETRARCA
.
.
Translated and (Francesco) Some love songs of Petrarch. annotated and with a biographical introduction by William Dudley Foulke. 42102 8vo, pp. 244. Oxford, 1915.
.
PIEDMONT.
Nigra.
RlGHETTI
1908.
Pubblicati da Costanbr.o Canti popolari del Piemonte. 41852 8vo, pp. xl, 596. Torino, [1888]. " " Commedia di Dante. Roma, (Luigi) DJ un canto false nella
8vo, pp. 115.
40730
si
RlNALDO, da Montalbano.
contiene
il il
Innamoramento
De
Rinaldo
Nel Qvale
Re
suo nascimento, e tutte le bataglie che lui fece, e come vccise Mainbrino, e come hebbe baiardo da Malagigi, e come fu morto ne
Nonade Cologna isconosciuto. [Attributed to Girolamo Forti.] mente stampato con le dechiaratione a li soi canti, e ornato di varie Figure. [Woodcut beneath title.] ([Colophon :] Finite le battaglie de 1'Innamoramento de Rinaldo, stampato in Venetia per Alessandro de Viano. Nell' Anno del Signore M.D.LXIII.) R 42446 8vo, ff. [184].
la citta
TASSO
diuersi
(Torquato) Dialoghi, E. Discorsi del Signor Torq. Tasso sopra soggetti, Di Nvovo Posti in Luce, e da lui riueduti, e corretti. Per Ordine Alle sue Prose. Qvinta Dialogo Delia Poesia Toscana. In Venetia, Appresso Giulio Vasalini, 1587. Parte. 12mo,
. .
.
ff.
203.
R
;
421 36
particolare
Discorsi Del Signor Torqvato Tasso. Et In Dell' Arte Poetica del Poema Heroico. Et Insieme II Primo Libro Delle
Lettere scritte a diuersi suoi amici, lequali oltra la famigliarita, sono auertimenti poetici a dichiaratione d'alcuni ripiene di molti concetti, luoghi della sua Gierusalemme liberata . . . Non Piv Stampati.
&
[Edited by G. B. Licino.]
MDLXXXVII.
4to,
ff.
Ad
[4], 108.
In Venetia, instanza di Giulio Vassalini Libraro a Ferrara. R 4151 1

[Printer's device beneath
title.]

850
149
LITERATURE
ITALIAN.
TORRACA
Memoria letta alia R. (Francesco) Di un aneddoto Dantesco. di Archeologia, Lettere e Belle Arti di Napoli. [Estratto dagli Atti R. Accademia Arch. Lett. Bell. Arti, Nuova serie, Vol. V, 41459 8vo, pp. 28. Napoli, 1916. 1916.]
Accademia
ZENATTI
Ettore Tolomei.]
(Albino) Intorno a Dante. "

[Biblioteca
Milano, [1916].
8vo, pp.
xii,
[With an introduction subscribed " Sandron di Scienze e Lettere. 63.] 208. R 41004
:
DRAMA.
ALBERGATI CAPACELLI
.
(Francesco) Marquis.
Collezione
Accresciute corapleta delle commedie di Francesco Albergati Capacelli. e corrette da lui medesimo. . . Bologna, 1800. [With frontispiece.]
6vols. in3.-j-8vo.
41950
MONTI
retta dall* autore.
Edizione revista e cor(Vincenzo) Tragedie di V. Monti. Firenze, 1822. 8vo, pp. 341. [With portrait.]
. . .
42127
[Aristodemo.
Cajo Gracco.
Galeotto Manfred! principe di Faenza].
FICTION.
GIOVANNI (Florentine) II [within compartment of ornaments] Pecorone Di Ser Giovanni Florentine, Nel quale si contengono quarant' otto Nouelle antiche, belle d'inuentione, & di stile. [Printer's In Trevigi, Appresso, Euagelista Dehuchino. device beneath title.] R 42063 M.DCI. 8vo, ff. 210.
.
.
MASUCCIO,
The thirty-third novel of II novellino of ^Salernitano. Masuccio, from which is probably derived the story of Romeo and Translated out of Italian into English, with an introduction and Juliet. full bibliography. The facsimile is taken from By Maurice Jonas. an original edition in the possession of the editor. London, 1917. 8vo,
. . .
pp. 64.
42084
Neces-
PATIENTIA.
saria, nella
La Patientia
Pastorale.
Opera Non
Men Vtile Che
quale si raggiona amplamente di tutte le cose che acadeno al huomo contra il suo uolere, impero nelle disperationi qui si contene un prestante rimedio alle non ottenute imprese, posto sotto figura di uno infelice Pastore. [By Michel Angelo Biondo.j [Woodcut beneath title.]
MDXXXXVII.
[28].
[Venice
:]
Alia insegna di Apolline.
8vo,
41
ff.
R
ricorretti
;
949
ESSAYS.
SPERONE DEGLI ALVAROTTI

. . .
Speron Speroni altri non piu stampati. by Conte I. de' Conti.]
MDXCVI.
604],
[2].
(Sperone) Dialogi Del Sig. A'quali sono aggiunti molti E di piit 1' Apologia de i primi. [Edited In Venetia, [Printer's device beneath title.] Appresso Roberto Meietti. 4to, pp. [8], 596 [error for
di
nuouo
41 177
150
860

LITERATURE: SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE.
CASTELLANOS
2vols.
(Jesus) [Coleccion postuma
GENERAL.
J.
de lasobras de
Castellanos.)
[Academia Nacional de Artes y

8vo.
:
Letras.]
1914[1915]-16.
1
.
Habana, 39349
2.
Los optimistai. Lot argonautas.
Lecturas y opinionei
critica
de
arte.
La manigua
sentimental.
Cuentoi.
[Cronicat y apuntes.]
CEJADOR Y FRAUCA
...
4.
5.
Qulio) Historia de la lengua y literatura castellana. 38588 Madrid, 1916. 8vo. In progress. [With plates.]
pocade Felipe Epoca de Felipe IV o de Lope y Calderoa.

I
II.
1916.
1916.
COESTER
1916.
(Alfred) 8vo, pp.
The
xii,
literary history of
Spanish America.
New
495.
York, 4151 5
.
FlGUEIREDO
A translation from the Portuguese by Constantino Jose dos Santos.

[Separata de
(Fidelino de) Characteristics of Portuguese literature.
O Institute,
Vol.
Ixiii.]
Coimbra, 1916.
8vo, pp. 43.
R
.
40918
HERNANDEZ MIYARES
Miyares.
2.
. .
[With
portrait.]
Habana, 1916.
Prosas.
8vo.
(Enrique) Obras completas de E. Hernandez [Academia Nacional de Artes y Letras.] In progress. 39350
1916.
MANOEL DE MELLO
Com um (Francisco) Carta de guia de casados. estudo critico, notas e glossario por Edgar Prestage. [With portrait.] 41369 Porto, [1916]. 8vo, pp. 225. [Biblioteca Lusitana.]
MENENDEZ Y PELAYO
Menendez y Pelayo.
progress.
5-6.
(Marcelino)
portrait.]
[With
Obras completas del ... M. Madrid, 1914-16. 8vo. In R 35847

.
Hiitoria de
la
poesia castellana en
la
edad media.
Edicion ordenada y anotada
por
... A.
Bonilla y
San Martin.
POETRY.
Edicion
historicas
EREILLA Y ZUNIGA (Alonso

del
de)
La
centenario,
ilustrada
con
grabados,
Araucana. documentos, notas

. .
La publica Jose y bibliograficas y una biografia del autor. Toribio Medina. Santiago de Chile, 1910-13. 2 vols. Fol.
R
FICTION.
par
41386
AMADIS, de Gaula.
le
...
comte
de
Amsterdam, 1780.
Traduction libre d'Amadis de Gaule, Tress ** [i.e. Tressan]. Nouvelle edition. 2 vols. R 23456 12mo.
:
AURELIO.
Historia di Avrelio Et Isabella, Nella Qvale Si Disprta Chi Piv Dia Occasione Di peccare, 1'huomo alia donna, o la donna a Thuomo. Di Lingva Spagnola In Italiana Tradotta [By J. de Flores.] Da ... Lelio Aletiphilo. [Printer's device beneath title.] In Vinegia Appresso Gabriel Giolito De Ferrari, MDXLVIH. 8vo, ff. 40.
R41489

860
151
LITERATURE: SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE.

(Miguel de) El ingenioso hidalgo
CERVANTES SAAVEDRA
de
la
.
Don
Quijote
.
Primera edicion critica con variantes, notas, y el Mancha. diccionario de todas las palabras usadas en la inmortal novela por. ConClemente Cortej6n (Vol. 6. 1605(-1615) 1905(-I913). tinuada por Juan Givanel Mas y Juan Sune Benajes.) [With plates and R 40656 Madrid, 11905-13.] 6 vols. 8vo. illustrations.]
. . . . . .
FLORTIR.
I
II
Cavallier
gesti,
Flortir.
La
Historia,
Dove
Si
Ragiona
De
ualorosi,
& gran
&
amori del Cauallier
Flortir.
Con Altre Varie
Aventure de
Spanish.]
molti nobili,
&
ualorosi Cauallieri.
title.]
Printer's device beneath
per Michele Tramezzino,
M.D.LXV.)
[Translated from the ([Colophon:] In Venetia 8vo, ff. [12], 462, [1].
42447
870
LITERATURE: CLASSICAL: GENERAL.
LIVINGSTONE (Richard Winn)

don, 1916.
8vo, pp.
xi,
A defence of
The Loeb
.
.
.
classical education.
278.
classical library.
R
W.
H. D. Rouse
With an
English
Lon41945
LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY.

E. Capps 1916. 8vo.
.
.
Edited by
. .
E. Page In progress.
.
T.
London,
Achilles Tatius, the Rhetorician. S. Gaselee. . . . 1917.
Achilles 1'atius.
English translation by
R R R
Anthologia Graeca. The Greek anthology. Paton. . vols. -191 6- 1 7.

.
With an
translation
.2
R
translation
by
.
Dion
Cassius.
Dio's
the basis of the version of
Roman history. With an English IV. 1916. H. B. Foster

. . . :
by E. Gary.
42309 W. R. 41159 On 35274

. .
Galenus (C.) Galen

Brock.
. .
On
the natural faculties.
With an
English translation by
.-1916.
.
.
A. J. 41 160
With the English translation of G. Thornley revised Longus. Daphnis & Chloe. and augmented by j. M. Edmonds. The love romances of Parthenius, and other fragWith an English translation by S. Gaselee. ... ment*. 41 161
.
; . .
Plutarch's lives. Plutarch. With an English translation by B. Perrin biadei and Coriolanus, Lysander and Sulla. 1916.
IV.
Alci-
R
H.
B.
37652
Dewing
Procopius, of Caesarea.
Procopius.
With an
English tran lation by
... n
J. Miller.
-1916.
Seneca's tragedies.
R R
R
37655
Seneca (L. A.) the Younger. ... 2 vols.-1917.

Strabo.
With an
English translation by F.
42308
. . .
The geography
of Strabo.
With an
bated
in part
upon the unfinished version
of J.
English translation by H. L. Jones R. S. Sterrett I 1917. 42310

.
. .
Enquiry into plants, and minor works on odours and Theophrastus. TheopHrastus. With an English translation by Sir A. Hort, Bart. weather signs. [With portrait.] 2 voi.,-1916. 41 158
.
.
PLATT (Hugh Edward

1906.
8vo,
Pigott)
last
ramble
in the classics.
Oxford,
PP
iv,
208.
41978
152

870
LITERATURE: LATIN.
Ernestus)
BOSSELAAR
lugurthini
(Didericus
Quomodo
Snellen
Sallustius
in
.
.
Historiam
belli
conscripserit. Specimen auctontate rectoris magninci H.
litterarium
.
augurale,
quod ex
senatus
amplissimi
academici consensu et nobilissimae facultatis litterarum et philosophiae decreto pro gradu doctoratus summisque in litterarum classicarum disciplina honoribus ac privilegiis in Academia Rheno-Traiectina rite et legitime consequendis facultatis examini submittet D. E. Bosselaar
.
. .
die XII. m. Mail

146.
a.
MCMXV.
Amstetodami, 1915.
8vo, pp.
40958
BRITISH MUSEUM. University of Pennsylvania. The Latin epigram of the Middle English period with special reference to MS. reg. 7 C xvii, fol. 17 b -18. [Text and translation.] An abstract of a thesis. ... By Lewis Burton Hessler. Menasha, IVts., 1916. SYO, pp. 18. R 41012
1
FRANKE
(Otto)
est
De
Adiectum
artificiosa carminum Catullianorum compositione. H. Useneri de Catulli carmine LXVIII epimetrum.

.
.
Berolini, 1866.
8vo, pp. 66,
ii.
R
e
filologia
latina.
41647'2
(Ettore)
Studi
di
letteratura
Con una
1917.
8vo,
appendice di
pp.
ix,
iscrizioni
ed
altri scritti in
lingua.
Torino,
447.
della
42359
JSTROZZI (Tito Vespasiano) Anita

Strozzi.
Poesie
latine
(Le
lettere volgari.)
Guardia. Tito Vespasiano Aldina e confrontate coi codici. R 40130 Modena, 1916. 8vo, pp. Ixxv, 268.
tratte
dall* et
.
CATULLUS
perpetua
(Caius Valerius) C. V. Catulli carmina varietate lectiones adnotatione illustrata a Fridericus Guilielmus Doering
. .
.
.
Accedunt 296,61,58.
-
Handii
notae critics.
Londini, 1820.
8vo, pp.
xliii,
R
Catulli liber.
posterioris
34745
G. V.
Ludovicus Schwabius recognovit

prior
1
et enarravit.
Voluminis
Schwabii.
pars Gissae, 1866.
Catulli
liber
ex
recognitione
L.
vol.
8vo.
R41647'!
V. Catulle. Traduction nouvelle par Ch. Heguin Traduction nouvelle (Poesies de Cornelius Gallus. Genouille. Jules .) [Bibliotheque Latine-Francaise.] par 41204 8vo. 2 pts. in 1 vol. Paris, 1837.
Poesies de C.
. . .
de Guerle.
.
.
HORATIUS FLACCUS
(Quintus) I Dilettevoli [within ornamental compartSermoni, Altrimenti Satire, E Le Morali Epistola di Horatio ment] insieme con la Poetica. Ridotte Da ... Lodorico Dolce dal Poema Latino in uersi Sciolti Volgari. Con La Vita Di Horatio. Origine
. . .
della Satira.
Discorso sopra le Satire. Discorso sopra le Epistole. Discorso sopra la Poetica. [Printer's [Ornament beneath title.] /// device beneath title.] I'inegia Appresso Gabriel Giolito De
.
.
Ferrari,
MDLIX.
8vo, pp. 318.
40732

870
153
LITERATURE: LATIN.
LUCRETIUS CARUS
Of the nature of things. (Jitus) T. Lucretius Carus. metrical translation by William Ellery Leonard. . [With por.
.
trait.]
London, [1916].
8vo, pp. xv, 301.
41680
OVIDIUS NASO
de Benserade.]
463.
(Publius) Metamorphoses d'Ovide en rondeaux. [By IParis; 1676. Enrichis de figures. . 4to, pp. 421 85
. .
** There
Catilina
is
SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS
z
(Caius)
explanatis : sus per lohannem
lugurthina cum reliquis collectaneis ab Ascensio vtcunq; hie suu capit finem. Lugduni diligenti recognitione Impres:
([Colophon
:]
t| C.
Crispi
Salustij
de
platea.
Impensis
4to.
ff.
lohannis Robion
xiij.
lohannis
de
clauso.
Anno
dni millesimo quingetesimo
die TO.
viij.
mesis
lanuarij.)
<Lyons, 1513.>
[6], cxlviii.
R 39702
VARRO
Varronis de lingua Latina quae Recensuerunt Georgius Goetz et Fridericus Schoell. Accedunt grammaticorum Varronis librorum fragmenta. Lipsiae, 1910.
supersunt.
liv,
(Marcus Terentius) M. T.
8vo, pp.
340.
(Caius)
R
Velleius
22265
VELLEIUS PATERCULUS
Historic
:
Paterculus
His
Romane
Exactly translated out of the Latine Edition lanus Gruterus. supervised by According to the reformations in such parts of him, in which the Latin hath suffered either by time, or negli-
In
two Bookes.
And gence in the transcribers of the ablest Commenters upon him. nt rendred English by Sr. Robert Le Grys London, Printed by M. F. for R. Swaine, ([Colophon :] London. Printed by Miles in Britaines-Burse at the signe of Flesher, for Robert Swaine )
the Bible.
MDCXXX1I.
.
12mo, pp.
[20], 430, [2].
41632
VERGILIUS
Rufio
MARC (Publius) P. Vergili Maronis codex antiquissimus a Turcio Aproniano distinctus et emendatus, qui nunc Florentiae in Bibliotheca Mediceo-Laurentiana adserratur, bono publico
.
.
typis
descriptus
anno
4to.
CIDDCCXLI.
:
[Edited
by P.
F. Foggini.]
Flortmti*t Y34\.
pp. xxxv, 459. " " gathering of the clans Virgil's
40553
VII,
601-817.
By
W. Warde
Fowler.
English translation
by James Rhoades.]
being observations on Aeneid . [With Latin text, and 8vo, pp.95. Oxford, 1916.
. .
41
587
880
LITERATURE
of
GREEK.
CLASSICAL ASSOCIATION
gress.
5.
tions of the Classical Association.
England and Wales. Occasional publicaIn proCambridge, 1916. 8vo. R 393 13

Odyssey.
Mackail 0-
W.)
6.
7.
Dobson
(J. F.)
Pene'ope
in the
study of the Pervigiliura Veneris.

acting.
Jevons (F. B.) Masks and
154

880
LITERATURE: GREEK.
poesie de
CROISET (Marie Joseph Alfred) La

lyrisme grec.
. .
Pindare
1895.
et
les lois
du
Troisieme edition.
Paris,
8vo, pp.
xviii,
458.
R
:
41 103
APOLLONIUS,
tions.
Pergaeus. Apollonius of Perca treatise on conic secEdited in modern notation with introductions including an
essay
. .
on the earlier history of the subject by T. L. Heath. Cambridge, 18%. 8vo, pp. clxx, 254. frontispiece.]
[With
41
536
:
ARISTARCHUS, Samius.
Aristarchus of Samos, the ancient Copernicus a history of Greek astronomy to Aristarchus together with Aristarchus's treatise on the sizes and distances of the sun and moon a new Greek text with translation and notes. Sir Thomas Heath. Oxford, By
; . . .
1913.
STO, pp.
yi,
425.
yg
.
41
535
DIOGENES, Laertius.
libri
de uita, & moribus philoDiogenis Laertii ad uetusti Graeci codicis fidem accuratissime decem, nuper sophorum castigati, idemq; summa diligentia excusi restitutis pene innumeris locis, & uersibus, epigrammatisq;, quae desiderabantur, Graece repositis, utilissimo. ijsdemq5 Latine factis, cum indice [Translated by A. Basileae In Aedibvs beneath title.] Traversarius.] [Ornaments Valentini Cvrionis An. M.D.XXIIII. ([Colophon :] Basileae Apvd
.
.
Valentiuvm
Cvrionem
Calendis
Septembris.
An.
Fol. pp. [20], 391, [1].
M.D.XXIIII.) R 41427
**
In a
stamped leather binding.

:
EPICTETUS.
the Discourses and Manual together with fragEpictetus ments of his writings. Translated with introduction and notes by P. R 41708 Matheson. 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1916.
.
EUCLID.
text of
Translated from the books of Euclid's elements. with introduction and commentary by T. L. Heath. Heiberg 41 537 [With frontispiece.] Cambridge, 1908. 3 vols. STO.
thirteen
.
The
HERODOTUS.
Herodoti fragmenta in papyris servata. Specimen literarium inaugurate quod ex auctoritate rectoris magnifici E. D. Wiersma, in Facultate Medica prof, ord., amplissimi senatus academici consensu et nobilissimae Facultatis Phil. Theor. et Lit. Hum. decreto pro gradu doctoris summisque in literarum classicarum disciplina honoribus et
privileges in Academia Groningana rite et legitime consequendis publico ac sollemni facultatis examini submittet Henricus Geldenhuijs Viljoen.
.
Die
XIV
mensis aprilis anni
MCMXV.
Groningae, 1915.
8vo, pp. x, 59, 8.
R
.
41024
HOMER.
The
Iliad of
Homer.
[-45].
Faithfully rendered in
.
Homeric verse
.
from the original Greek. line 371.] London, 1844

*.*
By Lancelot Shadwell.
8vo.
[Books I-IX
pp. 122.
42294
No
more published
after p. 122.

880
155
LITERATURE: GREEK.
:
LONGINUS
translated from (Cassius) Dionysius Longinus On the sublime the Greek, with notes and observations, and some account of the life, The writings and character of the author. By William Smith. .
. .
third
edition.
[With
frontispiece.]
London,
1752.
8vo,
pp.
xxxiv, 180.
42128
MENANDER.
Menandri quatuor fabularum Herois Disceptantium circumtonsae Samiae fragmenta nuper reperta post Gustavum Lefeburium cum prolegomenis et commentariis iterum edidit J. van Leeuwen.
. .
Lugduni
Batavorum, 1908.
8vo, pp.
yiii,
178.
38469
SOPHOCLES.
. .
The
.
fragments of Sophocles.
. .
.
from the papers of Sir R. C. Jebb and Pearson. Cambridge, 1917. 3 vols.
Edited with additional notes W. G. Headlam by A. C.

8vo.
42320
890
LITERATURE: MINOR LANGUAGES.

SERIES.
INDIAN.
I, 3, 4.
BOMBAY SANSKRIT
. .
Bombay, 1868-1909.
Fol.
In progress.
4 25
1
Panchatantra 1 (-IV Panchatantra. V). Edited, with notes, by F. Keilhorn. . . . 1891-96. (G. Buhler. .) 2,7,9, 12. Nagesa Bhatta. The Paribhlshendus'ekhara of Nagojibhatta. Edited and 4 vols. in 1. 1868-74. explained by F. Kielhorn. 5,8, 13. Kllidasa. The Raghuvams'a of Kalidasa, with the commentary of Mallinatha. 1872-97. Edited, with notes, by Shankar P. Pandit. . 15. Bhavabhuti. Malatt-Madhava. . . . With the commentary of jagaddhara. Edited with notes, critical and explanatory, by Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar. . . . Second edition.
. . . . .
&
1905.
18, 19, 20, 21, 22. 26, 28, 29. 30.
.
PataHjali.
The VySkarana-mahabhashya
. .
of Patanjali.
Edited by F. Kielhorn. . . Second edition revised. ... 3 vols.' 1892-1909. 24. Bana. Sana's Kadamban, edited by P. Peterson. Third edition. ... 2 pts. . in 1 vol. 1899-1900. 31. Vallabha Deva. The Subhashitavali of Vallabhadeva. Edited by P. Peterson . . .
and
The Mahanarayana-upanishad of the Atharva-veda [generally styled the 1888. With the Dipika of Narayana. Edited by .G.A.Jacob. Brihannarayana]. 37. Sarngadhara, Son of Damodara. The Paddhati of Sarngadhara. A Sanskrit
.
33. Hitopadesa. 35. Upanishads.
. 1686. Durgaprasada. Hitopadesa. By Narayana.

.
.
Edited by P. Peterson.
.
1887.
Edited by P. Peterson. . . . 1888. anthology. 39. Jacob (G. A.) ... concordance to the principal Upanishads and Bhagavadgita.
By ... G.A.Jacob.
41, 43. Vedas.
1891.
. . .
Part
first
I.
Introductory.
three
hymns
Handbook to the study of the Rigveda. By P. Peterson. [Sayana's preface to his commentary; the commentary itself on the with text and a translation into English of the preface.] (Part 2. The
Rigveda.
;
seventh mandala of the Rigveda.) 890-92. Dharmasutra. 44, 50. Apastamba.

1 . . . .
Aphorisms on the sacred law of the Hindus. Edited, with extracts from Apastambiya Kalpasutra.] the commentary [of Haradata], by ... G. Buhler. 1892-94. Second edition. The Rajatarangin! of Kalhana. Edited by Durgaprasada, son of 45, 51, 54. Kalhana.
. .
[Forming sections 28-29
of the
!892-'96. Vrajalala. . . . The Parasara dharma samhita or Parasara smriti, 47, 48, 59, 67. Parasara. [Smriti.j with the commentary of Sayana Madhavacharya. Edited with various readings, critical notes
.
etc., by Vaman Sastri Islamapurkar. 49. Bhimacharya Jhajkikar. Nyayakosa Second edition. . philosophy, 6tc. . The Mrichehhakatika, or 52. Sudraka. 1896. yana Balakrishna Godabole. 53. Padmagupta. The Navasahasanka
.
. . . .
.
3 vols.
1893-1911.
or dictionary of the technical terms of the
Nyaya
1893.
toy cart.
charita
A prakarana.
of
Edited by NaraParimala.
. .
Padmagupta
alias
Edited by
... Vamana
Shastri Islampurkar.
1695.
156

890
58. Vedas. edited, with First edition. . 1899. Sayana's commentary and note*, by P. Peterson. . . *.* 500 copies printed. 61 62. Euclid. The Rekhaganita or geometry in Sanskrit. Composed by Samrad JaganEdited with a critical preface, introduction, and notes in English by Kamalanatha. 1st edition. 2 vols. in I. sankara Pranasankara Trivedi. . 1901-02.
.
LITERATURE: MINOR LANGUAGES. Rigveda. ... A iccond selection of hymni from the Rigveda.
. .
*,* 300 copies printed. The Ekavali of Vidyadhara. With the commentary, Tarala, of Mal63. Vidyadhara. linatha, and with a critical notice of manuscripts, introduction, and critical and explanatory notes, First edition. . 1903. by Kamalasankara Pranasankara, Trivedi. Edited by A. A. Fuehrer.) 1909. 66. Bana. [Banabhatta's Sri-Harshacharita. Edited with the commentary of MalBhatti. The Bhatti- Kavya or Ravanavadha. linatha and with critical and explanatory notes by Kamalasahkara Pranasankara Trivedi. .
. . . . .
. .
First edition.
1898.
DUROISELLE
(Extract
(Charles) Notes on the ancient geography of Burma I. Text. - - Translation.) from the Puflttovadasutta/âkatha. " from the Ecole Franchise d' Extreme-Orient.) Rangoon, (Reprint
1906.
8vo, PP 27.
.
R 41 745
KHUDDAKA-NlKAYA.
Selected [from the edition Jataka. Jataka tales. translated under the editorship of E. B. Cowell] and edited with introand E. J. Thomas. duction and notes by H. T. Francis
. . . . .
.
[With
plates.]
Cambridge, 1916.
8vo, pp. xiv, 488.

;
41446
MUIR
tion,
Qohn) Metrical translations from Sanskrit writers with an introducmany prose versions, and parallel passages from classical authors.
London, 1879.
8vo, pp.
xliv,
[Triibner's Oriental Series. 8.1
376.
R
PALI
40018
/;/
TEXT
SOCIETY.
[Publications.]
London, 1882-1916.
8vo.
progress.
.
10046
Buddhaghosa. Paramatthajotika. Sutta-nipata commentary being Paramatthajotika II. Edited by H. Smith. Vol. I. . 1916. Being part of the Abhidhamma Pifaka. Edited Dukapatthana. Dukapatthana. Vol. I I $06. by Mrs. R. Davids.
. .
.
Catalogue of Pali mss. in the India Office Library, being appendix to the England. By H. Oldenberg. 1882. Journal of the Pali Text Society for 1882. England. Catalogue of the Mandalay mss. in the India Office Library (formerly part of the King's library at Mandalay). By ... V. FausbSlL 1897. Edited by L. de La Vallee Pouisin and Niddesa. Niddesa. I Mahaniddesa. Vol. I.
E.
J.
Thomas.
1916.
PEARSON (W. W.)

Tagore.
.
Shantiniketan
the Bolpur school of Rabindranath
by Mukul Chandra Dey. [With introduction, etc., by Sir R. N. Tagore and The gift to the guru by Satish Chandra R 42 45 London, 1917. 8vo, pp. xv, Roy.]
. .
Illustrated
ÂNKARA ACHARYA.
The Sarva-siddhanta-sangraha of Sankaracarya. Edited with an English translation ... by M. Rangacarya. 41241 Madras, 1909. 2 pts. in 1 vol. 8vo.
. .
TAGORE
pp.
vii,
(Sir Rabindra Nath)

134.
The
cycle of spring.
London, 191 7.
8vo,
Fruit-gathering.
London, 1916.
8vo, pp. 123.
R R
42094 41037

890
157

. .
TAGORE
. (Sir Rabindra Nath) Hungry stones and other stories. Translated from the original Bengali by various writers. London, 1916. 41341 8vo, pp. vii, 271.
Stray-birds.
With
frontispiece
by Willy Pogany.
London,
1917.
8vo, pp. 84.
41
676
CELTIC.
CELLACHAN, King of Cashel.

Norsemen
in
the victorious career of Cellachan of Cashel, or the wars
Caithreim Cellachain Caisil : between the
Irishmen and the
the middle of the 10th century.
The
original Irish text, edited,

. .
with translation and notes by Alexander Bugge. Published for Det norske historiske FCildeskriftfond. Christiania,
8vo, pp. xix, 171.
1905.
40510
DALLAN FORGAILL,
now
printed
.
Saint. The Amra Choluim Chilli of Dalian Forgaill : from the original Irish in tebop ru\ tun-ope, a ms. in with a literal translation and notes, the library of the Royal Irish Academy a grammatical analysis of the text, and copious indexes. By J. O'Beirne R 40511 Crowe. Dublin, 1871. 8vo, pp. 76.
. . ; . .
.
IRISH
8vo.
TEXTS SOCIETY,
In progress.
17.
publications.]
[With
plates.]
London, 1916. R 9092
N. Connacht and
.
Carolan (T.) of Carolan together other ArhfU\1t1 CeAt\OAl,U.\in. The poems wjth S. Ulster lyrics. Edited with introduction, notes, and vocabulary by T. OMaille.
1916.
O'E^RUADAIR (David)
Bruadair.
by ...
1917.
3.
The poems of D. T)iuMU\i|\e "Oîoi* ui tÛATMifi. Edited with introduction, translation, and notes London , John C. MacErlean. [Irish Texts Society, 18.]
.
. .
8vo.
till
R9092
the poet'* death in 1698.
.
.
Containing poems from the year 1682 1917. and an index of proper names.
. . .
With
glossary
SALESBURY
(William) Llysieulyfr meddyginiaethol a briodolir i W. SalesW. Salesbury. Edited, with an introducbury. Livertion and notes, by E. Stanton Roberts. [With facsimile.] R 41693 4to, pp. Iviii, 275. pool, 1916.
A herbal attributed to
:
WALES,
scripts.
1 .
University of
Guild
:
of graduates.
Reprints of
Welsh manu-
Cardiff, 1916.
8vo.
In progress.
. .
.
40743
a manuscript of Welsh poetry written Llanstephan ms. 6 the 16th century. Transcribed and edited by E. S. Roberts. 1916.
Wales.
in the early part of
RUSSIAN.
(Thedor Mikhailovich) The novels of F. (From the Russian by Constance Garnett.) London, Dostoevsky. 1913-17. 8vo. 7vols. 41 804 2. The idiot a novel in four parts. [New impression.] [1915]. 3. The possessed a novel in three parts. 1913.
DOSTOEVSKY
4.
5.
Crime
6.
7.
The The
The
A raw youth
a novel in six parts and an epilogue. punishment [1914]. house of the dead a novel in two parts. [1915], novel in four parts and an epilogue. insulted and injured a [1915].
: : :
&
8.
a novel in three parts. eternal husband and other ttories.

:
[19161.
[I9I7J.
158

890
LITERATURE: MINOR LANGUAGESDostoevsky.

Mikhailovich) Paces from the journal Translated by S. Koteliansky and J. [Modern Russian Library.] Dublin and London,
RUSSIAN
of
DOSTOEVSKY (Thedor
an author F.
Middleton Murry.
1916.
8vo, pp. xiv, 117.
R
War and
41571
SOLOVEV
(Vladimir Sergyeevich)
Christianity, from the Russian
Three conversations by V. Solovyof with an introduction by Stephen Graham. [Second impression.] [Constable's Russian LibR 42206 London, [1915]. 8vo, PP x, 188. rary.]
point of view.
.
War, progress, and the end of history, including a short story of the Anti-Christ. Three discussions by V. Soloviev. Translated from the
Russian by Alexander Bakshy with a biographical notice by London, 1915. 8vo, pp. xxxiv, 228. berg Wright.
... Hag-
42205
ARABIC.
(Aba Mansur) al Einsamen in schlagfertigen Gegenreden von Abu Manssur Abdu'lmelik ben Mohammed ben Ismail Ettsealebi aus Nisabur [being an abridgement of his work entitled Mu'nis Ubersetzt, berichtigt und mit Anmerkungen erlautert durch al-wahld]. Gustav Fliigel. Nebst einem Vorworte des Joseph Ritter von
IBN
ABD AL-MALIK
Der
MUHAMMAD
des
Tha' alibi.
vertraute Gefahrte
Hammer.
[With
text.]
Wien, 1829.
4to, pp. xxxii, 291, 50.
40469
ARABS.
Anonyme arabische Chronik Band XI vermuthlich das Buch der Verwandtschaft und Geschichte der Adligen von Abulhasan ahmed ben Aus der arabischen jahja ben gabir ben dawiid elbeladori elbagdadi. Handschrift der Konigl. Bibliothek zu Berlin Petermann II 633 autographirt und herausgegeben von W. Ahlwardt. Greifswald, 1883.
8vo, pp. xxvii, (448).
40479
HARUN 'ABO ALLAH.

:
his poetry the life of being lations of many or his mystic
words. By Sciences et
Sheikh Haroun Abdullah a Turkish poet, and with transSheikh Haroun Abdullah and other poems, and a glossary of Turkish Henri M. Leon. [Societe Internationale de Philologie, Beaux- Arts, Londres.] Obi. 8vo, Blackburn, 1916.
: . . . . . .
pp.108.
41476
FAR EAST.
tion
CHINA.
A feast of lanterns.
.
.
Rendered with an introducof the
by L. Cranmer-Byng.
8vo, pp. 95.
[Wisdom
East Series.]
London,
1916.
41506
JAPAN.
from the manuscripts of Ernest Certain noble plays of Japan Fenollosa, chosen and finished by Ezra Pound, with an introduction by William Butler Yeats. Churchtown, Dundrum : Cuala Press, 1916.
:
8vo, pp.
Motokiyo.]
xviii,
48.
R
Hagoromo.
it
42326
By
[Nithikigi.
By Motokiyo.
Kumaiaka.
By
Ujinobu.
Kagekiyo.
*.* 350 copies printed.
Thii copy
No. 332.

890
TIBET.
from
officers
159

of
Examples
of
Tibetan
letters.
collection of
letters
received
2 orders of the Tibetan Government at Lhasa. Together with examples of all the forms of the Tibetan written character. Transliterated and translated by E. H. C.
the Tashi
...
Lama and
Walsh.
Calcutta, 1913.
.
4to.
41 741
and
in
Yig kur nam shag being a collection of letters, both official and illustrating the different forms of correspondence used Tibet. Edited by ... Sarat Chandra Das. Published under
.
.
private,
the authority of the Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. 8vo, pp. iii, xii, (88).
[Calcutta,} 1901.
41278
900 HISTORY: GENERAL.
MATTHEWS
(Shailer)
The
spiritual interpretation of history.
Belden Noble Lectures.]
Cambridge, [Mass.} 1916.
8vo. pp.
[William x, 227.
41928
PROGRESS.
Marvin.
ham.]
essays arranged and edited by F. S. Progress and history [Lectures given at the Woodbrooke Settlement, Birming41806 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. 314.
: . . .
TAYLOR
times
;
(Isaac)
or,
History of the transmission of ancient books to modern

:
a concise account of the means by which the genuineness and with an estimate authenticity of ancient historical works are ascertained
of the comparative value of the evidence usually the claims of the Jewish and Christian scriptures.
adduced in support of London, 1827. 8vo,
pp.
vi,
256.
401 18
WOODBRIDGE
(Frederick James Eugene) The purpose of [Lectures delivered at the University or North Carolina on the Foundation, 1916.] York, 1916. 8vo, pp. 89.
history.
McNair
New
:
41570
910
HISTORY
GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL.

:
AlKIN
2
O onn )
Geographical delineations
all
or a compendious view of the

.
natural and political state of

vols.
parts of the globe.
London,
806.
8vo.
R
issued by the Hakluyt Society.
40967
HAKLUYT
1916.
8vo.
SOCIETY. Works In progress.
London, R 1828
. .
... by G.
. .
40. Diaz del Castillo (B.) The true history of the conquest of New Spain. . Edited Garcfa. Translated into English, with introduction and notes, by A. P. Maudslay. 1916. Vol. V. . 41. China. Cathay and the way thither being a collection of medieval notices of China. Translated and edited by ... Sir H. Yule. With a preliminary essay on the intercourse . between China and the western nations previous to the discovery of the Cape route. New Vol. IV, . edition, revised throughout in the light of recent discoveries. By H. Cordier.
: . . . .
Ibn Batuta-Benedict Goes.
Index.
1916.
160

910
HISTORY: GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL.

.
SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL SDCIETY.
The Scottish geographical Published by the Scottish Geographical Society. magazine. [With Edinburgh, 1885, etc. 8*0. In progress. plates and illustrations.]
.
.
R
1-2.
. . . . . . . .
41689
Edited by H. A. Webster and A. S. White. 3. Edited by A. S. White. 4-8. . Hon. editor. A. S. White J. Geikie Acting editor. Hon. editor. W. A. Taylor 9-15. . . J. Geikie Acting editor. Hon. editor. G. Sandeman 16-17. . J. Geikie . . Acting editor. \& etc. . . . J. Geikie Hon. editor. M. I. Newbigin . Acting editor.
.
929 HISTORY:
GENEALOGY AND FAMILY HISTORY.

:
AGNEW
their
The hereditary sheriffs of Galloway (Sir Andrew) 8/// Bart. " and friends, their courts and customs of their times. forebears With notes of the early history, ecclesiastical legends, the baronage and
"
.
. .
[Second edition enlarged, edited by place-names of the province. Constance Agnew.] [With plates and illustrations.] Edinburgh, 1893. 2 vols. 8vo. R 41 163
BOSCH
.
(Jacques) Symbolographia, sive de arte symbolica sermones septem. Quibus accessit sylloge celebriorum symbolorum in quatuor
.
. .
divisa classes sacrorum, heroicorum, ethicorum, et satyricorum bis mille
iconismis expressa.
fusius
Praeter alia totidem
ferme
. .
descripta.
\
Cum
.
indicibus.
Attgusttz
6- Dilinga,
701
Fol.
:
symbola ordine suo Vindelicorum R 421 75

Aylesbury, 1916. R 8701
.
BUCKS PARISH REGISTER SOCIETY

8vo.
scribed
[Publications.]
In progress.
. .
The register of the parish of Addington. 20. Addington, Buckinghamshire. by ... R. Ussher. . Baptisms, 1558 to 1837; marriages. 1558 Bradbrook. 1916. Indexed and edited by burials. 1558 to 1837.
to
Tran1908;
W.
BURKE
1897.
(Ashworth Peter) Family records.

8vo, pp.
xi,
[With
illustrations.]
London,
709.
37639
BURKE
(John) genealogical and heraldic history of the commoners of Great Britian and Ireland, enjoying territorial possessions or high official rank but uninvested with heritable honours. [With plates and illustra4 vols. 37640 8vo.' London, 1833-38. tions.]
;
(Sir John Bernard) genealogical and heraldic of the extinct and dormant baronetcies of England, Ireland, and history Scotland. Second edition. London, 1844. [With illustrations.]
.
. .
and Burke
8vo.
41
685
England, Scotland, and Wales, with their descendants, sovereigns and subjects. [With plates.] London, 1848-51. R 42 162 2 vols. 8vo.
royal families of
The
BURKE
(Sir John Bernard) Vicissitudes London, 1859-63. 3 vols. 8vo.

*,* Vols.
1
of
families
and other
essays.
41686
and 2 are
of the second edition.

929 HISTORY:
G. E. C.
Britain
161
The complete peerage of England, Scotland, Ireland, Great and the United Kingdom, extant, extinct, or dormant. By G. E. C. [i.e. G. E. Cokayne]. New edition, revised and much enEdited by the Hon. Vicary Gibbs, with the assistance of H. larged. Arthur Doubleday. Volume IV. London, 1916. 4to. In pro. . .
gress.
22839
ENGLISH MONUMENTAL INSCRIPTIONS SOCIETY.

English monumental In progress. 8vo.
2.
The
London,
register of
inscriptions.
[With
plates.]
1912-14.
29383
Edited by
T.
W.
Oswald-Hicki.
HOWARD
Notes.
Ooseph Jackson) and CRISP (Frederick Arthur)

.
Visitation of
England and Wales.

Vol. 2
SYO.
(-3).
2Tols.
and F. A. Crisp. Edited by J. J. Howard {London, S.E.] privately printed, 1897-98. R 5086-2
. .
:
HUNSDON,
Hertfordshire.
;
The
. . .
parish registers of
Hunsdon
co. Hertford,
1546-1837 with some account of the church and parish by the Hon. Herbert Cokayne Gibbs. [With plates and illustrations.] London,
1915.
4to, pp.
viii,
346.
[Publications].
41 131
LANCASHIRE PARISH REGISTER SOCIETY:

frontispiece.]
Rochdale, 1915.
8vo.
In progress.
R 6705
[With
52. Penwortham, Lancashire. The registers of the parish church of Penwortham. . . . Transcribed [by H. Price] from the transBaptisms, burials, and marriages, 1608-1753. scripts lodged in the Episcopal Registry at Chester. . . .
W.
LLANTILLIO CROSSENNY, Monmouthshire.

et
Registra antiqua de LJantilio comitatu Monumethensi, 1577-1644. TranCrossenny scribed from the copy in the Bodleian Library and edited by Joseph Alfred Bradney. 41934 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. viii, 46.
Penrhos
. .
.
in
MADRAS.
at
Fort Saint George. Church of Saint Mary. List of burials Madras, from 1680 to 1746 (-1900). Compiled from the registers of St. Mary's Church. ... ... C. H. Maiden. Printed by By R 41205 Madras, 1903-05. 4vols.ini. Fol. authority.
.
.
PHILLIMORE'S PARISH REGISTER SERIES.

Progress.
227. Derbyshire parish
register!.
London, 1917.
XIV.
Edited by T.
8vo.
In
5093
.
R
Marriages, Vol.
M.
Blagg
and
LI. LI.
Simpson.- 91 7.
1
Index
2.
series.
London, 1916.
Registers.
. .
8ro.
parish
In progress.
registers.
5093
to
Lincolnshire.
Lincolnshire
.
Marriages.
Index
Vols. I-VI.
Compiled by R. C. Dudding.
1916.
ROSS
(Luise
Christiane)
. .
Graefin.
plates
Vergangenheit. 2vols. 8vo.
[With
Die Colonna Bilder aus Roms and folding tables.] Leipzig, 1912. R 42187
:
ii
162

929 HISTORY:
SANSOVINO
Francesco (Francesco) L'Historia Di Casa Orsina Di. Sansovino Nella quale oltre all 'origine sua, si contengono molte nobili Con imprese fatte da loro in diuerse Prouincie fino a tempi nostri. quattro Libri de gli huomini illustri della famiglia, ne' quali dopo le vite de Generali Orsini, son posti i Ritratti di molti de prede Cardinali
&
detti.
&
[Woodcut beneath
title.]
F Hippo
Stagnini, fratelli.
Venetia. Appresso Nicolo in Venetia per Domenico Nicolini, &- Bernardino Sta^nini, fratelli, L' anno
MDLXV. ([Colophon, pt. Beuilacqua MDLXV. [Colophon,

ad instanza
2
In Venetia, Appresso Bernardino, |:J In

pt. 2 :] di Filippo
I
Stampata
Fol.
MDLXV.)
SOCIETY.
pts. in
rol.
R 41 958
[Publications.]
STAFFORDSHIRE
Deanery
of
PARISH
8vo.
Part
REGISTERS
In progress.
I.
.
[Stafford?], 1917.
Tamworth.
7329
Tamworth
parish register.
1917.
SURREY PARISH REGISTER SOCIETY.

Parish Register Society. hi progress. The 13. Putney, Suirey.
Edited by
.
.
The
plates.]
[With
register of
III.
publications of the Surrey STO. Croydon, 1916.
R
parish
. .
10409
W.
B. Bannerman.
Vol.
.
Putney. 1916.
Indexed by A. C. Hare.
WEEKLEY
(Ernest) Surnames.
London, 1916.
8vo, pp.
xxii,
364.
41575
Edin4 3 7
1
ALEXANDER
and
of the
1
ROGERS
(Charles) Memorials of the Earl of Stirling
burgh,
house of Alexander. 877. 2 Yols. 8vo.
[With
plates
and
illustrations.]
FOX
short genealogical account of some of the FOX, Family of. various families of Fox in the West of England, to which is appended a
:
pedigree of the Crokers of Lineham, and also sketches of the families of Pollard, Coplestone, Strode, Fortescue, and Bonvile. Bristol: C. H. Fox.] [With folding table and illustrations.] {By 41360 4to, pp. 24. privately printed, 1864.
Churchill, Yeo,
H ANBURY:
plates.]
LOCKE (Amy Audrey) The Hanbury

2 vols.
Fol.
family.
London, 1916.
R
. .
[With 42368
HOWARD:
The
. .
BRENAN
(Gerald)
. . .
and STATHAM (Edward

. .
.
Phillips.)
.
house of Howard.
With
8vo.
illustrations
and
plates.
.,
London, 1907.
:
2 vols.
R
R
42323
LYME
LEGH
its
Lyme from
Illustrated.
The house of (Erelyn Caroline) Baroness Newton. foundation to the end of the eighteenth century.
. . .
London, 1917.
8vo, pp. xvi, 422.
42150
LE STRANGE: LE STRANGE
chronicle of the early
(Hamon) Le Strange Records: a Stranges of Norfolk and the March of Wales, A.D. 1100-1310, with the lines of Knockin and Blackmere continued to With illustrations. London, 1916. 4to, pp. xii, their extinction.
Le
407.
41049
CLASSIFIED LIST OF
"il.2
RECENT ACCESSIONS
163
GENEALOGY AND FAMILY HISTORY. NELSON MATCHAM (M. Eyre) The Nelsons of Burnham Thorpe
929 HISTORY:
:
record of a Norfolk family compiled from unpublished With books, 1 787-1842. frontispiece and trations. London, 1911. 8vo, pp. 306.
.
letters
.
.
and noteillus-
other
41704
ROGER
**
ROGERS (Charles) The Scottish branch of the Norman house of Roger. With a genealogical sketch of the family of Playfair. London : R 41 31 5 8vo, pp. 39. printed for private circulation, 1872.
:
100 copies printed.
932
HISTORY: ANCIENT: EGYPT.

[With
4to.
CAIRO
Musee du Musee du Caire. Le Caire, 1916.

:
Caire.
Catalogue general des antiquites egyptiennes du plates.] [Service des Antiquites de 1'Egypte.]
In progress.
Par
. .
R 9699
Tome
Nos. 67279-67359.
troisieme.
Papyrus grecs d'epoque byzantine.
J.
Maspero.
1916.
EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND.

London, 1916.
15.
Graeco-Roman Branch.
papyri.
.
[Publications.]
8vo.
In progress.
Part XII.
. .
8461
Oxyrhynchus.
The Oxyrhynchus
Edited with translations and
notes
by B. P. Grenfell
...
and A. S. Hunt.
935 HISTORY:
ANCIENT: MEDO-PERSIA.
discovery of the
letters.
MEAD
(R.
F.)
The new
of
Assyrian and
.
. .
Babylonian
illustrations.]
alphabet
consisting
22 signs or
[With
London, 1916.
8vo, pp. 14.
41874
937 HISTORY:
ANCIENT: ITALY.
CAGNAT
logie romaine. progress.

I.
(Rene Louis Victor) and CHAPOT (Victor) Manuel d'archeoIn 8vo. Paris, 1916. [With illustrations.]
.
. .
41 81 5
Les monuments.
Decoration des monuments.
Sculpture.
1916.
CLASSICAL ASSOCIATION
tions.
.
. .
of
[With
illustrations.]
gress.
4.
England and Wales. Occasional PublicaIn proCambridge, [1916]. 8vo. R 393 13
** The
Haverfield (F. J.) Some Roman conceptions of empire. title is taken from the wrapper.
CUQ
(Edouard) Memoire sur
[Extract from the
le consilium principis d' Auguste a Diocletien. Memoires presentes par divers savants a I'Academie
des inscriptions pp. (311)-504.
et belles-lettres.
Serie
i,
ix,
2.]
[Parts, 1884.]
4to,
40869
.
. .
Du CHOUL
Sopra
la
(Guillaume)
Discorso
Del
Castrametatione,
&
Bagni antichi de
Greci,
Gvglielmo Chovl & Romani.
Con
[Translated by G. Simeoni.j 1'aggiunta della figura del Campo Romano. de gli habiti de soldati Et vna Informatione della militia Turchesca,
&
Turchi,
title.]
scritta
da
2
...
1
Francesco
Sansouino.
[With woodcuts.]
pts. in
In
vol.
MDLXXXII.
Vinegia, 8vo.
[Device beneath Presso Altobelto Salicato. R 41621
164

937 HISTORY:
ANCIENT: ITALY.
. .
HENDERSON
(Bernard William) Civil war and rebellion in the Roman " A.D. 69-70: a companion to the Histories" of Tacitus. . Empire, With maps and illustrations. London, 1908. 8vo, pp. xiii, 360.
R
938 HISTORY:
41 397
ANCIENT: GREECE.
. . .
. . .
DUSSAUD
egee
:
...
(Rene) Les civilisations prehelleniques dans le bassin de la mer Avec etudes de proto-histoire orientale. gravures et 23229 horstexte. Paris, 1910. 8vo, pp. viii, 314. planches
Deuxieme
edition revue et
.
.
augmentee
avec
planches hors texte.
Paris, 1914.
8vo, pp.
x,
gravures et 41655 482.

. .
COLES FRANCHISES D'ATHENES ET DE ROME. Ecoles Franchises d'Athenes et de Rome, publiee

Ministere de 1'Instruction Publique.
Bibliotheque des sous les auspices du In progress. 8vo. Paris, 1916.
R
xiv e
,
14334
et
.
109. Millet (Gabriel) Recherches sur 1'iconographie de I'evangile aux

siecles
xv*
xiv*
. .
d'apres
10.
les
monuments de
. . .
DessinsdeS. Millet
1
Mystra. Gravures.
.
.
de
la
Macedoine
1917.
et
du
Mont-Athof.
1916.
Piganiol (A.) Essai sur
les origine*
de Rome.
GREECE.
and Hellenic civilization. Edited by G. W. Botsford William L. WesterWith contributions from E. G. Sihler. . Charles J. Ogden mann. and others. [Records of CivilizaNew York, 1915. 8vo, pp. xiii, 719. tion Sources and Studies.]
. . .
R41106
ROBINSON
word by
xxiv, 301.
(Cyril
. .
C.
With a foreEdward) The days of Alkibiades. W. Oman. Illustrated. London, 1916. 8vo, pp.
. . .
R
.
41
363
SARTIAUX
ques de
la
(Felix) Troie ; la guerre de Troie et les origines prehistoriquestion d'orient. reproductions Ouvrage contenant
. .
d'apres les photographies de 8vo, pp. 236.
1'auteur
et
cartes.
Paris,
1915.
42328
939 HISTORY:
ANCIENT: MINOR COUNTRIES.

The
.
HANDCOCK
. .
With
(Percy Stuart Peache) and plates

.
.
archaeology of the
folding plans.
Holy Land. London, [1916].
8vo, pp. 383.
41 321
940
HISTORY
8vo.
MODERN EUROPE.
:
ALLGEMEINE STAATENGESCHICHTE.
recht.
Gotha,W\4t.
Hcrausgegeben von K. LampIn progress. R 6785
3 Abt. DeuticSe Landetgetchichten. 10. Wohlwill (A.) Neuere Geschichte der freien und Hanieitadt Hamburg, insbetondere von 1789 bis 1815.

940 HISTORY:
165
MODERN: EUROPE.
La grande
Les Francs de Test
1
BABELON
(Ernest Charles Francois)

1'histoire.
.
. . .
Rhin dans
Allemands.
[Vol. 2]
Le question d'occident. Francais et

:
[With map.]
Paris, 1917.
vol.
8vo.
R
.
41389
BELGIUM.
German
.
Official texts.
Nicol-Speyer. In progress. 8vo.

.
legislation for the occupied territories of Belgium. Edited by Charles Henry Huberich and Alexander The Hague, 1917. Index to Series I.-V.
. .
R
. .
38330
DEBIDOUR
Marie Marc Antoine) Histoire diplomatique de Faisant Congres de Berlin jusqu'a nos jours. suite a 1'ouvrage du meme auteur Histoire diplomatique de Europe depuis 1'ouTerture du Congres de Vienne jusqu'a la cloture du Congres d'Histoire Contemporaine.] de Berlin, 1814-1878. [Bibliotheque R 411 37 8vo. Paris, ]<)](>.
(Elie Louis
le
1'Europe depuis
1'
I.
La
paix armee, 1878- 1904.
Pre'cede'e d'une preface
de
L. Bourgeois.
DOYLE
1914.
(Sir Arthur Conan) The British campaign in France and Flanders, R 4 41 3 London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xv, 344. [With maps.]
1
ENGLAND.
Fol.
*.*
Dardanelles Commission.
title is
First report.
London, 1917. 381 43
The
EUROPE.
war.
Diplomatic documents relating to the outbreak of the European Edited with an introduction by James Brown Scott. [CarNew York, 1916. 2 vols. negie Endowment for International Peace.] 8vo. 42401
.
. .
** The
pagination
is
continuous throughout.
FRANCE.
scribed
:
Francia y sus aliados ante la razon y 8vo, pp. Quito, 1916. Imparciales.]
la
iv,
historia.
31.
R R R
[Sub41
368
GlBBS
[1917].
(Philip) 8vo, pp.
The
battles of the
vi,
Somme.
With maps.
London,
336.
41639
HEADLAM
8vo, PP
.
(James Wycliffe) The German Chancellor [i.e. Theobald Ton Bethmann Hollweg] and the outbreak of war. London, [1917].
127.
42289
The history of twelve days, July 24th to August 4th, 1914, being an account of the negotiations preceding the outbreak of war based on the official publications. London, [1915]. 8vo, [Third impression.]
pp. xxiv, 412.
42429
42303
HUMPHREY
1915.
(A.
W.)
vii,
International
socialism
and the war.
London,
8vo, pp.
167.
R
. .
LE BON
tion mentale
(Gustave). des peuples.
Premieres consequences de
.
la guerre. Transforma[Bibliotheque de Philosophic Scientifique.]
Paris, 1916.
8vo, pp. 336.

of the great war. 8vo, pp. 479.
. . .
41937 41344
The psychology
London, [1916].
Translated by
E Andrews.
R
166

940 HISTORY:
MODERN: EUROPE.
:
LlPSON (Ephraim) Europe

Containing iv, 298.
.
in
the nineteenth century

.
.
portraits
and
maps.
London, 1916.
an outline history. 8vo, pp.
R
et
40964
J\iris t
LOISY (Alfred Firmin) Guerre

1915.
8vo, pp. 196.
religion.
Deuxieme
edition.
R
Democracy and
the nations
:
41419
41585
MACDONALD (James Alexander)

view.
a Canadian
Oxford, 1916,
8vo, pp. 244.

of the storm.
edition.
. . .
MAETERLINCK (Maurice) The wrack

Alexander Teixeira de Mattos.
8vo, pp. x, 277.
Translated by
Second
London, [1916]. R 41455
MALINES,
Diocese
of.
.
Pastoral letter of
. .
...
Cardinal Mercier, ArchOfficial translation.

.
Christmas, bishop of Malines. London, [1915]. 8vo, pp. 31. *,* The title is taken from the wrapper.
1914.
41837
MANCHESTER GUARDIAN.
the war.
The "Manchester Guardian"

1916-17.
Vol. V(-VI).
Manchester, 1916-17.
history Fol.
of
progress.
R
(Peter Chalmers) Evolution and the war. 8vo, pp. xxv, 114.
In 38863
MITCHELL
[New
impression.]
London, 1915.
41854
42292
41 154
.
MUIR
(John
Ramsay Bryce) The expansion

history.
of
Europe.
xii,
The
culmina-
tion of
modern
London, 1917.
:
8vo, pp.
243.
Nationalism and internationalism
the culmination of
modern
London, 1916.
8ro, pp. 229.
R
" "
history.
MURRAY
With
(Arthur Mordaunt) The

. .
.
a foreword by London, 1916. maps.]
Fortnightly Sir Evelyn
history of the war.

.
Wood
G.C.B.
8vo.
In progress.
:
R
R
[With
41414
NEW
.
EUROPE.
.
The new Europe
19 October, 1916-11
January, 1917.
a weekly review of foreign politics. London, 1917. 8vo. In
progress.
42148
2
vols.
RAEMAEKERS
cartoons.
in 1.
(Louis)
The
"
Land and water

letterpress.]
"
edition of
Raemaekers*
[With descriptive
London, [1916-17].
4to. (Josiah)
R R
41
695
ROYCE
ix,
The hope
of the great
community.
by Katharine Royce.]
136.
[With
portrait.]
New
[With prefatory note

York, 1916.
8vo, pp.
41993
.
SENIOR
. . .
Thiers . (Nassau William) Conversations with Guizot, and other distinguished persons during the Second Empire. N. Senior. Edited by M. C. M. Simpson.
. .
W.
By
. . .
London, 1878.
vols.
8vo.
of the war.
32394
TIMES.
and
"The Times "history
illustrations.]
London, 1916-17.
4to.
Vol. VIII(-XI). In progress.
[With maps R 38864

940 HISTORY:
167
MODERN: EUROPE.
:
WHITE
(James William) America and Germany a textbook of the war. " the fourth edition of primer of the war for Americans," reBeing
vised and enlarged.
[With
facsimiles.]
London, [1915].
8vo, pp. 55 1
41971
941
HISTORY: MODERN: SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.

(Alan O.) Scottish annals from English London, 1908. 8vo, pp. xiii, 403.
chroniclers, A.D.
ANDERSON
to 1286.
500 41662
ENGLAND.
The memorial of the Presbyterians, exemplified in the Solemn and Covenant, as it passed in England, Jan. 29, 1644, with the League Whereunto is annexed, I. The form and persons names then present. manner of His Majesty's coronation in Scotland with a sermon then II. preached on that occasion, by Robert Douglas, of Edenburgh.
:
declaration of the King's Majesty to of Scotland, &c., in the year 1650.
all his
loving subjects of the
kingdom
III. The great danger of covenantbreaking, etc., being the substance of a sermon preached by Edm. Calamy, the 14th of Jan., 1645, before the then Lord Mayor of the city
of
London, Sir Tho.

Council
Adams
Common
of the
said city
together with the sheriffs, aldermen, and being the day of their taking the
:
Solemn League and Covenant at Michael Basenshaw, London. With R 41358 a preface. London, 1706. 4to, pp. 56.
.
GRAHAM
De
.
(Jan* 65)
s*
rebus
.
auspiciis
.
Marquis of Montrose. J. G. [i.e. J. Graham]. Caroli regis Magnae Britanniae

. .
sub imperio
Jacobi Montisrosarum Marchionis
supremi
.
.
Scotiae
gestis,
gubernatoris
anno CIDDCXLIV,
Interprete
&
duobus sequentibus
commentarius.
A.
S. [Agricola Sophocardio,
i.e.
G.
Wishart, or rather written by him.] 248.
[The Hague?] 1647.
8vo, pp. 41 667
MACDOWALL
**
There
of Nithsdale,
(William) History of the burgh of Dumfries, with notices Second edition. Annandale, and the western border. R 41 164 [With map and plates.] Edinburgh, 1873. 8vo, pp. 787.
. .
.
is
MACKENZIE
act,
23
Parl.
Observations upon the 28 (Sir George) Lord Advocate. K. James VI. against dispositions made in defraud of
creditors, etc.
Edinburgh, 1675.
8vo, pp. 208.

:
41627
. .
MAXWELL
(Sir Herbert Eustace) Edinburgh a historical London, 1916. 8vo, pp. xiv, 317. [With plates.]
study.
41447
SCOTLAND.
observations
In.
letter
and
Sir
concerning the union, with Sir George Mackenzie's John Nisbet's opinion upon the same subject.
P .],
-
706.
8vo, pp. 23.

:
;
R 41626
:
and or, treasons progenie, of prodiges arraigned, convicted condemned, discovered. In the many successive practises and succesles attempts of the Hamiltons to gaine the crowne of Scotland. [By R. Gardiner.] R 41671 4to, pp. 50. [n.p.], 1649.
: .
.
168
941

R
Letten
Edited by P.
J.
HISTORY: MODERN: SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. SCOTTISH HISTORY SOCIETY. Publications. Second Series. Edinburgh, 1915-17.
2.
8vo.
. .
In progress.
2465
Edited
Scotland.
B. Blaikie.
by
W.
Origins of the 'Forty-five, and other paper* relating to that rising. 1916.
11.
Ogilvy
(J.)
4M Earl
Ogilvy.
of Findlater,
etc.
relating to Scotland in the reign of
Queen Anne.
1915.
By
J.
firit
Earl of Seafield, and other*.
H. Brown.
.
.
12. Scotland.
Highland papers.
Volume
II.
Edited by
R. N. Macphail.
1916.
1
3.
Melrose.
scripts of the Earl of Haddington. Edinburgh, and in the possession of
Selections from the records of the Regality of Melrote and from the manuEdited from the original volumes in the Register House,
...
S.
Romanes. ... Vol.
Ill,
1547-1706.
J. Curie, the Earl of Haddington and other*, by C. 1917.
topography.
14-15. Mitchell (Sir A.) and Cash (C. G.) ... 2 Vols. 1917.
A contribution
1
to the bibliography of Scottish
BARKER
(Ernest) Ireland in the 8vo, pp. 108.
last fifty years,
866-1 91 6.
Oxford, 1917. 41931
BOVET
. .
.
(Marie Anne
gravures.
de) Trois mois en Irlande. Paris, 1891. 8vo, pp. 484.

France.
Ouvrage contenant
42073
DUQUET (Alfred) Ireland and

in
1
[Describing the reception in Ireland
from the Societe f rangaise de secours aux blesses Translated [mainly by W. S. Norwood] from the French of A. etc.] Introduction, notes and appendix by J. de L. Smyth. Duquet.
1
87
of a deputation
{With
portraits.]
8vo, pp. xxxi,
69.
R 42159 R
41416
Lon-
IRELAND.
[Facsimiles of papers and documents issued in connection with the Irish rebellion of 1916. [DubPhotographed by Thomas Mason.]
lin, 1916.]
4to.
petition
of
The humble
don, 1805.
the
Roman
of
Catholics of Ireland to the
Parliament of the United

8vo, pp. 27.
Kingdom
Great Britain and Ireland.
41846
41 166
STEPHENS
1916.
(James) The insurrection in Dublin. 8vo, pp. MY, 111.

:
Dublin and London,
TEMPLE
and
The Irish rebellion or, an history of the beginnings progress of the general rebellion, raised within the kingdom of . . Ireland, upon the three and twentieth day of October, 1641. Publish'd in the year 1646. The sixth edition. ... To which is
(Sir John)
first
.
.
also prefix'd, the late act of Parliament, made the fourteenth and fifteenth years of King Charles II for keeping and celebrating the twenty third of
To which is October, as an anniversary thanksgiving in this kingdom. added, Sir Henry Tichborne's history of the siege of Drogheda, in the
As also, the whole tryal of Connor Lord Mac-guire. year 1641. Together with the Pope's bull to the confederate Catholicks in Ireland. 40440 Dublin, 1724. 4to, pp. xvi, 245.
.
THROCKMORTON
from the debates
in
Considerations arising (Sir John Courtenay) Bart. Parliament on the petition of the Irish Catholics.
.
London, 1806.
STO, pp. 165.
41847

941
169
HISTORY: MODERN: SCOTLAND AND IRELAND.

B.)
WELLS (Warre
of 1916.
and
MARLOWE
(N.)
history of the Irish rebellion

xii,
8vo, pp.
271.
41451
942
HISTORY: MODERN: ENGLAND: PERIODS.
GENERAL,
ARUP
(Erik) Studier
engelskog tysk handels
historic
en
undersjJgelse af Kommissionshandelens praksis og theori i engelsk og tysk 38327 handelsliv, 1350-1850. Kfbenhavn, 1897. 8vo, pp. 515.
CUNNINGHAM
bridge, 1916.
(William) 8vo, pp.
The
xi,
progress of capitalism in England. 144.
Cam41449
ENGLAND.
post mortem and other analogous Public Record Office. Prepared under the superintendence of the deputy keeper of the records [i.e. Sir H. C. Maxwell Lyte.] London, 1916. 8vo. In progress. 6302
Calendar documents preserved
of inquisitions
in the
9.
Edward
III.
[Edited by E. G. Atkinson.]
Calendar of state papers, foreign series. Of the reign of Elizabeth. In Preserved in the Public Record Office. 8vo. London, 1916.
-
progress.
19.
R 2827
Edited by S. C. Lomas.
. .
August, 1584-August, 1585.
.1916.
" translation of Die Englische England's financial supremacy. Finanzvormacht : England's falsche Rechnung Deutschland und die " Erbschaft der City," from the Frankfurter Zeitung ". With introduc:
tion
and notes by the
translators.
London, 1917.
8vo, pp. xv, 106.
42144
state of the public records of the kingdom, &c. of to be printed, 4th July, 1800.
Reports from the select committee, appointed to inquire into the Ordered by the House Commons [London, [With plans.] 41 598 Fol., pp. 667. 1800.]
R
.
GREEN
(John Richard)
tables.
A
The
short history of the English people.
Re-
vised and enlarged, with epilogue
by Alice Stopford Green.

8vo, pp.
xlvii,
With
40754
. . .
maps and
London, 1916.
:
1040.
HARLEIAN SOCIETY
London, 1916.
publications of the Harleian Society.
8vo.
In progress.
1869
67. England. Grantee* of arms named in docqueti and patents between the years 1687 and 1898, preserved in various manuscripts, collected and alphabetically arranged by ... J. Foster and contained in the additional ms. No. 37, 149 in the British Museum. Edited
. . .
by
W. H.
Rylandi.
HISTORICAL MANUSCRIPTS COMMISSION.

In progress.
Exeter. 1916.
Scott,
London, 1911,
. . .
etc.
8vo.
R 4700
of the city of
Report on the records

of.
Exeter.
[Edited by
J.
H.
Wylie.J
Report on the manuscripts of Lord Polwarth, preserved at Mertoun 2 voU. 191 1-16. [Edited by H. Paton.] Windsor Castle. Calendar of the Stuart papers belonging to His Majesty the King, preserved at Windsor Castle. 1916. Vol. VI. [Edited by F. H. B. Daniell.]
Family
House, Berwickshire.
170

942 HISTORY:
MODERN: ENGLAND: PERIODS.

:
LANESSAN
(J.
M. A.
de
la
de) Histoire de 1'entente cordiale franco-anglaise

et
les relations
nos jours.
8vo, pp.
xii,
de 1'Angleterre depuis le xvi e siecle jusqu'a Paris, 1916. [Bibliotheque d'Histoire Contemporaine.l 310. R 41 135
France
valet's
LANG
(Andrew) The
trations.
London, 1903.
:
tragedy and other studies. 8vo, pp. x, 366.

:
With illusR 41990
LONDON UNIVERSITY
The empire and the future a series of Imperial Studies lectures delivered in the University of London, King's College. [With prefatory note by A. P. Newton and introduction by A. D. SteelLondon, 1916.
8vo, pp. xv, 110.
Publications.
Maitland.]
41340
In 12595
NAVY RECORDS
progress.
50. England.
SOCIETY.
Documents
II.
[London], 1916.
sea.
8vo.
relating
to
law and custom of the
Edited by R. G.
Manden.
Vol.
A.D. 1649-1767.
public records and the constitution
. . :
PlKE (Luke Owen) The
a lecture de-
. With plan of evolution of livered at All Souls College, Oxford. the chief courts and departments of the government. London, 1907.
8vo, pp. 39.
16456
PIPE
ROLL SOCIETY.
35.
Publications.
London, 1913.
8vo.
In progress. R 14896
.
Rotuli de dominabus et pueris et puellis de XII comiEngland. [Justices in Eyre.] Printed from the original in the custody of ... the Master of the Rolls. . . With an introduction and notes by J. H. Round. . 1913.
tatibus,
1
165.
PUBLIC RECORD OFFICE:

In progress.
1 .
Lists
and indexes.
London, 1892-1914.
Fol.
19959
Index of ancient petitions of the Chancery and the Exchequer, preserved in the Public Office. 1892. [Edited by H. Rodney.] 2. List and index of the declared accounts from the Pipe Office and the Audit Office, 1893. preserved in the Public Record Office. 3. List of volumes of state papers relating to Great Britain and Ireland rand the Channel in the Public Record Office. 1894. Islands, [Edited by R. A. Roberts.] preserved 4. List of plea rolls of various courts, preserved in the Public Record Office. [Edited by
Record
S.
R. S.
5. 8,
1894. Bird.] 34. List of original
ministers' accounts, preserved in the Public
Record
Part
I.
Office.
1894-1910.
6.
List
and index
S.
of court rolls preserved in the Public
Record
Office.
[Edited
byj. E. E.
Office.
. .
.
Sharp.J-18%.
Index of Chancery proceedings, series II. Preserved in the Public Record 1 558- 1579 1896-1909. (-1660). 9. List of sheriffs for England and Wales, from the earliest times to A.D. 1831 compiled from documents in the Public Record Office [by A. Hughes.] 1698. 10. List of proceedings of Commissioners for Charitable Uses, appointed pursuant to the statutes 39 Elizabeth, cap. 6, and 43 Elizabeth, cap. 4, preserved in the Public Record Office.
7. 24, 30.
A.D.
[Edited by
1 1 .
H. Rodney.]
1899.
List of foreign accounts enrolled Public Record Office. [Edited by C. G.

12. 16, 20. 29, 38.
List of
on the great rolls of the Exchequer, preserved in the 1900. Crump.] early Chancery proceedings, preserved in the Public Record
Office.- 901 -1 2.
1
13.
Office.
Chamber, preserved in the Public Record 1901. [Edited by J. B. W. Chapman.] 14. Lists of the records of the Duchy of Lancaster preserved in the Public Record Office.
List of proceedings in the Court of Star
1.
Vol.
A.D. 1465-1558.
-1901.

942 HISTORY:
15.
171
correspondence of the Chancery and Exchequer preserved in the Public Record Office. 1902. [Edited by C. T. Martin.] 17. 22. List of inquisitions ad quod damnum preserved in the Public Record Office. 1904-06. [Edited by C. G. Crump and J. B. W. Chapman.] 18. List of Admiralty records, preserved in the Public Record Office. Vol. I. [Edited 1904. by H. Rodney and A. E. Stamp.] 19. List of volumes of state papers, foreign. Preserved in the Public Record Office. 1904. [Edited bv J. V. Lyle.] 21. List of proceedings in the Court of Requests, preserved in the Public Record Office, Vol. I. 1906. [Edited by P. S. L. Hunt. H. Rodney and J. B. W. ChapmanJ 1907-09. 23, 26, 31, 33. Index of inquisitions preserved in the Public Record Office. 25. List of rentals and surveys and other analogous documents, preserved in the Public
List
of ancient
Office. 1908. 27. List of Chancery rolls preserved in the Public Record Office. 1908. 1908. 28. List of War Office records preserved in the Public Record Office. Vol. I. 32. Index of Placita de banco, preserved in the Public Record Office. A.D. 13271328. . .1909. 35. List of various accounts and documents connected therewith, formerly preserved in the 1912. Exchequer and now in the Public Record Office. 36. List of Colonial Office records, preserved in the Public Record Office. [Edited by 1911. J. J. O'Reilly.] 37. List of special commissions and returns in the Exchequer, preserved in the Public Record Office. [Edited by H. Headlam.] 1912.
.
Record
39,42. Index of Chancery proceedings, Bridges' division, 1613-1714, preserved in the Public Record Office. 1913-14. [Edited bv A. J. Gregory.] 40. List of records of the palatinates of Chester, Durham and Lancaster, the honour of 1914. Peveril, and the principality of Wales, preserved in the Public Record Office. 1914. 41. List of Foreign Office records to 1837, preserved in the Public Record Office.
43. List of volumes of state papers relating to Great Britain and Ireland, including the records of the Home Office from 1782 to 1837, preserved in the Public Record Office. 1914. [Edited by J. V. Lyle.]
SANDERSON
to
"
A (T. J. Cobden) The city metropolitan. The Times," November 26th, 1910. [Subscribed
[Hammersmith]
:
letter
:
addressed
T.
J.
Cobden-
Sanderson.l
Doves Press.
[1910].
8vo.
41378
Lord
YORK,
City
of.
list,
or catalogue of
the
. . .
all
the mayors,
and
bayliffs,
Mayors, and
sheriffs, of
city of
.
York, from the time

. .
of
King
Edward
I.
to the year, 1664.
Together with many
remark-
Printed ... in able passages, which happened in their several years. the year 1664. And now re-printed. Published by a true lover of
antiquity,
. .
and a well-wisher
[1715].
London
to the prosperity of the city 8vo, pp. 63.
[i.e.
C. Hildyard]
41353
ancient
EARLY.
cross
BROWNE
shafts at
(George Forrest) Bishop of Bristol.

Enlarged
.
.
The
from the Rede Lecture delivered before the University of Cambridge on 20 May, Cam1916. With illustrations. photogravures and
Bewcastle and Ruthwell.
. . .
bridge, 1916.
4to, pp. x, 92.
40994
READING.
County borough of Reading. Museum and Art Gallery. The pottery found at Silchester : a descriptive Silchester Department. account of the pottery recovered during the excavations on the site of the
Romano- British
city
of
Calleva Atrebatum
at
Silchester,
Hants, and
. . .
deposited in the Reading Museum. By Thomas Reading, 1916. 8vo, pp. xvii, 319. plates.]
May.
[With 40586
172

943 HISTORY:

BOOK.
of
NORMAN DOMESDAY
great surrey of
The Cambridgeshire portion of the William the Conqueror. A.D. MLXXXVI. The English translation of ... William Bawdwen edited with the Latin text extended, together with an introduction and indices original by ... C. H. Evelyn- White ... and H. G. Evelyn-White
England
. . . . . .
London, Norwich, 1910.

-
4to, pp. xxxviii, 174.
R 415%
Domesday Commemoration,
:
1086 A.D.-1886
A.D.
studies
being the papers read at the meetings of the

1
Domesday Domesday Com-
memoration,
of the mss.
886, with a bibliography of Domesday book and accounts and printed books exhibited at the Public Record Office and at the British Museum. Edited by P. Edward Dove. (The of Domesday book edited by Henry B. Wheatley. .) bibliography London, 1888-91. [With map.] [With preface by Hyde Clarke.] R 41 595 2vols. 4to.
. .
.
\* The
pagination
is
continuous throughout.
LECHAUDE
D'
ANISY (Amadee
Louis) et
SA1NTE-MARIE
.
de).
Recherches sur le Domesday, ou Liber censualis d'Angleterre, ainsi que sur le Liber de Winton et le Boldon-book. [With a preface by R 37638 Tome premier. Caen, 1842. 4to. C. Lesaulnier.]
.
.
PLANTAGENET.
Cornouailles
:
DlMITRESCU (Marin)
II,
Pierre de Gavaston comte de
sa biographic, et son role pendant le
regne d'Edouard
1307-1314.
Paris, 1898.
8vo, pp. 107.
commencement du R 41812
JUSSERAND
vie
La (Jean Adrien Antoine Jules) Les anglais au moyen age. et les routes d'Angleterre au XlV e siecle. Paris, 1884. 13882 8vo, pp. 306.
nomade
LONDON
Chronicles of the mayors and sheriffs of London, A.D. 1 188 A.D. 1274. Translated from the original Latin and Anglo-Norman " the Liber de antiquis legibus," in the possession of the corporation the city of London attributed to Arnald Fitz-Thedmar, alderman
:
:
to
of
of
of
London
in the
reign of
Henry
the Third.
The French
chronicle of
London, A.D. 1259
Norman
of the
"
to A.D. 1343. Translated from the original AngloCroniques de London," preserved in the Cottonian
collection,
Cleopatra
A.
vi.,
in the British
Museum.
. .
notes and illustrations, 4to, pp. xii, 319.

*.* 500 copies
printed.
by Henry Thomas Riley.
Translated, with London, 1863.
41541
OTTERY SAINT MARY.
The collegiate church of Ottery St. Mary, being the Ordinacio et statuta ecclesie Sancte Marie de Otery Exon. diocesis A.D. 1338, 1339. Edited from the Exeter chapter MS. 3521
and the Winchester cartulary. With plans, photographs, introduction, and notes, by John Neale Dalton. Cambridge, 1917. 4to, R 42108 pp, xxiv, 310.
.
PROTHERO
. .
.
(George Walter) The

. . .
life
of
Simon de Montfort,
8vo, pp.
xii,
earl of
Leicester, with special reference to the parliamentary history of his time.
With
maps.
London, 1877.
409.
41599

943 HISTORY:
173
TUDOR.
ENGLAND.
Of The Cavses Mooving
[within ornamental compartment] Declaration the Qveene Of England to giue aide to the
1
Defence of the People afflicted and oppressed in the lowe Countries. recto: caption:] [Ornament ([ Sig D [Ornament beneath title.] above caption :] An Addition To The Declaration Tovching The
:
Slavnders published of her Maiestie.) Imprinted at London by Christopher Barker, Printer to the Queenes most excellent Maiestie. 42450 4to, pp. [2], 20, 5, [1]. 1585.) ([Colophon:]
. . .
**
-
Royal arms on verso
of title.
CJ
A
CJ
supplication of the poore

of Beggers.
faythfull
Commons.
([Sic. c.
CJ
1.
Wherunto
25
:
:
is
added the Supplication

tion
:]
7 recto,
commones
and obeysaunt subiectes Anno. M.ccccc.xlvi. Englande. The supplication of Beggers, compyled by Symon Fyshe. [verso :] CJ Anno. M.ccccc.xxiiii ____ ) [N.P., 1546?] 8vo, ff. [32]. 41717
of
Your moste
the
subscripthe pore
royalme of
Black
letter.
STUART.
and death
solitudes
CHARLES
of
I,
King Charles the
King of Great Britain and Ireland. The life First, written by ... R. Perinchief
:
together with
and
fta<ri\iKij representing his sacred Majesty in his a vindication of the same King Charles sufferings.
EIKWV
And
the martyr. Proving him to be the author of the said EIKMV Ba<ri\tKTj, a memorandum of the late Earl of Anglesey, and against the against
London, 1693.
groundless exceptions of ... 8vo, pp. 46.
Walker and
... King
others.
[By T. Wagstaffe.]
41665
%*
Containing the
"
"
Vindication of
Charles the martyr
only.
CHARLES
of the coronation of
Britain and Ireland. The forme and order Charles the Second, King of Scotland, England, As it was acted and done at Scoone, the first day France, and Ireland. of lanuary, 1 65 1 4 1 423 Aberdene, 1 65 1 4to, pp. 24.
II,
King of Great
/)
Sevrepa.
The
pourtraicture of his sacred Majesty

;
King Charles II. With his reasons for turning Roman Catholick Found in the strong box. published by K. James. [A parody.] 8vo, pp. xvi, 320. [With frontispiece.] [London?] 1694. R 41668
ENGLAND.
these three nations

.
. .
Commons warre of England. Throughout from 640, and continued till this present begun " W. C."] year 1662. [The "Epistle Dedicatory" is subscribed R 41669 London, 1662. 8vo, pp. 140. [With frontispiece.]
The
history of the
:
Mr.
S.
ment,
[O.S.]
January
John's speech to the Lords in the upper house of Parlia7, 1640. Concerning ship-money. {London ?\, 1640
1
4to, pp. 44.
R 41424
174

942 HISTORY:
ENGLAND.
trates.
. .
propounded
.
Penal laws and Test act. Questions touching their repeal in 1687-8 by James II., to the deputy lieutenants and magisPromt he original returns in the Bodleian Library. Edited,
with notes and observations, by Sir George Duckett, Bart. 1882. 8vo, pp. 492.
*,* 100 copies printed.
London, 41417
perfect narrative of the whole proceedings of the High Court of Justice in the tryal of the King in Westminster Hall, on Saturday the With the several 20, and Monday the 22 of this instant January.
by authority
speeches of the King, Lord President and Solicitor General. Published to prevent false and impertinent relations. ... (A con-
tinuation of the narrative being the third and fourth days proceedings of the High Court of Justice sitting in Westminster Hall Jan. 23, concontinuation of the narrative cerning the tryal of the King. ...
and final dayes proceedings of the High Court of Justice sitting in Westminster Hall on Saturday, Ian. 27, concerning the of the King. with a copy of the sentence of death tryal Together London, 1648 [O.S.] upon Char Is Stuart King of England. .)
being the
last
. .
. .
.
3vols. inl.
4to.
city law,
41664
LONDON.
The
shewing the
customes,
franchises,
liberties,
priviledges, and immunities of the famous city of London. Together with the names, natures, kinds, jurisdictions, powers, and proceedings of
the severall courts within the
same
.
as also the
titles, qualities,
advantages,
in
and
profits of the severall

.
officers,
.
and
offices in
London
and
dispose those offices are.
London, 1658.
:
12mo, pp. 127.
whose 41488
QUARLES
which
Capel.
is
Charts,
In or, a kingly bed of miserie. (John) Regale lectum miseriae with an elegie upon the martyrdome of contained, a dreame late king of England and another upon the Lord
:
With
edition.
a curse against the enemies of peace
and the authours

.
. .
farewell to England.
Whereunto
plates
second
[With
is added, Englands sonets. and illustrations.] [London],
The
1649.
8vo, pp. 104.

*,* Each
leaf of the
41
422
of
Elegy on Charles
contains
on the verso a woodcut representation
funeral draperies.
SPANHEIM
Magnae
.
.
.
Britanniae,
Laudatio funebris. (Friedrich) the Younger. Franciae et Hibernias reginae.

.
Mariae
II,
F. Spanhemius
dixit
ex autoritate publica in
die,
illustriss.
Batavor.
Athenaso, ipso
regalium
exsequiarum
Idib.
Mart.
Greg.
A. CID
DC XCV.
Lugduni Batavorum, 1695.
Fol. pp. 94.

of the
;
42193
TEDDER
(Arthur
to
W.) The
navy
Restoration, from the death of
Cromwell
8vo, pp.
ix,
the
treaty of
Breda
its
work, growth and influence.

Essays.]
[With maps.]
234.
[Cambridge Historical
Cambridge,
1916.
19837

943 HISTORY:
175

The
:
HANOVER.
diary
of
DODINGTON (George Bubb) Baron Melcombe. ... G. B. Dodington, Baron of Melcombe Regis
1749, to February 6,
in
. .
from
March
alluded
8,
1761.
With an appendix
containing
some curious and

to,
interesting papers, which are either referred to, or new edition. By Henry Penruddocke the diary.
Wyndham.
Salisbury, 1784.
STO, pp. xv, 506.
41607
Robert
ENGLAND.
Walpole.
Political
ballads illustrating the administration of Sir

.
Edited by Milton Percival. [Oxford Historical and 1916. 34690 Studies. 8vo, pp. Iviii, 211. Oxford. Literary 8.]
.
.
HARRIS
tions
(George) The life of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke with selecfrom his correspondence, diaries, speeches and judgments. 41691 [With plates.] London. 1847. 3 vols. 8ro.
;
HOTBLACK
a study in the (Kate) Chatham's colonial policy economic implications of the colonial policy of the elder 8vo, pp. xv, 219. London, 1917.
:
fiscal
and
. . .
Pitt.
40924
JACKSON
(Frederick John Foakes) Social London, 1916. [Lowell Lectures, 1916.]
life
England, 1750-1850. 41405 8vo, pp. ix, 338.

in
MALLESON
[With
(George Bruce)
Life
of
the
portrait.]
[Statesman Series.]
Marquess Wellesley. London, [1895]. 8vo, pp. 239.

. .
38279
:
POWEL
second tale of a tub or, (Robert) the Puppet-Show-Man. Robert Powell the puppet-show-man. ... [A satire on R. Harley, Earl of Oxford. By T. Burnet.] London, 1715. 8vo,
the history of
PP .2l9.
41622
WELLESLEY
Despatches, corres(Arthur) \st Duke of Wellington. pondence, and memoranda of ... Arthur Duke of Wellington. Edited by his son, the Duke of Wellington. ... In continuation of the former series. 42408 London, 1867-80. 8 vols. 8vo.
.
1867. January. 1819. to December, 1822. 2. January. 1823. to December. 1825. 1867. 3. December. 1825. to May. 1827. 1868. 4. May. 1827, to August. 1828. 1871. 5. September. 1828. to June, 1829. 1873. 6. July. 1829. to April. 1830. 1877. 7. April. 1830. to October, 1831. 1878. 1880. 8. November, 1831. to December. 1832.
1.
Supplementary despatches and memoranda of Arthur Duke of Edited by his son, the Duke of Wellington. . . Wellington. 15 vols. 8vo. 42409 London, 1858-72. [With map.] ** The " Civil correspondence and memoranda of ... Arthur title-page of Vol. 5 reads, Duke of Wellington. ." The title-pages of Vols. 6-15 read, "Supplementary despatches, correspondence, and
. . . .
memoranda.
1-4.
f5.j
."
to April 12th. 1809. 1860. Plans for conquest of Mexico. Expedition to Denmark. Expeditions to Portugal in 1808 and 1809 and the first advance of the British army into Spain. July, 1807 to December, 1810. 1860.
:
1797-1805. 1858-59. from March 30th. 1807. Ireland

India,
6.
176

943 HISTORY:
7.

1861.
April, 1814, to March,
1860. PeniiuuU. December. 1810. to June. 1813. 8. Peninsula and south of France, June. 1813. to April. 1814. 9. South of France, embassy to Paris and Congress of Vienna.
1815.
1
1862.
0.
in France, and the of Paris by a military convencapitulation and Prussian armies. March to July, 1815. 1863. Occupation of France by the allied armies surrender of Napoleon and restoration 8 5, to July, 8 7. 864. of the Bourbons. J uly, financial state of France differences between Spain 12. Settlement ot claims on France and Portugal negotiations respecting the colonies of Spain in America plot and attempt to assassinate the Duke of Wellington; evacuation of France by the allied armies. July, 1817, 1865. to end of 1818. 1794 to 1812. 1871. 13. Appendix. 1612 to the end of the military series. 1872. 14. Appendix. With chronological list of letters, memoranda, 15. Index to ... Volumes 1. to XIV. etc., published in the first (a new) edition of Gurwood and in the supplementary despatches.
Waterloo, the campaign
tion with the allied British

1
1 .
1872.
VICTORIA
dreams
tions.
:
AND AFTER. CARPENTER

being autobiographical notes.
. .
COUCH
... DORM AN (Marcus

political
London, [1916]. 8vo, pp. 340. (Sir Arthur Thomas Quiller) Memoir of Arthur John Butler. With portraits. London, 1917. 8vo, pp. vi, 261. R 42363
;
(Edward) My days and With portraits and illustraR 40650
Robert Phipps) The mind of the nation a study of London, 1900. 8vo, pp. thought in the nineteenth century. 41 107 xx, 492.
ENGLAND.
letters
The hungry forties life under the bread tax descriptive and other testimonies from contemporary witnesses. With an introduction by Mrs. Cobden Unwin. Illustrated. London, 1904. R 42375 8vo, PP 274.
;
GLADSTONE
(William Ewart) Gladstone's speeches. Descriptive index With a preface by Visand bibliography by Arthur Tilney Bassett. and introductions to the selected speeches by Herbert count Bryce R 41505 Paul. London, [1916]. 8yo, pp. xi, 667.
.
. .
HAKE
(Thomas) and RlCKETT (Arthur Compton-) The life and letters by Theodore Watts-Dunton. Including some personal reminiscences With illustrations. London, 1916. by Clara Watts-Dunton.
.
2vols.
8vo.
. .
R41396
.
Jt'PlLLES (Fernand de) Jacques Bonhomme chez John Bull. rieme edition. Paris, 1885. [Bibliotheque Contemporaine.] v, 400.
-
Quat-
8vo, pp.
24397
La moderne Babylone, Londres et

ii,
les
Anglais.
Paris, [1886].
8vo, pp.
296.
[i.e.
42074
!
.
O'RELL (Max) fseud.

-
Leon Paul
moeurs
Blouet.]
Les chers
voisins
[Bibliotheque Contemporaine.]
Pan's, 1885.
anglaises
vi,
8vo, pp. 372.
R R
.
42080
.
John
Bull
et
son
ile;
Neuvieme
edition.
Pans,
1883.
8vo, pp.
contemporaines. 23962 323.

. .
. .
WILSON
(Sir Charles Rivers) Chapters from by Everelda MacAlister. With portraits.

xiv, 310.
my
official life.
Edited
41 162
London, 1916.
8vo, pp.

942 HISTORY:
177
MODERN: ENGLAND: COUNTIES.

JONES
(Theophilus)
.
.
BRECKNOCKSHIRE.
Brecknock.
.
.
A history of
.
.
the county of
Bailey, Bart.,
. .
.
Enlarged by the notes collected by Sir Joseph Russell First Baron Glanusk. Illustrated with engravings
. .
.
and maps.
Brecknock, 1909-11.
3 vols.
in 2.
4to.
42096
CARDIGANSHIRE.
MEYRICK
antiquities of the county of
(Sir Samuel Rush) The history and Collected from the few remainCardigan.
. .
ing documents which have escaped the destructive ravages of time, as well as from actual observation. (New edition.] To which are now added a parliamentary history, list of high sheriffs, some notes on the present county families, etc., etc. [With plates.] Brecon, 1907. 42099 4to, pp. xviii, 380.
.
DEVONSHIRE.
DEVONSHIRE WILLS
a collection of annotated testa-
mentary abstracts, together with the family history and genealogy of many of the most ancient gentle houses of the west of England. By R 41703 Charles Worthy. London, 18%. 8vo, pp. xv, 516.
.
HAMPSHIRE.
.
SOUTHAMPTON RECORD
Record
Society.
SOCIETY.
Publications of
the Southampton
.
.
with
Southampton, 1916. 8vo. Southampton. The sign manuals, and the letters patent of Southampton to Vol. I. 1916. introduction, notes, and index by H. W. Gidden.
.
General editor In progress.

. .
Harry
W.
1
R
422.
Gidden. 12385
Edited,
HERTFORDSHIRE.
taining
lists
The new domesday book
of Hertfordshire: con-
of persons holding property in Hertfordshire and other counties ; holding property in Hertfordshire only and persons holding land in other counties only, but stated to be resident in Hertfordshire.
;
Compiled from the

pp. x, 148.
official
return issued in 1873.
Hertford, 1873.
8vo,
41
**
R
is
597
This copy
interleaved.
LANCASHIRE.
CHETHAM SOCIETY. Remains, historical and connected with the palatine counties of Lancaster and Chester. In progress. chester, 1916. 4to. New series.
76.
literary,
Man-
1839
Edited
Furnei Abbey.
. . .
The coucher book

II.
of
Furness Abbey.
Volume
II.
...
by
J. -
Brownbill.
fart
MAWSON
(Thomas H.) Bolton

under the auspices
.
. .
as
it
is
lectures delivered
of the Bolton
Planning Society.
Bolton, 11916].
4to,
it might be six Housing and Town R 41800 pp. xx, 101.

:
and as
LINCOLNSHIRE.
the Lincoln
castle,
8.
LINCOLN RECORD SOCIETY.

.
. .
The
Record Society
8vo.
founded
in
the year
publications of Horn1910.
1917.
In progress.
. .
25223
Made by Sir E. Bysshe (Sir E.) Kt. The visitation of the county of Lincoln. Edited by E. Green. Bysshe ... in the year of our Lord 1666. . With an introduction . 1917. by W. H. Rylands.
. .
Parish register section.

4.
1632.
5.
Grantham, Lincolnshire. Edited by C. W. Foster.

Alford, Lincolnshire.
The
.
. .
parish registers of Grantham. . With an introduction by G. G.
Volume
. .
.
I.
.
15621916.
Walker.
.
.
The
parish registers of Alford 6c Rigsby
collated with
and supplemented by the bishopt'
transcripts
A.D. 1538-1680.
Edited by R. C. Dudding,.
12
178
.

943 HISTORY:
MONMOUTHSHIRE.
.
. .
COXE (William) historical tour through Monmouthshire, illustrated with views by Sir R. C. Hoare, Bart., and other And to which are now added lists engravings. [Second edition.] of members of Parliament, high sheriffs, and mayors, a memoir of the author [by W. Haines], and new portraits. Brecon, 1904. 4to, pp. xxxi, 364. 42098
NORFOLK.
8vo.
RYE
title is
(Walter) Rye's Norfolk hand
lists.
In progress.
Norwich, 1916. R 40301
%* The
4.
I.
Jaken from the wrapper.
First Series. i-jjjg
Norwich houses^ before 1600. Second Series.
An
appendix
to
Rye's index to Norfolk topography.
PEMBROKESHIRE.
. .
FENTON (Richard) historical tour through Pembrokeshire. With portrait of the author, and a biography written by Ferrar Fenton. ... To which are now added the notes made for a second edition by R. and John Fenton. [With plates.] Brecknock, 1903. 42100 4to, pp. xxxii, 388.
.
RADNOR.
Radnor.
WILLIAMS
Qcmathan)
. . .
Illustrated with
general history of the county of Compiled from the engravings.

. . .
.
A
.
and other sources, by manuscript of ... J. Williams Davies. . Brecknock, 1905. 4to, pp. xviii, 451.
.
.
Edwin
42097
SUSSEX.
SUSSEX RECORD SOCIETY.
Founded
for the publication of
records and documents relating to the county.
London, 1916.
!
8vo.
In progress. 23. An abstract

Henry VII.
R 29682
Edward
II. to
of feet of fines relating to the

.
county of Sussex from
24
Compiled by L. F. Salzmann.
.(1916).
antiquities of Ackworth. of tenants and residents
VORKSHIRE.
From manor
from the
priests.
. . .
GREEN (W.
A.) Historical
records and other sources with
lists
earliest times, of lords of the
^With maps,
illustrations,
,
manor, incumbents, and chantrey and an appendix containing copies

8vo, pp.
xi,
of original documents.
London 1910.
170.
R 42356
HARROGATE.
Land and
of
"Thrums".
Folk lore with old things of the Brontes, of Bronte "
(The
,
Wuthering Heights"
.
collection at
Folk-lore and catalogue of the permanent exhibiOatlands, Harrogate. old tion of many old-world tilings , including old spinning-wheels "Thrums" looms. . [Harrogate, 1903?] .) [With illustrations.] 41 329 8vo. pp. 192.
:
.
Sheffield.
Sheffield
and Rotherham from the 12th
to
the
18th
century.
documents
descriptive catalogue of miscellaneous charters and other relating to the districts ot Sheffield and Rotherham with
to 1560 and T. Walter Hall. [With Compiled by
abstracts of Sheffield wills proved at
York from 1554

vii,
genealogies deduced therefrom.

plates.1
Sheffield, 1916.
8vo, pp.
289.
R 41439
942 HISTORY:
YORKSHIRE.
YORKSHIRE ARCH/EOLOGICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL ASSOCIATION. Record Series. [Huddersfield], 1915. 8vo. In
progress. 54. West Riding

1642.
20328
1637Edited by J. Lister. . . . 55. Stubbs (W.) successively Bishop of Chester and of Oxford. Genealogical history of the family of ... Bishop W. Stubbs. Compiled by himself. Edited by F. Collins. . . .
sessions records.
Vol.
II.
Orders 161 -1642.

1
Indictments.
YORKSHIRE ARCH/EOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

8vo.
Extra
series.
Leeds,
1915.
4.
In progress.
plate.
.
R
Begun by
11
30875
.
Fallow (T. M.) Yorkshire church pleted and edited by H. B. McCaJl. . . 1915. plates.]
... T. M.
Fallow.
Com[With
Volume
containing the
West Riding.
WALES.
of
CYMMRODORION SOCIETY,
A
Cymmrodorion. In progress. 8vo.
Cymmrodorion record
afterwards Honourable Society series. London, 1916. R 12285
8. England. calendar of the register of the Queen's Majesty's Council in the dominion and principality of Wales and the Marches of the same [1535] 1569-1591. From the Bodley m. no. 904. By R. Flenley. .
.
LHUYD
"
Parochial
(Edward) Parochialia
being a summary of
answers to
of
. .
Wales," [With illustrations.]

1909, 1910, July,
queries, in order to a geographical dictionary, etc., Edited by R. H. Morris. . issued by E. Lhuyd. . .

.
[Archaeologia Cambrensis.
Supplements, April,
3
pts. in
1
1911.1
London, [1909-11].
vol.
8vo.
12183
943 HISTORY:
MODERN: GERMANY.
CHYTR/EUS
Dauidis Chytraei Chronicon Saxoniae (David) the Elder. vicinarum aliquot Gentium Ab Anno Christi 500 vsque ad M.D.XCIII. Appendix Scriptorvm Certis Chronici Locis Inserendorvm. [Printer's
: 1
&
Rerum maxima insignium Index Personarum Grosii Bibliop. copiosiss. Lipsice, Imfcensis Henningi ([Colophon :] Anno M.D.XCIII.) Fol., Imprintebat MicJiael Lantzenberger. 41688 PP pj, xviii, 969. [27].
device.}
Additus
est
&
R
.
COOK
(Sir Theodore
illustrations.}
Andrea) The mark of the beast. London, 1917. 8vo, pp. xxxviii, 394.
Harbutt)
[With
41640
in
DAWSON
(William
The German workman.

\
national efficiency.
London,
906.
8vo, pp.
xii,
304.
study
42302
ECINHARDUS, Abbot of Seligenstadt. Eginharti vita Caroli Magni. Edita cum adnotationibus et varietate lectionis a Gabriele Godofredo With frontispiece.] Helms tadit, 806. 8vo, pp. xxxiv, Bredow.
. .
187.
26441
Life of the
Glaister.
.
Emperox Karl
[With map.)
the Great.
Translated
... by William
vi,
London, 1877.
8vo, pp.
100.
R 23759
180

943 HISTORY:
MODERN: GERMANY.
FERNAU (Hermann)
ments sur
la
Precisement parce que je suis Allemand. Eclaircissede la culpabilite des Austro-Allemands posee par question
le livre J'accuse.
Lausanne, Paris, 1916.
8vo, pp. 107.
41939
FRANCOIS
(B.)
Condamnes par eux-memes.
Paris, [1916].
8vo, pp. 186.
R
GERMANY.
41418
Ex Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scholarum. Monumentis Germaniae historicis separatim recudi fecit Georgius HeinricusPertz. Hannoverae, 1841-1915. 8vo. In progress. R 4 996
.
.
Albert! de Bezanis, abbatis S. Laurentii Cremonensit cronica Primum edidit O. Holder-Egger. 1908. pontificum et imperatorum. Arnoldus, Abbot of the Monastery of Saint John, Luebeck. Arnoldi chronica Slav-
Albertua, de Bezanis.
orum ex
rccensione I. M. . . . Lappenbergii. Boniface. Saint, Archbishop of Mainz. 1905. Levison. Recognovit
1868. Vitae sancti Bonifatii, archiepiscopi Moguntini.
W.
Canute, surnamed the Great,

gesta, sive
King
of
England and
of
Denmark.
. .
Cnutonit
1865.
regit
encomium Emmae reginae. Auctore monacho Sancti Bertini. Carmen de bello Saxonico. Ex recensione O. Holder-Egger.
Accedit
Conquestio
Heinrici
recensuit
IV
imperatoris.
1889.
Einhardi vita Karoli Magni. Post G. H. Pertz Eginhardut, Abbot of Seligenstadt. G. Waitz. Editio sexta. Curavit O. Holder-Egger. 1911. Monumenta Erphesfurtensia aec. XII, XIII, XIV. Edidit O. Holder-Egger. Erfurt. 1899. Ex recensione W. Arndt. Gisleberti chronicon Hanoniense. Gislebertus, of Mons. 1869. Gotifredi Viterbiensis gesta Friderici I. et Heinrici VI, imGodefridus, Viterbiensis. . 1870. peratorum metrice scripta. Ex editione Waitzii. Helmoldus. Helmoldi, presbyteri Bozoviensis, cronica Slavorum. Editio secunda. Post Accedunt Versus de vita Vicelini et Sidonis I. M. Lappenberg recognovit B. Schmeidler.
.
. .
epistola.
1909. Henricus, de 1874.

.
Tmera.
Heinrici chronicon Lyvoniae ex recensione
W.
Arndt.
Herbordi dialogus de Herbordus. R. KSpke. .1868.

.
vita Ottonis, episcopi Babenbergensis.
Ex
recensione
loannis abbatis Victoriensis liber certarum historiarum. Joannes, Abbas Victoriensis. Edidit F. Schneider. 1909-10. lonae vitae sanctorum Columbani, Vedastis, lohannis. ReJonas, Abbaa Elnonensis. 1905. cognovit B. Krusch. Lam pert monachi Hersfeldensis opera. Recognovit O. Lambertus. Hersfeldensis. 1894. Holder-Egger. Accedunt Annales Weissenburgenses. . . Mainz. Chronicon Moguntinum. Edidit C. Hegel. 1885. Nilhardi historiarum libri (III. Editio tertia. Nithardus, Sancti Richarii Abbas. Post G. H. Pertz. filler. Accedit Angelberti rhythmus de pugna FontaneRecognovit E. tica. 1907.
i .
Norbertus,
novit
Abba* Iburgensis.
1902.
Vita Bennonis
II
episcopi Osnabrugensis.
Recog-
H.
Bresslau.
Otto I, Bishop of Freising. Ottonis episcopi Frisingensis chronica, sive hisloria de duabus civitatibus. Editio altera. 1912. Recognovit A. Hofmeister. Ottonis et Rahewini gesta Friderici I imperatoris. Editio tertia. Recensuit G. Waitz. Curavit B. de Simson. 1912. de Sancto Blasio. Ottonis de Sancto Blasio chronica. Edidit A. Hofmeister. Otto, Accedunt ex Chronica universal] Turicensi excerpta. 1912. Cum continuatione Regino, Abbot of Pruem. Reginonis abbatis Prumiensis chronicon. Treverensi [by Adalbert, Archbishop of Magdeburg.] 1890. Recognovit F. Kurze. Ricardus, de Sancto Germane. Ryccardi de Sancto Germane notarii chronica. . . .
1864.
Richerus, Sancti Rtmigii Remensis Monachus. Editio altera. 1877. Recognovit G. Waitz.
Richeri historiarum
libri III).
.
Saint-Omer.
1883.
Abbaye de
Saint-Berlin.
Annales Bertmiani.
Recensuit
G. Waitz.

943 HISTORY:
Saint- Wandrille-Ranôn.
181
MODERN: GERMANY.
Gesta abbatum Fontanellensium.
Abbayede Samt-Wandrille.
.Recensuit S. Loewenfeld.
post editionem
I.
1886.
Thietmari Merseburgensis episcopi chronicon 1889. Recognovit F. Kurze. Walramus, Bishop of Naumburg. Waltrami ut videtur liber de unitate ecclesiae con1 883. servanda. Recognovit W. Schwenkenbecher. Warnefridus (P.) Diaconus. Pauli historia Langobardorum. [Edited by G. Waitz.j 1878.
Walbeck (D. V.) Bishop of Merseburg.
M.
Lappenbergii.
HAUSER
(Henri) Germany's commercial grip on the world her business methods explained. Translated by Manfred Emanuel. London, R 41615 1917. 8vo, pp. 259.
: . .
MACLAREN
x,
(A. D.) Germanism from within.
London, 1916.
363.
8vo, pp. 41 362
TRIER.
Imperial Monastery of St.

of Treves.
brief account of the Hospital of St. Elisabeth, annexed to the Maximin of the Benedictines, in the Electorate
Translated from the Latin, with notes and miscellaneous obi.e.
servations [by C. L.,
Capel
Iviii,
Lofft.]
[With
plates
and
illustrations.]
London, 1786.
8vo, pp.
112.
41609
943 HISTORY:
MODERN: AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY.
PALAZZ1
(Giovanni) Aquila Austriaca, sub qua imperatores Austriaci ab Alberto II ... usque ad Ferdinandum III & IV (a Maximiliano II elogiis, hieroglyphicis, usque ad coronationem Leopoldi Primi) numismatibus, insignibus, symbolis, imaginibus antiquis ad viuum exhibentur [Vols. 7 and 8 of Monexculpti, & longa historiarum serie exarati. 2 pts. in 1 vol. Fol. R 42202 archia occidentalis.] Venetiis, 1679.
.
.
943 HISTORY:
MODERN: POLAND.
:
HARLEY
(J.
H.) Poland past and present

Ladislas
a preface by 8vo, pp. 255.
Mickiewicz.
a historical study. London, [With map.]

.
With
42082
R R
[1917].
POLAND.
mittee.]
Poland's case for independence
trating the continuance of her natioral
life.
being a series of essays illus[Polish Information Com-
London, [1916].
8vo, pp. 352.
41504
944 HISTORY:
MODERN: FRANCE.
1'industrie,
et le
ACLOQUE
(Genevieve) Les corporatkns, Chartres du XI e siecle a la revolution. 1917. 8vo, pp. x, 405.
commerce a
[With
illustrations.]
Paris, 41941
BAKER (Edward) Through Auvergne

142.
on
foot.
London, 1884.
Paris,
1916.
R
et
la
8vo, pp.
36494
8vo.
BARRES
5. -
(Maurice) L'ame francaise In progress.

Les voyages de Lorraine
et d'Artois.
guerre.
1916.
R
Paris, 1917.
40636
8vo,
[Troisieme edition.]
Les diverses
families spirituelles
de
la
France.
pp.316.
42357
182

944 HISTORY:
MODERN: FRANCE.
French
York,
ELLERY
1915.
(Eloise) Brissot de Warville : a study in the history of the Boston and revolution. [Vassar Semi-Centennial Series.)
New
8vo, pp.
xix,
528.
41637
ENLART
(Desire Louis Camille) Manuel d'arche'ologie franâise depuis les

la
temps merovingiens jusqu'a Paris, 1914-16. trations.]

3.
renaissance.
[With
plates
and
illus-
2vols.
1904.
8vo.
41539
2. Architecture civile el militaire.
Le
costume.
1916.
FRANCE.
Annalivm Et Historiae Francorvm Ab anno Christi DCCVIH. Nunc primum in ad ann. DCCCCXC. Scriptores Coaetanei XII. hiserta sunt & alia quaedam lucem editi Ex Bibliotheca P. Pithoei. vetera, ad illorum temporum historiam pertinentia. II. (Printer's device beneath title.] Parisiis, Apud Clavdivm Chappelet, via Jacobcea sub M.D.LXXXVIII. 2 pts. in vol. 8vo. R 40492 signo Vnicornis.
.
. .
Charles
et
diplomes
relatifs a Thistoire
de France.
belles-lettres.
soins
4to.
6.
de 1' Academic des In progress.
inscriptions
et
Publics par les Paris, 1916.
22140.
.
Public sous la direction de . . Recueil des actes de Philippe Auguste roi de France. Tome 1. 1916. . . E. Berger ... par H. F. Delaborde. 7. Recueil des actes de Henri II, roi d'Angleterre et due de Normandie concernant les Oeuvre posthume de . . . L. Delisle. provinces franchises et les affaires de France. Revue et publie*e par . E. Berger. . . . 1916.
. . . . . .
Collection de documents inedits sur 1'histoire de France.
Publics
par
les
soins
du Ministre de
In progress.
relatifs
1'instruction publique.
Parts, 1904-15.
4toandfol.
Brette.
R 2478
a la convocation des Etats geVieraux de 1789.
Recueil de documents
Par A.
Tome
quatrieme.
1915.
Atlas 1904.
Drcsse" d'apres les actes
des bailliages ou jurisdictions assimilees ayant forme unite' electorale eft 1789. de la convocation conserves aux Archives nationales par A. Brette.
Phlipon, afterwards PublieVs par C. Perroud.

-
Roland de
.
La
Platiere
.
(M.
2
J.).
Lettres de
Madame
Roland.
Nouvelle
serie.
vols.
1913-15.
Documents officiels textes legislatifs et regleJuin-15 Juillet 1916 (-15 Septembre 1916). Public Gaston Griolet sous la direction de. Charles Verge. Avec la collaboration de Paris, [1916-17]. Henry Bourdeaux. In progress. 8vo. R 38528
:
Guerre de 1914.
. . .
mentaires
- Ministere de 1'instruction publique des beaux-arts. Comite des travaux historiques scientifiques, section d'histoire moderne, depuis d'histoire contemporaine. documents. 1715, Notices, inventaires In progress. 8vo. 36164 Paris, 1914-15.
&
&
&
&
3.
[/instruction primaire en
France aux XVIIIe

.
fie
XIX,-
siedes.
Documents
d'histoire
locale public's et analysis par. . . 4. Les associations ouvrieres
1914. Decap, de la Martiniere et Bideau. encouraged par la deuxieihe republique, decret du 5
juillet
1848.
Documents
intdits public's par
O.
Fesry.
1915.

944 HISTORY:
183
MODERN: FRANCE.
FRANCE.
Public par 1' Academic Recueil des historians de la France. In progress. des Inscriptions et Belles- Lettres. 4to. 1915. Aim,
R9098
Pouille's.
5.
Trier,
Province
et
of.
Pouille's
.
de
. .
la
Longnon
...
... V.
Carriere.
province de Treves. 1915.
Public's par.
... A.
GALLOUEDEC
Faure.
.
(Louis)
La
Bretagne.
Preface de
Maurice
Ouvrage
illustre
de
Geographic Regionale de
260.
la
France.J
gravures .... [Histoire et 8vo, pp. iii, Paris, 1917. 421 60
GUIZOT
servir a 1'histoire
Complement des Memoires pour de mon temps. Histoire parlementaire de France recueil complet des discours prononces dans les chambres de 1819 a R 41 133 8vo. 1848 par ... Guizot. Paris, 1863-64. 5 vols. Memoires pour servir a 1'histoire de mon temps. [Paris, R 41 134 8 vols. 8vo. [!858?]-67.
(Francois Pierre Guillaume)
:
PARIS.
. .
.
revolution francaise.
Collection de documents relatifs a 1'histoire de Paris pendant la Publiee sous le patronage du Conseil municipal.
etc.
Paris, 1888,
8vo.
In progress.
16170
...
Actes de la commune de Paris pendant la revolution. Public's et annote's par S. Lacroix. 25 juillet-18 septembre 1789 (-8 octobre 1790. 2e serie du 9 octobre 1790 au 10 aout
14
. . .
1792).
vok
1894-1908.
.
.
Assembled
Publics
. de Paris, 18 novembre 1790-15 juin ,1791. Proces-verbaux. . 1890avec des notes historiques et biographiques par Charavay. ... 3 vols.
electorate
1905.
Les clubs contre-revolntionnaires, cercles, comites, societes, salons, reunions, cafe's, restaurants et librairies. Par A. Challamel. . . . 1895.
Les
elections et les cahiers
Chasfsin.
. .
.
de Paris en
1888-89.
:
789
documents
recueillis,
mis en ordre et annotes

Paris.
parC. L.
Monin.
vols.
L'e'tat
de Paris en 1789
etudes et documents sur 1'ancien regime a

la revolution.
Par H.
1889.
Le personnel municipal de Paris pendant 1890. Robiquet. Le mouvement religieux a Paris pendant
Periode constitutiormelle Par P.
la revolution,
1789-1801.
Par
Robinet.
... 2
vols.
1896-98
la
Paris pendant
I'historre
reaction thermidorienne et sons le directoire.
de
1
1'esprit
public a Paris.
1 1
Par A. Aulard ... 28
juillet
Recueil de documents pour 1794-9 juin 1795 (-10
novembre
898- 902. Recueil de documents pour 1'histoire de I'esprit public a Paris. Par A. Aulard ... 9 novembre 1799-21 novembre 1800 (-17 avril 1803). 3 vols. 1903-06. La societe des jacobins. Recueil de documents pour 1'histoire du Club des jacobins de Par F. A. Aulard Paris. . . 1789-1790 (a novembre 1794). 6 vols. 1889-97. Les tribunaux civil* de Paris pendant la revolution, 1791-1800. Documents inedits, recueillis . par Casenave . . . publics et annotes par A. Douarche. ... 2 vols. in 3. 1905-07. Les volontaires nationaux pendant la involution. Par C. L. Chassin & L. Hennet. 3 vols. 1899-1906.
5 vols 799). Paris sous le consulat.
. . . . . .
PARIS.
Paris.]
I.
Repertoire des sources manuscriles de

.
1'histoire
de
Paris.
Public
sous la direction de
M.
Poete.
[Bibliotheque d'Histoire de
Paris, 1915-16.
:
8vo.
In progress.
lei
R
soins
4 1 390
Effectue par Depouillement d'inventairo et de catalogues. mis en ordre et public" p*r Clouzot. 3 vd. 1915-16. Hist6rfque
du Service
184

944 HISTORY:
MODERN: FRANCE.
. . .
RECAMIER
ence
:
tires
mant.]
(Jeanne Francoise Julie Adelaide) Souvenirs et corresponddes papiers de Madame Rccamier. [By Amelie LenorDeuxieme edition. Paris, 1860. 2 vols. 8vo. 28224
REGNAULT
Histoire (Ellas Georges Soulange Oliva) Revolution francaise. de huit ans 1840-1848 faisant suite a L'histoire de dix ans 1830-1840 par Louis Blanc et completant le regne de Louis3 vols. R 28322 8vo. Paris. 1851-52. Philippe. [With plates.]
. .
.
SCHUERMANS
toriques.
6.]
Henry Houssaye.
Preface par (Albert) Itineraire general de Napoleon [Bibliotheque de la Societe des Etudes His. . .
Paris, 1908.
8vo, pp.
ix,
390.
20205
SOCIETE DE L'HISTOIRE DE FRANCE.

Societe de 1'Histoire de France.]
[Ouvrages
Paris, 1916.
publics par la In progress. 8vo.
R2485
Les grandes chroniques de France. Chronique des regnes de Jean II et de France. Charles V. Tome Publiee ... par R. Delachenai. [Attributed to P. d'Orgemont.] deuxieme. 1364-1380. . .1916. Lome'nie de Brienne (L. H. de) Comte. Memoires de L.-H. de Lomenie comte de Brienne dit le jeune Brienne. Publics d'apres le manuscrit autographe . . par P. Bonnefon.
. .
Tome
au
.
France, Grandson of Louis XIV. Lettres du due de Bourgogne Publiees . et a la reine [i.e. Mary Louisa of Savoy.] par d'Espagne Philippe Alfred Baudrillart et Le'on Lecestre. Tome deuxieme, 1709-1712. 1916. Milan. Depeches des ambassadeurs milanais en France sous Louis XI et Francois Sforza. Publiees . . . B. de Mandrot. Tome premier, 1461-1463. par Public's . Mormes de Saint-Hilaire (A. de) Memoires de Saint-Hilaire. par L. Lecestre. Tome sixieme. 7 7 1 5. 1 9 1 6. Vallier (J.) Journal de J. Vallier, maltre d'hdlel du roi. 1648-1657. Public ... par H.
roi
.
1916. premier. Louis, Dauphin of
Courteault.
Tome
troisieme.
ler
Septembre 1651-31
juillet
1652.
1916.
VALON
Nos aventures pendant les journees de (Alexis de) Vicomte. Recit public par Alexandre de Laborde. [With plates and 42079 Paris, 1910. 4to, pp. xix, 88. illustrations.]
fevrier.
*,*
50 copies
printed.
This copy
is
no. 94.
WERGELAND
(Agnes Mathilde) History of the working classes in France a review of Levasseur's Histoire des classes ouvrieres et de 1'industne en France avant 1789. Chicago, [With a preface subscribed K. M.J
:
[1916].
8vo, pp.
vi,
136.
41 180
945 HISTORY:
MODERN:
ITALY.
ALAZARD
[Bibliotheque (Jean) L'ltalie et le conflit europeen, 1914-1916. 41387 d'Histoire Contemporaine.] 8vo, pp. 271. Paris, 1916.
ClARLANTI (Giovanni Vincenzo) Memorie
historiche del Sannio, chiamato
hoggi principato Ultra, contado di Molisi, e parte di terra di Lauoro, Divise in cinque libri, nelli quali si prouincie del regno di Napoli. descriuono i suoi confini, gli habitatori, le guerre, edificationi, e rouine
de
luoghi.
Isernia, 1644.
Fol., pp. 530.
42129

945 HISTORY:
185
MODERN:
.
ITALY.
FOTHERINGHAM (John Knight) Marco Sanudo, conqueror of the Archiassisted by Laurence Frederic By J. K. Fotheringham pelago.
.
.
Rushbrook Williams.
150.
[With maps.]
Oxford, 1915.
8vo, pp. v, 41 526
GORDON,
letters
in Italy: afterwards (Lina Duff) illustrations by Aubrey from the Apennines. With Third edition. Waterfield and illustrations from photographs. R 42369 London. [1912]. 8vo, pp. xiv, 390.
life
. . .
WATERFIELD
Home
HODGKIN
maps and
5.
(Thomas)
Italy
illustrations.
and her invaders 553-600 (-744). 2 Second edition. Oxford, 1916.

6.
With
8vo.
41
vols.
R
invasion.
533
The Lombard
The Lombard
kingdom.
il
MALAGUZZI VALERI
Illustrazioni
.
(Francesco)
La
corte di Lodovico
4to.
Moro.
tavole.
Milano, 1917.
In progress.
R
3.
33993
Gli
artisti
lombardi.
1917.
PLATNER
einem.
pp.
i,
(Ernst Zacharias) and URLICHS (Carl Ludwig) Beschreibung Mit Roms. Ein Auszug aus der Beschreibung der Stadt Rom.
. .
Plane der Stadt.
Stuttgart und Tubingen,
1845.
8vo,
626.
42181
THRALE,
afterwards PlOZZI (Hester Lynch) Glimpses of Italian society in the eighteenth century. From the Journey of Mrs. Piozzi. With an introduction by the Countess Evelyn Martinengo-Cesaresco. [With
plates.]
London, 1892.
8vo, pp. 327.
19567
VlLLANI
. .
(Giovanni) Stone di Giovanni, Matteo, e Filippo Villani, in questa nuova edizione confrontate col celebre codice manoscritto del. Gio Battista Recanati ed altri due Fiorenrini (uno del Corso
. :
. . .
Ricci e
1'altro
del
.
Marco Covonio) con
quali
si
sono accresciute
c 2
corrette.
[Edited by Filippo Argellati.]
Milano, 1729.
vols.
Fol.
R
per
42070
VlLLARI
Pistelli.
(Pasquale) L' Italia e
la
civilta.
Pagine
P.
scelte e
ordinate da
Giovanni Bonacci.
Con un
profile
di
Villari
.
Milano, 1916.
8vo, pp.
:
xxxiii,
45 1
Ermenegildo R 4 853
1
946
HISTORY
Duas
MODERN
.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL,

Macedo,
Joao IV.
PORTUGAL.
escritas
cartas
do ... Antonio de Sousa de

. .
Publicadas por Edgar " das Sciencias de Lisboa. Boletim Separata do Prestage. [Academia da Segunda Classe," Vol. X.] 1916. 8vo, pp. 28. [Lisbon,]
Inglaterra a El-Rei.
de
41367
PRESTAGE
Dr. Antonio de Sousa de Macedo, residente de (Edgar) em Londres, 1642-1646. [Academia das Sciencias de Lisboa. Portugal " Boletim da Segunda Classe," Vol. X.] Separata do [With portrait.]
[Lisbon,] 1916.
8vo, pp. 94.
41366
186

946 HISTORY:
MODERN: SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
SCHWARZ
(Carl) Aragonische Hofordnungen im 1 3. und 1 4. Jahrhundert. Studien zur Geschichte der Hofamter und Zentralbehorden dee Konigreichs Aragon. [Abhandlungen zur Mittleren und Neueren Geschichte. Berlin und Leipzig, 1914. 41021 8vo, pp. x, 144. 54.)
947 HISTORY:
MODERN: RUSSIA.
Translated from the manu8vo, pp. 352.
ALEKSENSKY
script
(Grigory) Russia and Europe.
by Bernard Miall.
(Hariot
London, [1917].
R
. .
41872
BLACKWOOD
Dufferin
illustrations.
Georgina
and Ava.
Hamilton-Temple-)
Marchioness of
.
My Russian and Turkish journals. London. 1916. 8vo, pp. ix, 350.
With 41409
MANCHESTER
VOL.
5
EDITED BY THE
LIBRARIAN
APRIL-NOVEMBER,
1919
Nos. 3-4
LIBRARY NOTES AND NEWS

is
not often that one
is
able to report the discovery of fragments
student of Biblical origins will have an especial " interest in the present number of the BULLETIN," and in
IT
of
Greek
literature
in
the Bible
so
that
the
MENTS OF
RATURE
Dr. Rendel Harris's detection of passages from the Greek

tragedians in the third book of the Maccabees.
these extracts appears to
One
of
come from an unknown
author,
and
it
is
probable that the

treasures in
it
mine which Dr. Harris has opened may have more than have fallen to the lot of the first excavator, for he
sometimes leaves more than he takes. " Under the title The Synopsis of Christian Doctrine in the Fourth " Century we print a translation, with critical apparatus, THEODORE
by Dr. Mingana,
theological
of
an unpublished
views of Theodore of
the writings of this
almost
all
IJESTIA Since Mopsuestia. illustrious Father of the Church were
text
embodying the
destroyed in consequence of the charges of doctrinal error brought against him soon after his death, this interesting contribution to the
patristics of
what may be described

to
as the golden age of Christianity,
cannot
fail
be of
interest to
our readers.
The treatise partakes

and answers on
all
of the character of a catechism, with questions
the important points of Christian dogma, giving in

gist
a succinct form the
of all that
was necessary
It
for salvation
with
regard to
dogmatic and moral
doctrine.
may
be said that Theo-
dore's authority
was
so great in the fourth to the fourteenth century
that from the Euphrates to
could be summarised as
Manchuria the outcome of every discussion follows "Theodorus loquitur causa finitur".
:
In a previous issue of the
"
BULLETIN
"
(Vol. 4, No.
1 ,
April-
August,
1917,
p.
123) the Rev. D. P. Buckle called attention to
the importance of the Coptic manuscripts in the John 13
Ry lands
Library
188

The interest of Coptic writers was not Egypt. Councils and however, to their own country.
t
.
.
for the study of Christian

restricted,
...
light
martyrdoms gave them an opportunity ol throwing on controversies and persecutions in other lands.
connection with the latter subject
issue to
THE FORTY MARTYRS

SEBASTE.
In
we hope
in the next
reproduce
in facsimile four
pages of the
Ry lands
Coptic
MS.
No. 94,
showing how
the homily of Basil the Great, on the Forty
a Coptic writer, and
Martyrs of Sebaste was partly enlarged and partly misunderstood by how the Egyptian Version is an intermediate step
original
between the
and simplest narrative and the highly developed

"
Gesta," in the collections of
accounts given in the earliest printed
Vincentius Bellovacensis (1473), Mombritius (1483), Petrus de Nata-
(1519), and in the extremely extended story of Lipomanus These accounts will be compared with what seems to be ( 58 ). " Archiv. f. Slav. their Greek source, as published by Abicht (in " Acta vol. 18, pp. Phil.," 190-2) and by Gebhardt in his selecta ". The gradual growth of the story will be further martyrum "
libus
1 1
illustrated
by the
given in the Bollandist

Professor
Commentarius praevius" and the other narratives " Acta Sanctorum".

Lindsay of
St.
W. M.
Andrews
1 ,
sends an interesting
note regarding the Rylands Greek Papyri, No. 6 which A The papyrus re- PAPYRUS gives to the fragment a new interest. " ferred to is a fragment of Cicero's Second Speech OF C CERO against Catiline," and is a welcome novelty by reason of the fact that
'
-
Cicero papyri are of rare occurrence, although by a stroke of bad luck the passages covered in this example happen to be deficient in points
of
textual
interest.
It
is
described in
the
"
Catalogue
of
Greek
Papyri John Rylands Library," vol. 1, pp. 193-4, and we cannot do better than reproduce the paragraph in which Professor
in the
A.
S.
'
Hunt
describes
it.
This manuscript which was
in
book form, was not
of the ordi-
nary kind, but
Greek-speaking reader imperfectly The Latin words are arranged acquainted with the Latin language.
for a
was designed
singly or in small groups in
the
literal
equivalents
'in
one column, and a Greek. But though
parallel
of
column gives
a
is
the nature of
school-book, and no example of calligraphy, the papyrus
not in an
Both the Latin original and the Greek rendering were written by one person, who used the brown ink characteristic of
unpractised hand.

the Byzantine period.
.
. .
189
style.
The
Latin script
is
in the
mixed uncial
The Greek
is
in irregular uncials also
with some cursive admixfifth
Their appearance suggests the end of the fourth or the century, and the papyrus may be assigned with probability to
ture.
the
It period from about 400 to 450 A.D. may therefore claim to be the oldest authority for this speech of Cicero by some four centuries."
Professor "
Lindsay remarks
'
that
articles
The famous
the
Philoxenus
Glossary
vol. 31, pp.
text of
Review," interesting 158 and 188) "was compiled partly from a bilingual Its home seems Cicero's Second Speech against Catiline
(see his
in
'
"
Classical
'.
to
have been
in
Italy.
Your papyrus shows

in
that the
same
bilingual text
was used
this
tion
century. strongly suggests that Egypt speech had been published with a Greek word-for-word translaas a school-book, and was used for teaching Latin in Greekfifth
the
That
speaking
countries
and
Greek
in
in
Latin-speaking
light."
countries,
which
puts your papyrus fragment
new
At
in
the deferred sale of the Medici Archives, which took place

last,
May
we were
fortunate in being able to ac-
quire for the library a quantity of briefs, bulls, letters,

,
and
MEDICI ARCHIVES.
Medici.
other interesting and apparently unexplored papers relating to property,

It
lawsuits,
and other family

four
affairs
of the
may
be of interest to readers to be reminded

fixed
to
that, originally, the
sale
was
February,
1918,
take place on but at the last
days
in
the early
Italian
part
of
moment
it
the
Government
the Italian
stepped
in,
the sale
was postponed, and

national
was not
all
until
authorities
had extracted from the
collection
such documents as
that
they considered to be of
sanctioned.
importance
the
sale
was
The
sale catalogue
its
was prepared by Mr. Royall

kind,
Tyler, and will

of reference
remain a model of
about the Medici.
and an indispensable book
A comparison of
1
the original catalogue with the revised edition,
prepared for the deferred sale, will reveal the fact that no fewer than 74 of the most interesting lots were withdrawn to form part
of
the permanent archives of Italy.
We
are glad to learn,
how-
ever, that the
remaining
lot,
series of letters of
Lorenzo de* Medici were

account books,
sold in
one
and that the

of the
collection of ledgers,
and memoranda
Medici family as bankers and merchants are
190
also to

be kept together
in this country,
both
"
lots
having been acquired

"
by Mr. Gordon
Selfridge.
is
The
of
centenary of what
in
known
as
The
Peterloo Massacre
_,,_.
was commemorated
C D f bt. reter
August.
s
IT-
The
IJ
Manchester on Saturday the 16th tragic event so marked occurred in

L-
PETERLOO
MASSACRE.
an open space, which is now covered by modern buildings including the Free Trade Hall, where a great throng of people numbering about 60,000, principally
Fields, at that time
'
operatives of
Manchester and the outlying districts of Middleton, Royton, Chadderton, Rochdale, Saddleworth, Oldham, Stockport, and Bury assembled under the chairmanship of Thomas Hunt, better
known
exact,
as
"Orator Hunt," one
of the leading figures in the
Reform
agitation, to
demand
a radical reform of Parliament, or, to be more

of
"
effectual
to consider the propriety
adopting the most legal and
means
of obtaining reform of the
Commons House
this
of Parlia-
ment".
of
When
the open space
was packed with
dense mass
men and women, some
carrying flags and banners, others carrying
children, they were suddenly, without warning and without having given the least provocation, charged by the Manchester and Cheshire
5th Hussars, and trampled upon and sabred by the horsemen, with the result that within ten minutes the space was
Yeomanry, and the
cleared, except for the dying
A careful investigation
ties at
later
and injured victims left lying in heaps. by the Relief Committee put the casual-
eleven killed and nearly
600 wounded.
of
The
Story of
occasion
was
"
Peterloo
marked by the publication from the pen of Mr. F. A. Bruton, a

further
"
The
pre-print
which appears elsewhere in the present issue of the BULLETIN, for which it was written. It is an exceedingly clear and connected narrative, based on all the contemporary evidence of the
of the article
often distorted
and
little
understood event, the publication of which
has already led to interesting developments, four of which

briefly
(
1
we may
mention
)
Lord
Sheffield has written to ask that Bishop Stanley's account
of
Peterloo, which
was lithographed
for
private circulation only, in

public,
1819, and has never been published, should now be made

enclosing a cheque towards the expenses of the issue.
In accordance
with his wish, Stanley's valuable account will be supplemented by that written by Sir William Jolliffe, afterwards Lord Hylton, and the

MS.
account
left
191
by Mr.
J.
B. Smith, afterwards
first
Chairman
of
These three narratives are shortly to the Anti-Corn Law League. be edited by Mr. Bruton for the Manchester University Press under
the
"
title
:
Three accounts
of the
(2)
titled
:
One
"
of Peterloo by Eye-witnesses ". most interesting narratives of Peterloo
is
one en-
An
impartial narrative of the melancholy occurrences, etc.,"

It
issued at the time of the catastrophe.
was anonymous, and
the
authorship has remained a mystery for a hundred years.

of
The
writer
"The
Stoiy of
Peterloo" hazarded a guess
at the authorship
on
it
page 25 of his pamphlet (see p. 275). may have been written by Mr. J. Smith,
pool Mercury
".
He
who
there conjectured that
reported for the
"
Liver-
He
has since received a communication from
Lady
Durning- Lawrence
stating that his conjecture
was
correct,
i.e.
that the
"Impartial narrative" was written by Mr. J. Smith, and that this Mr. J. Smith was her father, and is identical with the Mr. J. B. Smith
mentioned
standing
(3)
is
earlier in the
same passage.
Thus a mystery
of a century's
satisfactorily cleared up.
Library has been fortunate in being able to acquire a small octavo account-book, leather bound, which seems to have been
The
an
official
record of the casualties at Peterloo which were dealt with

Relief Committees.
injuries of
It
by one
of the
contains details of the names,
addresses, and
347
individuals, particulars of the successive

to the grants
grants
made
to
them by one committee, and references
made
by another committee (possibly two others).

details given are corroborative of
The
many
of the statements in
Mr. Bruton's
of
"
Story".
Thus
the cases include those of
Elizabeth
Gaunt (mentioned on pp. 274, and 275), of Mrs. Fildes (on p. 274), Thomas Radford (on pp. 285, 29 and 294). There are refer1 ,
ences to the loose timber (see pp. 269, 284, and 294), the injuries to special constables (see p. 280), the fight near the Friends' Meeting
House
(see pp.
284 and 289),
the oak trees growing near that building
(see pp. 269, 294), the white hat as a symbol of Radicalism (see p.
273), the fear of losing employment evinced by the
wounded
(see p.
291), the infantry intercepting fugitives (see p. 290), the child killed
by a trooper
voted by
in
Cooper
Street (see p. 277),

to
and
so on.
The sum
;
total
this
committee appears
that the
have been
687
it
must be
p.
re-
membered, however,
sum
of
3000 mentioned on
291 as
having been subscribed
may
have been used partly
for legal expenses.
192

Since Mr. Bruton's
"
Story
"
to light,
script
account book came
was written, and since this manuMr. Bruton has discovered a printed
in
Report of the Relief Committee differing from the manuscript copy, which 560 cases are described and the amount raised to date is
given as
It
3408
also gives the
(4)
loo,
Is. 8d., and pronounced as inadequate for 600 people. 1077. amount spent on legal expenses as well-known firm, whose offices stand on the site of Peter-
have decided
to
mark
the centenary of the event
by placing a
commemorative
tablet
on the walls of the building.
The
appeal which
we made
in
our
last issue
for further contribu-
tions to the
new
library for the University of

in process of formation,
Louvain,
which has been

Chester, since
here in
LOUVAIN Man- LIBRARY.

re-
December, 1914, has met with the same encouraging
In proof of sponse as was accorded to our earlier requests for help. this statement it needs only to be pointed out that since the publication
of our last report sent in,
upwards
total
of
9000
of
additional volumes have been
whereby the
is
it
number
registered
increased to 2 1 ,000.
volumes actually received and Even this does not complete the
record, for
does not take into account

still
many
other definite offers of
help which have
to materialize,
and
several large consignments of
books
at present in
course of transit from such distant parts of the

will further
Empire as Bombay, Sydney, and Toronto, which together

swell the total by
It
many
thousands of volumes.
our readers, especially to those whose
will
be of
interest to
names
of
figure in the lists of contributors, to learn that the
Rector of the
of
University (Monsignor P.
Ladeuze) writing under date

of his
the 21st
September
in the
its
name
Alma
Mater,
at the conclusion of the
and appreciation what has been accomplished already with the help of the many contributors and institutions, who with great promptitude and generfirst
session of
revival, refers in terms of gratitude
to
osity
supported our scheme of reconstruction.

will also
Readers
learn with pleasure of the success
which has
attended the University since its reopening in January last. No less than 3200 students have been in attendance, and Monsignor Ladeuze
anticipates a
session in
in
still
larger
number
It
is
of entries at the
opening of the
new
November.
not surprising, however, to learn that,
the absence of any properly equipped library, the work of the students has been somewhat Fortunately that want is hampered.

likely
193
to
be met,
at
least in part,
during the ensuing session, since

library
temporary premises have been secured, to serve as a

reading-room, pending the erection of the
will
and
It
new
library building.
be our privilege to and to that end we are
assist
in
the
equipment
of the
of
the
shelves,
for
at
first
present
making arrangements
the
dispatch to
sisting
Louvain of the
consignment
new
library, con-
5000 volumes, with an accompanying catalogue. Other will follow as they can be made ready for shipment. consignments There are still many of our readers, we feel sure, who would
of
welcome an opportunity
sion of
of being associated
with
this practical
expres-
sympathy with the authorities of the University, and through

the
them
of gratitude to
Nation
who
sacrificed
all
but honour to
liberties
preserve her
of
own
independence, and thereby safeguard the

plans.
Europe by
nullifying the invader's
Further
gifts either
of
books or money are invited, and may John Rylands Library, Manchester. In the case of books
ask prospective donors to be good enough,
in
be sent to the Librarian of the
we would
to
the
first
instance,
submit a
list
of
their
proposed
gifts,
so as to obviate unnecessary
duplication.
Elsewhere
tributors, to
in
these pages
we
print a
supplementary
list
of con-
whom we
take this
opportunity of offering our grateful
thanks for their welcome and generous co-operation.
The
following series (the eighteenth) of public lectures has been
arranged for the ensuing session.
They
will
be given, as
usual, in the lecture hall of the library.
PUBLIC LECTURES.
EVENING LECTURES
(7.30 p.m.).
"
Wednesday, 24th September, 1919. English Assyriology the War." Canon C. H. W. Johns, Litt.D., D.D., etc., during By
Sometime Master
of Jesus."
of St. Catharine's College,
Cambridge.
Wednesday, 8th October, 1919.
'The Messianic Consciousness
By Arthur
S.
of Biblical Exegesis in the University of
Peake, M.A., D.D., Rylands Professor Manchester.
Wednesday, 22nd October, 1919.

(Illustrated with Lantern Pictures.) Manchester Grammar School.
"The
F.
Story of Peterloo."
By
A.
Bruton, M.A., of the
194

Wednesday, 12th November,
1919.
"Recent Tendencies
in
European Poetry."
By C. H.
Herford, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of
English Literature in the University of Manchester.
Wednesday, 10th December, 1919.
"The
Present Position of
By Bernard P. Grenfell, D.Litt., F.B.A., etc., ProPapyrology." fessor of Papyrology in the Univejsity of Oxford, and Fellow of
Queen's College, Oxford.
By W. H.
Wednesday, 14th January, 1920. "History and Ethnology." R. Rivers, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Fellow of St. Wednesday, llth February,
1920.
John's College, Cambridge.
"The
her Voyages."
Harris,
(Illustrated with Lantern Pictures.)
'Mayflower' and By J. Rendel

of Clare College,
M.A.,
Litt.D., D.Theol., etc.,
Hon. Fellow
Cambridge.
Wednesday,
Reign
Fraser
of
10th March,
III."
Edward
Professor of
"On Some Aspect of the 1920. T. F. Tout, M.A., F.B.A., Bishop By Mediaeval and Ecclesiastical History in the
1920.
University of Manchester. Wednesday, 14th April,
Moral Problem Dramatised."

the University of Chicago.
By
"Shakespeare's 'Lear': Richard G. Moulton, M.A.,
A
in
Ph.D., Sometime Professor of Literary Theory and Interpretation

Friday, 16th April, 1920.
of
Human
Philosophy."
"Fiction as the Experimental Side Richard G. Moulton, M.A., Ph.D., By
etc., etc.
AFTERNOON LECTURES
'
(3 p.m.).
for
Two
Lectures (Biblical and
Devotional)
Ministers and
etc.,
Others."
By
J.
Rendel Harris, M.A., LittD., D.Theol.,
Hon.
Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Tuesday, 4th November, 1919.
Tuesday, 2nd March, 1920.
"
The Hart and
"Spikenard and Prophecy." the Waterbrooks."
METRICAL FRAGMENTS
BY
the
J.
IN
III
MACCABEES.
RENDEL HARRIS, M.A,

or less
LiTT.D., ETC.
fifth
chapter of the
IN
story,
more
Third Book of Maccabees, where the apocryphal, is told of the attempts made by
Egyptian Jews in the Hippoof the various Divine interpositions by which
to destroy the
Ptolemy Philopator drome at Alexandria, and

their fate
is
averted, the religious novelist comes to the point
where the
tyrant,
He
is
with rage, begins to threaten his unfortunate underlings. especially mad with Hermon, the keeper of his elephants, who
filled
had been ordered
to intoxicate the beasts with
wine and frankincense,
and then turn them on the unfortunate Jews that they might be The plan had miscarried in various ways through trampled to death.
miraculous
himself,
intervention
lost
and
amongst other things, the tyrant overslept the memory of what he had ordered and in the end
;
:
a Dioscuric epiphany, similar to what occurred in the Second
Book
of.
Heliodorus, relieved the strain on the Jews the elephants on the persecutors. by turning The language in which the tyrant addresses the unfortunate ele-
Maccabees,
in the story of
phantarch
is
given as follows in the text of Swete's Septuagint
30 'O Se eVt
TTO.V
rots prfitiviv TrXry/xuêt? fiapel

TOVT<I)I>
Sta TO Trepi
rrpovoiq.
eou
avrov
Voynet., eVarei/iVa? /xcra

r)
31 *Oo~oi yoi'ei? waprjcrav
TratSwi/ yoVoi,
Oypcrlv ay/n'ois o-Keuao-ai> 8a.\}uXf) Boivav avri TO>V d^cy/cX^Ttoi/, e'/xot KCU Trpoyovois e/xot?
efiaiia.v
need hardly be said that this is untranslatable Greek and an Swete prints from the Alexandrian MS., because impossible text.
It
was the only uncial MS. available in facsimile, and gives notes from the Codex Venetus, which is equally an uncial (though the Oxford editors, Holmes and Parsons, did not know it to be such) and a
this
195
1%
Maccabee

It is
far better text.
quite clear that a
new
edition of this
and other
texts will
have to be produced.
Even with
the substitution
or assistance of the
obtained from the cursive
Codex Venetus, the text is not as good as can be MSS., and we have often a better text in Holmes and Parsons than in Swete. So we are not yet very far on
determination of the text of the
in the
LXX.
if
Let
us, then,
examine
the text as printed by Swete,

it
and see
we
can throw any
light
upon
:
The
this
difficulty of translation begins

1
against this
had noted
as
that the
first
with the speech of the tyrant words were an iambic trimeter,

Charles,
and
is
also observed
Pseudepigrapha, an iambic, apparently an

must
not,
by Emmet in follows "The first

:
Apocrypha and
"
part of the verse (v.
31)
:
is
unidentified quotation
from a poet
we
however,
edit
the line in the form given above,
but as in
Holmes and
Ei
Parsons,
CTOL
yokels
iraprjo'a.i'
77
7rcu'8eu>
yoVoi
1 .
yovai)
and
then,
with the
same
authorities,
di>),
making one small correction

continue the narration
av
for
eVtfevacrai'
we may
[or rovtrSe] Oypo-iv aypiois ecr/ceuao*' av Scn/aX?/ Bolvav airl r<av aveyK\TJT<i)v
"
I.e.
If
parents or
made
this
yours had been here, I would have (or those) into a luxurious banquet for wild beasts, instead
family of the elephants were not going to eat the
;
of the innocent Jews."
But here a
Jews, as
if
difficulty arises
they would, at the they were lions' meat or leopards' So the suggestion arises as to whether worst, trample them to death. the quotation from the unknown poet may not have gone further. The
speech of the tyrant is certainly very rhythmic, and if he was talking He very seldom talks ordinary prose, he was not aware of the fact. Let us prose, though he manages to present it in official documents.
see
whether the speech
of
Ptolemy Philopator can be brought
into
verse form, without serious alteration of the text.

to find the line divisions results as follows
:
Our
first
attempt
Kt crot yokels 7rapf)(Ta.v

drjpcrlv aypiois
rj
iraiSw yovoi,
OLV
(TKva(T
'E/Ltol
Qoivrjv avrl TOIV avyx\TJT(itv, TTpoydroi? r e/xcns a7roSe8eiy/xeVoH>,
'OXocrêp^ )8ey8atav irlfrnv MouSauoi/
METRICAL FRAGMENTS
It
It
IN
of
III
MACCABEES
197
will require a very

is
modest array
changes to make
exactness.
this metrical.
evident that
we
are dealing with a genuine tragic
fragment,
leave
capable of restoration with
more or
less of
We will
the final form of the restored passage to a later point in the argument.
We
now
the author or the
proceed to inquire (i) whether it is possible to identify work from whom the Hellenistic author of the Third
has pilfered
;
Bock of Maccabees
(ii)
whether there are any other

of these points.
metrical fragments in the rest of the book.
We begin
What we
with a tentative solution of the
first
a genuine piece of Greek verse, the is it possible to language of a tyrant put into the mouth of a tyrant
have before us
is
identify the speaker ?
The
describes
author of
Third Maccabees
definitely
compares Ptolemy
Philopator to Phalaris, the monster of the ancient world,
whom
e.g.
Cicero
"
as crudelissimus omnium Tyrannorum, The King with a rage more fierce than Phalaris
his sleep for their day's respite ".
v.
20
said that (the
Jews) might thank

v.
filled
42.
"
On
this
day the King, a Phalaris in all

assumed verses
respects,
was
with madness, etc."

that our
(v.
31) come between the two references to Phalaris, and the suggestion arises that they may be taken from some Greek poem, of which Phalaris is the central figure.
We notice
The argument would

the
first
hold,
if
our restoration of
:
all
the verses except
the opening verse by itself should be deemed unsatisfactory would put in a claim not only for a tragic origin, but for an origin in a play where Phalaris was a leading figure.
see
if
Leaving this point with its proper indication of uncertainty, let us we can get any further support for our thesis. are assum-
We
is
ing the existence of a

figure, but of which
Greek play
in
which Phalaris
the leading
we do
not appear to have any notice in the Greek

is
literature.
Our
only Phalaris literature
the fictitious correspondence
which Bentley made himself immortal

speeches of the tyrant in Lucian.
It
in analysing,
is
and the supposed

from
this
precisely
apocry-
phal literature that

Phalaris figures.
we
learn of
the existence of tragedies in which
It is
true that they are
made
out to be contemporary
attacks on Phalaris,
not have existed at

itself is
and Bentley has shown that time of day, and
that such tragedies could
that the correspondence

:
the
artificial
product of the Hellenistic age
but the references
198
are at least sufficient to prove the existence of Greek tragedy in which
Phalaris figures.
For example,
for
in
Ep. 63 addressed
to
Aristolochus,
we have
:
the
following allusions to
tragedy of the order indicated

translation
above
quote
convenience from Francklin's
(a very free
:
and easy
rendering,
which
will,
1
however, serve our purpose)
I had taken pardoned Stesichorus, that you may safely write tragedies against me, prisoner, you think course treat all poets with the same lenity, you are I must of believing
"
If,
because
freely
whom
greatly mistaken
for
do by no means admire
all
all
poets,
but good
ones only
nor forgive
:
enemies, but (only) the most brave and

are both a vile poet
honourable
whilst you,
who
and a contemptible
enemy, would most impudently set yourself on a level with Stesichorus But you shall quickly discern the difference in parts and courage.
;
not because
lowest of
you have aspersed me in your verses (for I were the mankind if such trash could any ways affect me), but for
;
daring to think yourself of the same honour and regard as Stesichorus." " " The translation is, as we said, a very free one the trash referred
to
is
in the original
8/)a/xara
is
an expansion of the theme which tradition furnished, that Phalaris the tyrant forgave Stesichorus who had written
the false epistle
verses against him.
Here
According to the author of the Epistles, Aristolochus as well as Stesichorus had been guilty of anti- Phalaris tragedies.
against Phalaris
is
Tragedy
assumed as a theme by the epistolographer.

:
The same
thing occurs again in Ep. 97, as follows
To
"
LYSINUS.
Will there never, then,
Ly sinus, be an end
to thy rashness ?
thou most foolish of
men
at thirty years of age to
have no more
;
regard to thyself than thus to

still
provoke an enemy so much thy superior
continuing to write tragedies (CTTTJ But take me, as if such things could give me the least uneasiness heed to thyself of an end more cruel than any tragedy thou couldst
!
KOL r/DayojSta?) against
ever invent."
Here
figure
is
again the existence of tragedy in which Phalaris

;
is
the central
assumed
we may add
the
name
of Lysinus to those of Aristo-
lochus and Stesichorus.
METRICAL FRAGMENTS
The
existence of
anti- Phalaris
IN
111
MACCABEES
then
in
199
author of the Epistles of Phalaris

tragedies.
is
evidence for the

as
They
are constantly used
motives in his somewhat jejune compositions.
Let
us, then,
assume that the author of /// Maccabees had access
to such a tragedy,
more about the contents

fifth
chapter of
Can we it. we look more closely /// Maccabees, we shall see in the
and borrowed from
?
If
find out anything

at the text of the
critical
apparatus
an extraordinary expansion on the part of one of the cursive MSS. It runs as follows (No. 64) at the end of the twenty-ninth verse. " While King Ptolemy was now recognising, under the influence of the sting of Divine Providence, that he ought to pity the Jewish
:
nation,
selled
and was eager

thereto
of his friends
for the
future to release them,
and was coun-
company
ill.
by the marvels which had occurred in their case, the and princes were displeased and took it very
of
And
:
one
the most honourable
among them, named Hermon,
who was
say
also a foster-brother (crvvrpofyos) of the King, ventured to

not,
Did you
King,
in these particulars ?
make the plot against them from the first Take and read what you formerly wrote about
them.
hostile
For, with a wise foresight against their becoming naturally
behind our backs through their agreement with our adversaries, on that account you made at the first those decrees which you do not
now
King ward
recognise,
:
and which you seek

us carry out the vote
to subvert.
By no
let
means,
O
the
but
let
which was
so well brought for-
against them, and by bringing on the elephants
us
fulfil
intention (TrpoOccriv)
first."
It is
which you had formed against them from the

all of
usual to discard
first
this as
a scribe's
gloss,
and
certainly
it
new Hermon is glance, a good deal of difficulty. not the keeper of the elephants, but a fosterintroduced, apparently
presents, at
brother and intimate friend of the King.

references to
some one, and further encouragement

if
We have already had many Hermon in the previous chapter, and now we are told of Hermon was his name, who gives the King very frank advice
in the persecution of the
Jews.
It
looks as
his
name ought
he
not to be
Hermon
"
says,
his speech,
it
Let
its
But then, at the close of " on the elephants which looks as if bring
at all.
;
were the very same Hermon.
In that case, in spite of the statement
that
Hermon was
Its
the
is
name
easily
of the speaker,
the story ought to be

the sentence just before
genuine.
omission
accounted
for
200

7rp60ecrii>
;
had ended with the word

the added matter
the sentence which Cod.

it
64
adds ends with the same word.
Then
might easily happen that

evidence
favour of the
was dropped by an
error of the eye.

bit of
is
But here
is
another extraordinary
;
in
restoration of the missing matter
Hermon
little
here said to be a foster-
brother of the King.

find that in v.
If
we
look a
further forward in the text
we
32
the
King
says that
"
if it
had not been
that
love you
myfoster-brother (Sio. TT^TTJS o-vvTpofaias crropyriv), and because of the exigencies of the situation, you should have paid for this speech
as
"
with your life andrian MS.).
(reading crwTpofytias for crvorr/aoêia? of the Alex-
Here
of the
earlier.
the explanation
is
required that
it
Hermon was
foster-brother
King, and
Shall
we
see
why
occurs as a statement three verses

for the reasons set forth, in re-
we
not then be
justified,
garding the expansion of the cursive MS. No. 64 as a part of the true It illuminates and clears the context, and its omission is palaeotext ?
graphically explicable.
of
We
shall
still
be
in
difficulty
with the duality

first
Hermon.
the story
Why
should the keeper of the elephants in the
part
of
become the King's foster-brother at the end of it, and There is not, however, a single person almost his prime minister ? The mentioned in the story among the royal party except Hermon. lies in the sources which /// Maccabees is using explanation probably
:
the elephants are certainly not a part of the tragedy on which he
was
working
he has lugged them

in the
in
by
their
broad
them.
ears,
who was Hermon

theme
is
tragedy,
to look
after
Hermon, Later on he wanted

set
and
for another purpose, the modification of the King's rage,

:
and
the
the transfer of responsibility from his heavily weighted shoulders
constant in the Phalaris literature.
Probably, then,
Hermon
and
was
in the original tragedy,
and
figured there as the foster-brother
evil-counsellor of the tyrant.
We
where.
have
now gone
quite far
and had
better return to
enough into the field of conjecture, our text and see if we can pick up any
or from
more iambics from the missing tragedy

In this quest
I
Greek
of
literature else-
shall
have the assistance
my
friends
T. R.
Glover and A. B. Cook.

they see
it.
They know a
piece of a trimeter
when
read the composition with our eyes open to the possibility of extracts and refrains from Greek tragedy, we find to our surprise a multitude of expressions which appear to be metrical
When we
METRICAL FRAGMENTS
in
:
IN
III
MACCABEES
201
form and the product of metrical necessity. Suppose we turn to we stumble almost at once on such sequences the fourth chapter
or possible restorations as
IV.
4.
(1817X01'
TOV
(3io
IV.
6.
at
8'
aprl
ya/zi/o)i> 77/369 yStov
u?! fMereftaXov
dim
Tepêats ydov9
KOVL 8e
*
[ a.Ka\v<f>i<;] t
>9 et9
dvri
8'
TrXota Secr/xtat
el\KOVTO
17817
TOV aSi7^ irapa
7roSa,9
8e d^picav rpoirov,
dppiJKTOicriv?
Now
that
if
we
consider this longer restored passage in relation to the text

it
is
operated on,
becomes
perfectly clear that a metrical narrative

in this chapter.
underlies the text of
Third Maccabees
in the
There
will,
naturally, be some divergence
work
of restoration according to
the taste of the
critical artist
Mr. T. R. Glover's
but the result will not vary widely from suggestions which are involved in the foregoing.
;
The
additions
and modifications made
in
the text are
slight.
We
are
able, at certain points, to correct misunderstandings
on the part of the for example, when Apocryphal writer, as, cr/cvX/zot9 has been read as o-Kv/zi>oi9, and so an expletive was required as to the heathen dogs
1
(cf.
2
Prom.
Vinct., 6).
ai/ay/cat? raurS' eve&vyfiai
raXa?
(cf.
Prom.
is
Vinci., 108).
interesting
aâfiavrLvwv Setr/iwv eV appTJ/crois

it
:
The
passage
because Milton also imitated

fire
In adamantine chains and penal
Who
durst defy th*
Omnipotent
to
arms.
202

(We
note,
that tore the poor victims.
however, that the cursive
MSS.
show
that (T/cvX/xot?
pletive has
come
probably the true reading, in which case the exin by another route in any case, it does not belong
is
:
to the original for
document.)
In certain cases, as in reading /xeraySaXovcrcu
fiTaXa/3ovcr<u
we have
the support of the cursive
MSS
and so
settled
acquire a better basis for intelligent restoration.

the
When we
text of
have
approximate
verse 6,
metrical form
is
from
which the
/// Macthat the
cabees,
derived,
we
conjecture,
readily enough,
utilised is
original dramatic sequence that has been
a scene from the
capture of Troy, or some similar situation.

for
in
Indeed, it must be Troy, read almost immediately, that the wretched Jews were sent off So we go ships, and the motive for this is plain enough historically.
we
the text tells us that back to verse 2 and restore Tpwcrt for 'lovScuois one the Jews were to be sent off into banishment (et? egairocrToXrjv) thinks at once of the Trojan women and the reason appears for the
;
:
introduction of the wailing
women and
brides, with their torn hair
and
this
plucked
off
veils
in
the sixth verse.
Let us see whether, from
point of visual advantage,
we
can now, with Mr.
Glover's aid, restore

:
the rest of the fourth verse.
Here we may
suggest as follows
eV ojjifjiacrw
teal rr)v
eô^rc? eâXXous a$7)\ov row /8tou

T'
r K\aCovT<i\
avTow Sa/ovo-i
rrfv Sv(ra#Xioi>.
The
fifth
verse describes the fate of the hapless old
men who
at this
are
hustled out of the city to the sea-shore, white-haired, bent double
and
is
stumbling as they go.
The
text of
/// Maccabees
point
:
the very uncertain, and the restoration is affected by the uncertainty cursive MSS. do not come to our aid as clearly as in some other cases.
The
following restoration suggests
itself
KCU V(00pOT'r)Ti
opfjifj
Tti)l>
TToStUV
rytro |
||
yStatas avaTpoTrrjs cuSovs Siâ.
then, verses 2-9 of the chapter before us are an from a Greek play, dealing with the capture of Troy. adaptation
In all
probability,
METRICAL FRAGMENTS
In the
fifth
IN
III
MACCABEES
203
;
chapter
we come
to the
supposed Phalaris fragment
whether
we
are right in the assumption of the existence of a Phalaris

it
tragedy or not,
metrical
poet,
is
quite evident
that the chapter
is
strewn with
of a single
fragments,
not necessarily the disjecta

is
membra
for the
author
constantly dropping into metre, or employing
half-disguised poetical language.

sixth
We shall
what
find, for instance,
in
is
the
chapter, that the pious
Jew
in
Eleazer, in a prayer which
con-
ventional in form
of
and Hebrew
Greek
:
poetry.
will
He is
substance, cannot avoid the rhythm " "
in religion
ancient Pistol
is
in military
be metrical or nothing (one wonders what Pistol would have perpetrated if he had prayed). Thus in VI. 12 we have an
life
he
actual trimeter,
6 Tracraj/
a.\K.T]v /cat
$vva<TTiav
<iy<av
and
in
VI. 32
we
easily restore
aveXaftov o>8^ ndrpLov aivovvrts Btov
A similar effect
is
produced
in
VII. 16,
The manner of the artist is sufficiently disclosed. Our chief interest, however, is with the fourth and fifth chapters, where we have long tragic extracts recovered the fourth chapter has been sufficiently explored we return to the fifth and to Phalaris. In
;
this chapter,
Mr. A. B. Cook
points out the following tragic phrases
that catch the eye.
V.
2.
Sai//tXe'cri
8pa.K<TL (perhaps the original had the

1
sing.
Sai//iXet
Scatter )
Tro/xaro?
a.<f>66v(t)
yopyyia.
5.
ot T'
e^toWes
TO,? Ta.\cuTra>pa)i> \tpa.<;
(may be
accidental)
6.
7.
cr/ceTnjs eprjfjLOL
|
rov TravTOKpaTopa Kvpiov 10. TOV5

.
~ - (accidental
?)
VTTl'OV /X6/309
6crTt\
1
7T/3O9
-
Tov fiacri.\ea
/cat
2.
fiaOel
-
13.
1
a/oai> TTpoo-rjfJia.i'Oelo-a.i'
Clearly not an ordinary prose word, for

7ra\tt/4J7<?, rfj<; êtpos-.
it
is
explained by Hesychius
as T/}f
14
204
13.
14.
-

~
|
|
I
rov
6 77Y>OS TCU9 K\TJ(TO'll> TTCty/AeVoS
14.
20. rr)v
cofJLOTrjTa
ytlpov co^??* o>?
(j>r)
(accidental ?)
21. 6/nov (rvvaii>cravT<; cts OIKOI>

|
~
|
22. TO fJifjâvacrOaL rots TaXairrwyaot?

24. TjOpOLCTTO Trpbs Trjv
S\S
-~
I |
Bttoplav
-^ -
ZO.
'
OVTTO)
'
7)A.tOV
/QoXal KareaTreipovTO /cat

"Epfjitov Tra/Dacrra?
28. 28. 30.
| |
~ Trdvra |
30. êou TTpovoia 30. 8tacr/CSaa"âi
Trai'
TO
|
1 .
The
Phalaris passage, which

t
Mr. Cook
77
restores as follows
o~ot
yo^cts TrapTcrav
Trato)^ yova
Ooivrjv
ai> 8ai//t\7y
ai/Tt
TWV
avf.yK\r^T(^v
/cal Totcrt 7r/)oydvoi9
aTroSeSety/xeVwi/ dei
iricmv
and notes
that dy/atat?
yvdOois
is
found
in /Esch.,
Prom.
vinct. t
368
and Ck&pk., 280. OXoo-x/3^ is evidently a late word which may be discarded, and for the order of the words note that one cursive MS.
actually
shows TT'KTTW
of the fragment
in the
irlcmv (sic\ If the Phalaris were established, it might be proper to restore

ySe'/Jcuai/
origin
second
line, sc.
TOU ravpov.
32. OLTTpOCr&OKriTOV KOLTTLKIV^VVOV
~
\
33. Kai TO) Trpoo-a>7ra> 42. : 6r)pl<D

I I
43. TO!' afiaTOV
TjfJ.lv
VO.OV
l>
TCt^Ct
45.
47.
49.
:
I
I
I
7r6fJM(riv
'
arpcJTu Kap&ia re KCU

\}<TTO.TI)V ftlOV
ttUTOl?
KLVT)V
\ |
49.
:
|
cs ol/croi/ /cai
ydous
METRICAL FRAGMENTS
x
IN
III
MACCABEES
205
49. yoi-ct? T
/cj/otcrt,
-*
|
ere/aat i/eoyâ
7r/>6<?
/xacrroti? (3p<f>r)
e\KOVTa 51.
|
77877 7T/305
TfXevTalov yaXa. ^ ~ TTuXcus aSov
The
of
foregoing metrical fragments

is
/// Maccabees
familiar with the
show conclusively that the author Greek tragic literature. Just
as in the previous chapter
we
:
he has been drawing.

a play
unless
in
But
it
can see one particular play upon which this time it cannot be the Fall of Troy
appears to be, as
that furnished the material
we
stated at the
first,
which Phalaris, similar tyrant, had the title-role, find it a more suitable hypothesis that there was reference to Phalaris in some play which provoked the allusion.
or
some
we
Mr. Cook
that in
thinks
it
not impossible that /Eschylus himself
the author of the missing play in the fifth chapter.
He
may be reminds me
invited
476
B.C.,
Hieron
of
Syracuse
founded /Etna and
/Eschylus over Mt. /Etna had recently been in eruption and /Eschylus XiTvaiai.
gleaned on the spot the details of his description in Prom, vinct., 35 1 ff. Again, Hieron heard of /Eschylus' success with the Persians and invited the poet for a second time to Sicily. He went over and per-
for the occasion.
He
went there and he wrote the
formed the play there between 472 and 468. Finally in 458 he left and withdrew to Gela where he lived till his death in 456. Athens,
Cf. Athen.,
402
c.
:-
on
Mr. Cook
becoming
Se AtcrûXo? 8tar/3tx//a9 ev SiKeXia TroXXcus

<f)(oval<s
/ce^pT/rat
StKeXt/cat? ovSev âu/xacrToV
infers accordingly that
/Eschylus had every opportunity of
familiar with the

will,
fame
of Phalaris.
this.
There
perhaps, be objections raised to

says in
For example,
Ptolemy, posing as Phalaris,
our recovered fragment that the

like)
Jews {quaere
that
originally
Himeraeans or the
to the
had always been conIt
spicuous for loyalty to himself and his forbears.
does not appear

;
Phalaris, according tradition, had any Sicilian forbears It perhaps, as a political adventurer, he had no predecessors at all.
does not, however, follow that the

Phalaris, or
literary Hellenists
who
discoursed of
made him
discourse of himself, took this view of his origin.
Lucian,
for
example, makes Phalaris address the people

first
one
who
belonged to the
families of
Agrigentum,
in
Delphi as which case a

of
206

would be^
Phalaris'
reference to his predecessors
quite in order.
There
;
is
no
need
to decide the point of
ancestors prematurely
in
any
case they are literary creations. When we turn to the seventh chapter
we
find
Ptolemy producing
He a rescript in the conventional manner on behalf of the Jews. his hand off the poetry which he has worked cannot, however, keep
over
in
The enemies of the Jews have dragged them down them by the hair, as if they were slaves (01 /cat bonds, pulling SeoTuov? KCLTayayovrcs avrov? //,Ta cr/cvA./Awi' 0*5 avbpdiroSa) the passage shows that we were right in reading tr/cuX/xot? against the
c.
4 and
c. 5.
uncial
MSS.
is
In the next verse

;
the Jews with their bare lives
Ptolemy dismisses the persecutors of /xoyts TO tfiv avroig yapitflptvoi
which
dvri TOVTMV ea-reprfO^ av or some similar of the previous text (e.g. crv y dvrl TOVTUV <TTpTJ6r)<; av arrangement In the seventh verse he speaks of the constant goodwill of the ftiov).
an echo of
tfiv
Jews towards himself and

TTJV T
/cat
his ancestors
TOV
<f)L\OV f)V
)(OV(TLV
TOV? irpoyovovs r^L^

c.
which
is
again an adaptation of the versified story in
V.
So we
see
that the metrical section

to the author of
on Phalaris was a
sort of
piece de resistance
/// Maccabees.
another
difficulty
At
in
this point
emerges
we have
pointed out that
two
of
Mr. Glover's
by the
cases of metrical fragment the text has been

;
influenced
Prometheus Vinctus
and when we examine

of Phalaris,
more
closely the lines to
which we have attached the name
we find Hecuba
with
that the versifier,

of Euripides.
whoever he was, has been

the sentence
imitating the
Compare
717^86 Brjpcrlv aypiois ccr/ccuacr'
av
Sat/aXr)
Ooivav
doivav aypifiiv
TiOefjifvos 0rjpa)v
Eur., Hec.,
073.
and the dependence
of the former
on the
latter will
be evident.
This
appears definitely to negative

tained
the idea that the Phalaris fragment can

it
be due to /Eschylus, as Mr. Cook suggested, unless

that
should be maingot
Euripides,
whose
diction
is
often
/Eschylean,
It
is
the
of a
phraseology of
Hec
1073 from /Eschylus.
the
work
METRICAL FRAGMENTS
centoist,
IN
III
MACCABEES
This does
not
207
probably
of
the
Hellenistic
age.
mean
that the fragment with

to a
which
only
if
we
it
started our inquiry

it is
Phalaris
drama
does,
may not belong a late drama belonging to
an
artificial school.
Reviewing the preceding arguments, we may claim that a number of fragments from Greek tragic literature are embedded in the Third
Book of Maccabees.
Of
these, the principal are a fragment dealing
with the Fall of Troy and another fragment dealing with the Tyranny of Phalaris. There are also traces of the use of the Prometheus
Vinctus and the Hecuba.
MED1/EVAL FORGERS AND FORGERIES.

BY
T. F.
TOUT,
M.A., F.B.A.
BISHOP FRASER PROFESSOR OF MEDI/EVAL AND ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER.
THE
of their
He is with us with us throughout the ages. still, though in much reduced numbers, for the farther we go In the middle back in history the more criminals we find.
criminal
is
Not only were mediaeval ages the criminal class mustered strongly. criminals more numerous than their modern counterparts, but by reason
numbers and importance they excited much more general symthan they do nowadays, and were as a rule dealt with by society pathy This was true both of crimes of violence in a more lenient manner.
and crimes
cides
of deceit.
In these
two
typical classes of misdeeds
homi-
and
forgeries easily took the
first
places.
In the simple
middle
ages there
were only two great classes of society which really counted. These were the knightly or warrior class, whose business in life was
and the
clerical or priestly class,
its
to fight,
whose
special function
was
to
pray, and which, besides

all intellectual
devotional duties, had the monopoly of
activities, clerical, literary,
and academic.
special misdeed
It
is
hardly
going too far to say that homicide
was the
of the former
and forgery the
particular peccadillo of the latter.
Few
self-respecting
gentlemen passed through the hot season of youth without having perpetrated a homicide or two.
class to forge.
If
it
It
was
almost the duty of the clerical
did not always commit culpable forgeries for its own particular interest, it forged, almost from a sense of duty, for the benefit of the society, the community, the house whose interests it represented.
To
discourse
upon the mediaeval
attitude to homicide
would take
me away from my present theme, which is mediaeval forgers and forgeries. But I should wish to do justice to the particular type of
too far
misdoers with which

fore, suggest
am now
specially concerned.
would, thereclass given to
in passing that
forgers
were not the only
evil
1
deeds
in
an age which,
for all its lawlessness, presented also
some
An
elaboration of the lecture delivered in the John Rylands Library

208
on the 12th December, 1919.
MED1/EVAL FORGERS AND FORGERIES

of the purest
saints
209
will
But the and most exalted types of human excellence. sinners were many, and our chief concern not be with the hardened criminal, who forged for his own
were few and the
personal gain, so
much
as with those
little
who
forged, so to say, as a habit,

to
and whose
opinion.
as a crime.
acts
suggested
or
no criminality
contemporary
For
to mediaeval eyes forgery in itself

It
was
not, like
was hardly regarded Even in homicide, punishable as such.

for
the good old dark ages,
when you could atone
murder by paying
lump sum proportioned to the wealth or social status of your homicide as such was still considered to be a reprehensible victim,
a
offence.
list
down
of offences within
It
Forgery, on the other hand, hardly comes within the modest which the mediaeval mind limited its conception
of a crime.
was
natural to look indulgently on
an offence
to
which
so large a proportion of the educated population
was
addicted.
To
begin with,
clerks, for
forgery
was a misdeed
had the
that
was
and
necessarily limited to
few save
clerks
technical
all
linguistic skill necessary
to forge documents.
Accordingly,
practitioners of forgery
at least their
first
had the
"
benefit of clergy,"
and could commit
offence with
the comparative impunity that followed from the
sympathetic con-
sideration of the church courts for the peccadillos of brother clerks
and from
their canonical restriction to

life
either loss of
or limb.
do
not,
punishments that did not involve however, find that the church
courts ever took
any cognisance
of forgery at all.
The
clerk addicted
to forgery
was
in a
doubly secure position.
Only some
at all.
The
sorts of forgery were regarded by the law as criminal most notable of these were the forging the King's seal or
the forging of a lord's seal by a

ciate the reason for this special
member
of his household.
To
appre-
condemnation
of forging seals,
we
must
remember
is
that the seal

It
was
in the
middle ages what a man's signature
nowadays.
was
the normal
way
of
authenticating his acts, and,

seal,
provided always that he looked sharply after the custody of his

the most effective authentication in an age
when everybody wrote very
much
alike,
wrote with
and when a great many men of substance wrote little or But a knavish servant, familiar with the form difficulty.
of his lord's seal, might easily, with the exercise of a little
it.
and device
ingenuity, procure the fabrication of a counterfeit to
Hence
the
law and public opinion agreed to reprobate very severely looked upon as a scandalous breach ot trust. Forgery of seals then
what was
210

particular sort of forgery
stood in the middle ages where forgery of signatures stands nowadays.

It
was the
For
most dangerous
to society
and
therefore a clearly criminal offence.

similar reasons certain analogous acts of forgery
were included
with the employment of false seals among the offences specially worthy of condemnation. Conspicuous among these were counterfeiting the
king's
money,
issuing false coin,
and shearing or defacing good
coin.
Such misdeeds, along with the

soneria, the
falsification of seals, constituted the
fal-
which Henry's II's Assize of special 76 put with murder and robbery in the category of Northampton of offences which a later period would have called felony. simpler
sort of forgery,
1
1
age saw no reason, even
in
these cases, to impose a special penalty

easier to include
on forgery as such.
It
seemed
them
in
the compre-
hensive category of treason. Accordingly the law punished offenders of this class as traitors rather than as felons. Forgers of seals and
counterfeiters of coin could therefore,
if
they were men, be hanged, drawn
and quartered,
this latter
as traitors, or,
if
they were women, burnt at the stake,
treason.
fail
being the special punishment of the female convicted of Whatever the offence was called, the punishment did not
It
in
austerity.
was one
of the
compensations for general laxity
in
dealing with criminals that the few classes of offence that seemed
most heinous should be dealt with with cruel and unrelenting severity. As time went on, further restrictions were gradually drawn. They
from particular cases, the way of In a well-known law the mediaeval forger was comparatively easy. book of the reign of Edward I forgery, even of the restricted sort we
were enough
to
show
that, apart
have described, was put

before homicide.
as
1
in
the catalogue of crimes after treason and

cases of forgery were, however, regarded
civil
Other
among
the injuries which could be indifferently treated as a
or a criminal offence.
Even
It
the forging of a seal, which
was not
the
seal of the king or of the forger's lord,
an
"
atrocious injury ".
was only considered as inflicting be adequately requited, at the worst might
with perpetual infamy, the pillory, and the tumbrill or cucking-stool,

the same punishment that
was
inflicted
on bakers or brewsters
who
half-
used
weights and measures or on such as sold putrid or 2 cooked food.

false
1
Fleta, pp. 52-3,

Ibid,, p. 63,
"
De
crimine
falsi ".
"
De
personalibus actionibus civilibus ".
MEDI/EVAL FORGERS AND FORGERIES
21!
Recorded cases show, however, that the law courts showed more Thus severity in practice than the law books laid down in theory.
under Henry III a Jew, named Moses son of Brown, was rash enough to bring an action for debt against the prior and convent of Dunstaple
in
Bedfordshire, and to produce in court, as evidence of the debt, a

to
deed which purported

to the convent.
.
be evidence of a loan which he had made
The
king's justices
It
examined the deed and proin evidence that the seal
nounced
it
a forgery.
was shown
;
was
deed
his
not the proper current seal
the canon,
who had
it
written every
of the convent for forty years,
swore that
did not
come from
hands
tences,
had been washed, and new and clumsy sensome containing bad grammar, had been substituted for the
the parchment
In short the astute
original writing.
Moses had made use of another " cooked Dunstaple deed, deposited with him as a pledge, and had
up," rather unskilfully, to represent something quite different from
it
it
what
and
was
originally.
factory.
it
The upshot was
His own examination proved far from satisthat the justices put Moses into the Tower,
was expected that in due course he would have been hanged. However, his coreligionists bribed the king so heavily that the culprit was allowed to abjure the realm.
1
Christian forger of the
lightly.
same period could get off much more There was a petty dispute between six modest heiresses and
to the division of their father's
little
their
husbands as
estate of eighteen
acres of land, in Warwickshire.

in addition to its
One
of the
its
modest share
to prove
happy couples sought claim to a virgate of land
which the husband
said had been given to him, not on his marriage, as the other side averred, but eight years earlier on the simple condition of
homage.
'Then,"
so runs the record,
"he produced
was viewed and it was seen to be false, because the wax of the seal was not three years old. It was, therefore, pronounced invalid and the claimant was kept in Afterwards he came and acknowledged the forgery, and custody. allowed that the virgate of land held by him ought to be added to the land to be divided." As no more is heard of him, this judicious rein proof of his claim.
deed
And
the deed
cognition of guilt seems to have secured

1
him
his release,
and
in addition
Ann. Dunstaple,
pp. 66.
Compare
Cole's Records, p. 312.
This was
in 1221.
212
all

1
he had any right to get out of the estate. Christians apparharder to hang than Jews, even when they had not the ently were wherewithal to bribe their judges.
that
The
treason,
for
lenient treatment of the forger,
was
did not by forging commit enhanced by the fact that he was not apparently indicted
who
for
making or using a forged seal with the intention of defrauding, but producing a document so authenticated in a court of justice and
it.
basing his case upon
production in court of the forged seal There seems corresponded to the intent to defraud of modern codes. no evidence of a forger convicted or even indicted of a forgery as such.
The
While
the
common law was
hazy, the statute law
was
silent.
It
was
Henry remedy against forgery was given by statute. Under Elizabeth the law was stiffened up. The forger was to be fined, imprisoned, put in the pillory, to have his
ears cut
off,
not until the reign of
that a civil
and
his nostrils
slit
and
to
lose his land.

I.
This takes us
the reign of
back
to the state of things

1,
under Edward
At
last, in
Charles
forgery at last
became
It
is
felony without benefit of clergy,
and
therefore a capital offence.
a curious instance of the late middle
ages being more easy going than Angevin times.
Can
clerical
immunities
have had
offence to
this effect ?
its
Was
?
it
left
for the
this
Reformation to restore the

last
old position
Was
?
one of the
surrenders of
a sometime clerical privilege
We
the
get nearer the heart of our subject

of forgery
when we
turn our backs
on
law
and proceed
to interrogate the motives of the forgers.
Here
was
the field becomes at once infinitely wider, for the chief sorts of
fabrication with
which
we
shall
have
to deal
are those
whose
origin
not specifically criminal in the legal, and often not even in the
moral sense.
Let us begin by distinguishing forged documents from
the point of view of the motives of the forgers.
Many
vanity.
mediaeval forgeries have their roots in nothing worse than
church or a family was anxious to prove its origin was more ancient than it really was, and to claim as its founder or ancestor
one
of the great
names
of old.
If
this
reason inspired
many
forgeries
in the case of
Benedictine abbeys and noble families, whose real anti-
quity
was quite respectable, it was still more strongly operative in the case of parvenu institutions or individuals who could boast of no such
glorious past.
1
Now
Universities,
which only began

ed. Maitland,
II,
in
the twelfth
Bractons Note Book,
715-16.

century,
213
and
it
Yet by the were such parvenu institutions. centuries they had acquired such a strong fourteenth
thirteenth
position that
to imagine that there had ever been a time when such noble foundations had had no existence, and unfilial on the part
seemed impossible
of their
members not
to seek out their roots in
remote antiquity.
its
Thus
and
Alfred
the University of Paris claimed Charles the Great as
founder,
Oxford, not to be outdone, found

the Great.
its
origin in the schools of
Cambridge went one
better
and traced
itself
back to King
Arthur or to a Spanish prince named Cantaber, whose date is somewhat But this lie is, like the fame of Cambridge, post vaguely indicated.
mediaeval.
Family vanity was even more active a motive for forgery than inThe false pedigree-maker is still with stitutional esprit de corps.
us,
and there have been few
families that
have arisen
to
sudden
dis-
tinction or
were
told in genealogical matters in the
Gross lies opulence that have not called in his services. middle ages, but the mediaeval
magnate had seldom the practical motives which in more modern times have induced the numerous new men, who have arrived, to buy pedigrees or armorial bearings from heralds or family portraits or even
ancestral
tombs from unscrupulous purveyors of mock

it is
antiquities.
Acwere
cordingly
rather in later centuries,
when
social conditions
more
fluid
than in the middle ages, that false genealogies became most

It
common.
may
perhaps be permitted to warn the fabricator of bogus
pedigrees not to go further back in history than respectability requires.

It is
very difficult for even the greatest experts to concoct a specious mediaeval pedigree. Let such as would attempt it, read and digest the diverting exposition by Mr. J. H. Round of the attempts of two
different
prosperous families, whose chief link of connection

of the respectable
was the
But
all
common enjoyment
name
of Smith, to claim descent

1
from a mythical standard-bearer of Richard Coeur de Lion. these attempts, whether mediaeval or modern, generally break
reason of their being too interesting.
down by
They
are too lavish in their

;
imagination
they give too
many
picturesque details
they suggest
the quickly recurring incidents of a
melodrama
or a novel, rather than
the drab-coloured and unstimulating history which too
commonly
arises
from the meticulous study of the authentic records of the past.

1
J.
H. Round, Peerage and Pedigree,
II,
134-257.
214
than "
Sometimes the mediaeval forger forged from love of country rather from the narrower sentiment of pride in house or family. " have led governments and that not in mediaeval Reasons of State
times only
their
employ whole armies of skilful forgers to demonstrate claims against an enemy or confuse him with false news. Philip
to
the Fair instigated the fabrication of a papal bull designed to hold up to popular opprobrium the policy of Boniface VI II. king of Naples
caused the forgery of the bull of another pope which professed to The appetite for forging grew upon separate Italy from the Empire. what it fed on. Such experts in deceit naturally turned their skill to
their
own
private profit.
Thus we
find that officials of a chancery
were
case
willing for a consideration to forge
deeds
in the interest of private
persons as well as for the good of the state.
There was a famous
where a
draw
sister.
ruffianly count of Armagnac bribed a papal official to up in his favour a papal bull authorising him to marry his own Such a bull was authentic to all outward appearances its
;
defect
was
it
that
it
was
entirely unauthorised
by the authority from
hardly a state in Europe in which similar scandals did not occur from time to time.
is
which
professed to emanate.
There
Sometimes
prise of
it
official
deceit inspired famous forgeries.
remains a matter of controversy whether private enterThe most notorious

the Donation of
mediaeval
forgery,
Constantine, the act by which
Constantine retired to his
new
capital
on the Bosporus leaving by the grant
Rome
clear for the papal autocracy, enriched
of imperial lands,
was
certainly devised in the interests of the papacy,
though the time,
place,
it
and manner of
its
fabrication are far from being cleared up.
But
was
the private enterprise of
some enemies
of the
Roman
lawyers
at
Oxford
that caused the concoction of a pretended bull, excluding

civil
doctors of
law from
all ecclesiastical
teaching of
Roman law
in all
countries
and prohibiting the which were under the custobenefices
mary law of feudalism. These forgers had the effrontery to publish this document during the lifetime of the very pope, Innocent IV, whose name they had taken in vain. In such cases professional zeal and
personal gain worked hand in hand in the
work
of deception.
Some
intent
mediaeval
to deceive,
substantially
sistence
forgeries were almost entirely innocent of any and many forged documents contain facts that are Pedantic love of the letter, and meticulous incorrect.
on
traditional
forms combined to
make
forgery almost a laud-

able, altogether a necessary act.
215
Of
this
type
is
the large class of
copies which the custom of the early middle ages required should imitate in handwriting and technique the method of the originals, and which have often been so dexterously executed that it requires all the
skill
of the trained
modern expert
original.
in diplomatic to distinguish
between
copies
the
copy, and the
By
the twelfth century these
figures, But lapse

be a
late
them, cease to have any importance. of time, war, neglect and fraud had caused the disappearance of many originals, so that the only evidence of a grant might well
as the French call
copy, written out along with a large number of other charters in one of those valuable but puzzling collections called cartularies.
When
the establishment of orderly states with organised chanceries,

it
or writing offices, arose,

munities, that
was
the interest of
all
individuals or
comfrom
had no
original deeds to prove
their rights, to seek
the king or prince an official confirmation of their possessions to

their claim
which
so to
in
since
their
had thus become questionable. This was the more many ancient estates were never, so far as we know, granted holders by any written instrument at all. They were what
of
England was called folkland, land held by the evidence
common
knowledge, the witness of the people, as opposed to book/and, land
But an age which asked held by virtue of a charter, or deed of grant. for title deeds grew suspicious of a title vouched by no written record.
Just as our
Edward
demanded
in his writs of
lords of franchises should produce the warranty

their liberties, so
quo wari'anto that the by which they held
might any reigning prince well ask of a vassal or of an ancient house of religion their evidence that the lands they held
really
Now English law of the later middle ages belonged to them. On proprovided an easy method of strengthening a doubtful title. of an old charter, it received from chancery confirmation duction
seal. But the officials of the chancery required a charter of confirmation to produce the original of a charter that for some reason he wished to have confirmed. The pro-
under the great

the applicant for
cess
was
so easy
is
and so common
it
that in the earliest

1
1
tariff
of
chancery
larger
1
fees that
of record
goes back to
99
there
for
was a much
fee
1
charged for a charter of confirmation than

Foedera,
"
I,
a charter of grant.
75-6.
to
The
"
added
seems
feoffment of
have cost something lands and liberties ".
simple confirmation to which nothing new is " like one- ninth of the new charter of
216

result
The
are
was
that the chancery
rolls,
both charter and patent
rolls,
full
of charters of confirmation, reciting various charters
which the
king had inspected and which he confirmed and strengthened by his own authority. Charters of this sort are called charters of inspeximus
in
England and
if
of
vidimus
in,
France.
demanded was to be done

that
the production of the original that
But the inspection or view was to be recited. What

?
It
no original was forthcoming

existed
:
may have been

oral or tralost, stolen,
no
charter
It
had ever
that the grant
had been
ditional.
may have been

In
in
that the original
had been
or
destroyed.
there
some such cases there was no record some chartulary

officials
of
it
in
most
would be a copy
bureaucrat
of later date.
in
But the
pedantic
government
it
the middle ages
were
If
generally pedantic
would not look

exist,
at anything but to
an
original.
then the original did not

for a charter then
had
be made.
The
applicant
had
to
make a
false original
strove to
make
as real to look at as his
which he naturally knowledge and skill allowed.
He,
therefore, copied out

to
from
the
his cartulary the
document
in
a hand
in
which seemed
possession.
him
like
hand
of other early
documents
his
He
was
cut off the seal from
some document
that he did not

it
regard as being of
charter that
any great use to him, and clapped
on to the
be produced before the chancery clerks. But mediaeval man, though excessively ingenious, learned, and plausible,
to
was almost
him as
ticians,
altogether lacking in the rudiments of a historic sense.
To
poli-
to the
modern peerage lawyer

sometimes begun
or to
life
some
sorts of
modern
who have
as peerage lawyers, history
He could not understand that each presented a flat, plane surface. has its particular forms and technicalities. He knew best those age
own age, and he imagined that what he found in the document He was a reformer he was most familiar with belonged to all time. and wanted his charter to be up to date. He was, too in his way
of his
therefore, in all innocence
vogue
in
his
own
age.
And
prone to copy out the technical forms in the methods which innocence might
adopt from sheer lack of historic sense, art and fraud, could also appropriate from entire ignorance of how things were really done in remote
ages.
In both sorts of cases the officials
were
easily taken in.

set
The
before
in
chancery clerk accepted
with a light heart the documents

fees, cheerfully
him, and, having pocketed his big

the confirmatory ins-peximus
wrote them out
and vidimus.
The law courts were more

careful, but
217
even these were
liable to
be deceived.
It
clumsiest of practitioners, like

shire couple,
convicted of
sifier
Moses son of Brown, or whose adventures we have described, that could be easily their gross and palpable frauds. Thus the innocent faldeceiver,
was only the the Warwick-
runs into the fraudulent
and thus
in
dismissing the
motives of the mediaeval forger we have drifted imperceptibly into the I would willprocess by which such falsifications were perpetrated.
ingly dwell at length on the methods of mediaeval falsification, both in
their innocent
and
guilty aspects.
is
that can be done here
to
But the subject is a big one, and make a few desultory remarks upon it.
all
There was no lack
of skill
and cunning
in
the mediaeval forger.
He
knew how
in
to erase the writing
from ancient parchments and re-
write them in a feigned archaic hand.
He
clever
showed marvellous
and
intelli-
gence
the manipulation of authentic seals
in their transference
to surreptitious
documents.
thin slices
lead, into
two
ments
parchment, silk, document, the sides being carefully heated up so that the two halves could again be fastened innocently together. If the original, after all his care, still remained suspicious, he could always conveniently lose
it
of
enough to cut the wax, or with a sharp knive and introduce new attachor leather, so that it could be affixed to a new
He
was
and produce a confessedly modern copy, plus evidence from those who had seen and handled the original. No doubt the English
Chancery's insistence on the production of an original was based upon
fraudulent attempts of this sort.
Just as in mediaeval warfare the art of defending fortresses
was
superior to the art of attacking them, so in the
sword play
of wits, to
which mediaeval
forgeries gave occasion, the art of fabricating spurious

critical
gifts
documents was more advanced than the

possessed for detecting literary impostures.
which the age
Yet we must not assume that there was no mediaeval criticism, and that it was left to moderns to apply the rules of common sense and evidence to bring the forger So early as the ninth century a knavish bishop of Le Mans to book.
convicted of forging charters to the detriment of the rights of the letter of Innocent 111 explained to the abbey of Saint Calais.
was
chapter of Milan with admirable lucidity

to them, in
why
a false bull, presented

artful
was
suspicious in
seal
style
and handwriting, and the

a
little
way
which a genuine
had been adopted

letter is quite
for the service of the spurious
document.
The
pope's
treatise
on the
rules for
218

1
detecting forged documents.
Again in the early fourteenth century a French dominican, Bernard Gui, employed in the criticism of suspicious
documents principles which, as
M.
Delisle says,
no modern
scholar
would disavow.
And
little later
the letter in which Petrarch
explained to the emperor Charles IV that there was no warranty for believing that Julius Caesar and Nero had conferred any privileges on
the house of Austria
It is
a model essay on diplomatic criticism.

in
must, however, be admitted that

rule of
our period the
critics
are the
there
exceptions to the general
unthinking credulity.
And
were good reasons

bility of detecting
for the
ordinary
man
desiring to
evade the responsi-
forgeries,
of position.
Such great
to
emanating from or patronised by persons persons, such powerful societies, were accomit
plices in falsification that
required a rare share of public
spirit
for
humble
of
critic
expose too coarsely their methods of

is
manipulating
documents.
There
no more respectable name among the archbishops
Canterbury than that of Lanfranc. At one time a jurist, and a divine.

of
He was
a statesman, a scholar,
he was enough an enthusiast to forsake a promising worldly career as a lawyer to take the monastic vows in the poverty-stricken and austere house of
at least of his life
Bee.
Yet
this
eminent dignitary of the church did not scruple to

rival
2
facilitate his
triumph over the

series of forgeries,
metropolitan of
it
York
in
072 by
an elaborate
of his
which,
is
suspected, must have been
own
fabrication.
And
the falsification
was the
less necessary,
since justice
Thus
veils
seems to have been substantially on Lanfranc's side. It was forgery ran rampant all through the middle ages.
;
still more decent anonylargely unpunished. from our eyes the names of the best practitioners of the art, mity whether they forged from malice or tradition, or simply for forgery's
largely undetected
sake, from that
sheer delight in clever mystification which marks the

artistic
forger
who
has a share of that
not rare in the middle ages.
There
is
temperament which was assuredly no wonder that when the great

first
scholars of the seventeenth century, the
men who,
standing outside
the middle ages, seriously attempted to understand mediaeval conditions, had got well warmed to their work, they found themselves baffled and
confused by the enormous proportion of forged, remade, confected, and

1
Baluze, Epistolae Innocentii III,
1,
101.
H. Bohmer, Die Falschungen Erzbischop Lanfranks von Canterbury,
Leipzig, 1902.
219
The otherwise mutilated documents with which they had to deal. Protestants easily explained this by a reference to the blind days of " but orthodox religious," devoted sons of the popery and monkery
;
Roman
in
Church, experienced the same difficulties and suggested, though different phrasing, the same answer to their questionings. Conspicu-
Daniel van Papenbroeck, who had been eta Sanctorum, a for twenty years director of the great Bollandist
ous
among
these
was a
Jesuit,
many-volumed were publishing

since
collection of lives of saints,

at
which the Bollandist

in course of
Jesuits
Antwerp, which has been
issue ever
and
is
not yet finished.
Papenbroeck was so puzzled

lives of
all
how
to
treat the great structures of pious fraud
that surrounded the early histheir saintly founders, that
tory of ancient monasteries
and the
he came to the rash conclusion that

cartularies
documents contained
in ancient
were deliberate
falsifications
by eleventh century
monks and
that the older they
were the more
likely
were charters
to
To
prove
his case,
he made special reference to a
set of
be suspicious. more than
suspicious charters of the royal
abbey of Saint Denis, near Paris. This aroused the whole Benedictine order against the upstart Jesuit,
had, with an audacity transcending that of the worst of heretics,
the
who
questioned
tions of
sacred
sources
of
early
monasticism.
it
The
limitahis
Papenbroeck's scholarship
unscientific
for historic
made
easy to deal
with
provoked an answer from John Mabillon, a Benedictine monk of that wonderful congregation of Saint Maur, which had begun to pour forth from the
science, his tractate
strangely sweeping and Bollandist, and luckily
generalisations.
Unluckily
for the
Parisian abbey of Saint Germain-des-Pres the admirable collection of
works
of mediaeval
erudition that have to this
day retained much
of
their value.
ticity
of
1681, only six years after the attack on the authenmonastic charters, Mabillon issued his crushing answer to
In
in
his great work De re diplomatica, wherein he not demolished the poor Jesuit but laid down the general only completely
Papenbroeck
the
science of diplomatic by indicating the general which the authenticity of mediaeval documents must be principles by tested. This book marks a turning-point in the history of scholarship,
lines of
modern
the beginning of
modern
historical criticism.
It
has suggested the lines

scientific
on which subsequent scholars have

ancient documents,
If
built
up the
criticism of
false.
how
to distinguish
between the true and the
the
rules
of
modern diplomatic are now more vigorous than

15
220

and
skill.
It
is
these of Mabillon, he nevertheless laid

surety
foundations with extraordinary a pleasing conclusion of the story to know that

its
I assure Papenbroeck was among the first of Mabillon's converts. " this magnanimous soul to Mabillon, that my only conyou," wrote solation for having written upon this subject is that 1 have given you
"
an opportunity to write your book. whenever you have a chance to do
Do
not hesitate to say publicly,

I
so, that
am now
entirely of
your
way
of thinking."
to
Up
now
better than precept,
But example is have been giving you generalities. and 1 should like to illustrate the general nature
of the falsification of mediaeval

tail
documents by
telling
you
in
some dedocu-
the story of
two
of the
most notorious forgeries
of mediaeval
ments.
single
Both
of these cases involve not merely the fabrication of a
document.
Both are on a
scale that in each instance runs to

is
the size of a moderate volume.
One
a late fourteenth century for:
the other is an an alleged early twelfth century history eighteenth century fabrication of an imaginary fourteenth century
gery of
Both were generally accepted as authentic both have been Yet abundantly proved to be absolute and complete fabrications.
original.
:
they have been so long used by numerous writers that a generation ago there was hardly a textbook that did not swallow wholesale the lies
of these writers.
Even nowadays
historical
sanitary science has
its
work
cut out to destroy the extraordinarily tenacious microbes,
which
breed so readily that they are still liable to infect the pure wells of For that reason I am emboldened to tell once more the tales history.
of deceit involved
in
the Historia
Crowland Abbey, by
the false Ingulf,
Crowlandensis, the and the tractate
history of
De
Situ
Britanniae, by the pseudo Richard of Cirencester. Half-way between Peterborough and Spalding, on the right bank of the Welland, amidst the fens and marshes of the Lincolnshire
Holland, the
little
viving portions of
relics of its
abbey town of Crowland still preserves in the surthe monastic church and its unique triangular bridge
when
this
former greatness. The religious history of the place begins a noble anchorite, St. Guthlac, set up his solitary dwelling in
in
remote island of the fenland, early

later,
the ninth century.

his
time
a monastery arose to
commemorate
memory, but
tells
Some when
and how we know

its
not, for the early life of
Guthlac
us nothing of
existence.
It is
very likely that this obscure house
was overwhelmed

by the Danish invasions
basis in the days of
of the ninth century,
221
firmer
and restored on a
certain that
it
Edgar and Dunstan.
It is
assumed
new importance with the monastic revival that preceded and followed the Norman Conquest. As ruled by two English abbots in succession, in a time when most of the great houses of religion were in Norman
a
hands, and as the tomb of the
last
of
the English earls, Waltheof,
Crowland Abbey had a

generation after the
particular attraction to the
English in the
Norman Conquest.
The
second of these English
abbots, Ingulf, combined with English birth, discipline in a French monastery, and service in the court of William the Conqueror as one
of his scribes.
His abbacy
v/as chiefly
marked by a
disastrous fire
that
On destroyed many of the books and records of the house. a monk of Saint- Evroult in Normandy, death in 09, Geoffrey, Ingulfs
1
1
was appointed
and
a brother
Ingulf,
his successor
and
set to
work
to reconstitute the history
traditions of the house.
With
this object
he invited
to
Crowland
who,
his
like
monk
of Saint- Evroult, called Ordericus Vitalis,

of
was a monk
English birth
and Norman
training.
Orderic
great
the Englishman
ecclesiastical
five
was probably already busy in preparing history which was to give him enduring fame.
Crowland
in
He
spent
in his
weeks
1
at
1115 and afterwards wrote down

of the history of the
history all
that
we
really
know
abbey up to
his
date.
He
also,
perhaps, wrote
down
little
more than the

"
truth, for
"
his record contains the substance of a charter,
sealed with the seal
of
Ethelbald,
King
of the
Mercians, recording certain grants to the

visited Guthlac.
church, made when that king the holy man a wide extent
the west,
By
it
Ethelbald granted
of lands, five miles to the east, three to

to the south of the site of the saint's
two
to the north,
and two
is
home.
Besides this there
the abbey, making large
a charter of Thurketil, the refounder of " sealed with gifts from his own patrimony,
the seal of the most strenuous
King Edgar".
Here we
are in the
though early grants to the monastery are certain, and many of the lands enumerated in Thurketil's charters are recorded in Domesday as the ancient domains of the abbey
beginning of the
forgeries, for
Crowland
even before the days of Edward the Confessor, it is curious that Ethel bald of Mercia and Edgar the Peaceful should seal charters with their
seal, after
1
the fashion which only
came with Edward

II,
the Confessor
Ordericus Vitalis, Historia Ecclesiastica,
268-90.
Ed Le
Prevost,
Societe de 1'Histoire de France.
222
and William
took place.
ters,

I.
It is
strange too that
Ethelbald, visiting
Crowland
as
king, should have
made
grants to
Guthlac
who
died before that event
But there
is little
impossible in the substance of the char-
were
it
not that the later history of

it,
On
the face of
it
looks as
if
Crowland makes us suspicious. Geoffrey the abbot had imported his

up the
history of the
old friend from Saint- Evroult to write
had unloaded on him
as
much
he had thought he was likely imagining that Orderic was not acting
abbey and and other, as information, apocryphal There is no reason for to assimilate.
in
good
faith.
Indeed there
is
It
its
no
special
was
a time
reason for imputing any grave criminality to the abbot. when every monastery was investigating its claims to
lands.
title
natural, if the Danes or the floods had destroyed than that the friends of the house should do their best to deeds,
What more
reconstitute the vanished
past ?
it.
was
set
best to
make
a good job of
And, reconstitution once allowed, it So the dutiful monks of Crowland
example of Lanfranc, their metrohowever, for future reference that, according note, politan. to Orderic, neither Thurkeril nor Ingulf wrote histories themselves. All that Ingulf had to do with books was to witness the burning of
themselves to
to follow the
work
We may
the
abbey
library.
We must
now jump on
for three centuries in the history of
Crow-
About the reign of Richard II, there seems to have been another land. wave of tendency towards substantiating the claims of the monks to
Drainage was turning some of their fens into good pasture and arable lands, and estates long waterlogged and useless were beginning to yield good commercial profits. Monasthe lands in their possession.
teries
no longer held the same strong
position
in the public
eye that
The king was casting a greedy eye they had held in Norman days. the local lords were envying the on the temporalities of the church
:
church that was dressed out in the feathers of other birds
and the
friars
Wycliffe preached the same doctrine of apostolic poverty, though

;
with somewhat different applications. It was, therefore, high time that " " the monks should disturb themselves or they would possessioner
have nothing
left
to possess.
not particularly scrupulous.
For instance,
Late fourteenth century Crowland was in 384 there was need to

1
investigate a charge of brigandage brought against the
abbot John by
a
of
Northampton merchant,
followers, "after
who
complained that the abbot
and a band
long lying in wait" took him prisoner, shut him
MED1/EVAL FORGERS AND FORGERIES

up
in
223
to
castle,
and
treated
him
so austerely that he
was compelled
be paid
pay a fine of 40s.
"for
his
greater ease in prison," and his friends

for
were reduced
lease.
to
drawing up a bond
this,
200
"
to
for his re-
Yet
"
notwithstanding
the abbot
and
until
his associates kept
the poor merchant in prison at
Northampton
was
himself compelled to enter into a similar writing for
the unlucky trader "
300
to
keep
them indemnified towards the abbot and they now threaten to take and What truth lay in these charges I know not, imprison him again."
!
but the story suggests an atmosphere of Greek or Sicilian brigandage, organised on as business-like a scale as that of Hadgi-Stavros in Edmond
About' s
delightful
Roi des Montagues.

with crimes of deceit.
in
Crimes
of violence jostled
Ten
years later
the Patent Rolls recite

the charter of
how,
King King of England, dated 948, in favour of the abbot and convent of Crowland, and had duly ordered their confirmation." We have seen that to produce such a confirmation an original had to
charter of Edred,
Ethelbald,
of
1393, King Richard had inspected the Mercians, dated 716, and a
be produced,
chancery.
sufficiently specious to
be acceptable
to the clerks of at
the
We know,
3
then, that the forger

sure,
was already
work.
To
make assurance doubly

IV, a
dethroned Richard.
he obtained from the
new
king,
Henry
new inspeximus and
a confirmation of the inspeximus of the Nevertheless enough had not yet been done to
safeguard the abbey property.

its
There was a
of
particular
danger from
northern
neighbours, the prior
and monks
of Spalding,
whose
claims
had always clashed with those
was now enhanced by the

as part of the
transference of the
Crowland, and whose power crown to the house of
Lancaster, which, as earls of Lincoln, claimed the lordship of Spalding
honour
of
Bolingbroke.
If
John
of
Gaunt, as duke,
might well
had been a thorn

do
it
in the side of
Crowland,
his son, as king,
more grievous harm.

things to a
fierce dispute in
the law courts about
1413 brought
their rivals at Spalding,
The
earlier falsified
In the hope of thoroughly confounding crisis. Crowland put forth its final effort in forgery. documents were carefully strengthened by a whole
;
crowd
of fictitious charters
;
they were strung together in a continuous

the whole
421.
and picturesque narrative

1
was given
2
to the
world as the
Cat.
Patent Rolls, 1381-5,

3
p.
Ibid., 1391-6, p. 300.
Ibid.,
1399-1401,
p. 76.
224

this false history
History of Crowland, and

Ingulf.
was
fathered on the abbot
Finally, as
an afterthought, the
false
Ingulf has a forged con-
tinuation
of Blois.
which
is
assigned to a writer of the age of
Henry
11,
Peter
The
early history of the fraud

it
is
obscure, but from the sixteenth

It
century onwards
Elizabeth
to
became generally accepted.

that
it
prove
Cambridge University
was quoted under was flourishing in

Dugdale and Spel-
Norman
man.
times.
In the seventeenth century
deceived most of the anti-
quaries and historians, including such great scholars as
The note of warning was sounded by the learned Hemy Wharton,
were
at
all
and Hickes, the English Mabillon, declared strongly that the charters Gibbon sneered at its statement that Ingulf studied forgeries.
Oxford books
of Aristotle, not
known
at that time in
Europe.
But
its
the literary historians, from
Hume
downwards, eagerly adopted
picturesque purple patches.
While good
chroniclers have not to this
day found an English translater, the pseudo- Ingulf was done into the
vernacular time after time.
The
long series of apocryphal charters
are solemnly set forth in the last edition of the

local
Monasticon.
all
The
made
historian, the guide-book writer, the text-book maker
Ingulf his
own.
When
the nineteenth century found him out, and a
crowd
of
scholars,
Palgrave,
Riley,
Liebermann, Searle, published

the pseudo- Ingulf
still
conclusive demolitions of his statements,
kept
some conscious and more unconscious
disciples.
Less than forty years
ago a scholar, officially attached to the British Museum, and supposed to be enough of an expert to edit the whole corpus of Anglo-Saxon
charters,
were reconstructions
true
history.
It
maintained that, though spurious in form, Ingulfs charters of original deeds and therefore contained much
requires
a faith greater than the faith that moves

lofty pile of lies that
mountains to clear away the

the good faith of the
has overwhelmed
monks
of
Crowland.
That such
startling
doctrine can have been preached
down
to our
own days
is
word.
chaff in
evidence that the science of Mabillon has not yet said its final difficult as is the problem of separating the wheat from the " " " " the remade and conflated and otherwise doctored Norman
But
and Saxon
and
charters,
is just
pseudo-Ingulf
deceit.
requires no very deep criticism to see that the a novel with a purpose, and that purpose fraud
it
To
begin with, there
is
no manuscript
"
of the chronicle
older than the sixteenth century.
The
autograph
of
Ingulf,"
which

Spelman
all
is
225
have seen, has mysteriously disappeared with all The narrative and charters alike teem the other pre- Tudor copies.
said
to
with
sorts of
anachronisms.
the fourteenth and not of earlier
place-names are in the form of The forger did not know centuries.
The
the difference between Anglo-Saxon and

puts earls of Lincoln and Leicester in
Norman
Latin terms.
He
calls
Saxon nobles
after the
names
of castles
of
Anglo-Saxon times and founded by Normans.

the Elder, though the
He
first
makes Thurketil the chancellor

English
king to
Edward
have a chancellor was Edward the Confessor.
He
says that the triangular bridge, a fourteenth century structure, existed

in the tenth century.
seals, vicars, into
He
puts
fiefs,
manors,
not.
sheriffs,
archdeaconries,
ages which
knew them
;
He
sends dead
men
on missions to kings and princes he makes Ingulf on his travels visit an emperor who was not yet an emperor, and a patriarch who was He makes Thurketil recommend as bishops people already in his grave.
He makes aged monks, driven died years before he was born. away by heathen Danes, come back to restore the abbey and resume
who
their monastic routine,
1
and
makes
die,
years afterwards, at such ages as
48,
42, and
5.
He
Ingulf study
in the non-existent University
of
Oxford the metaphysics of Aristotle at a time when that work was unknown in Western Europe. He makes monks of Crowland journey
over daily from their Cambridgeshire manor of Cottenham to give lectures in a barn at Cambridge on grammar, logic, and rhetoric.
He
makes Englishmen in the tenth century use French as a vernacular speech. But why go on multiplying instances ? The anachronisms and contradictions are so
numerous that
can see no use whatever

initial
for the book,
unless
it
is
to
guide the historical tiro in his
steps in the art

is
of
detecting forgery. " Beware of the false Ingulf
But
to all
teachers
all
still
feel there
need
to say
and
his
works 'V
When
you
find Ingulf
quoted, put
away
for ever the
book that thus stamps
itself
as belated
and
unscientific.
all his practice,
With
job.
1
the mediaeval forger
was a poor hand
at
his
Let us turn then to another famous
forger,
who
lived less than
The best demonstrations of the pseudo-Ingulf forgeries are those of Sir Francis Palgrave in Quarterly Review, W. G. Searle's Ingulf and the Historia Crowlandensis in the Transactions of the Cambridge Archaeological " Uber Society, 1894, and, more thorough of all, that of Dr. F. Liebermann,
ostenglische
Archw, XVIII, 227-67,
Geschichtsquellen, besonders den falschen 1892-3.
Ingulf," in
Neues
226

and see whether the eighteenth century, that enlightenment, and sober judgment, could not go one
ago,
two hundred years

age of reason,
better in falsification than the later middle ages.
Let us turn from the
pseudo- Ingulf to the
false
Richard
of Cirencester.
for
About
abbey
the same time that
Crowland was preparing the way

there lived in the
the colossal mystification of the false Ingulf,

of St. Peter's, Westminster, a
sister
monk
of the
house named Richard
of Cirencester.
The
excellent
list
of
Westminster monks which Dr.
Pearce, the
new
markable archives
his long his
first
bishop of Worcester, has put together from the reof the abbey, tells us at a glance what is known of
1
and uneventful
mass
in
1
career.
A novice
in
1354-5, Richard sang
sojourned at last died in 1400.

write
-2, went through the various grades of office, Oxford as a student, went to Rome as a pilgrim, and at
36
The
dull
and
only noteworthy thing that he did was to useless compilation setting forth at length the
history of
English kings before the
Norman Conquest,
called the
Speculum Historiale,
unnecessarily, printed,
the Historical Mirror, which has been, rather
fifty
years ago, in the Rolls Series.
But even
in
the bad old days of the beginnings of

Series,
1
the Chronicles and Memorials
have grave doubts whether such stuff would ever have seen the splendour of two volumes of print, had not the blameless Richard
had fathered on him

forgeries of
one
of
the
most
audacious
and
successful
modern
times,
and that the
edition of Richard's real
book
gave the learned editor, Dr. J. E. B. Mayor, an opportunity of denouncing in an elaborate introduction the cheat who had taken poor
Richard's
In
1
name
vicar
in vain.
How this came

1
about,
we
that
must
now discover.
Dr. William
borough.
747 there
of
lived
at
Stamford,
in
Lincolnshire,
in
Stukeley,
Stukeley,
All
Saints'
Church
historic
who had
already attained the ripe age of sixty,
of considerable reputation, gained in
many
different
was a man He had spheres.
been a
flourishing physician and had then become a still more flourishHe was a man of science who had long been a prominent ing divine. " member of the Royal Society, and was proud of his particular
with the great Sir Isaac Newton. Above all he was an who had taken a prominent part in founding the London archaeologist, Society of Antiquaries, of which body he had acted as the first secretary.
friendship
1
"
H. Pearce, The Monks of Westminster,
p.
100.

"
227
He had amassed a vast quantity of miscellaneous and undigested learning,

Druidical" antiquities. and was specially interested in Roman and His chief virtue was a habit, then rare, of wishing to see things for
himself.
This commendable practice had made him a mighty
traveller.
He
had put together the
results of his journeys in a curious but not
unattractive work, called Iter

entire lack of criticism
Curwsum.
His
chief foible
was
his
ill-
and judgment.
Among
other things his
regulated fancy led him to see the Druids in all things and to regard " " It gave him a Druidism" as the aboriginal patriarchal religion".
corresponding weakness for freemasonry, which he believed to be "the remains of the mysteries of the ancients ". His last work had been
an anticipation
of the favourite
literary
aberration
of the late
Mr.
Gladstone, for he had attempted to indicate "how heathen mythology was derived from sacred history and how the Bacchus of the poets is
Stukeley was a harmless, pompous, self-satisfied sort of person, honest enough in the main, but one of whom his best friends could only say that he was compounded
no other than the Jehovah
of Scripture ".
of simplicity, ingenuity,
superstition,
and antiquarianism.
He
had a
touch of humour, too, preaching, when nearly eighty, his first sermon in " Now we see as through a glass darkly," and so spectacles on the text
zealous a votary of science that he postponed morning prayers for an
hour that
his parishioners
eclipse of the sun.

gift for
He
was a
should have an opportunity of witnessing an great collector of coins and had a rare
nosing out mare's nests.
Witness
his
famous find of Oriuna,
the wife of Carausius, a discovery that had no more solid basis than a hasty misreading of the word FoRTUNA, inscribed on a coin of the
would-be Emperor. But he was a considerable personage withal, both in the social and learned worlds. can read his nature easily
We
enough
in his portrait
self-satisfaction,
smug complacency, well-fed good-natured benevolence, and robust health appear

by
In this
1
Kneller.
patently to
all
beholders.
On
June,
in the wilds of a flourishing
747, the rural solitude of the great doctor's retreat " where I looked upon myself as town,
receipt of a letter from
buried for
life,"
was broken by the

Professor
an unknown
correspondent, " "

professor
Charles
was a young man

Danish
Bertram of Copenhagen. The of four and twenty who was earning
an honest
living as
teacher of the English language in the marine

capital.
academy
of the
The
son of an English silk-dyer,
228

at
Bertram was a Londoner born, but had been taken
an early age to
It is
Copenhagen, where
regretted that
his father
had
set
up a hosier's shop.
a
clever
to
be
we know
must
but
little
of
the elusive personality of

fellow,
Mr.
well
Bertram,
but he
clearly
have been
educated, enterprising, audacious, and not overtroubled with scruples.
correspondence with Stukeley began, he petitioned the Senate of the University of Copenhagen not to allow his profession of English Churchmanship to be a bar to his matriculation as a student at that University, where
rigid
He
was eager
to get on, and,
some months
after
his
Lutheranism was a normal condition of admission.
His teaching
post must have been a very
cap
of the audacious arrivist that
humble one, and it was a feather in the he had so easily attracted the atten-
tion of the
eminent hermit of Stamford.

tell
Let
Stukeley
the tale of the results of the shot fired at a
venture by the ingenious Mr. Bertram. " "
The
first letter
of the "gentle-
man unknown
to
me
foreigners, expressing
was polite, full of compliments, as much candour and respect for me

; :
usual with
being only
The letter acquainted with some works of mine published. dated the year before for all that time he hesitated in sending The
wrote
doctor
in
his
was
it."
was much
"
Diary,
flattered
at the
at its
contents.
"I wonder," he
meaning
after,
of
his finding
me
out in ob-
scurity."
What
Bertram's
further
Bertram
was
subsequent
correspondence
gradually revealed.
To
first letter
produced " letter from the famous Mr.
This Stukeley returned a civil answer. a prolix and elaborate correspondence, including
Gramm ...
visited our
learned
gentleman
who had been in England and Mr. Bertram s great friend and
"
I
Universities.
He
was
patron."
answered that
us.
letter," said Stukeley,
"
and
it
created a corre-
spondence between
to
Among
other matters
Mr. Bertram mentioned
a manuscript in a friend's hands, of Richard of Westminster, being a history of Roman Britain, which he thought a great curiosity ;
me
and an ancient map
of the island annex'd."
Then ensued some
The Duke
from a beloved retirement Montagu, drew Stukeley by presenting him to the living of St. George's, Queen-Square, Holborn. When I became fix'd in London" continued Stukeley,
of
'
"
delay. "
"
I
The
thought "
it proper to cultivate my Copenhagen correspondent." " famous Mr. Gramm was now dead and Stukeley and Bertram

were consequently
"
in
229
now," wrote began to think of the manuscript and desired some little Stukeley, " The result was an imitation of the handwriting," extract of it."
direct relations once more.
1
"
which the keeper

be
of the
Cotton Library
"
400
years old
".
Now came
the tug of war.
immediately pronounced to " I press'd," continued
"
Stukeley,
sible,
Mr. Bertram
at length,
which
"
solicitation
...
to get the manuscript into his hands, if posand on my with some difficulty he accomplish'd a transcript of the whole ; and at last a copy of the
;
map."
greatest
Upon
perusal
seriously sollicited
him
to
print
it,
as the
treasure
we now can
further
boast of in that kind of learning."
Bertram, however, proved coy.

Stukeley
Some
years elapsed, during which
made
"
the
suggestion that Bertram's
"
Richard
of
might well be the Westminster monk, Richard of Cirencester, with whose Speculum he seems to have been acquainted-
Westminster
Bertram thankfully took the
hint.
In
756
the faithful Stukeley gave
him a
puff preliminary in the shape of a
paper read before the Society
of Antiquaries
and published in their transactions. In 1757 Bertram published at Copenhagen a volume in which, along with Gildas and " Richard of Cirencester," De Situ Brittanice, first saw the Nennius,
accompanied by the
"
"
ancient
light,
map
and an elaborate com-
mentary by the fortunate discoverer.
The
more
"
learning
eighteenth century had
historical
sense" than the middle ages.

the false Ingulf.
more "enlightenment" but hardly It had certainly less

It
and
real criticism than the great seventeenth century scholars
who had been
taken in
by
was no
great wonder,
then, that Richard of Cirencester, so whole-heartedly introduced
the learned Dr. Stukeley, should have led captive the antiquarians
historians of the
by and
a
age of reason.
There was no one

III
to ask
why
monk who
lived under
knowing about Roman
should have any more means of Britain than the rector of St. George's, Queen's
Edward
Square, or the professor of English in the marine school at CopenThere was nobody even to take the trouble to compare the hagen.
756, with the very jnap, presented to the London antiquaries in different map issued by Bertram in 1757. Soon Stukeley republished Richard in a second series of his Iter Curiosum. Henry Hatcher " of Salisbury set forth the precious text in English, and bore un1
equivocal testimony"
to its
fidelity
and
exactitude.
He
protested
230
that the

"
unaffected
candour" and
"
"
"
laudable zeal
"
of
Richard, his
contentment with the "
humble honours
of a compiler,
showed
that
he had neither the
inducement nor the inclination

".
to incur the guilt
or deception of forgery
Still
more emphatic was John Whitaker,

Richard a chief authority
for
the historian of Manchester,
who made
his antiquarian romance," which consecrated two volumes to the Whitaker dehistory of Manchester before the Norman Conquest.
"
clared ecstatically that
"
all
the embodied antiquaries of the fourteenth
and three succeeding

of
centuries could not
Roman
antiquities ".
In this remark
have forged so learned a detail Whitaker was more right than
he knew, for it is precisely the non-mediaeval character of the pseudoRichard that convinces the modern scholar that the book was not
composed in the Middle Ages. Even at the time of its first

scholars
publication, there
were some cautious
ventured to suggest that there was a large element of But they were voices Richard of Cirencester's work. For the best part of a century, every work crying in the wilderness. with Roman Britain implicitly accepted all the forger's statedealing
imagination in
ments.
who
To
this
day
atlases
and school books have hardly yet been

the Constantinian provinces of
solely to the imagination of this
purged
of the precise boundaries of Britain,
Roman
"
which are due

this
new
source ".
To
day text-book writers and popularisers copy out
from their predecessors "facts" as to Romano- British history which have no other basis than his imaginations, and it is the more lamentable since most of them have long formally repudiated his authority.
The
local
antiquary finds
it
even harder to cleanse

to
his
system of the
virus of
Richard than he 'does
purge
it
of the infection of the false
The Ordnance Survey faithfully marked in its maps the Ingulf. It would be an interimaginary sites of Richard's Roman stations.
esting
minor investigation to see whether recent recensions of the Ordnance maps have in all cases eliminated these errors. It is only
within the
last fifty
years that conclusive demonstrations of the forgery
have convinced
all scholars that
the book
is
absolutely valueless.
Scepticism had begun earlier, when had demonstrated the non-existence
careful inquiries at
of
Copenhagen
There
is
any ancient
to the world.
it,
manuscript or
modern copy
of the
book Bertram gave
no
reasonable doubt that he forged every line of
and a remarkably

clever forgery
it
231
is
for a
young man
style
is
who had
is
University course.
The
so mature
not even begun his and rounded that one is
inclined to believe that

of
its
composition
1
posterior to the early corres-
Bertram and Stukeley in 747. Bertram's original motive pondence in writing to Stukeley may have been no worse than a desire to win
by
"
patronage of that eminent person, and his reference to " Richard of Westminster was but a casual incident of the corresflattery the
But Stukeley rose so greedily to the bait and so pressed pondence. Bertram to produce Richard of Westminster's work, that the poor
youth was forced to
satisfy the importunities of
the English antiquary.
Thus what began

in
1
as a piece of self-advertisement or a boyish practical
joke ended in a careful and deliberate forgery.
The map
sent to
Stukeley importunity to extract the text of hands. young man in a hurry
747 was not
difficult to
make, and it took two years of the pseudo- Richard from Bertram's
would not have
tarried so long,
if
he had ready to hand the goods that he had promised to deliver.

hardly needful nowadays to state at length the reasons for The accusing Bertram of the sole authorship of both map and book.
It
is
map
is
not at
all like
any mediaeval map
of Britain, but
is
clearly based
in outline
upon the sixteenth or early seventeenth century

are
faithfully
Dutch maps
only sound
whose
inaccuracies
it
copied.
The
text
is
a mere compilation from well-known authors. When it gives us fresh information, it is written in a style that no mediaeval The Latin is fluent and readwriter could possibly have composed.
when
is
able, despite occasional
false concords
and sheer blunders.
But
it is
the Latin of an eighteenth century semi- scholar, accustomed to think

in
his vernacular
and
singularly destitute of
knowledge
of mediaeval
vocabulary, spelling,
idiom, and forms

is
of thought.
Bertram's
style as
own
It
copious commentary
written in exactly the
same
the text
is
which he maintained was composed

monk, who
ster
1
in the fourteenth century.

It
the style of a third-rate editor of the period.
makes a Westminster
died in 1400, almost as familiar with the mysteries of the It suggests that this WestminDruids as the egregious Dr. Stukeley.
monk had had

The
first
at
least
a bowing acquaintance with the Deistic

"
"
is in
some
detailed statement of the case against Richard of Cirencester articles in the Gentleman's Magazine of 1866-67 by B. B. Woodfullest
ward.
The
working out of the whole problem

II,
is
in
J.
E. B. Mayor's
Series.
introduction to
Speculum Historiale, Vol
XVII-CLXIV, Rolls
232

Bertram's
age and some sympathy with the less No mediaeval writer ever, like the pseudo- Richard, orthodox side of it. " " " candid or the benevolent reader ". No fourteenth addressed the
controversies of
own
century abbot would have discouraged one of his monks from writing
an
historical
treatise
on the ground that

orders.
it
was incompatible with
the
possession
of holy Westminster would have known such comparative philology as was known to the of
No
mediaeval
monk
eighteenth century.
of Tacitus but
The
it
false
Richard not only knew the
Agncola
quoted
from a sixteenth century printed edition, con-
taining a remarkable printer's error.
still
happier prophetic vision

its
caused him to use Camden's Britannia, two hundred years before

publication.
Add
to
this
that the facsimile supplied
to
Stukeley,
although it deceived the contemporary palaeographers as easily as the Latin deceived contemporary scholars, was a gross and palpable forgery that never could have been written in any period of the middle
ages.
To
work.
conclude
will
adopt a simple
I
way
of proving that
Richard
from his
was no mediaeval monk.
will read a characteristic passage
None
is
better for our purpose than his general observations
on
the question of a "certain person,"

those cities and
Where
are
now
the vestiges of
"
This question
(I
names which you commemorate ? may be answered by another ".

enthusiastic
He
Richard's reply is, then goes on as

translation)
:
follows
'
quote from the
Mr. Hatcher's
The
negligence and inattention of our ancestors in omitting to collect

as might
and preserve such documents
have been serviceable

for
in
this
particular, are not deserving of
heavy censure,
scarcely any but
those in holy orders employed themselves in writing books, and such
even esteemed
it
inconsistent with their sacred office to engage in such

I
profane labours.
rather think
may
without danger and offence

I
transmit to posterity that information
which
have collected.
The
good abbot indeed had nearly inspired me with other sentiments." He " all our studies should be directed to the purpose of being urged that useful to others ". To this Richard replies "Is then every honest
:
gratification forbidden ?
Do not
such narratives exhibit proofs of Divine
Providence
Does
it
not hence appear that an evangelical sermon
concerning the death and merits of Christ enlightened and subdued a " world overrun with gentile superstitions ? The abbot rejoined that
1
Bk.
I,
ch. vii.. pp. 65-67, ed. 1809.
233
such things are properly treated of in systems of chronology, and that works intended merely to acquire reputation for their authors should be committed to the flames. Accordingly the modest Richard limits " himself to a permissible chronological abridgement," begging the " for him to our heavenly Father who is merciful and reader to pray
inclined to forgiveness ".
This
is
second-rate
stuff
indeed
but
it
is just
the sort of stuff that

Its
no fourteenth century monk could have written.

language,
its
standpoint,
its
mentality, are of the
eighteenth century.
Even Mr.
he sagely observes, "These remarks prove how much Richard rose superior to the prejudices of his age and profes"
Hatcher
sees this, for
sion
Bertram never attempted to

of his youth.
"
live
up"
to the brilliant achievement
He
either lost health or ambition or
was afraid
of being
found
out.
1
Moreover, he had not much time
to write more, for
he
died in
765, only seven years after his great mystification saw the While before 1758 he had written grammars and school light. books, his chief later production was a Danish translation of an " on the great advantages of a godly life". Thus the English treatise He was not the forger prepared for his end by a work of edification.
only literary
falsifier in
the age of Ireland,
Macpherson,
lolo
Mor-
ganwg and
Chatterton.
These were men
of very varying grades of
blameworthiness, and perhaps we should not attach too much stigma There are many scholars, even of criminality even to poor Bertram.
nowadays,
who
share to
some extent the mediaeval

against forgers
;
fashion of blowin cases of
ing alternately hot
and cold
and
doubt
easily persuading themselves that there was some basis of tradition at
the back of even the grosser impostures.

profession,
just
This
is
a weakness of the
for
purloining books, and the similar laxity of a larger section of the general public But there is no need to labour so obvious a in respect to umbrellas.
point.
like
the tendency
of
bibliomaniacs
In a tale of immoral action there

I
is
no moral
to
be drawn.
If
there were,
forgers with
should be inclined to put in a plea for the mediaeval

I
whom
my
am
chiefly
concerned against the modern faker of
pseudo-mediaeval
apologist of
forger, severe as
things like
Charles Bertram.
Am
too
much an
mediaeval
as well as
favourite periods
were
his
when I suggest that the limitations, knew his job at least
his
modern
imitator ?
It is
a real discredit to the eighteenth century
234
that
it

was
so easily deceived
by Bertram.
Nowadays we
forgery like
are not
likely to give long shrift to a
new
artist in
the Anglo-
Dane.
But
Yet even now we
still
lack the rigid criteria which enable us
decisively to
it is
condemn
or accept large categories of

all
Norman
charters.
a comfortable reflection that
forgeries will ultimately

field
be
for
found out.
the forger to
certain
They
make
of
sometimes, however, hold the
long enough
a considerable reputation, and occasionally even a

his mystification.
sum
hard cash by
MIND AND MEDICINE.

BY W. H.
R.
RIVERS, M.D., D.Sc,
F.R.C.P., F.R.S.,
FELLOW AND PR/ELECTOR
IN NATURAL SCIENCES, ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.
THE
attitude
early relationships
between mind and medicine are
in-
timately
bound up with the process by which medicine grew
out of magic and religion. a long and chequered progress,

still
The
far
history of medicine reveals

in
from complete,
which Man's
towards disease slowly became different from that he held towards the many other mysteries by which he was surrounded. His
endeavours to cope with disease took at first two directions. In one he ascribed disease to the action of beings different from himself, but
capable of being reached by

these
rites,
rites of
prayer and propitiation.
Since
wherever
we
study them, reveal an attitude of respect and

possess,
it
appeal, and imply powers which man does not himself

legitimate to regard the beings to
seems
whom
they are addressed as higher
and more powerful than himself. The general body of rites and beliefs forming the means of intercourse between Man and these higher
powers make up the aspect of life we call religion. One of Man's early modes of behaviour towards disease may thus be regarded as
forming part of religion and the religious attitude.
In the other direction disease
human beings, or of beings of able to processes of a compulsive nature, and therefore

than
was ascribed to the action of other a non-human kind believed to be amenpowerful adopted towards them implied
with disease took
less
Man
himself,
so that the attitude
neither respect nor appeal.

this direction,
When his
efforts to deal
Man
compelled or induced the being to
whom
disease
was
ascribed to withdraw the agencies by which the illness
was being
effects.
1
produced, or himself employed measures designed to negative their Beliefs and measures of this kind make up the aspect of
Lecture delivered
in the
John Rylands Library, the 9th

235
of April,
1919.
1
236
life

as magic, but this aspect
is
known
is
less
capable of definition than

elements.
religion
and needs analysis
into several distinct
One
of
these
certainly degenerate religion, beliefs
and
at
rites
no longer implytheir
ing any reference to higher powers
which
one time formed
motive and sanction.

majority of the measures by which existing savage peoples attempt to cope with disease fall into one or other of the two cateAll that we know of the history of gories of religion and magic.
The great
mankind
ing to
suggests that
it
was only
after
long ages, and in some few
parts of the earth, that
Man
reached a conception of disease accord-
which
it
is
ascribed to processes similar to those underlying
modern systems
of
medicine.
The emergence
and magic
is
of medicine
from
its
intimate associations with religion
closely connected with
the gradual substitution of the concept of physical causation for the

spiritualistic
agencies of the animism which formed the early attitude
towards nature.
The growth
of medicine
is
closely
bound up with
the development of the concept of a natural world as opposed to a
world
we now
regard as supernatural.
at our
All the evidence
command
goes to
show
that as
Man
re-
linquished his early animistic interpretation of the universe, this
was
replaced by
explanations of
a materialistic kind.
In so far as events
were not ascribed

were believed
to
to spiritual beings or to direct
human
agency, they
thus supposed to
depend on the action of material agents. The agents be effective in the production of disease during the
history of medicine have been of
two
chief kinds.
Among
peoples
who
this
have been especially influenced by beliefs concerning animals, branch of creation has been prominent in their theories concerning
the production of disease.
Elsewhere the evident connection of the

is
blood with
to
life
has led to the belief that disease

this fluid,
an altered character of
and
this belief
predominantly due formed the startingcenturies

of our
point of the humoral pathology which for so

the basis of medicine.
in medicine
many
formed
time
The two
'
great developments
lines of
own
have followed these two main

of savage medicine
early belief.
For
the
worms and snakes
have been substituted the

of the
microscopic and ultra-microscopic organisms

1
germ theory
of dis-
When
it
should be remembered
these early beliefs are regarded as previsions of the germ-theory how naturally they follow from the general beliefs
concerning animals characteristic of certain forms of human culture.
MIND AND MEDICINE

ease, while the place of the old
237
humours has been taken by the alteration in the proper proportion of internal secretions which is now coming to be recognised as the immediate cause of so many morbid
states.
During the long period

disease
in
stituting these material agents
which medicine was occupied in subfor the spiritual beings to which all
any room was
of mind.
left for
was once
the
ascribed,
little if
agencies which
come within
modern connotation
thought of the production of disease by other than material agents, his concept of the activity involved was very different " " as held by ourselves, or at any rate by the from that of mind
psychologist.
When Man
The agency
to
which he ascribed disease was

as having form
spirit
spiritual
rather than mental,

for
and was conceived

It
independent existence.
or
might be a
and capacity which had never been

host to acquire an
still
human
had human
associations, or one
which had once had a human

of
its
habitation but
had come through the death

it
independent existence, or lastly,
might be a soul which

it
had
its
customary seat within a human body, but could leave

trance to act as the producer of disease.
at this stage of
in
sleep or
Though
human
culture there
is
no
trace of the
modern concept
can see clearly spirit, that most of the processes by which disease was thought to be produced, and was treated, are such as would act through the mind. The maniof fold lines of treatment to cure disease acted,
faith
mind
as distinguished from
we
by which human or spiritual agents were induced if they were successful, through the agency of
and
suggestion.
The
curative measures
which are
still
being
employed by many
peoples, act through the
their success to the faith they inspire or to
same processes and owe the more mysterious property
we
call suggestion.
It
is
necessary, however, to distinguish the production
and
treat-
ment
of disease
by agencies acting through the

this
mind from the know-
ledge that the measures used act in

acting through the
manner.
Though remedies
mind were probably
the earliest to be
Man,
the
knowledge
that the remedies act in this

It is
way
is
employed by one of the
most recent acquirements of medicine.

1
said that the Japanese of
the sixteenth century understood the action of remedies through the
mind, while the great importance attached by the Hindus to the

1
M. Neuburger, History of Medicine, London,
1910, vol.
i.,
p. 78.
238
mental, as opposed to the material, makes it probable that they also had more than an inkling of the role of mental factors in the treatment,
far this may be so must be not in the production, of disease. students who will examine the original authorities with left to special an eye to the possibility that the agencies in which these peoples beif
How
lieved
were
spiritual rather
thammental
it is
in nature.
If
we
confine our
fifty
attention
to our
own
culture,
only within the
last
or sixty
years that there has
been any clear recognition

is
of the vast
importance
of the mental factor in the production
and treatment
of disease,
and
by
even
now
this
knowledge
definite
far
from being
fully recognised either
the medical profession or the
laity.
For the
often
first
happens
in the
movement in this direction we have, history of human culture, to thank external

of
as so
influ-
ence, in this case that

of the
India.
The
first
great stimulus to the study
mental factor in disease came from the need to understand the
mysterious action of hypnotism.
Though
this
known
in
Europe
as in all other parts of the world
agency had long been and had been
the activity of
to
in
brought prominently to notice at the end of the eighteenth century by Mesmer, the knowledge which the Abbe Faria brought
Europe from India acted as a great stimulus which Braid of Manchester holds a foremost
to
its scientific
study,
place, while the later
experience of Esdaile in India did

of
much
to help the practical utilisation
hypnotism
in this country.
About
was
to
this
time there
was
setting in the
for
wave
of materialism
which
dominate European thought
fluence the
new
physical force.
many years. Under this inwas regarded as a form of magnetism or other agent It was only slowly that there came into being the now
view
that the
generally accepted
produces
its
effects is
suggestion.
agency through which hypnotism This is a process comparable with

concepts which, wholly devoid of
volition, imagination, or other similar
any
implication of the independent action of a spiritual being,
had been
reached by the
new and
slowly developing science of psychology.

allied processes led students to distinguish
The
study of
hypnotism and
clearly the important
influence of suggestion in the production
and
treatment of disease.
The phenomena
recognition of the
tion should
of hypnotism having led students to the definite mental factor in medicine, it was natural that atten-
be directed to the influence of other mental conditions.
MIND AND MEDICINE
239
This development followed many directions. The general public, less under the influence of the prevailing materialism of science than the
could be
medical profession, and more ready to accept any new doctrine which made to harmonise with the old spiritualistic view of disease,
adopted with enthusiasm many

these the vast
new
systems of healing.
In most of In
power
of religious
faith
was
"
explicitly recognised.
some, such as Christian Science and the

cardinal element of faith
constructions
New
Thought,"
etc.,
the
was made
the starting-point of intellectual
basis for the success that these
which gave, or seemed to the believers to give, a rational new movements so often obtained. At
the
same
time, within the medical profession, especially
among French-
speaking peoples, there

therapeutics in
roles,
came
into existence a definite system of psycho-
which suggestion and other agencies were assigned their principles were laid down to indicate the scope of these In agencies and the means of turning them to best advantage. l Switzerland P. Dubois laid stress on the helpfulness of explaining
and
what he
called the philosophy of disease, while in

2
and E. Gauckler
in
more
scientific fashion,
J. Dejerine a most valuable compiled
France
text-book of the principles and methods of psycho-therapy. Independently, growing out of dissatisfaction with the practical use of hypnotism, a third line of approach was taken by the Viennese
Sigmund Freud. It had been found by earlier workers that hypnotism was often the means of reaching experience which had been
physician,
so completely forgotten that
by no
effort of the will

3
could
it
be
recalled.
Working
hysterical
in conjunction
with Breuer,
Freud found the process
of
bringing these buried memories to the surface led to the disappearance of
symptoms
of
long duration, and the two authors founded

its
upon
this
experience a theory of hysteria according to which
symptoms
are the indirect expression of old mental injuries (traumata), especially
those of early childhood.

Later,
1
Freud found
that the buried
memories which manifested

;
by
rsychonevroses et leur traitement moral, Paris, 1908 translated " and W. A. White as The Psychic Treatment of Nervous New York and London, 906. Diseases,"
Les
EL
S.
*
Jelliffe
Les Manifestations fonctionelles des Psychonmroses, Paris, 1911 " translated by S. E. Jelliffe as The Psychoneuroses and their Treatment by Psychotherapy," Philadelphia and London, 1913. S. Freud, Selected Papers on Hysteria and other Psychoneuroses (Nervous and Mental Disease Monograph Series, No. 4), New York, 1912.
;
:<
240
themselves in

this
morbid manner could be brought
to the surface
more
efficacy, though without the aid of hypnotism. By means of his method of free association, starting as a rule from clues provided by dreams, Freud was led to formulate a theory of the unconscious and an elaborate scheme
securely and with greater therapeutic
less expeditiously,
of the
it is related to and acts upon the conscious. work Freud was led to the conclusion that the mental experience which had been cut off from the general body of His work, and consciousness was nearly always connected with sex. still more that of his disciples, came to deal so exclusively with sexual
mechanism by which
In the course of this
factors that the general

laity refused
to give
body both of the medical profession and the this movement the attention it deserved. They
immense importance of the mental mechanisms method of analysis, and the body of evidence
to illustrate the influence of the
failed to recognise the

laid bare
by Freud s which was thereby provided

scious.
uncon-
most important aspects of Freud's work was that the role he assigned to the unconscious enabled him to adopt in the most complete manner the principle of determinism within the mental sphere
of the
One
which had been

is
of such value in the progress of physical science.
It
essential to this progress that the student shall believe implicitly, or

least, act as
if
at the
he so believe, that every physical event has its physical antecedent, without the presence of which it would not itself have come into existence. The progress of physical science depends
largely
on the robustness
of the faith in
this
law
of
causation which
allows no residue or anomaly, however insignificant it may seem, to be The successful worker put on one side as due to chance or accident.
makes such residue or anomaly the subject of patient investigation until its occurrence has been traced to its antecedents, antecedents which may open new paths to the understanding of experience
in science
which
till
then had had no adequate explanation.

as the attention of students of
So long
sphere of the definitely conscious, there

tion of a similar doctrine of
mind was confined to the was no opening for the applica-
mental.
Recognising that the principle of psychical determinism
determinism within the sphere of the must
hold good if psychology is to become a science, some students had put forward hypothetical mental dispositions where no antecedents could
be detected
in consciousness,
but these were too vague to be of any
MIND AND MEDICINE

assistance in research.
It is
241
of
no
service to postulate a disposition of
which one knows nothing, which stands in no known relation to any Other students definitely threw over any other part of a construction.
attempt to apply the principle of determinism within the sphere of mind, and were content to seek for physical causes in the form of
physiological processes or dispositions
whenever the study

is
of conscious
process failed to provide an adequate explanation.
The
special value of
Freud's
work
due
to the fact that
he was
not content merely to put forward unconscious dispositions as the antecedents of changes in consciousness, but was enabled by the knowledge derived from his analyses to formulate a definite scheme of the
unconscious region of the mind and of its relation to the conscious. This scheme is of necessity to a large extent hypothetical, and as with
all
hypotheses of such complexity,

is
it
will certainly require modification,
but growing experience

of
its
pointing
more and more
surely to the truth
main assumptions.
Five years ago, before the outbreak of the war, many were coming to acknowledge the great importance of mental factors in the production
and
cure, not only of diseases obviously
mental in nature, but also
held to be wholly physical. There was, no general agreement concerning the principles which should however, underlie a system of psychological medicine. There was even no
of
many which had been
general belief in the possibility of principles which could act as the

basis
and
inspiration of research.
From
the one system which could
have provided such basis and inspiration the majority of workers were estranged, partly owing to the undue weight laid upon sex by its adherents,
partly
owing
to the
unsatisfactory form in
public.
which the new

of the
striking
doctrines
had been put before the

effect
The
of their recent experience
upon the opinions

Perhaps the most
medical profession
feature of the
has been
profound.
war from
the medical point of view has been the enorits
mous
scale
upon which
conditions have produced functional nervous
disorders, a scale far surpassing any previous war, although the Russo-
Japanese campaign gave indications of the mental and nervous havoc which the conditions of modern warfare are able to produce. While
certain of these disorders are the result in part of physical causes, such
as cerebral concussion or illnesses specially affecting the nervous system,

it
has gradually become clear, even to the firmest believer in
the
242
dependence of mind on body, that in the great majority of cases the All conditions upon which the disorder depends are purely mental.
are coming to see the profound effect of mental shock
and
strain in
weakening the powers of control by which instinctive processes are

Moreover, it normally held in check, if not completely suppressed. has become clear that in the vast majority of cases the morbid processes
which have been

sexual instinct,
up by shock or strain are not connected with the but depend on the awakening of suppressed tendencies
set
still
connected with the
more fundamental
is
instinct of
self-preservation.
While
the nature of the war-neuroses
satisfactorily
explained by the
defence-reaction,
Freudian
mechanisms
of
etc.,
suppression,
conversion,
compromise-formation, they lend no support to the exclusively sexual origin of neurosis which had been the chief obstacle to the
general acceptance of Freud's doctrines.
It
cannot yet be said that
the essential features of these doctrines have met with general acceptance, but the state of the matter
is
now
very different from the wide-
spread neglect,
or even reprobation,
which existed before the war.
The
to
great majority of students of the neuroses are
now
prepared to
consider Freud's position, to accept such parts of his doctrine as seem
them supported by the

sufficient.
facts,
and
to
suspend judgment concerning
those parts for the truth of which they
do not deem
the existing evi-
dence
I
with the controversial topic of Freud's views concerning the neuroses because he, more than any other worker, has emphasised the mental factor in disease, and more thoroughly than
at length
have dealt
any one
sential to
else has
based
his
the progress of psychology
work on a determinism which is and psycho-pathology as
as esdeter-
minism within the physical sphere is essential to the progress of the sciences which deal with the material world.
In the foregoing sketch of the history of
the relations between
mind and medicine
have considered at some length one of the most

viz.,
important principles of psychological medicine,

psychical determinism.
the principle of
This principle
is
of especial
importance
in
connection with the art of diagnosis, for only those who believe firmly that every mental symptom has its mental antecedent will have the
patience
and courage
to
patient
They
will not rest content until they
probe deeply enough into the history of a have discovered, not
only the events which acted as the immediate conditions of the disease,
MIND AND MEDICINE

mental constitution which
243
but also those factors producing the special qualities of the patient's
made
it
possible for these conditions to pro-
firm belief in the prinduce so great and so disastrous an effect. ciple of psychical determinism is the most important condition of
success in the diagnosis

I
and treatment
of functional nervous disorders. of the
propose
now
to consider
some other
more important
disorders.
principles
which underlie success
in the treatment of these
One
such principle
It is
may be regarded
as a consequence of psychical
determinism.
a general rule of medicine that the physician must
to their source, should
not be content to treat symptoms, but having traced these symptoms by suitable remedies attack this source and treat
the
duced.
is
it
symptoms through the conditions by which they have been proIf it This principle holds good for psychological medicine.
believed that the
symptoms have been produced by psychical
factors,
must also be psychical in nature. I do not suppose that even the crudest materialist, having once acknowledged
will follow that the remedies
symptoms depend upon a fright in childhood, a reproach concerning a misdemeanour in youth, or an anxiety in adult life, would
that the
expect to produce any permanent improvement by the administration of a drug or the performance of a surgical operation. It must be
pointed out, however, that such measures cases, not merely through their psychical
may be
effect,
successful in
some
and
the
but because, by recircle
moving secondary disturbances, they may thereby give an opening for the action of intrinsic mental
break a vicious
forces
workin
The vis medicatrix natures applies ing towards recovery. mental as well as in the material sphere.
Another
in
principle
which
is
is
psychological medicine
meeting with general acceptance that functional nervous and mental disinstinctive
now
orders
depend
essentially
on disturbance of the
and emotional
or affective aspects of the mind.

in the attempt to get
It is now widely acknowledged that back to the roots of these disorders it is necessary
to look for experience
which had a strong emotional
tone.
This prin-
ciple has long been more or less explicitly recognised, and underlies such general beliefs as are expressed in the adage that it is worry and
not
work which
first
kills.
But
its
it
is
only recently that
we
have learnt to
appreciate the extent of
application
It
and
to use
it
in treatment as a
guide of the
importance. explicitly mental disorders of insanity, no good
has long been
known
is
that in the
more
done by reasoning
244

We
with the patient as a means of countering his delusions. It seems even that such reasoning may only intensify and fix the delusions by driving
the patient to adopt the part of an advocate.
is
now
see that this
a necessary consequence of the emotional basis of the disorder.
The
of
delusions are the product of a process of rationalisation by
means
which the patient has tried to account for his abnormal emotional state. Treatment directed to these secondary products wholly fails to touch
the deeper
and
essential factors.
The modern
There
is
theory of emotion connects
it
closely with instinct.

is
reason to believe that the emotional factor in neurosis
the
expression of
some
instinctive
tendency which has been suppressed on

Neurosis occurs
account of
its
incompatibility with social standards.
when, through some shock or strain, the agencies which keep the tendency in check are weakened, allowing it again to come into conflict with social standards. The form which the neurosis takes depends
on the process by which Nature attempts to solve this conflict. I must be content with this brief description of some of the more
important principles upon which
therapy,
utilised
rests
1
our modern system of psychoof the
and pass on
by
to consider
some
main agencies which are

I
the practitioners of this branch of medicine.
shall lay
stress especially
on the three agencies
of self-knowledge, self-reliance,
and
suggestion.
The agency
have elsewhere
"
of self-knowledge, which, following Dr.
W.
in
called autognosis, covers a
wide
field
Brown, I which two
main
sections can
be distinguished.
Where
lies
the morbid state depends
on some experience or tendency which

bringing the buried
within the region of the
unconscious, self-knowledge as a therapeutic agency will consist in
and unconscious experience
to the surface.
The
unconscious experience has to be brought into relation with the general body of experience which is readily accessible to consciousness and so
made
part of
it
that
it
ceases to act as a separate force in conflict with
the general
body
of conscious experience.
The
1
other main form of the agency of self-knowledge comprises

1918, vol.
ix.,
See British Journ. Psych., Hygiene, 1918, vol. ii., p. 513.

2
p.
236, and
Mental
Psycho-therapeutics," Hastings' Encyclopedia of Comparative This article may be consulted for Ethics, vol. x., p. 433. information concerning other therapeutic agencies which I do not consider in
Art.
"
Religion
and
this lecture.
MIND AND MEDICINE
245
the processes by which a sufferer is brought to understand elements of conscious experience which are being misinterpreted, and through this
misunderstanding are helping to maintain, even

produce, the morbid
state.
lie
if
they did not help to
Between
there
is
these
two forms
a large variety of processes in which
a mingling of the unconscious and conscious elements brought into relation with one another, thus doing away with the conflicts upon
which the disorder depends and

ality.
It
restoring
harmony within
to
the person-
may seem
is
that the role here assigned
the process of selfsaid earlier concern-
knowledge
in contradiction with
what has been

and the
ing the failure of appeal to the intellectual

ing the instinctive
lectual element,
necessity of attacking
and emotional
basis of the disorder.
The
intel-
be neglected.
however, though secondary, is present and must not Experience shows that, while the direct attack upon
fail,
the intellectual aspect of a neurosis or psychosis will
a line of
to bear
treatment in which the intelligence of the patient

the part taken
his illness
is
brought
on
by
instinctive
and emotional
factors in the production of
may
be of the utmost value.
Indeed, success in treatment
depends largely on the possibility of diverting the intellectual activity from a channel which is forcing it into an asocial or antisocial direction
it into one which will again enable the patient to live in with the society to which he belongs. harmony Where the sufferer from neurosis is intelligent, the mere exposure of the faulty trend and the demonstration of the process in which this
and leading
trend took
started
its
origin
right
may be
sufficient.
The
patient only needs to
be
on the
path and
his
own
intelligence will lead
him back
been so
to health
and happiness.
morbid process
In other cases the faulty trend has
long in action that a lengthy process of re-education

to put the
in the
proper
light,
may be necessary and reduce the power
which through habit has been acquired by the secondary products In other cases, again, the intelligence of the of the morbid process.
patient
may
not be sufficient to enable him to solve the conflict unaided,

of re-education has to assist the patient to
and the process

place his steps
understand
the nature of his disorder
and the processes by which he can again

of health.
is
upon the path

I
The
next agency
have
to consider
one which may be summed

a pronounced tendency for
up under the term
self-reliance.
There
is
246
sufferers
social

from neurosis to avoid the unpleasant at all costs. Since all those in which the nearest relatives are involved, duties, even
are liable to
quiet and
become irksome or positively distressing, the patient seeks solitude, and if left alone these antisocial tendencies may beone
come a
habit, converting
who
into a recluse or misanthrope.

in health are disregarded,
before his illness was a social favourite Aches and bodily discomforts which
so treated soon cease to annoy,
and when
are liable in neurosis to
grow
in intensity
and
insistence.
They may
so absorb the attention that the sufferer's efforts are exclusively devoted
to the
avoidance of
all
conditions, such as noise
and excitement, which
aggravate, or seem to
him
to
aggravate, his troubles.
He
is
apt to
since
resort to drugs, either at his
own
or his physician's instance,
and
these are merely palliative
and do not touch the
roots of his malady,
they only serve to accentuate his pains
and
worries, even
the greater evil of a definite drug-habit.

his
He
strives
he escapes to banish from

if
mind
all distressing
if
arresting that,
his
thoughts and memories, including experience so efforts were not exclusively turned towards the
at
avoidance of immediate pain, he would

of his attempt.
once recognise the
futility
One
of the
first
steps in the treatment of such cases
is
to persuade
the patient to forego any adventitious aids, such as drugs or electricity,
upon which he has come

tion designed to
to rely.
Assisted by a process of re-educa-
to fight his
show their subjective nature, he must be encouraged He must be pains and discomforts by his own strength.
futility of
convinced of the
his attempts to
escape from the thoughts

trial that
and memories which

to be
distress
him and shown by
when
these
painful experiences are faced they are far less terrible than they seem
when
kept at a distance.
He
his fellows in spite of
the immediate discomfort
must be encouraged to mix with which this produces,

that the pains of the reality
and here again he must learn by experience do not equal those of anticipation.
The
special
ful.
policy of facing his troubles instead of running

effects
away from
to a
them has certain
of a far-reaching kind
which are due
mode
of reaction of the
mind when
in the presence of the pain-
repressing unpleasant thoughts and memories the patient is a process by which we tend to suppress painful experience assisting and dissociate it from the general body of consciousness. When thus
By
suppressed and dissociated, however, such experience does not cease
MIND AND MEDICINE

to exist, but
247
by
its
activity
produces
many
of the
most painful features
of the illness, distressing
which form the most

pression.
direct
dreams and nightmares being the symptoms consequence of the repression and sup-
By
facing his troubles in place of striving to banish them,
disappear or so 1 alter their character as not to interfere with comfort and health.
to repression
the dreams or other troubles
due
may
Owing
to the malign
power
of
repressed experience,
the policy
of
facing the painful may have effects reaching far more widely than might be expected from the normal experience of health that a trouble faced
loses half
its
terror.
The
term
little
is
third
agency
have to consider
is
suggestion.
Though
this
is
freely
and
confidently used in psychological medicine, there
agreement concerning its exact meaning, and much is included 2 I use the among its activities which has little to do with it in nature.
term for a process which belongs essentially to the instinctive side of It is the mind. representative in Man of one aspect of the gregarious
instinct, the instinct
which makes
it
possible for all the
members
of a
group
to act in unison so that they
seem
to
be actuated by a
common
purpose.
ally in nature
According to this view it is a process which differs essentifrom those mental processes which produce uniformity
of behaviour
by endowing the members

sentiment.
that
Its
of a group with a
lie
common
idea or a
common
is
activities
definitely within the
unconscious sphere so
consciously, he
when
the physician employs suggestion
using in
an
artificial
manner an agency which belongs
properly to the region of the unconscious.
The most
consciously
striking
form
in
is
which
Man
has
come
to use suggestion
and wittingly
this
practice between
All gradations are met 'u hypnotism. conscious use and cases in which the definitely
physician acts upon his patient and moulds him to his will by the unconscious process of suggestion, without recognising the true nature of
the process which
is
taking place.
is its
As
a rule the
more unwitting the
use of suggestion, the greater
power and
efficacy.
On
this
foun-
dation rests the success of quacks, for they advocate and use their
1
of
War Experience,
1.
*
For examples
of the beneficial effects of this kind see
The Repression
"
Proc. Roy. Soc. of Med., 1918 (Section of Psychiatry),
Tol. xi., p.
For
its
"
distinction
therapeutics
a therapeutic agency, see Art. in Hastings' Encyclopaedia.

faith as
from
Psycho-
248
nostrums
really

in blissful
depends.
The
ignorance of the process upon which their efficacy physician who knows enough to distinguish beof suggestion
fail
tween the influence

possesses,
and other modes
of action a
remedy
the
may
signally
to attain
the success of the quack, because

is
the instinctive process of suggestion
not being employed in
manner
natural to
it.
One
tion
of the greatest difficulties of psychological medicine arises out

if it
of the opposition,
be not
definite incompatibility,
between suggesprinciple of self-
and the group
of agencies
which
be
is
rest
upon the
reliance.
The
action of suggestion can never be excluded in any form
of medical treatment,
whether
it
it
explicitly designed to act
upon the
It
mind
or whether ostensibly
suggestion
is
purely physical in character.
is
when
to
used wittingly, and especially
when
it is
directed
produce a definite hypnotic or hypnoidal
state, that
the conflict with
In these cases the the principle of self-reliance becomes most definite. on a power, in this case that of the patient is definitely led to rely
his own. Even when, as in the most recent physician, other than developments of hypnotic treatment, suggestions are given in the hyp-
notic state designed to strengthen the self-reliance

trol of
and
volitional con-
the patient, he cannot have the confidence, and especially the confidence in the future, which is given by a recovery which he can
clearly trace to his
own
efforts.
The whole
process differs essentially
from that in which the action of the physician has been limited to
helping the agency of self-knowledge and placing the steps of the Even if the hypnotic suggestion should patient on the right path.
troubles, his satisfaction
succeed in strengthening the will and assisting the patient to face his and confidence must in some degree be tarnished by the knowledge that
this result is
due
to the action of another
person and not to his own activity. There is also a certain amount of conflict between hypnotic treat-
ment and remedies which
rest
on the principle
of self-knowledge.
We
do
this
not yet understand the nature of hypnotism.
Even
to the physician
remedy partakes of that mysterious character which belongs to aspects of nature which have not yet been brought into relation with
the rest of our scientific knowledge.
acter must
To
the patient, this mystic char-
be
far
greater.
In a fully satisfactory system of mental
medicine the treatment should follow logically from the pathology. The remedies should stand in a definite and intelligible relation to the
MIND AND MEDICINE
249
causes by which the illness has been produced and the processes by which these causes have produced their effects. The intrusion of a
mysterious agency interrupts the continuity of blended diagnosis and

treatment.
It
disturbs the process
recovery by knowledge of
astray.
by which the patient is led towards the conditions through which he was led
In spite of these difficulties arising out of conflicts with the

principles of psycho-therapy, there are certain cases in
of
main
which the use
faulty trend of thought or conduct may hypnotism is justified. habit have become so fixed that it requires a process more drastic by
than mere persuasion to break it, or the unaided strength of the patient may be insufficient to enable him to stand up against the pains or In such cases the experience which has prohorrors of his malady.
duced or helped to produce his illness may by this treatment be buried no lasting and complete success can be still more deeply than before
;
expected unless the treatment
is
continued sooner or later in accordance
with the leading principles of self-knowledge and self-reliance. If, the patient can be protected from undue stress, hypnotic or however,
other form of suggestive treatment
may
enable him to pass through
life
without manifest nervous or mental disorder.
Another and perhaps more

the interest of diagnosis.
legitimate
mode. of using hypnosis
is
in
Dissociated or forgotten experience
may
be
recovered more speedily by means of hypnosis than by the process of

free association, the analysis of dreams, or other
means
of gaining access
to the unconscious.
Such use
of
knowledge need
interfere very
little
hypnotism as an instrument of selfwith the principle of self-reliance,
the hypnotic process merely giving the
therapeutic process starts
knowledge from which the and upon which it is based. Though hypnotic treatment can thus be justified in certain cases, it
It is
is
rarely necessary.
results
generally used,
firstly,
as a short cut to im-
without regard to the future, and secondly, because the mediate striking and theatrical character of these results greatly impresses a public accustomed to consider the needs of the moment as more important than a complete and lasting cure. this brief account of a few of the I must be content with
more
important principles of mental therapy and of the agencies which are available in putting these principles into practice. I shall conclude
this
lecture
by pointing out
that
these
basic
principles of
mental
250

all
medicine are also those of
sound systems of education and underlie

of self-knowledge as a
success in social life, in health as well as in disease.

In the case of
one process, the attainment
means
health
of treatment, the resemblance with a social process of

is
normal
so obvious that the physician has
come
to use a term derived
therefrom.
or conduct
The
is
process by which a faulty trend of feeling, thought, diverted into a more healthy channel is generally known
as re-education.
tion in
from the ordinary process of educathe nature of the knowledge and attitude to be acquired. The
This only
differs
agency of
this
self-reliance,
which
is
have made of such fundamental imimportance

in education,
portance in psycho-therapy,
of equally great
though
tional practice.
importance This failure
is
inadequately recognised in
is
modern educait is
due
to the fact that
far easier to
than to develop an attitude of mind, just as it pour is far easier to pour medicine into a patient than to instil hope, patience,
facts into a pupil
and
self-reliance.
The
influence of suggestion in education resembles in
many
re-
spects that
which
have assigned
to
it
in medicine,
and
is
of especial
importance owing to the great suggestibility of children.

lies in
The
im-
power portance education by which it develops an attitude of interest in the intellectual, the beautiful, or the noble. Nothing assists the development of such
produced,
just as
the
of suggestion in relation to that function of
an attitude more than the mental atmosphere which the teacher has
no
factor
is
of greater
trust
the atmosphere of
hospital,
hope and
importance in therapeutics than produced, whether in home or
duced
success
in the
is
In each case this atmosphere is proby a skilful physician. main by suggestion, and in education as in medicine this
the greater the
success of a great teacher, or that
more unwittingly this agency which so often comes
is
used.
to
The new moveis
ments
in education
even
when based on wrong

and personality
is
principles,
due
to
the infective enthusiasm
of the teacher acting through
an agency quite
the danger to
greatly
distinct
from the matter he teaches.
As
in medicine,
which such a teacher
open
is
that
he may rely too

with the prinfor the
on
this influence
and and
1
fail
to recognise
its
conflict
ciples of self-knowledge
self-reliance.
The
principles which
have here put forward as suited
treatment of mental disorders of the individual are equally appropriate to the treatment of the faulty trends and disorders of society as a whole.
MIND AND MEDICINE

The
and
statesman whose duty
disorders has, like the
it is
251
to find remedies for such faulty trends
the physician of the individual, to discover
and may do deeper conditions by which they have been produced He the evil by remedies based upon this knowledge. much to amend
can hardly, however, expect a lasting cure unless he tell the people what is wrong and where they have gone astray. Without such self-
knowledge his work is liable to be upset by later conditions which would be innocuous if the community had been led to see and understand the nature of their earlier misfortunes.
Moreover, the self-knowledge of the community is like that of the individual in that the social group is even more subject than the individuals of
which
it is
composed
It is
to the influence of conditions lying
deeply beneath the surface.
generally recognised that the factors

usually go far back in the history
upon which
social
disorders
depend
of the people, factors, not only in conflict with later social standards, but also in many cases with existing social conditions. To understand
the evil and find the right remedy, inquiries are needed which go so
far into the past that they lie altogether outside the
memories of the
people and can only be reached by special processes of historical research and sociological reasoning.
These
factors belong just as
much
to the unconscious of the folk-mind as the factors
producing a neurosis
or psychosis belong to the unconscious region of the individual mind.
The
facts
importance of self-reliance in disorders of the body
politic is
as great as that of self-knowledge.
A nation which refuses to face the
ticians
is content to swallow every placebo and nostrum of its policannot expect to gain thereby the permanent improvement of Even if the remedies of its any disorders by which it is affected. rulers be wise, only a temporary effect can be expected if the people
and
rely too
much on
this
wisdom and
fail
to
make
a united effort to
remedy
the faults of their society.

It is less
that
it
easy to compare the role of suggestion in the group with takes in determining the fate of the individual. Suggestion is
essentially a process tending to
produce unanimity
in the social group,
and
its
action
is
even more inevitable
than with individual disorders.
when we are dealing with social The physician who knows that sugits
gestion cannot be excluded, but that

evil, will
influence
may be
for
good or
the
it
be forewarned and forearmed, and

Suggestion
is
this is equally true of
statesman.
responsible for panic or collapse, just as 17
252

responsible for
may be
agency,
harmony
to a
more
useful end.
The
wise
statesman
who
may
understands the pervasive and yet elusive nature of this by such understanding do much to avert its more malign
it
aspects and turn
to a useful purpose, while a people

falling victims to the
who
understand
may be
agency
prevented from
capable.
is
excesses of
which
this
is
In the society as with the individual the potency
of suggestion
the greater, the

its
more unwittingly
it is
in action.
And
as in medicine
so
may
greatest dangers may be averted through knowledge, much be done to avert danger and make suggestion an instru-
ment
for
good
in social
and
political
life if
its
nature and
mode
is
of
action are understood.
Closely connected both with education and statesmanship

subject of ethical training.
the
Here
the importance of self-knowledge

it is
and
self-reliance
it
is
so well recognised that

It
not necessary to dwell
upon
at length.
must be enough
to point out that the principles
so universally accepted as the
means
of treating faulty trends in those
aspects of behaviour which,
though clearly abnormal, are yet usually regarded as lying within the bounds of health, have been shown in this lecture to hold good for the correction of morbid tendencies which lie
definitely within the region of disease.
The modern theory of psychomedicine supports the close relation between mental disease logical and crime to which all recent developments in sociology and jurisMoreover, if the principles of psychological prudence are tending. medicine here put forward are accepted, they should remove, or go far towards removing, the obstacle to the acceptance of this close reIt presented by the problem of moral responsibility. will be seen that the recognition of crime as a manifestation of disease,
lation
which
is
far
from implying an absence of

in
this
responsibility,
would on
the lines laid
down
differ
lecture lead
us logically to treatment
responsibility.
is
which does not
greatly from that implying such treating crime and moral disorder which
to disease differs
The mode
its
of
suggested by
relationship
from the older method
in that the erring
person would
not be merely exhorted to exert his will, but would be shown how his faulty trend has been produced and would thus be assisted in the application of his voluntary efforts.
It is
a striking
fact that the organisation
which has by long experi-
ence acquired the most highly developed system of treating moral defect, the Catholic Church, lays great stress on the apparently minor
M1ND AND MEDICINE

faults
253
directs the
which have
led
up
to definitely
immoral conduct, and
attention
and
efforts of
the penitent to these quite as
much
as to the
is the immediate occasion for This close repenance. semblance of the traditional practice of the Catholic Church with that of the most modern systems of psycho-therapy leads me to the place
conduct which
of religion in psychological medicine.
From one
point of view the use

definitely in conflict
of religious motives in treating mental disorder
is
with the principle of

it
self-reliance.
For the essence of
religion
is
that
inculcates reliance
upon a power other than

is
that of the
in
sufferer.
Some
conflict
degree of such conflict there
must always be, and
many
of
the forms in which religion

is
pronounced.
But
it
in the
is
adopted as a therapeutic agency, most recent developments of
this
re-
ligious doctrine, in
which
recognised that the higher

conflict
power
acts
through normal mental process, the

count.
becomes
tell
The modern
religious teacher
does not
no great acthe sufferer that he

of
will get rid of his troubles
by the
mere
act of faith, but counsels self-
examination and self-help.
To
put his advice into simple language,
he says that
adopts a
line
God
which
only helps those
who
help themselves, and thus

this lecture.
I
in essentials is that
advocated in
I
In
thus treating religion as a therapeutic agency,
recognise that
am
dealing only with one aspect of the matter.

leave the subject wholly on one side.
It
could not, however,
is
necessary that those
who
employ
in
religious agencies in the treatment of disease,
whether they be
of
physicians or priests, should realise that in so doing they are running
some degree counter

if
to
one of the principles
psychological
medicine, for
this fact is
recognised they will avoid the evils
which
might accompany too crude an application of the religious agency. Moreover, no treatment of the subject of mind and medicine would be
complete which ignores

the
religion.
One
of the
most
striking results of
modern developments
of our
is
knowledge concerning the influence

back medicine in
in the
of mental factors in disease
that they are bringing
some measure
early stages of
to that co-operation with religion
which existed
human
progress.
Men
Heroes
of England, heirs of Glory, of unwritten story,
Hopes
Rise
In
Nurslings of one mighty Mother, of her, and one another

;
like
Lions after slumber
unvanquishable number, Shake your chains to earth like dew Which in sleep had fallen on you
Ye
are
many
they are few.
Of
Let a great Assembly be the fearless and the free
On
some spot
of
Where
the plains stretch
English ground wide around.
Let the laws
Good Hand
or
to
of your own land, between ye stand hand, and foot to foot,

ill,
Arbiters of the dispute,
The old laws of England they Whose reverend heads with age
;
are gray,
Children of a wiser day And whose solemn voice must be
Thine own echo
From
Liberty " Mask of Anarchy" which, was Shelley's written to commemorate Peterloo.
!
254
THE STORY OF PETERLOO.

BY
F.
A.
BRUTON,
M.A., LiTT.D.
THE
SITE.
OF
streets
the thousands of people

Station every day, perhaps
who
it
stream out
of
the Central
does not occur to
many
that as
they descend the gentle slope
in front of the station they
have
immediately before them the
site of
Peterloo.
The
street
that runs
is
parallel to the front of the station immediately outside the gates
Windmill
Street
Windmill
Street
left,
is
cut at right angles
Watson
Street
on the
Mount
right.
Street in the centre,
by three other and

streets
Lower Mosley
were
Street
on the extreme
All four of these

1
6th of August, in Windmill Street and Mount Street ran 1819, though the houses Parallel to Windmill Street, and on the other along one side only. side of four great blocks of buildings, runs Peter Street, now one of the
in existence at the time of the tragedy of the
main
arteries of the city.
With
the exception of a fragment at the
Deansgate end, Peter Street hardly existed at the date of Peterloo, except as a projected causeway across an open space.
Perhaps the best spot from which to obtain a general conception of the scene is the top of South Street. If we stand to-day at the where South Street cuts Windmill Street, and look northwards point
down towards
within the
Peter Street,
we
have immediately on our
left
the
just
south-eastern corner of the Free

site of
Trade Hall.
two
Apparently
it
was
that corner that the

If
carts stood that
formed the
hustings for the great meeting.
blocks right
and
left
of us
imagine that the three the Free Trade Hall and the Tivoli
we now
Theatre on the
right,
left, and the Theatre Royal and the Y.M.C.A. on the are swept away, and the whole space cleared, from Windmill
back to the Friends' meeting-house on the north, and from Watson Street on the west to Mount Street on the
Street
right
east,
on the south
we
shall
Peter's fields,
have before us the open space known in 1819 as St where the great meeting was held. St. Peter's church,
255
256
built in
I

794
(the
site
is
open
to the north-east.
now marked by a stone cross) stood in the The whole space now occupied by the Midin
land hotel
was then a high-walled garden,

;
which stood a residence

corner of this en-
known
closure,
as Cooper's cottage
at the south-western
where we now
see the Buffet of the
Midland, stood a row of
some half-dozen houses, facing Mount Street, in one of which the residence of Mr. Buxton the magistrates assembled on the eventful
house a double cordon of some hundreds of special constables reached as far as the hustings, which we have already
day.
this
From
located.
The
troops employed
in the side streets
were concealed
;
at
some
little
distance
in
from the area,
one body being accommodated
Pickford's yard, off Portland Street.
Manchester, if we will only see them aright, are of the with the memories of nearly two thousand years thronged many epoch-making events that have been associated with them, few,
The
streets of
if
any, have sent such a took place in the area
thrill
we
have
through the country as the tragedy which just defined on the 16th of August,
1819,
when
there assembled here
portant of all the
many
meetings in favour of
what proved to be the most imReform which were held

an attempt to give as
in the early part of the nineteenth century.
The
accurate,
after
slight
sketch
which follows
is
vivid,
and impartial an account the lapse of a hundred years.
of this event as
may be
possible
it
In order to
do
that intelligibly,
will
is
be necessary to name a few of the sources from which information
obtainable.
AUTHORITIES FOR THE DETAILS OF PETERLOO.

Though no monograph on
so
far,
first
the tragedy of Peterloo has appeared

is
the literature dealing with the subject

all,
considerable.
We turn
day
the
pro-
of
naturally, to the periodical publications of the

of
local
newspapers,
which
there
were
five,
the
London and
vincial press,
and the monthly and quarterly magazines. Of the five " local papers, all weekly, two favoured the Reformers," as the agitators among the working classes were called at the time the other three
;
were more or
less antagonistic to
them.
For a proper understanding
of the occurrences of the
day
it is
advisable to follow the issues of these
papers for
many
months, indeed for several years, before and after the
THE STORY OF PETERLOO

event
;
257
one of the
trials,
for
example, took place nearly three years
after the catastrophe.
a curious and interesting fact that the future editors of two Manchester newspapers not then founded, both of whom were present
It is
in St. Peter's fields
on the 16th
"
of
porter for the
London
Times
"
August, 1819, finding that the rehad been arrested at the hustings,
and
fearing that therefore the accounts in the
London papers would
be one-sided, unfairly condoning the action of the magistrates, determined to send a report to London themselves, which duly appeared in
two leading London

Taylor, the founder
papers.
and
first
editor of the
These two men were John Edward " Manchester Guardian,"

and
first
and Archibald
Prentice, founder
editor of the
"
Manchester
"
Times
Taylor, stituted himself the protagonist

formers,"
entitled
".
who was
in business at the time,
immediately con-
among
the champions of the
Re-
and opened the
battle in
a series of fourteen weekly tracts

first
"
The
Peterloo Massacre," the
of
which appeared
just
week
after the event.
His
clear reasoning
of
and
strong democratic
leanings are visible in a
number
other protests which appeared at
the time
the flame of his indignation against anything that savoured
seemed only to burn more brightly in the face of adverse and when, less than two years later, the assistance of a verdicts number of friends made it possible for him to issue the prospectus of
of tyranny
;
the
"
aim
at
Manchester Guardian," foreshadowing a newspaper that should " fixing on a broader and more impregnable basis the fabric
he used the columns and leaders of
his
of our liberties,"
paper as a
weapon
of fearless
and scathing
criticism of
those
who
attempted to
defend the action of the authorities on the 16th of August. As a Sir Francis illustration we may mention that when, in May, 1 82 single
1 ,
Burdett
into the
moved
whole
lost
in the
House
of
Commons
for a
Committee
of inquiry
house,
half
and
question, and the motion was seconded by Mr. Hobby more than two to one, Taylor devoted nine and a
to a report,
crowded columns
and
criticised the
debate in a leader
consisting of three
columns closely printed
in small type.
Taylor's vigorous and spirited protests brought out Mr. Francis Phillips, a Manchester manufacturer, as champion of the magistrates,
An Exposure of the Calumnies Cirpamphlet entitled of Social Order against the Magistrates and culated by the Enemies the Yeomanry Cavalry," went through two editions of a thousand
and
his able
"
258
each.

The
controversy
tracts,
was the
"
signal for the

at
avalanche of
among which we must
appearance of a perfect least mention two an

:
Impartial anonymous paper entitled, " and a high-toned protest Melancholy Occurrences in Manchester " Letter from J. C. Hobhouse, F.R.S., to Lord Viscount entitled,
;
An
Narrative of
the
Late
Castlereagh
".
More
of a
interesting for our present purpose are the detailed narratives

of eye-witnesses of the scene in
is
number
St. Peter's
fields.
The
most famous of these
the account given by Samuel

his
Bamford, the
a Radical".
Middleton weaver,
in
"Passages
in
is
the
Life of
Corroborative of Bamford's narrative
the story written by a

life,
man
who
occupied a very different station in

first
afterwards
friend
of
treasurer of the
Anti-Corn
Law
John Benjamin Smith, League, and a close

is
John
Bright.
third
connected narrative
given by
Archibald Prentice,
is also,
in his "Recollections of
Manchester".
There
of course, the rather highly coloured account given
the chairman of the meeting, in his
"
by Hunt, Memoirs," issued during his conthe individual narratives

father of
is
finement in Ilchester
jail.
One
of the
most valuable
of
all
that
given by the Rev.

brother of the
first
Edward
Stanley,
Baron Stanley of Alderley, scene quite unintentionally and by pure accident, and watched the proceedings from beginning to end from the room immediately above
Dean Stanley, and who came upon the
which the magistrates were assembled. Stanley was at the he afterwards became Bishop of Norwich. time Rector of Alderley
that in
;
His testimony
specially
which was accompanied by a small sketch-plan is he bevaluable because he was pre-eminently a statistician
;
came, indeed, one of the

Society.
first
Presidents of the Manchester Statistical
Moreover, he saw everything from the point of view of a and his effort to be impartial and to confine stranger from outside himself to measured language is almost laboured.
;
The
and
events at Peterloo gave rise to no
less
than
six
trials in
the
told
various courts, at
which the
story of the day's proceedings

reiteration.
was
retold with the most
wearisome
The
chairman of the
magistrates, the special constables, the yeomanry, the Reformers, the

anti- Reformers,
the chairman of the meeting, the reporters for the

all
London and
provincial papers
were allowed
to
have
their say,
and once more the Rev. Edward Stanley appeared
as a witness.

More
Jolliffe,
259
than a quarter of a century after the event, Sir William Bart., M.P., who actually rode as an officer in the charge of
5th Hussars at Peterloo, wrote a detailed account of the day This valuable record was inserted in from the soldier's standpoint. " The Life of Lord Sidmouth," for which it had been prepared. Lastly, complimentary dinners in Manchester gave to the comthe
1
manders
point of
We
of the yeomanry engaged an opportunity of presenting their view which was duly reported. have now enumerated the principal sources upon which we details of this eventful
it is
have to depend for the a picture of the scene
day
before attempting
necessary to say something of the state of

at the time.
Manchester and of the country
THE UNREST THAT FOLLOWED THE NAPOLEONIC

WARS.
FREQUENT USE OF THE MILITARY BY THE

AUTHORITIES.
The employment
mon
practice
of
CIVIL
disturbances, protecting
mounted troops and infantry in quelling civil property, and dispersing crowds was a comSt.
for years before the catastrophe in
Peter's fields
and, of
course,
troops were used subsequently,
especially during the

Sir Charles
Chartist disturbances just twenty years later,
when
Napier
was placed in command of nearly 6000 men in the stationed 2000 of them at Manchester, which he regarded
centre.
north,
and
as a danger between cases where however, carefully distinguish there was open riot, and instances where there was not even a threat of disorder. At the famous Shude Hill Fight in 1757, the soldiers
We must,
were only ordered
to fire
when one
of
their
number had been

of the volley In
killed
and nine wounded by the rioters. The result four people were killed and fifteen wounded.
was 1812 Shude
that
Hill
was again the scene of disorder, when the cavalry were called in and In the same year the great depression led to the Riot Act was read.
" cleared troop of the Cheshire yeomanry an area of a hundred acres in less than ten minutes ". This year also
disorder at Stockport,
when a
saw very
serious
machine
Militia
riots at
Middleton, where the Scots Greys

fatal results.
and Cumberland
were used with
At
the conclusion of the Napoleonic
war
the
Corn
Bill
led to
260
fresh

disturbances,
which continued, more or
less,
up
to the date of
Peterloo, the chief causes being unemployment,
the scarcity of food,
and the
tives
terrible social
and
their
and economic conditions under which the operafamilies lived. We may form some faint conception
by reading such a Report as
that issued
of these conditions
by Dr.
Kay
(afterwards Sir
James Kay Shuttleworth)
years after the date
of Peterloo.
The
1
details
Manchester are such that
he gives as to the sanitary conditions in we could hardly quote them here. Be-
tween
750 and 820, it must be remembered, the population of Manchester increased sevenfold yet the town was still under the
1 ;
old manorial system, with

great mass
cruel
of
its
no
local
it
inhabitants
is
this
government whatever and the that makes the situation so

;
were, in a public sense, inarticulate, for Manchester had no
parliamentary representative. " Dr. Kay, had scarcely any

schools,
"The
overworked population," writes

of education,
means
with
except
Sunday
dame
with
schools,
toil,
and adventure
schools.
They were ignorant,

often
In a
harassed
inflamed
want, owing to sudden depressions of trade."

to
Lord Sidmouth, the

in
Home
goaded with memorial sent up Secretary, only a few weeks before the
drink,
and
catastrophe of
Courthouse
the magistrates sitting at the Bailey " Salford make pointed reference to the deep distresses
Peterloo,
New
of the manufacturing classes of this extensive population,"
and go so
far
as to say
"
:
when
the people are oppressed with hunger
we do
not
wonder
at their giving ear to

".
any doctrines which they are
told will
redress their grievances
In the years
1815 and 1816 the masses were already

difficulties.
feeling their
way
towards a solution of their

;
The
writings of Cobbett
were eagerly read Hampden clubs were formed in the distressed districts and Universal Suffrage, Annual Parliaments, and a Reform
;
of the
Currency were held up as the sovereign cure
for the
ills
of the
workers.
Hence
"
the agitators
earned for themselves
the
name
up
of
Reformers".
In addition to Cobbett, the workers looked
to five
or six public
men
as their leaders
and champions, and one
of these be-
came
the hero of the Peterloo massacre.
They
were,
Sir
Francis
Lord Cochrane, Major Cartwright, Sir Charles Wolseley, Mr. Henry Hunt, and at one part of his career Lord Brougham.
Burdett,
In attempting to understand the situation,
it is
advisable to keep
two
facts in
mind
first,
that there was, without doubt, secret plotting

in a
261
few
isolated cases
;
among
to
the operatives, of a decidedly dangerous
character
tells,
this
is
freely admitted by their
e.g.
of
the scheme
make a
"
own representative, who " Moscow of Manchester

;
secondly, that the discovery of this fact led to an estrangement
between
employers and employed, which postponed and delayed any approach

to a friendly settlement.
The whole
"
of
situation
is
well expressed by the
anonymous author
of
An
Impartial Narrative,"
when he
"
says
:
The two
general classes
Reformers and Anti-Reformerszi>tf/r^/0^ other with a jealous
eye".
To
view, this
barrier
an earnest attempt to obtain an impartial attitude of mutual suspicion, which seemed to heighten the
anyone
who makes
between the two
classes as time
story.
went on,
is
one
of the
most
painful features of the
whole
Two
years before Peterloo,
when
the
Habeas Corpus Act had
already been suspended, and a number of the agitators were consequently in hiding, a meeting was held in St. Peter's fields which, in
all
respects except the massacre, was almost the counterpart of the On the 10th of March a great crowd assembled Peterloo meeting. " to give a send-off to the Blanketeers ". The magistrates were alarmed
at the prospect,
of petitioners to
though nothing was proposed but a march of a body London, and on the 8th of March the Lord Lieutenant
authorised Sir John Leycester to call out the Cheshire

aid of the civil power.
Yeomanry
;
in
The order was obeyed with
alacrity
on the
regiment assembled and marched for following day Manchester, where they joined the King's Dragoon Guards, and detachments of the 54th and 85th Infantry, the whole force being under
five troops of that
the
command
John Byng. on the morning of the Oth crowds Early

1
of Sir
of people
began
to stream
into the
town by various
roads,
many carrying knapsacks and
blankets.
The
instigators of
the meeting spoke from improvised hustings in St.

magistrates met in the very
Peter's fields.
The
afterwards occupied on the occasion of the leaders with no result, they called upon the military, as they afterwards did at Peterloo, to disperse the meeting. By a "judicious movement" of the King's Dragoon Guards, the cart was instantly
same room which they Peterloo, and having warned
surrounded and the constables took the whole of the speakers into
custody.
No
opposition
was
the
offered to the cavalry,
and the multitude
immediately
dispersed,
troops giving
them
free passage.
The
262
march

of the
was then harassed by the mounted troops mentioned above, all the way to Macclesfield, where a number of arrests were made, and this effort of the Reformers eventually fizzled
Blanketeers
out.
of
circumstances of the meeting should be compared with those as Mr. J. E. Taylor afterwards pointed out Peterloo, because
:
The
"
Riot
the
Here is Act
1
to
(if
be found the precedent for that novel form of reading the in either case it were read at all) which was followed on
6th of August, 1819". Immediately after the Blanket meeting, the Government set on foot a system of espionage, which greatly embittered those agitating for Reform, and was severely criticised in Parliament.
Meanwhile the
"
privileged classes in
Manchester and other
towns had already met,

consider
at the suggestion of the
Home
Secretary, to
the necessity of adopting additional measures for the main".
tenance of the public peace
Thus
repressive measures only drove
the discontent under to smoulder, and suspicion helped to widen the The principal perpetrators of this policy, afterwards so breach.
pointedly anathematised by Shelley, were Lord Sidmouth, the Home Secretary, Eldon the Lord Chancellor, and Viscount Castlereagh, the
Secretary for foreign
affairs.
Less than a year before Peterloo, in September, 1818, the Dra" turned-out" goons were once more called out to disperse a crowd of
spinners
who were
attacking a mill in Ancoats.
Evidently this was
the scene which Mrs. Gaskell had in her mind when picturing the " North and South ". It must not attack on Mr. Thornton's mill in
be forgotten that there was, at the time under consideration, no regular

police force available.
Nadin, the Deputy Constable,

the paid
of
official of
who
figures in
the various arrests,

Leet.
was merely
"
the antiquated Court
The
so-called
Commission
Police,"
which was under the
control of an absurdly unrepresentative committee, will not bear
comof
parison with
the
Watch Committees
of the
of
to-day.
The
practice
swearing-in special constables

constables
had none
was frequently resorted to, but special skill and training in the matter of handling
police.
crowds possessed by modern
The
constables sometimes de-
clined to act without military aid,
on the support afforded by the troops

acknowledged
banding
and the magistrates leaned heavily in their difficulties, and frequently

It is
their indebtedness to them.
indeed evident from

the question of disit
the history of the Cheshire Yeomanry, that

that regiment
when
was
seriously discussed, as
was
in the early

part of the nineteenth century,
that the troops
263
it was overruled by the consideration were indispensable in dealing with civil disturbances, and the chairman of the sessions immediately following the meeting of Blanketeers in March, 1817, took occasion to say that "the districts
disturbance derived effective military aid from a corps " and neighbouring and for the most part tranquil county " the Bench would be most happy to further any proagain, that positionfor forming such a corps in the manufacturing districts ". " It must not be forgotten that the neighbouring and for the most " was an agricultural district and that the part tranquil county farmers and country squires who rode in its yeomanry had a special
most
liable to
formed
in a
interest in preserving intact the
Corn Law, which the Reformers were
out to repeal.
THE MANCHESTER AND SALFORD YEOMANRY.

The
Resolution
just
quoted
is
of great
importance
for a
proper
understanding of the evidence makes
of the occurrences at
it
Peterloo.
A careful examination
was
(as far as can
clear that the catastrophe
be seen now) largely due to the employment at the outset of a body " of volunteer cavalry known as the Manchester and Salford Yeo-
manry
".
It is
not easy to trace the history of these troops
no con-
can, however, fix the date of temporary records seem to exist. In his famous tract entitled their formation within a few months. " of the calumnies," etc., Mr. Francis Phillips, in quotexposure
We
An
ing a letter of thanks from
Lord Sidmouth
to the
commander
of the
Cheshire Yeomanry, dated the 12th of March, 1817, says (Appendix, " The Manchester Yeomanry had not then been embodied" p. v) " Yet Aston, in his Metrical Records of Manchester," states that the
'.
Corps was formed
in
1817, and gives some details of

it
its
inception.
We are
therefore justified in supposing that
was embodied
as the
result of the
Resolution quoted above
ently in emulation of the
in other words, that (apparCheshire Yeomanry) the corps was instituted

;
mainly
order.
for the
purpose of assisting the

reference to the
civil authorities in
maintaining
With
Phillips speaks (p.
58) of
number employed at Peterloo Mr. "the 116 Manchester and Salford Yeothe
1
men who were on duty on

addresses,
6th of August
".
The
actual names,
and
"
occupations of these
men
1
are given in the

this,
"
Manchester
is
Observer
for the
20th
of April,
822, and
again,
important
264
evidence.

They
are nearly
;
all
from Manchester, a few coming from

small
Pendleton and Stretford

manufacturers,
e.g.
mostly tradesmen, innkeepers, and

tailors,
cheesemongers, ironmongers,
watchmakers,
calico-printers, butchers, corn-merchants, butter factors,
and
so on.
It
would be unreasonable
to
suppose that such a levy

this,
would contain
fully
many
at
skilled
horsemen, and
Lieutenant
as
we
shall see,
was
"
borne out
Peterloo.
Jolliffe says of
them
without the know-
ledge
possessed
by a
(strictly
it
placed, most unwisely, as "

of the civil authorities
;
speaking) military body, they were appeared, under the immediate command " and this greatly aggravated the disasters of
the day".
It
may
easily
be supposed that the use of these local
levies of
mounted troops for purposes of this kind aroused bitter resentment in the minds of the labouring population, which only grew as time went
on.
Thus we need
not be surprised to find

"
just a
these
words
in
the
:
"
4
Manchester Observer
month before the tragedy

mind and muscle
of Peterloo
The
stupid boobies of yeomanry cavalry in the neighbourhood have
only
just
made
the discovery that the
of the country
and during the past week have been foaming and themselves to death in getting their swords ground and their broiling The yeomanry are, generally speaking, the pistols examined.
are at length united,
.
.
fawning dependents
of the great,
with a few fools and a greater pro-
portion of coxcombs, who imagine they acquire considerable importance by wearing regimentals."
sharpening of the swords, by the way, was fully acknowledged " The simple Thus Mr. Phillips writes (p. 17): history of all the tales we have heard of sharpening sabres is briefly
The
by the other side.
this.
On
the
7th of July
the
Government
issued
orders
to
the
Cheshire
Lieutenant, to hold themselves in readiness,
and Manchester Yeomanry Cavalry, through the Lords and consequently most of
the Manchester Cavalry sent their arms to the same cutler which the
corps during the
last war had employed, to put them in condition ". All these details are important as aggravating the bitter feelings which
already existed, and
we
shall see later that
when
this
improvised corps
advanced
into the
crowd,
using their
sharpened swords, they were in
some
cases individually recognised by those at
whom
they struck.
As
we
approach
the date of
Peterloo,
the confidence reposed in the
volunteer cavalry by the authorities becomes even
more apparent, and

about a month before the event the
265
Yeo-
Commander
of the Cheshire
manry
received orders to hold his regiment in readiness at a moment's
notice to aid the civil power.
Meanwhile the
that as the
magistrates complained to
the
Home
Secretary
unable to interfere with the meetings of the Reformers, notwithstanding their decided conviction of their
law stood they were
"
and danger," and that upon this most important point they were unarmed ". These are the very words which Mr. J. C. Hobhouse took as his text in the able letter to Lord Castlereagh mentioned
mischief
"
above.
THE
DRILLINGS.
which was
We come,
misunderstood
lastly,
to another phase of the agitation,
strongly developed not long before Peterloo, and
being undoubtedly
:
began
to
some anxiety the Reformers gave hold meetings on the moors and elsewhere for drill in squads.
the
authorities
left
" a very graphic account of these drilling parties," as He emphasises the fact that there were " no armed he calls them. " " no concealed meetings," or anything of the sort ". His meetings," and there seems to be no explanation of the object of the drills
Bamford has
reason
"
It
why
the explanation should not be accepted

that the meeting
is
1
as follows
was deemed expedient
on the
should be as morally effective as possible, and that it spectacle such as had never before been witnessed in England. had frequently been taunted in the public press with our ragged, dirty with the confusion of our proceedappearance at these assemblages
;
6th of August should exhibit a
We
ings,
and the moblike crowds

that
in
which our numbers were mustered
and we determined
be deserved
that for once, at least, these reflections should not
we would
disarm the bitterness of our
political
opponents by a display of cleanliness, sobriety, and decorum such as obtained by these drilling we never before had exhibited. an expertness and order while all we sought or thought of parties
. . .
We
moving
!t is
in bodies."
certainly true that this
was the
effect of
the drilling
the order
with which the various contingents approached the rendezvous on the fateful day was commended alike by friend and foe in fact one of
;
the magistrates afterwards stated on oath that

41
it
was not
that
until
he saw
the party
come on
the
field
in
beautiful order
he became
266
alarmed
".

It is
easy for those of us

refers,
who know
his
the beautiful green
uplands to
which Bamford
to believe
statement that
"
to
the sedentary weavers
were periods of of them is one of the most charming passages

surely
it
and spinners these drillings on the open moors healthful exercise and enjoyment ". His description
in all his writings
;
and
is
a happy coincidence that the centenary of Peterloo should

the very
hills
see the
Tandle Hills
authorities
he describes
thrown open
view
of
to
the public for ever.
The
saw
fit
to take quite another
the
drills.
On
the very
day before the event of Peterloo a large meeting for such
was held on White Moss, near Middleton, very early in the morning, and a few men who were there for purposes of espionage, and who afterwards reported to the magistrates, were very roughly Bamford does not hesitate to say that the handled by the operatives.
exercises
" probably eradicated from rough treatment accorded to these spies the minds of the magistrates and our opponents whatever sentiments of
This was indulgence they may hitherto have retained towards us ". on the day following the event the on the day preceding Peterloo " met and denounced the meetings for drill as contrary to magistrates
;
law
".
THE STORY OF PETERLOO.

The great meeting planned to be held in St. Peter's fields on the 9th of August, 1819, seems to have originated in a desire on the part of the Reformers of the Manchester district to emulate the example set
by other towns in the country, notably that of London and Birmingham, where great gatherings brought together to advocate Reform had been addressed by Mr. Henry Hunt, and other leaders in the move-
ment
for the better representation of
the working classes.
The
"
ad-
for the Manchester Observer vertisement which appeared in the " 31st of July, 1819, ran : The Public are respectfully informed that a
"
meeting will be held here on Monday, the 9th of August, 1819, on the area near St. Peter's Church, to take into consideration the most
speedy and effectual
mode
of obtaining
Radical Reform in the
Com-
mons House
remove the
of Parliament, being fully convinced that nothing less can
intolerable evils
still,
under which the People of

;
this
Country
have so long, and do

of the
groan Unrepresented Inhabitants of Manchester electing a Person to
and
also to consider the propriety

represent
Bill.
267
them
in
Parliament, and the adopting Major Cartwright's

"
H. Hunt
in the chair."
On
Tory
the very next
day the
organ, published a letter Lieutenant of Cheshire emphasising the need for the utmost vigilance on the part of the magistrates on account of the frequent public meetings,
Manchester Chronicle," a superior from Lord Sidmouth to the Lord
and
for
desiring
him
to give
immediate directions to the several Corps
of
Yeomanry Cavalry
call
A
be
to hold themselves in readiness to attend to any and assistance they may receive from the bench. support week later the magistrates proclaimed the proposed meeting to
accordingly decided to take the advice of " Observer," was commiscounsel, and Mr. Saxton, sub-editor of the
illegal.
The Reformers
sioned to proceed to Liverpool and seek legal advice in the matter. He returned with the important ruling, " that the intention of choosing
Representatives,
contrary to the existing law, tends greatly to render
the proposed meeting seditious ". Accepting this ruling, the Reformers at once abandoned the meeting and carefully revised their programme. " " Observer published a notice Accordingly, on the 7th of August, the
to the effect that the
officials
Boroughreeve and Constables [i.e. the three main Court Leet] had been requested by 700 persons to " summon a meeting to consider the propriety of adopting the most
of the of obtaining
legal and effectual means
Reform
to
1
in
so.
the
Commons
House
of
Parliament,"
and had declined
do
Notice was
therefore given (over the signatures of nearly
300
inhabitants) that
a meeting would be held in

of
St.
Peter's fields
on Monday, the 16th

take the chair at
1
August, and that Mr. Henry
Hunt would
o'clock.
A week
long
letter
" Observer" contained a August, the from Henry Hunt, dated from Smedley Cottage, where he
later,
on the 14th
of
was the
guest of
"
exhibiting
Mr. Johnson, urging the. importance of the Reformers a steady, firm, and temperate deportment," and bringing
with them
no other weapon than that of an approving conscience ". According to the "Chronicle" there was an influx of strangers on the The same Saturday and Sunday preceding the eventful Monday.
paper speaks of
the Saturday
"
"
painful anticipation
".
following day would terminate
on the Sunday as to how the The general opinion on 'Change on
"
"
was
that the magistrates
had decided not
to disturb the of
all
meeting, unless some breach of the peace occurred, 18
and men
268

would go
off
parties said that the meeting
quietly.
No
1
disturbance of
any kind took place in Manchester on Sunday, the 5th of August It was a grand opportunity for a man with vision ; but the responsible authorities
i.e.
the special Committee of the magistrates of
Lancashire and Cheshire (which included three clergymen) meeting in Manchester seem to have been in a panic. They sat till midnight
on Sunday without being able to decide what to do. At p.m. one of them wrote to the Home Secretary that although the magis1
then advised, did not then think of preventing the meeting, they were alarmed, and were in a state of painful uncertainty.
trates, as
long-expected day came at later on the heat was considerable.
The
fit
last.
The morning was
fine,
and
saw
to publish a notice
posed inhabitants to
Manchester the magistrates recommending the peaceable and well-disremain in their own houses during the whole day,
In
and
to
keep
their children
and servants within doors.
The Rev.
Jeremiah Smith, then the High Master of the Free Grammar School, afterwards stated at the Trial that most of the shop windows were
closed,
was a general feeling of apprehension, he dismissed his day boys after breakfast, and eventually went home and the locked himself and his boarders into his house in Long Millgate
and
that as there
in very house from which the boy De Quincey had slipped away the deep lustre of a cloudless July morning," not twenty years before.
"
As
early as nine in the
Peter's fields.
The
morning people began to assemble in St magistrates met first at the Star Inn and at eleven
o'clock adjourned to the house of

this time the
streets
Mr. Buxton
in
Mount
Street.
By
lying
troops employed had been posted out of sight in the just off the open space where the gathering was held.
:
Their disposition seems to have been as follows one troop of the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry was concealed in Pickford's yard, off Portland Street, another troop seems to have been in Byrom Street
;
their
commander was Major
Trafford, but the
first
been led on
fore
this occasion by Hugh Birley, who had opposed the new Corn Law. The Cheshire Yeomanry, in their full strength of eight troops, i.e. at least 400 men, had
troop seems to have only a few years be-
assembled on Sale moor

in
at
a.m.
and arrived
;
at their assigned station

1
St John Street soon after eleven two squadrons of the 5th Hussars the same (i.e. over 300 men) were in Byrom Street and a troop of was in Lower Mosley Street, acting as escort to a troop of regiment

;
269
the guns thus the Royal Horse Artillery with two long six-pounders commanded the principal approach to the area. The above are the
mounted troops besides these nearly the whole of the 3 st Infantry were concealed in Brasenose Street and several companies of the 88th Infantry were "in ambush" in the neighbourhood of Dickinson the names of the commanders of all these detachments are Street
; 1
given,
and the whole
force
was under
of
the direction of Lieut-Colonel
L' Estrange.
The
Street.
hustings,
which consisted
two
carts
erected just below
Windmill
Street,
about
and some boards, were 100 yards from Mount
speakers faced northwards, towards the Friends' meeting Here, near a few oak house, close to which was the Friends' school.
The
a quantity of loose timber was lying about, of which we shall hear later on. It was about twelve o'clock when a strong double cordon
trees,
of several
hundred
special constables
was drawn between Mr. Buxton's
house in
which,
if
Mount
Street
and the
hustings.
They formed
necessary, the
magistrates
could
a lane by communicate with the
speakers.
THE PROCESSIONS FROM THE OUTLYING
DISTRICTS.
where
pre-
We must now
turn to the districts'outside Manchester,
Detachments of parations were early afoot for the great meeting. Reformers were streaming along the main roads towards Manchester,
with bands playing and banners
flying,
and caps
of liberty held aloft.
These were red peaked

as symbols
caps, of Phrygian shape,
and had been used

to
in
is supposed have been employed as a symbolj-of the manumission of a slave
by the Revolutionists in France.
The cap
Roman
times.
We
have actual
details
of
several
of
these
processions
the
Middleton, Royton, and Chadderton

1
parties, the
Rochdale
section, the
Saddleworth troop, the Oldham 'group, and those from Stockport, from Pendleton, from Ashton, and from Bury. The march of the
Middleton and
Bamford,
Rochdale detachments
first,
who
led the
ing to his estimate,

children.
by whole contingent numbering, accordabout 6000 men, [-with numbers of women and
the
astir.
is
graphically described
By 8
a.m.
all
Middleton was
The
procession
was arranged
270

in
then came representaband and the colours. " " " and Strength These bore the inscriptions Unity Liberty and " " " " Parliaments Annual Fraternity Suffrage Universal ". " " Libertas was carried among the crimson velvet cap inscribed
front
with a band of youths
wearing
laurels,
tives of the various districts, five abreast, then the

:
banners.
different
Then came,
districts.
five
abreast,
the
delegates
from
eighteen
At
the sound of a bugle,
some 3000 formed a

their leaders
hollow square and Bamford addressed them, enjoining them to be

steadfast
rested,
and
serious, not
to offer resistance
if
were
ar-
and
to lay aside their sticks. to them, in
This
last
injunction
Bamford
communicated
against his will.
He
accordance with general orders, somewhat " a most respectable speaks of his contingent as
all
assemblage of labouring men, " "
decently,
though humbly,
;
attired ".
My
address," he adds,
was received with cheers

;
it
was
heartily
and unanimously assented

struck
it
to
we opened
into
column
the music
up
the banners flashed in the sunlight

that of the
other music
was heard
Rochdale party, coming to join us we met and a shout from 0,000 startled the echoes of the woods and Then all was quiet save the breath of music and with indingles.
was
tent seriousness
married "
we went on ". The party included some hundreds of women and several hundred girls, who danced and sang.
tender associations,
accompanied by our friends, and our dearest and most we went slowly towards Manchester ". may stand by Bamford's monument in Middleton churchyard to-day, and
thus,
And
We
looking
down
the
hill,
picture the scene.
On
the
monument
are in-
scribed these words

to
of
"
John Bright
turn to the
Bamford was a Reformer when
be so was unsafe, and he suffered

Leaving
these,
for his faith ".
we
Oldham
contingent.
They met on
It
the village green, Bent Grange, at nine, and were there joined by the
Chadderton
section.
The Chadderton
silk,
banner
is still
1
in existence.
was made
carried
interest
of
white and green
measured about
Reformers.
silk.
feet
by 9
feet,
and bore the usual mottoes
of the
two banners
;
of
red and green
The Royton The second is of
section
special
" was inscribed The Royton Female Union Let us DIE It was afterwards captured like Men and Not be Sold like Slaves ". " " evidence against by the Cheshire Yeomanry and was produced as The most in the Trial at York in the following year. the Reformers beautiful of all the banners was said to be one of white silk carried by
it

the
271
Oldham
"
people. "
But the banner which furnished the most imin the Trial at
portant
evidence
York was a black one
carried in
It was the procession of the Saddleworth, Lees, and Mossley Union. " " or Death," Unite and be Free," inscribed Equal Representation " No Boroughmongering," " Taxation without Representation is Un:
just
and Tyrannical," and it bore figures of Justice holding the scales and two hands clasped. After the lapse of a century the talk of the
danger hidden behind
this
terrible
banner, on the part of counsel at
the Trial and public speakers elsewhere,

crous.
may appear somewhat

was
to
ludi-
The Oldham
ancl
Royton
colours
were escorted by some 200

joined later by the
women
dressed in white.
The
procession
Failsworth Radicals.
Altogether there
seem
have been sixteen

liberty.
banners displayed at the meeting, with
five
caps of
As
the contingents approached Manchester, horsemen rode out in
various directions to meet

magistrates. " "
them and returned

rode
"
to report to the assembled

Phillips.
One
he
of these scouts
was Mr. Francis
In
his
Exposure
to Stockport,
tells
how he
and
at
a place called
Ardwick Green, about one and

"
1 1
along the turnpike road leading a
half miles from
Manchester Exchange
principally three deep.
well,
marching
"
strong,
in
file,
met a regiment of Reformers This column, 400 or 500

the colours were hand" Universal Suffrage ".
marched extremely
It
observing the step though without

"
music
".
some and
inscribed
is
included about forty "
women, and
and
No
Cora Laws
"
:
Mr.
Phillips
sticks ".
He slipped back to
its
these facts
carried
Nearly half of the men carried stout Manchester by another road and reported to the magistrates. Immediately afterwards the column
careful to
add
colours into St. Peter's
fields,
and
Phillips then took
up
his
station in the
cordon of special constables.
From
the evidence at the
Trials
we
obtain details of the Bury contingent, five abreast and
3000
strong, with
many women, and

tells
of that
from Pendleton
and the Rev.
Edward
stream
Stanley
how he met
Street.
the Reformers from Ashton.
Mr. Archibald
Prentice, standing at a
down Mosley
"
I
window, watched the crowd " saw a gayer never," he says,

certainly, but the majority
suits,
spectacle.
There were haggard-looking men,

in their best
were young persons,
Sunday
'
and the light-coloured
dresses of the cheerful,
dark fustians worn by the men.
was
said afterwards,
women relieved the effect of the The marching order,' of which so much was what we often see now in the processions
tidy-looking
272
of
Sunday School children and Temperance Societies. To our eyes numerous flags seemed to have been brought to add to the picturesque effect of the pageant Slowly and orderly the multitude
the
took their places round the hustings.

of the magistrates,
Our
party laughed at the fears

if
and the remark was

their
that
the
men
intended mis-
chief they
would not have brought
wives or their children with
passed round the outskirts of the meeting and mingled with the groups that stood chattering there. I occasionally asked the women
them.
if
'
they were not afraid to be there, and the usual laughing reply
What
have
we
to
be afraid of
"
was
Mr. John Benjamin Smith, who watched the meeting from a window in Mrs. Orton's house, next door to Mr. Buxton's in Mount
reached there about eleven-thirty, and on our way saw large bodies of men and women with bands playing, flags and banners bearing devices. There were crowds of people in all directions,
Street, says
:
"
We
full of
humour, laughing and shouting and making
fun.
It
seemed to
be a gala day with the country people, who were mostly dressed in their best, and brought with them their wives, and when I saw boys and girls taking their father's hands in the procession, I observed to my
aunt
These are the guarantee of their peaceful intentions, we need have no fears,' and so we passed on to Mrs. Orton's house."
:
'
For two hours the Yeomanry and Hussars remained at their stations dismounted. Occasionally a few of the officers would ride up
to
One of them writes Deansgate to watch the procession. During the greater portion of that period a soKd mass of people moved along
:
"
the street
five or six
They marched
bands
of
at a brisk pace, with ranks well closed up,
music being interspersed. Mr. Hunt was in an open carriage, adorned with flags and drawn by the people. As soon as the great bulk of the procession had passed, we were ordered
to stand to our horses."
Manchester
of
at that time
was
in
the mere nucleus of the Manchester

lie
to-day.
Districts
which now
well within
its
boundaries were
then outlying villages.
Even
the heart of the city several of the
main thoroughfares familiar to us did not then exist. Market Street was still a mere winding lane, in places only five yards broad from
building to
building
;
the Bill
just
for
widening and
after
straightening this
thoroughfare
was passed
two years
Peterloo.
exist,
The
present
Corporation Street and Victoria Street did not
and Deansgate
"ORATOR" HUNT, 1773-1835 CHAIRMAN OF THE PETERLOO MEETING
273
1
had not been widened. The pavements in places were only 8 inches wide, and several accidents occurred on the day of Peterloo
from
falls
into the
cellars
which were then used

it is
as
living
rooms.
Bearing
in
mind
these facts,
easy to follow the various contingents
as they converged towards St. Peter's fields, the principal procession
being that of the chairman. Henry Hunt was a country gentleman of Wiltshire, whose personal characteristics made him specially successful as a demagogue, and there
is
no doubt
that
he was perfectly
in
later years,
attire, six feet
sincere.
Bamford, whose admira-
tion for
his
him waned
describes
him
as "gentlemanly in
manner and
".
and
better in height,
and extremely well

of
formed
ism.
The white hat which he wore became

was shrewd, quick
at repartee,
the symbol of Radical-
He
and had the copious flow
highly-coloured language which

ally clever in
delights a crowd.
He
was exception-
careful to keep within

forgive, for
handling a great gathering, and was always scrupulously the strict letter of the law. His vanity we can
private
life,
he rendered yeoman service to the cause of Liberty, but his the details of which are told with almost brutal candour by
"
Of his political Memoirs," will not bear inspection. He presented the earliest record he has no reason to be ashamed.
himself in his
petition to
Parliament for
its
Women's
;
Suffrage
he fought the
first
battle of
Bill,
Reform
Laws.
practical
in
darkest days
and he attacked the
Reform
de-
manding the Ballot,
He
Universal Suffrage, and the repeal of the Corn " As a has been compared in some respects to Wilkes.
failed
Reformer he
compromise in politics, and a splendid political gladiator." Whatever may be the correct estimate of him there is no doubt that at the time we are considering he was the object of boundless admiration on the part of the Reformers,
because he never understood the place of but he was a shrewd and far-seeing ideologue
who
his
After he was bailed at Lancaster, pending he was accorded a triumphal procession through Lancashire to Manchester, and in London he was cheered to the echo by enormous
simply idolised him.
trial,
crowds.
The contingents from Middleton and Rochdale, led by Samuel Bamford, were approaching Collyhurst, when a message reached them from Hunt, directing them to come by way of Newton and head his
procession from
Smedley Cottage.
This they
did, but taking a

Street,
wrong
turn at the top of
Shude
Hill,
they led
down Swan
Oldham
274
Street,

and Mosley
Street,
St. Peter's
the south side of
and swept round the left-hand corner, i.e. " church into a wide unbuilt space, oc-
cupied by an immense multitude, which opened and received them Hunt's procession, meanwhile, took the route with loud cheers".
down Shude Hill, and Corporation Street not being wound round Hanging Ditch, Old Millgate, the Market
in
existence-
Place,
and
St.
Mary's Gate into Deansgate, whence it emerged along the fragment of Peter Street and made for the hustings.
On
Mary
chester
to her
the box-seat of the carriage in which

silk flag
Hunt rode
sat
Mrs.
Fildes, carrying a white
as the president of the

in a note in the
"
Man-
Female Reformers ".

"
Mrs. Banks,
states that this
Appendix
Manchester Man,"
to
Mrs. Fildes was personally
known
her.
In
her story she represents her as sabred at the
have already referred to the Female Reformers of hustings. and their banner of red and green silk. The Female ReformRoyton, ers of Manchester also had their banner and had planned to present
it
We
to
Mr. Hunt
after the meeting,
wives, mothers, daughters, in
with an address stating that as their social, domestic, moral capacities,
"
they
their
came forward
of a suffering
in
the sacred cause of liberty, a cause in which

last
husbands, their fathers, and their sons had embarked the
hope
humanity
".
Still
more
interesting
is
the pathetic
appeal which these Female Reformers of Manchester, who were well " the Wives, Mothers, Sisters, organised, issued before the meeting to of the higher and middle classes of Society," describing and Daughters "
the terrible privations which had
of a
made
the petitioners
sick of
life,
and
world where poverty, wretchedness, tyranny, and injustice weary " had so long been allowed to reign among men and imploring these
;
more favoured
struggle for
ladies to
come forward and
join
hands with them
in the
Reform.
The Committee
of the
Manchester Female
Reformers, dressed in white, walked behind Hunt's carriage.
They
afterwards sent messages of sympathy to him, during his imprisonment " in Ilchester jail. Our tyrants," they said, " have immured you in a dungeon but we have enshrined you in our hearts ". On the ex;
piration of his term,

inscribed.
they presented to him a silver urn,

the box-seat
suitably
The woman on
magistrates,
in
was afterwards confused by
the
their
Elizabeth Gaunt,
who was
Report found
to the
Home
Secretary, with a
Mrs.
in the carriage, after the meeting, in
17**-
THE HUNT MEMORIAL
IN
THE VESTIBULE OF THE MANCHESTER REFORM CLUB
275
a fainting condition. Taylor was quick to seize upon this instance of what he ironically termed "official accuracy". This poor woman
had been wounded by the cavalry. and confined for over a week at the had great pleasure
in
She was
New
nevertheless arrested, " the Court Bailey, when
ordering her immediate discharge ".
made its way across the square Mr. Hunt standa great shout arose from a crowd whose numbers have been ing up variously estimated (Mr. Hunt told a London audience afterwards that
the carriage
there were
1
As
50,000
!),
but
we
shall
probably not be far wrong
if
we
put the figure at 60,000. " solemnly impressive ".
Well might Bamford describe the scene as Arrived at the hustings Hunt was at once
off his
voted to the chair, and taking
white hat, he began
his address.
We
Along
have abundant material
to enable us to reconstruct the scene.
part of the upper side of
Windmill Street ran a row

rising
of houses.
ground, stood a number of spectators, and the dense crowd reached from Windmill Street back
In front of these,
on the
slightly
towards the Friends' meeting house on the north. Mount Street was bounded then on the east by a row of houses reaching, perhaps, one-
way along the present Midland hotel the crowd did not reach right up to these houses, and there were stragglers in the interthird of the
;
vening space.
It
was
up
in this intervening
space that the Manchester

of
of
Yeomanry
liberty.
reined
later
the crowd, at intervals,
on as they arrived. Above the heads could be seen the various banners and caps
hustings
Mr. Hunt and the other speakers were standing on the simple The magistrates were watching the profacing northwards.
ceedings from a
in
window on
the
first
floor of the
house of Mr. Buxton
Mount Street. At the window of the room immediately above them stood the Rev. Edward Stanley, Rector of Alderley, an unin-
tentional but keenly observant spectator of every detail.
At one
fields,
of
the
windows
of the adjoining
streets,
house stood Mr.
J.
B. Smith.
All
around, in the side
but not visible from St. Peter's
were
posted the regular troops and the yeomanry,

for
and mounted messengers
communication with them were
in
attendance at the magistrates*
house.
for
were Mr. John Tyas, " Leeds Times," Mr. Edward Baines for the and Mr. John Smith for the "Liverpool Mercury". Mercury,"
Among
the representatives of the Press

'
the
London
Purely as a guess, we should be inclined to conjecture that the last of " the three may have been the author of the anonymous Impartial
Narrative
".
276

The
magistrates
had
at length
come
to a decision of
some
kind.
a few of the inhabitants of the town would put their names to a statement to the effect that they considered that the town was enIf
leaders.
dangered by the meeting, that would justify them in arresting the Accordingly, Richard Owen and some thirty others, includ-
ing
Mr.
Phillips,
it
cordance with
signed the necessary affidavit, and a warrant in acwas drawn up, stating that " Richard Owen had
others
made
oath that
Henry Hunt and

town
in
had arrived
in a car at
the
area near St. Peter's church, that an immense

that he considered the
mob had
assembled, and
this
:
danger
find
".
mode
there
of procedure afterwards Sir Francis
Referring to Burdett said
strange
arrests
"If
are to follow opinions

is
which may
".
a place in other men's heads,
an end to Liberty
it
However weak
that
to
to us to-day,
was on
this
ground
may appear Nadin, the Deputy constable,
their action
was
instructed
by the magistrates
meeting by arresting the leaders.
Nadin assured them
go and interrupt a great peaceful that even with
the hundreds of special constables at his disposal he could not carry out the arrests without the assistance of the military.
only been speaking for a minute or two, therefore, when riders were disIt is difficult to understand why a single mespatched for the troops.
sage
Hunt had
was not
whole
sent to Lieut Colonel L' Estrange,

force.
who was
in
command
By a strange fatality the magistrates, at the same that they sent for Colonel L* Estrange, despatched a horseman instant
of the to Pickford's
yard
for the troop of
Manchester Yeomanry concealed
The there, which they had chosen to retain under their own control. " To the message, which was produced at the Trial, was as follows
:
Commanding
Select
to
Officer,
Portland Street
Sir
As Chairman
of
the
Committee
6,
of Magistrates,
Street,
Number
Mount
civil
I request you to proceed immediately where the Magistrates are assembled.
They
power wholly inadequate to preserve the peace. I have the honour, etc., William Hulton." At the moment that this letter was sent, Mr. Hunt was, in an orderly manner, addressing a perfectly peaceful meeting of some 60,000 men, women, and children.
conceive the
Judging from what followed, Colonel L' Estrange seems to have
made
skilful
disposition of the forces at his disposal,
closing in the
infantry on the square from several points, while he himself led the Hussars and the Cheshire Yeomanry by a rather circuitous route, viz.,
along Deansgate as far as Fleet Street (a street which then ran paral-

lei
277
Central
to
Great Bridgwater
the artillery
Street,
on the
site
of
the present
Lower Mosley Street, were posted, to Windmill Street. where Meanwhile the troop of Manchester Yeomanry stationed in PickStation),
then along Fleet Street, and so up
ford's
yard had
lost
no time
in
obeying their summons, and not having
They came along they were easily first on the spot. As they advanced along Nicholas Street and down Cooper Street. " at a tolerably brisk pace," a woman, carrying her twothis street
so far to go,
year-old child in her arms, watched them pass, and then attempted to
cross the street
Just at the
moment, one
"
;
of the
been kept behind, came past knocked down and stunned
at
a hand-gallop
".
Yeomanry who had The woman was

several yards,
fell
the child
was thrown
first
on
its
head, and was
killed.
This was the
casualty.
The sworn
"
affidavits
to this incident
may be
read in the
papers at the Manchester Reform Club. that a woman was involved in the second casualty also. The whole fortune of the day turned on what happened in the
We
Hunt Memorial shall see in a moment
"
few minutes
must be remembered that the troop of Manchester Yeomanry that arrived on the scene first was a local levy formed not long before, for the purpose of aiding the civil power, and
that followed.
It
consisted largely of local tradesmen,
who seem
to
have been stung by
the taunts levelled at them by the labouring classes,
intended to intimidate.
There
is
they were no doubt that their horses were not

for the difficult
whom
under control and that they were therefore not qualified

task before them.
directed,
A mere handful of trained mounted troops properly

feints,
by rearing, and by skilful manoeuvres, break up and move a large crowd without injury to anycan,
by
by backing,
one.
All parties are agreed that the Yeomanry halted in disorder. Even Hunt noticed that and remarked upon it, though he was a hun-
dred yards away. On this point we have the clear testimony of the chairman of the magistrates, Mr. Hulton, who in his evidence at the
Trial said that
"
their horses being
raw, and unused to the

".
field,
they
appeared
for the
to
him
:
to be in a certain degree of confusion
Mr. Stanso continued
"
ley, again, says
They
halted in great disorder,
and
few minutes they remained.
This disorder was attributed by

state of their
several persons in the

little
room
to the undisciplined
horses,
accustomed
to act together,
and probably frightened by the shout

It is
of the
populace which greeted their arrival."
impossible to avoid
278

whole
story might not
asking whether the

if
1
have been a
different one,
had been held back, and the 5th Hussars men who were wearing their Waterloo medals, won had been employed instead. For be it reonly four years before membered that up to this moment the magistrates had no intention of that was emphatically stated using troops to disperse the meeting by
these undisciplined irregular troops
Mr. Hulton
at the Trial
their decision
was
to arrest the leaders,
and
they seem to have anticipated that
when
that
was done, the meeting

similar cir-
would disperse
of
itself,
as
had happened under exactly
cumstances at the meeting of Blanketeers.
THE CHARGE OF THE MANCHESTER YEOMANRY.

Yeomanry wheeled and, accompanied by the deputy constable, rode through the crowd towards the hustings. Stanley marks them on his plan as starting from a point apparently not
it
As
was, the
far
and
from the entrance to the present Association Hall in Mount Street As they riding (as his arrows show) straight for the platform.
did so they left something behind them on the ground. It was the of a woman. marks the exact spot where this body lay, body Stanley
apparently
lifeless,
was
carried into the house.
through the subsequent proceedings, after which it This was the second casualty. The
Yeomanry
stables,
entered the
crowd
to the right of the
cordon of special con-
but one of the special constables was killed also. " Hunt began his address. Stanley's account is as follows
:
could distinctly hear his voice. He had not spoken above a minute or two before the cavalry were sent for the messengers, we were told, I ran to that window from which might be seen from a back window. could see the road leading to a timber yard (I believe) at no great distance, where, as I entered the town, I had observed the Manchester
I
Yeomanry
stationed.
saw
three horsemen riding

I
off,
one towards
led to the
the timber yard, the others in the direction which
knew
cantonments of other cavalry.
immediately returned to the front
window, anxiously awaiting the result. slight commotion amongst a body of spectators, chiefly women, who occupied a mound of raised broken ground on the left and to the rear of the orators [the reference
is
to Windmill Street Stanley admitted at the Trial that he had not heard the name], convinced me that they saw something which ex;

cited their fears.
279
Many jumped down

' :
rapidly.
By
this
and they soon dispersed more time the alarm was quickly spreading and 1 heard
'
'
several voices exclaiming

It is
The
soldiers
the soldiers
possible that this alarm
may have been due

at this
to a skilful
move-
ment
of
the infantry in
to
Dickinson Street
"
on the other
side of the
square,
which seems
have taken place
moment.
A witness at
the
Oldham
I
inquest speaks of
mill Hill.
a movement of the people near Windsaw the 88th formed into line, and supposed the move-
ment on the Windmill occasioned by the junction of the 88th. The regiment formed into a sort of crescent, which prevented me from moving
either
way.
could not get
prevented
tion of the
persons getting either
away by any exertion. The regiment way ". This is an excellent illustraskilfully
manner
in
which troops
handled can be used to
baffle and break up a crowd.
We
return to Stanley's narrative
"
:
cavalry into the field
on a
gallop,
which they continued
Another moment brought the till the word
was given
for
halting them.
They
halted in great disorder, and so
continued for the few minutes they remained.
evidently seen their approach, his hand had been pointed towards them and it
Hunt had
was
clear from his gestures that
he was addressing the
mob
respecting
them."
As
were
This
"
:
a matter of fact Hunt's words, which Stanley could not hear, " Stand firm my friends ! you see they are in disorder already. a
trick.
is
Give them three cheers."

they are riding upon us
:
Bamford
"
fast
!
also shouted
Stand
fast
Stand
We
are re-
minded
involuntarily of Shelley's
:
lines, written so far
away
yet with
such striking intuition
Let the horsemen's scimitars
Wheel and
flash, like
sphereless stars
Thirsting to eclipse their burning In a sea of death and mourning.
Stand ye calm and resolute Like a forest close and mute, With folded arms and looks which are
Weapons
"
:
of
unvanquished war.
Hunt's words, whatever they were, excited a Stanley continues shout from those immediately about him which was re-echoed with
fearful
animation by the rest of the multitude.
Ere
that
had subsided
280

and the special constables cheered and a pause ensued of about a minute or two. An and some few others then advanced rather in front of the
troop,
I
the cavalry, the loyal spectators,
loudly in return,
officer
and with scarcely the semblance of a line, their sabres glistened in the air, and on they went direct for the hustings. At first, and for a few paces, their
formed, as
before said, in
disorder,
much
movement was not
rapid,
and there was some show
of
an attempt to
;
follow their officer in regular succession, five or six abreast
but as Mr.
Francis Phillips in his pamphlet observes, they soon 'increased their

zeal and ardour which might naturally be expected with delegated power against a foe by whom it is acting understood they had long been insulted with taunts of cowardice, con-
speed,'
and with a
from
men
tinued their course, seeming individually to vie with each other which
the cavalry approached the dense mass of people they used their utmost efforts to escape, but so closely were they pressed in
should be "
first
As
opposite directions by the soldiers, the special constables, the position of the hustings, and their own immense numbers that immediate escape
was
impossible.
it
The
came
peded when
in contact
rapid course of the troop was, of course, imwith the mob, but a passage was
so rapid, indeed,
forced in less than a minute
was
it
that the guard

rest.
of constables close to the hustings shared the fate of the
On
The
their arrival at the hustings a scene of dreadful confusion ensued.
orators
ately
fell,
or
were forced
off
the scaffold in quick succession
fortun-
them, the stage being rather elevated, they were in great degree beyond the reach of the many swords which gleamed around " from the moment they began In a footnote Stanley adds them."
for
:
to force their
way
were up and swords were down, but whether they

or
flat
through the crowd towards the hustings, swords fell with the sharp
".
side
cannot, of course, pretend to give an opinion
Lieu-
tenant
Jolliffe
decides this point for us
when he
"
says
The
Hussars
drove the people forward with the

as
is
flats of their
swords
but sometimes,
almost inevitably the case
when men
at
are placed in such situations,

".
the edge
was
used, both
by the Hussars and by the Yeomanry

the hustings "
we know from the acactually happened " Times by Tyas, who was present, and count given in the London " The officer who commanded the was himself taken into custody. " " The Times," went up to Mr. Hunt and said, detachment," says
What

brandishing his sword
rest
' :
281
ar-
Sir,
'.
have a warrant against you, and

after exhorting the
officer
you as
my
prisoner
Mr. Hunt,
civil
people to
'
tranquillity in
a few words, turned round to the

officer
and
said
willingly surrender myself to
warrant
any Nadin, the police officer, * I have I will arrest you got information upon oath against you '. The same formality was gone through with Mr. Johnson. Mr. Hunt
'.
: :
show me his then came forward and said
who
will
and Mr. Johnson then leaped from the waggon and surrendered themselves to the civil power." Stanley, who was a hundred yards
"
away, says
Hunt
fell,
or threw himself, amongst the constables,
and was driven

after
or dragged as fast as possible

;
down
the avenue which
communicated with the
him
in
his associates were hurried magistrates' house a similar manner. By this time so much dust had arisen
that
no accurate account can be given
of
what
further took place at
that particular spot.
The
square
multitude, though
still
in parts the
was now covered with the flying banners and caps of liberty were
surrounded by groups." All this was the work of a few minutes, and meanwhile the other
troops
it is
had had time
to arrive.
Before
we
follow these into the crowd,
right that
we
should
'
listen to three
other accounts of the charge of
the Yeomanry.
"
The cavalry were in confusion," says Bamford, could not, with all the weight of man and horse they evidently
human
beings
;
penetrate that compact mass of

plied to
and
their sabres
were
heads
way through naked held-up hands, and defenceless and then chopped limbs, and wound-gaping skulls were seen
a
;
hew
and groans and

'
cries
fusion.
'
Ah
and
ah
!
were mingled with the din of that horrid confor shame for shame was shouted. Then
*
! !
'
Break
' ;
break
away moment
there
they are killing them in front, and they cannot get was a general cry of Break break For a
'
!
the
crowd held back

resistless as
heavy and
as in a pause then there was a rush, a headlong sea, and a sound like low thunder,
;
with screams, prayers, and imprecations from the crowd-moiled, and Bamford here does not dissabre-doomed, who could not escape."
tinguish
charge of the Hussars,

a
between the charge of the Manchester Yeomanry and the which followed a few minutes later. It was
rush of which he speaks. " " foot ten, and stood on tiptoe (as he
"
"
the latter that caused the
Though he was
tells us),
man
of five
he could
:
not, being in the
crowd, see everything.
Stanley says emphatically
282
"

spectator on the ground could possibly form a correct
and just what was passing ". He cites this as one explanation of the varying accounts and contradictory statements. Hunt, who had himself ridden in the Wiltshire Yeomanry, thus
idea of
describes the charge in his
sufficiently
No
"
Memoirs
to raise
"
"
ended
to enable
left
me
my
Before the cheering was voice again, the word was
given,
and from the
flank of the troops, the trumpeter leading the

right
way, they charged amongst the people, sabring

directions, sparing neither age, sex, nor rank.
their
and
left,
in all
In this
manner they
all
cut
way up
to the hustings, riding over
and sabring
that could not
get out of their way."
At
led the charge in person. the Royal Birthday festivities in Manchester on the 29th of April,
Finally, let us hear the officer speak
who
1820, Colonel
Hugh
Birley, in replying to the toast of the
Manchester
and Salford Yeomanry, made a lengthy speech, in which he complained " which we bitterly of the obloquy and outcry levelled against them,
should have been more or
less
than
:
men
"
I
not to feel
".
I
Speaking of
the charge into the crowd, he said

stage a
movement
in
approached the the crowd about the spot from which all accounts
first
observed as
agree
in
stating that the
attack
was made upon
the Yeomanry.
in the
That movement appeared
to
be intended to throw an obstacle

to that
way
of our advance.
Up
I
moment
the Boroughreeve had
walked by
ever
my
side,
but
then quickened
my
pace
in order to prevent
an interruption.
There was ample space

I
for a front of six
men wherefirst
we
passed, but
am
assured by those
who
formed the
rank
of six that they were obliged to break off into single file before they The mob must therefore have closed in immedireached the stage. He goes on to ately behind the officers who led the squadron."
speak of the Yeomanry's dash for the flags, which is mentioned below. He does not attempt to deny that it took place but there is no object
;
in quoting further
affair.
from an apologia which at the best

the other troops
is
a very lame
The
arrival of
is
thus described in the
"
Man-
"
chester Chronicle
"
:
Immediately the Cheshire Yeomanry galloped

1
on the ground
Artillery
train
".
to
them succeeded the

all
5th Hussars, and the Royal
while
the various detachments of infantry also

:
advanced
"on quitting Stanley has this footnote on the infantry the ground IJor the first time observed that strong bodies of infantry

were posted
in the
283
;
streets
on opposite
sides of the square
their ap-
have increased the alarm, and would cerpearance might probably the progress of a mob wishing to retreat in either tainly have impeded When I saw them they were resting on their of these directions.
arms, and
I
believe they remained stationary,

".
taking
no part
the
in the
proceedings
In his
halting between Hussars halting in
plan Stanley shows the Cheshire Windmill Street and the hustings, and
front of
Yeomanry
15th
Mount
"
:
Street, about opposite to the present

al-
Midland
Buffet.
He
says
The Manchester Yeomanry had
ready taken possession of the hustings when the Cheshire Yeomanry entered on my left in excellent order, and formed in the rear of the
hustings,
as well as could be expected considering the

in
all
crowds
who
were now pressing
directions
1
and
filling
up the space hitherto
5th Dragoons appeared nearly at the same partially occupied. moment and paused rather than halted on our left and parallel to the
The
row
of houses."
THE MANCHESTER YEOMANRY
IN DIFFICULTIES.
We
story,
fateful
have
it
now
arrived at the most dramatic
moment
in the
whole
the
and
may be
well to review the situation before coming to the
decision
which completed the tragedy.
One
troop
fifty
of
Manchester and Salford Yeomanry (perhaps
consisting of
or sixty
men) was now practically enveloped in the huge crowd. So serious did Mr. Hulton consider their case to be that he stated at the Trial that he " saw what appeared to be a general resistance the Manchester
.
.
Yeomanry he conceived to be completely defeated ... his idea of their danger arose from his seeing sticks flourished in the air as well as
brickbats
thrown about"".
We
have
also,
an
who
Regulars as to the situation. afterwards charged the crowd with the Hussars, says the Manchester Yeomanry were scattered in small groups over the greater part of the field, literally hemmed up and wedged into the mob, so
officer of
:
however, the testimony of Lieutenant Sir W. Jolliffe, "
that they
in fact,
to
either to make an impression or to escape were in the power of those whom they were designed they overawe ; and it required only a glance to discover their helpless
were powerless
position
and the
necessity of our being brought to the rescue ".
There are two

ing
:
the
first
is
points on which the evidence is hopelessly conflictthe question of the use of missiles by the crowd.
19
284
There
ing the
air
is

no method
of discussing the question except that of quoting
the various testimonies.
Mr. Hulton
stated that his reason for think-
danger was that he saw sticks flourished in the " and brickbats thrown about, and that he saw what appeared to
Yeomanry
in
be a general resistance".
can't
He
afterwards said at the Trial
"I have
not stated that bricks and stones were levelled at the
swear
it
They were thrown

:
in defiance of
Yeomanry and 1 the military." Mr.
"I saw nothing that gave me an Stanley, on the other hand, says idea of resistance, except in one or two spots where they showed some
disinclination to
abandon
;
their banners
these impulses, however,
were
but momentary
their sticks, as far as

sticks.
I
came under my
observation,
were ordinary walking
have heard from the most respectable
authority that the cavalry were assailed by stones during the short time
I do not wish to contradict they halted previous to their charge. assertions. What a person sees must be true. evidence positive
My
on
that
point can only be negative.
certainly
1 think sort, my eyes were fixed most steadily that I must have seen any stone larger than a pebble at the short dis/ tance at which I stood and with the commanding view I had.
and
saw nothing upon them, and
of the
indeed saw no missile weapons used throughout the whole transaction ; but, as I have before stated, the dust at the hustings soon
partially obscured everything that took place near that particular spot,
but no doubt the people defended themselves to the best of their power, as it was absolutely impossible for them to get away and give the
cavalry a clear passage
till
the outer part of the
mob had
fallen back."
Bamford admits
that
when a number
of
Middleton people,
who
were pressed by the Yeomanry, retreated to the timber lying in front of " defended themselves with stones the Friends' Meeting House, they which they found there," and he tells of a young married woman who
defended herself here
"
for
some
time,
and
"
at
length,
being herself
wounded, threw a fragment of a brick " unhorsed and dangerously wounded the Yeomanry was
cident
is
with the result that one of

".
This
in:
confirmed by
the report in the
"
Another Yeomanry man was unhorsed at This was near the Quakers' meeting-house, life with difficulty saved. " where a furious battle raged." The same paper mentions large
stones
".
"
Chronicle," which runs the same moment, and his
At
the Trials
it
was
stated in defence of the magistrates that
the previous to the meeting the town surveyor had carefully cleared

ground of
all stones,
285
but that after

up.
it
was over a
cart load of stones
and
bricks
was picked
when
at
The Times," says emphatically that " rode into the crowd not a brickbat was thrown Yeomanry a pistol was fired this period all was quiet and them, not during
Mr. Tyas, the
the
reporter for
if
"
orderly, as
the cavalry
had been the
friends of the multitude
and
had marched
'
as such into the midst of them.
As
soon as
Hunt and
:
Johnson had jumped from the waggon, a cry was made by the cavalry
flags they immediately dashed, not only at the flags that were in the waggon, but those which were posted among the crowd, cutting most indiscriminately to the right and
!
Have
'
at
their
In consequence,
left in
tions,
and
This set the people running in all direcorder to get at them. it was not until this act had been committed that any
brickbats were hurled at the military.
From
that
moment
the
Manchester Yeomanry lost all command of their temper." One of those who held on to his banner till it was struck from his hand, and
was divided by one of the Manchester Yeomanry (whom he recognised) was the Middleton journeyman, Thomas Redford. Three years later, in 822, this man sued members of the Manchester
his shoulder
1
Yeomanry
for assault at a
famous
trial
which took place
at Lancaster.
After the lapse of a century, perhaps we may, while trying to take an impartial view, agree with what Mr. Hobhouse said on this subject
in the
House
of
Commons
in
May, 1821,
in
supporting Sir Francis
Burdett's motion for an inquiry:
began
it.
When
people in privileges to be unresistingly bayonetted, sabred, trampled underfoot, without raising a hand, or (if the noble lord would allow) without
putting their hands in their pockets for the stones they
Were
He "defied proof that the people once they were attacked, what could you expect ? the quiet exercise of one of their most undoubted
had brought
with them
The
Rev. Mr. Stanley,
who watched
the proceedings
from a room above the magistrates, saw no stones or sticks used." The mention of pockets is a reference to a report that some of the crowd
wore smocks with

meeting.
large pockets, in
which they brought stones
to the
The
body
second question that gave
rise to
much
discussion at the Trials
and elsewhere was whether the Riot Act was read before the second
of troops
was
directed to charge the crowd.
It
was emphati:
cally stated at the Trial that the
Act was read
distinctly twice
once
286
Mr. Stanley, who stood at the winfrom the magistrates' window. dow immediately above the magistrates, was closely questioned on this He said " I neither heard it read nor point at the Trial in 1822.
:
saw it read ". Similar testimony was given by Mr. McKennell, who stood on the steps of Mr. Buxton's house throughout the proceedings.
Further discussion of this point is unnecessary because it seems to be fairly generally admitted that if the Riot Act was read (as it may well
have been
in
a perfunctory way) no one

;
whom
it
concerned had any
knowledge
of the fact
and supposing again

of the
that elapsed
between the reading

less
troops
was much
than that
that it was read, the time Act and the charge of the prescribed by the Act itself.
THE FATEFUL
DECISION.
THE HUSSARS ORDERED TO CHARGE.

St
Peter's fields at the
moment when the new troops arrived. Lieut-Colonel L'Estrange, who was in command of the whole, and who had come round into Windmill
return to the scene in
Street with the
1
We now
5th Hussars and the Cheshire Yeomanry, halted both,
rode up to the house where the magistrates were assembled, and, looking
up
at
the
:
window
"
at
which Mr. Hulton

I
standing, said
What am
to
do
"
?
(their
chairman) was
Hulton admitted afterwards

"
at the Trial that
he did not consult
his brother magistrates before re-
for me to consult my There was not time," he said, brother magistrates as to sending in more military, but they were with me at the window, and I should certainly conceive they heard me.
"
plying.
did not take the responsibility on myself. were expressing fear themselves."
1
They
at that
moment
Mr. Hulton's
peated
it
!
fateful reply to
God,
sir
over and over again at the Trials) was as follows don't you see they are attacking the Yeomanry ?
Lieut-Colonel L'Estrange (he re"

:
Good
Disperse
the meeting."
The
scene that followed these words
was one
that sent a thrill of

it
horror through the whole country
the report of
reached the poet
Shelley in
Italy,
and he says
As
lay asleep in Italy,
There came a Voice from over
the sea,
And with great power To walk in the Visions
it
forth led
me
of Poesy,

and he wrote
Peter's fields
his
287
"
Mask
of
Anarchy
uttered,
".
Within ten minutes from
the time those words
were
those
who
looked
down on
beings,
St.
saw an open space, strewn with
human
some
many wounded, numbers of them heaped one upon the other and a group of horsemen loosening their saddle-girths, arranging their accoutrements, and wiping their sabres, while all round there was a
dead,
flying multitude, escaping
by the
side streets,
which were guarded by
infantry, defending themselves
among
the timber lying near the Friends'
meeting-house, and eventually making their way to the open country, through which they had marched a few hours before, with bands
playing, banners flying,
tant feeling of
and
girls
hope
that at last
dancing and singing, with an exulsomething was to be done for their

the
scene.
suffering humanity.
We
1
have many pictures
of
"
Stanley says
The
5th Dragoons pressed forward, crossing the line of constables, which opened to let them through, and bent their course towards the Manchester
people were now in a state of utter rout and confusion, leaving the ground strewn with hats and shoes, and hunThe cavalry were dreds were thrown down in the attempt to escape.
Yeomanry.
The
hurrying about in
all
directions completing the
work
if
of dispersion,
which was
effected in so short a time as to
appear as
done by magic.
During the whole of this confusion, heightened at its close by the rattle of some artillery crossing the square, shrieks were heard in all directions,
and as the crowd

visible.
of people dispersed, the effects of the conflict
became
rise
;
Some were
seen bleeding on the ground, unable to

but faint with the loss of blood,
for
others,
less
seriously injured,
were
retiring slowly, or leaning
upon others
support.
The whole
of this extraordinary scene
ford speaks of
"
several
was the work of a few minutes." Barnmounds of human beings remaining where
they had
fallen,
crushed
down and smothered
".
This
is
fully cor-
roborated by Sir
quoted,
W.
"
:
Jolliffe,
the Lieutenant of the Hussars already
People, yeomen, and constables, in their confused attempts to escape, ran one over the other, so that by the time we had
says
arrived at the "
who
end
of the field, the fugitives
were
the
literally piled
field ".
up
to
a considerable elevation above the level of
Wheeler's
Manchester Chronicle," the principal Tory organ, had the following description on the Saturday following the event
:
"A
scene
of
confusion
and
terror
now
existed
which
defies
288
description.

The
in
multitude pressed one another down, and in

masses,
piled
many
body upon body. The cries and shouts with the galloping of the horses were mingled shocking. Many of the most respectable gentlemen of the town were thrown down, ridden over and trampled upon. One special constable was killed on
places they lay
the spot
of
another
was borne home

lasted not
dreadfully
minutes.
hurt.
The whole
this serious
if
affray
many
The ground was

crowd the
cleared as
by magic."
"
:
Bamford's account runs
On
the breaking of the
yeomanry wheeled, and dashing wherever there was an opening, they followed, pressing and wounding. Many females and striplings aptheir cries were piteous and heartrendpeared as the crowd opened
;
commencement of the havoc, the field ing. was an open and almost deserted space." Mr. J. B. Smith's report of what he saw from the window in Mount Street corresponds. Exactly how, we may be inclined to ask, was the charge of the Hussars made ? Lieutenant Jolliffe, who took part in it, shall answer
In ten minutes from the
the question.
points wrong. " "
We
must premise, however, that he has his cardinal " " " For south-west we must read south-east," and for
"
east ".
south
we
must read
There
is
no doubt
that the
Hussars
Street to
lined
up
in
Mount
This
Street,
is
and swept the square from Mount
Deansgate.
Jolliffe's
clear,
not only from Stanley's plan, but also from
own
statement that his troopers found themselves in
Street after crossing the square.
He
writes
"
:
Byrom Some one who had
been sent from the place of meeting to bring us, led the number of narrow streets by a circuitous route to (what
south-west corner of St. Peter's
fields.
way
1
through a
will call) the
We advanced
given,
along the south

;
side of this space of ground, without a halt or pause even
the
words
"
"
Front
and
"
Forward
"
were
and the trumpet sounded
the charge, at the veiy
moment
the threes wheeled up.
When
all
fronted,
our
line
filled
extended quite across the ground, which in with people that their hats seemed to touch."
parts
was
so
When
the square
was
commander to find a Jolliffe by " " Retreat ". trumpeter, in order that he might sound the Rally "or " This sent me down the street I had first been in [i.e. Byrom Street,
cleared, Lieutenant
sent
his
was
or possibly St. John Street] after the pursuing
men
of
my
troop."
points touched upon in Lieutenant Jolliffe's narrative, which should not be omitted if the story is to be complete.
There are four other

We
289
have already mentioned the loose baulks of timber that lay scattered
" These timberabout to the south of the Friends' meeting-house. " could not be distinguished when the mob as he calls them, frees,"
covered them, and they caused bad falls to one officer's horse and to " many of the troopers of the Hussars. Jolliffe himself went to the
assistance of
"a
private of the regiment
whose horse had

and
fallen
over a
piece of timber nearly in

seriously injured ".
the middle of the square,
who was
most
Lieutenant
Jolliffe's
account of the
fight
near the Friends' meetingtaken pos-
house, also mentioned above, runs thus:

session of
"The mob had

for
various buildings,
particularly of
a Quakers' chapel and
burial-ground enclosed with a wall.

time,
This they occupied
some
little
and
in
attempting to displace
them some
of the
men and
horses
were
I
struck with stones
and
brickbats.
Seeing a sort of fighting going on,
went
in that direction.
At
the very
1
moment
meeting-house, I saw a farrier of the outer wall, and to my surprise his horse struck
it
reached the Quakers' 5th ride at a small door in the

I
it
with such force that
flew open.
Two
or three hussars then rode
in,
and the place was
" " statement in the Chronicle on the following Saturday to " the effect that one of the Yeomanry leaped his horse over the wall
immediately
in their possession."
The
a Reformer" would seem to be apocryphal, as the plan produced at the Trial showed that there was a drop of 1 feet on one side. I
after
have
to
thank the authorities
who have
charge of the archives at the
Friends' meeting-house for their courtesy in acceding to my request that the Records and Minute Books for August, 1819, should be examined.
They
could find no mention whatever of Peterloo.

Jolliffe also clears
:
Lieutenant
account.
Stanley says
up the following reference in Stanley's "I saw no firearms, but distinctly heard four
or five shots towards the close of the business on the opposite side of the square, beyond the hustings, but no one could inform me by whom
and they were fired ". Jolliffe tells of a pistol fired from a window a footnote by Captain Smyth of the Cheshire Yeomanry refers to some men on the roof of a house with a gun. " The 88th fired a shot or two over the roof and cleared the spot."
;
Lastly, the question arises
What
use
was made
fields ?
of the Cheshire
Yeomanry when
they arrived in St. Peter's
Stanley,
Street,
who
adds
shows them halting between the hustings and Windmill
290
this

note to his plan
"
:
My
I
attention
was
so
much
proceedings of the
Manchester Yeomanry,
etc.,
taken up with the and the dispersion in
front of the hustings, that

It quent movements". crowd from that point.
cannot speak accurately as to their subseis clear that they cannot have charged the They would have been riding at right angles
to the charge of the Hussars.
Yeomanry throws no
light
The Centenary Volume of the Cheshire on the matter. The most detailed con-
temporary plan shows Yeomanry and foot-soldiers at different points Lieutenant Jolliffe, speaking "intercepting and cutting at fugitives".
of the Cheshire
Yeomanry and
till
the 31st Infantry, says
"the whole
remained formed up
Smyth,
who
our squadrons had fallen in again ". Captain led one of the troops of the Cheshire Yeomanry, says (in
"
Jolliffe's
a footnote to
account)
The Yeomanry and

1'
Infantry
stationed at the four corners
opened
to allow the multitude to escape ".
We
are therefore driven to the conclusion that
Estrange held the

their charge.
Cheshire Yeomanry in reserve while the Hussars
made
We
left
have
at least
two
testimonies as to the appearance of the
Mr. Prentice had they streamed into the open country. to go to his home in Salford just as Hunt had mounted " I had not been at home more than a quarter of an the hustings. " he says, when a wailing sound was heard from the main hour," and rushing out, I saw people running in the direction of street,
fugitives as
the
crowd
Pendleton, their faces pale as death, and some with blood trickling down their cheeks. It was with difficulty I could get anyone to stop
and
tell
me what had
children,
happened.
The unarmed
"
multitude,
men, by
women and
the military."
had been attacked with murderous
results
published in the day of the Peterloo massacre in

:
Mr. William Royle, in his " I remember my 1914, says
History of Rusholme,' father telling me that on

at
1819 he was standing
the
corner of
Norman Road, and saw crowds of people coming from Manchester, many with marks of blood upon them received in that
".
murderous affray
Meanwhile, Hunt, who was brutally maltreated after his arrest, had been hurried with the other prisoners to the New Bailey in Salford.
The
military
and
special constables patrolled the streets.
Ap-
parently the temper of the

pitch.
crowd had been roused
to a
dangerous
Stanley,
:
the event, says
who praises the quiet demeanour of the people before " At the conclusion of the business found them in
I
a very different
state of
feeling.
heard repeated vows of revenge.
HENRY HUNT'S BIRTHPLACE ON SALISBURY PLAIN
THE PRISON CELLS IN LANCASTER CASTLE WHERE HENRY HUNT AND SAMUEL BAMFORD WERE CONFINED AFTER PETERLOO

*
291
You
took us unprepared,
we were unarmed
to-day,
and
"
it is
your
day, but
when we meet
remnant
again the day shall be ours.'

"
Bamford,
who
led the
of his contingent into
Middleton with a band

:
All the working and one remaining banner, corroborates this " the Middleton of Manchester I found athirst for revenge people
;
brooding over a spirit of vengeance towards the authors of our The centre of disorder seems to have humiliation and our wrong. ".
folk
"
been at New Cross. The Riot Act was read at this place between seven and eight, and a number of people were wounded, one fatally, by shots from the military.
But
in
these
days of
hospitals
and Red Cross

as they
Societies our
thoughts inevitably follow the

fully
wounded
made
their
way
pain-
homewards.
Thousands had
to
of those at the
as far as Bury, and
walk back.
meeting had come from The Committee that was

list
afterwards formed for their
relief
drew up a
of authenticated cases,
from which
it
appears that
we may
safely say that eleven

less seriously injured.
were
killed
and between 500 and 600 more or

scriptions to the relief fund
let
The
1
sub-
amounted
to over
3000.
As
August. "
was," says Bamford, a clean gash of about six inches in length and quite through the
It
I
us follow "
two
of the
wounded
to their in
homes on the
fateful
examples, 6th of
speaking of
Redford's wound,
shoulder blade.
found Redford's mother bathing it. She yearned and wept afresh when she saw the severed bone gaping in the wound. She asked who did it, and Tom mentioned a person he said he
;
knew him
father
well,
and
she,
sobbing, said she also
knew him and
his
and mother before him."

for
There
is
Reliable authorities assure us that in
many
another point to remember. cases the wounded dare not
apply
case
proper treatment,
subject of
branded as Reformers.
We
was the
employment by being have already mentioned that Redford's a test trial three years later, when he sued
for fear of losing
the yeomanry for "unlawful cutting and wounding," but the Jury found for the defendants in a few minutes. The other case, a much
more
of an
painful one,
and yet one
that
must be typical of many, was that
Oldham youth named John Lees, who had fought at Waterloo, who came home with external and internal injuries to which he succumbed after the most excruciating suffering. Those who wish may read all the harrowing details of this most painful case in the
Report
was
after dragging on for a number of months a legal quibble. eventually quashed by
of the Inquest,
which
292

As
he rode back across the square, Lieutenant Jolliffe had noticed, " the unfortunates who were too much here and there, lying injured to move away, and the sight was rendered more distressing by observing
some women among the

"
I
sufferers ".
On
the following afternoon he

military medical officers.
visited the Infirmary in
company with some

to
saw there from twelve

in
twenty cases of sabre-wounds,

likely to recover.
. .
and among
.
these
two women who appeared not

a dying state from a gunshot
leg
One man
firing of
was
had
wound
in the
head
another had
his
amputated
both these casualties arose from the
the 88th the night before.
Two
them a constable
bodies."
It
killed
in St.
were reported dead, one of Peter's fields, but I saw none of the
or three
was not till
half-past ten
on Wednesday morning that the Prince

in
Regent's Cheshire Yeomanry,
their
blue jackets, with silver-braid
ornament, scarlet cuffs and
collar,
and plated buttons

"
lying at
having spent
their horses'
one night
heads
patrolling the town,
and another
in St. Peter's fields" mounted and rode away home, where were warmly welcomed. they Many of them had made their wills for Manchester two days earlier, with serious before they had set out
misgivings.
*
Such
itself.
is
the story of Peterloo.
"
"
After Peterloo
is
a story in
the meeting held at the Star Inn " " Inhabitants of Manchester a few days later, to vote the thanks of the " the indignant to the Magistrates and the Military Declaration and
Into the details of that story
Protest," bearing
some 5000
signatures,
which followed immediately,
and showed incontestably that that meeting was private and quite un" Mr. Francis Phillips's ably written Exposure of the representative
Calumnies circulated against the Magistrates and the Yeomanry
"
Mr. John Edward Taylor's

the Prince Regent to
stigation
"
spirited
"
Reply the Magistrates and the
to this
the
Thanks
of
Military, sent at the in-
Lord Sidmouth, the Home Secretary, whose first remark " on hearing of the tragedy was that he trusted the proceedings at " the Manchester would prove a salutary lesson to modern reformers
of
presented to Papers relative to the internal state of the country Parliament in the autumn, containing the correspondence between the " Notes and Mr. J. E. Taylor's Magistrates and the Home Office
"
"
"
Observations
on
these,
which
Sir
A.
W: Ward
has pronounced to
:.
vV
vMl
AS B
THE PETERLOO MEDAL

Note the women and children, and the Cap of Liberty held
in the centre
aloft

be "the chief monument of
his literary
293
"
the storm of indignation that
powers and political principles the arose in Great Britain and Ireland
the Provinces to
held in great meetings
London and
demand
inquiry
which Earl Fitzwilliam was immediately removed (for summoning one of " the Prince Regent from the Lord- Lieutenancy of the West Riding,
the determination of having no further occasion for his services ") to burke inquiry, which led to protests on all ministers, nevertheless, " not as a 50 to the Relief Fund, hands (Earl Grosvenor, e.g. sent Universal Suffrage," but as protesting against the refusal to friend of
allow investigation
while Lord Carlisle, in a confidential
letter,
since
made
public
by
the Historical
Documents Commission,
characterised
the conduct of the
Government
in this particular matter as
"
marked
third
by downright
insanity,"
though he afterwards supported
the
reading of their Seditious Meetings Bill)
the protest presented to the
Prince Regent by the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and
City of
to
London
the triumphal procession of

his reception
Commons of the Mr. Hunt from Lancaster

in
Manchester, and
by enormous crowds
London
and the
the interminable discussions as to the legality of the meeting,

right of the magistrates to interfere
the careful investigation
by the
in
Relief
Committee
of
some 600
cases of those killed
and wounded
the fray
the harrowing details (reported
by Taylor himself) revealed on

for
at the Inquest at
Oldham, which,
after dragging
months, was
quashed by and the Jury had not viewed the body

repressive policy adopted
the Court of King's Bench, because, forsooth, the Coroner

at the
same time
the sternly
by
the Government, culminating in the famous
Six Acts, in introducing which Lord Castlereagh admitted that the Manchester meeting was not contrary to law, an admission which Mr. Hobhouse immediately seized upon as the text for his masterly " Letter
Lord Viscount Castlereagh the long debates in Parliament year after year the fining and imprisonment of Sir Francis Burdett for too
to
"
severely censuring the action of the
Government
the tramp of the
Manchester Reformers over the Pennines

Assizes, in the course of
to take their trial at
York
the ascent of Blackstone Edge tried " the marching powers of the women the long days of the Trial itself the subtle summing-up of the Judge the verdict against the leading '* as guilty of Reformers, assembling with unlawful banners an unlawful
which
"
assembly, for the purpose of moving and inciting the liege subjects
of our sovereign lord the
King
of the
to
ment and Constitution
contempt and hatred Realm, as ty kw
of the
Govern-
294

the subsequent proceedings in the Court of King's sentence was pronounced, Hunt afterwards serving two
jail,
quashed appeal
Bench, when
and a
half
at
years in Ilchester
Bamford, Johnson, and Healey

at
one year
Peterloo,
Lincoln
the test
trial
Lancaster three years
after
for
when Thomas Redford
sued the Manchester
unlawful cutting and wounding," and the jury found for the defendants in six minutes and finally, the periodical discussion of all these
things in the press
here.
St.
"
Yeomanry
into the details of these matters
we do
not enter
Peter's fields have long ago

its
become
part of the great
city,
the chief centre of
entertainments, strangely enough, and the
site of
the Battle for Free

rebuilt,
Trade
trees
and the oak

is
cottage and garden

"
now
the Friends' meeting-house has been have disappeared the site of Cooper's " covered by one of the finest hotels in
; ;
Europe
object
the exigencies of
modern
traffic
have swept away the dark
pile of St. Peter's church,

;
whose grimy
clock
was once such a
familiar
but as
we
stand in front of the Central Station to-day, the
Halls of Pleasure disappear, and the picture that haunts us is that of " a stricken field, the victims lying in heaps some still groaning, others
with staring eyes, gasping for breath, others will never breathe more
all silent,
save for those low sounds, and the occasional snorting and
pawing of steeds ". It all seems so unfair. They were inarticulate. They had come, with all the hilarity of a general holiday, to ask that
they might have a Voice.
petent authorities, behind "
:
They were met by
the bungling of incom-
whom
loomed the
great, strong, repressive
Government, saying
a
am God, and
King, and Law," backed by
House
Yet
of
Commons
that
their blood, as
was hopelessly unrepresentative. has been well said, proved in the end to be
'
the seed of some of our most cherished
liberties.
The Manchester
massacre," wrote Harriet Martineau, speaking, of course, as a Radical " was at once felt on all hands to have made an epoch in the herself,
history of the contest with
tion
Radicalism
".
Parliamentary Representa-
came, and Local Government based on the Suffrage soon followed, the antiquated manorial Court giving place eventually to the Manchester
Corporation.
In
his
later, in
Borough," issued to 1838, Richard Cobden wrote

if
famous pamphlet, entitled Incorporate your the people of Manchester less than twenty years
"
:
"
Peterloo could never have
happened
the
Borough had been incorporated.
Why ?
Because
295
the magistrates of Lancashire and Cheshire, who entered the town and sat at the Star Inn to take command of the police, and order the
soldiers to cut
down and
trample upon unarmed crowds, would have

"
;
and in jurisdiction over Manchester than Constantinople " from which we have her History of the Thirty Years' Peace," " the great already quoted, Harriet Martineau describes Peterloo as in the history of event of the year, and the most memorable incident
no more
the popular
movements
" "
of the time ".
The
at
author of
Childe Harold
Waterloo, and
made
" " that fell red rain speaks of the " on the fields of Belgium. the harvest grow "
Perhaps
we may,
not inappropriately, borrow his figure, and say that

fell at
the red rain that
Peterloo, four years later, has helped to ripen
another harvest
the harvest of Freedom.
NOTE ON THE ILLUSTRATIONS.

Five of the half-tone blocks are taken from the late Mr. A. Marcroft's For permission to use them we are of Local Liberalism ". indebted to the courtesy of Mr. W. Marcroft of Southport, and Messrs.
"
Landmarks
Hirst and Rennie of Olclham.
The view
field.
of Peterloo
the best of several sketches extant
is
from a
contemporary print
now
in the possession of
The
back, are in Windmill Street

of these,
details are fairly accurate. those to the left are in ;
Mr. Walter Flinn of FallowThe houses on the right, at the
Mount
Street
in
one
"
the
number
6, the magistrates met.
On
the extreme
left is
seen
corner of a garden wall, round which the Manchester Yeomanry, in blue and white uniform, came trotting, sword in hand, to the front of a row of new houses ". Among the figures on the hustings we can distinguish Mr. " Hunt, and a woman whom we may assume to be the "female reformer who rode in his carriage.- The crowd to the right of the picture are on the
site of
the Free
Trade
Hall.
full-length portrait of Hunt is from a print now at the Manchester Reference Library. The bronze medallion of Hunt, now in the vestibule of the Manchester Reform Club, was unveiled by Mr. C. P. Scott on June The illustration is from a photograph lent by Mr. John the 29th, 1908. Cassidy, R.C.A., who designed and executed the memorial. The Plan of Peterloo has been drawn specially for this publication. It is based upon about half a dozen contemporary plans, including a tiny sketch by the Rev. Edward Stanley, which is useful as showing where the various bodies of mounted troops halted, and the directions in which they The times are of course deduced from a comparison of the slightly charged. varying accounts, and are only intended to be approximate. They cannot, * however, be wrong by more than a few minutes.
The
SYNOPSIS
OF CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE IN THE FOURTH CENTURY ACCORDING TO THEODORE OF MOPSUESTIA.

EDITED BY
ALPHONSE MINGANA, D D.
FOREWORD.
Text
THE
logy.
that the
following pages contain the translation of a Syriac
purporting to give in a concise
form the opinion of Theodore
of
The
Mopsuestia on the principal questions of Christian Theokeen interest shown by many Theologians in the writings
of this illustrious Father of the
Church
justifies
the translator's hope

his labour.
is
same welcome
will
be extended to the outcome of
We may
he
"
epithet
is
say of Theodore that not the least of his misfortunes
that
lived in the fourth instead of the twentieth century
where he would
have possibly had more favourable and

"
father of rationalism
;
sympathetic readers.
The
applied to
so far
true in a sense
his
mind
him by some church historians as known to us from some stray
and scanty extracts could not acquiesce in the acceptance of an article of faith which was not proved to be in conformity with a sound
he was an independent judgment and the revealed word of God one hand on his Greek Aristotle and the other on his inquirer laying
;
Semitic Bible, and trying to reconcile both and to direct them to one
end
whether he succeeded or not
it is
not a matter of concern to

writer
us,
but the fact remains that he
was the
first
who
systematically in-
troduced the rational element into Christian apologetics, and living fifteen centuries after him we cannot but deprecate, for no other reason than the
preservation of Christian unity, the action taken against him after his
death by some over-zealous and hasty bishops.
That
admit.
the extracts here printed are truly Theodore's, anyone aclife
quainted with the inner
of the Blast Syrian
Church
will readily
date nearly
cribecl to
This so-called Nestorian Church possessed at a very early all Theodore's writings in a Syriac translation, and as-
him without
qualification the
296
title
of
"
The
Interpreter
"par
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
excellence.
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
conclude that
297
When we
find, therefore,
an East Syrian writer quoting
Theodore
would
tical
or Theodore's writings,
we may a priori
himself.
we
are truly dealing with

find
it
Theodore
Christian theologian
all
difficult
in
our days to misquote Paul, and for
prac-
purposes the interpreter's
name was
main
lines
:
only one degree below that
of the Apostle.
That the Syriac

is
text
is in its
a translation from the Greek
borne out by the following remarks In question 5 the translator under the influence of the Greek text
lying before
him used
'
Ammon
with an
Alaph
instead of
'Ammon
with a guttural of the Peshitta. Similarly in question 5 the quotation from Luke i. 35 proves that the Syriac translator has preferred
the use of
"to come"
in masculine as
it
is
in the
Greek
text, to the
See also quesfeminine form of the same verb found in the Peshitta. " " tion 24 in which the derivation of the words and Episcopus " " is discussed. Catholicos
Theodore knew probably some Hebrew. In question 2 he seems " " to be playing on the word "ÎN to find in it the meaning of judge which in his opinion underlies the name of God, and in question 23
he
is
endeavouring to derive the word

to
"
Nazarene
"
from
-^.
but
instead of resorting to the usual interpretation of the Hebraic word,
he gives
it
the
uncommon meaning
of
"
new
".
is
Although the substance of these questions and answers
undoubt-
edly taken from Theodore, it is probable that the Syrian editor (as he himself suggests) allowed himself a certain amount of freedom in his work.
the
In question
word
"
the disciple is inquiring about the meaning of " and the teacher is appealing to its Aramaic Christianity
22
equivalent of
Mshihayiitha as
if
he was writing to readers not neces-
sarily familiar with Greek.

difficulty of the
word
"
"
Aramaic
"
Similarly, in question 5 the pith of the " power turns on the pivot of the Hebrewof
hail
which has the meaning

i.e.
"
"
power
"
both in ab-
stracto and in concrete\

play on the a saint,
army,
forces.
In question
35 there
is
a
of
Aramaic word dukhrana, meaning

and
"
in
commemoration
"
feast,"
remembrance".
is
As
the
36
questions of the treatise (the numerical division
our
own), embrace nearly all points of Christian dogma, it will be useful to give under a few headings a short summary of some of the author's
Theological views
:
298

His Trinitarian doctrine
is
post-Nicene, and
it
explicitly or implicitly
first
embodies the teaching and the technology of the

(cf.
general council
questions 1,16,
and
is
especially
8).
His Christology
is
that
which
is
generally ascribed to him.

is
1
Christ
a second
Adam
(questions 8, 31), but he
God
;
(question 18, etc.)
acting in
harmony with his Father (question Theodore was certainly a sacramentarian
2, etc.).
he frequently mentions
is
baptism, Eucharist, and ordination, but in the mysteries of the four

other sacraments of the early mediaeval Theology he
not versed.
His view on baptism and children

not of their
is
that
it
is
necessary for salvation, but pagans

i.e.
of pagans,
and even Christians who involuntarily,

following words
In question 14
own fault, die we read the

is
without baptism, will not go to torment.

:
unclean and
baptized,
baptized,
is is
baptized,
marked with
"He, therefore, who is justified, and he who has no sins and the sufferings of Christ further, he who
;
is
is
is
circumcised with the circumcision
made
without hands, and

I
becomes a temple to God.

speaking of those
Those who died without baptism
am
who lived prior to the coming of Christ are not to be blamed, because Christ had not yet died for them they were not even ordered to be baptized, but now that He has come and has been
;
killed,
he
who
and
refuses to
of Christ
is
be baptized shows that he rejects the baptism For more details see questions a stranger to his life."
of baptism
is
13-18
in
which the doctrine

as Eucharist
is
fully elaborated.
So
far
concerned Theodore
may
"
possibly
have
believed that the bread and the wine of the Sacramental service are
are baponly the symbols of the body and blood of Christ. " once only, because our Lord died once only, but we tized," he says,
We
perform the symbol of his body many times because " unto us as food of life everlasting 7). (question
1
it
has been given
As
for
ordination he
is
strongly of opinion
that the imposition of
hands gives real power to the one who receives it, but nothing is said about the vexed question of who is the right person to impose hands must he be an Episcopus, a Presbyter, or any other person appointed by the congregation over which the ordinandus is going to preside ?
;
Theodore makes mention,

but
it is
in this occurrence, of the right
hand
of
God,
probable that
we
are to understand this metaphor in a figura-
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
tive sense
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
full
299
and
refer
it
to the minister's
power bestowed upon him by

a
God
himself.
of
We
quote
here
in
remarkable
passage the
emphasis
which
will not escape notice (question 28).

in the
Although there are
Church
of
priests sinful
and
false (to their
has been imposed upon their heads is true, and the sacrifice they offer is pure, and because the Holy Spirit is obedient it will come down and flutter over the
obligations), yet the right
hand
God which
they offer, and it will become propitiation to those who receive a priest is false because of his odious conduct, the baptism which he administers is true, because of the (imposition of the) right
sacrifice
If
it.
hand (which he has received) and which he offers is genuine, because

holy
it
if
his
works are
sinful,
the sacrifice
if
of the
Holy
Spirit,
and
It
he
sins,
the people will not be punished for his prevarications.
is
not the
is
who make the Holy the sinners who prevent
Spirit
it
come down by
their holiness, nor

their sins
;
from coming
down by
it is
gift which has been bestowed by God's grace for the pardon of mankind. priest who defrauds invokes it, and it comes down for the
sake of those
who do
not defraud
an impure
man
;
invokes
it,
and
it
a prodigal invokes pure and it obeys him for the sake of it, hunger for it a wretched man invokes it, and it submits to him for the sake of those who thirst
for the sake of those
;
answers him
who are those who
through the works of the man who invokes it, but through the intercession of those who stand behind the minister who is turning his eyes towards it it does not look at the
for
it.
It
does not come
down
sins of the
pectations
man who invokes it, but it of those who are asking its
is
takes into consideration the exintercession.

If
the priest
;
is
a
is
sinner, his iniquity, like his justice,
smitten with his

sinful priest
is
own
sins.
upon Those who assert

I
himself alone
every one
that the sacrifice of a
not holy, assert wrongly.
shall
assert
if
to thee,
is
my
son,
and confirm
my
assertion
go even so far as to by an oath, that
imposed upon Satan, there is in him the hand of priestand if he breaks the sanctified bread and give me of it, I shall hood, receive it from him, and regard it as lacking nothing, and as if Simon
a hand
Cephas had broken it as some people are."
for
me.
Do
not be in doubt about these things
From
the rest
wine
in
agreement with of Eastern Fathers that the consecratory words of bread and " " the mass are those contained in the and not Epiclesis 20
this
long citation
we
infer that
Theodore
is
in
300
"

est
Hoc
enim corpus
meum"
as stated
by the
scholastic
Theologians
of the middle ages.
The
well
eschatology of the author deserves also some notice.

that he disbelieved in the eternity of torments in hell
;
It
is
known
is
this
view
implicitly
of
no mention
borne out by the present extracts in which he makes this important point of orthodox WhenChristianity.
of
ever he has occasion to treat
after-death torments, he carefully

(cf.
avoids the use of any term savouring of eternity
questions 27, 33).
He
is
also very
of the saints
emphatic on the subject that there is no remuneration and no punishment of the sinners till the day of Resurrec-
tion (question 33).
" worth quoting In the wombs the wealthy the slaves and the freemen, the Kings and the wretched and the poor,
The following
;
passage
is
are equal
neither the rich feel
any delight nor the poor any want
but
they come to the world, the Kings are distinguished by their dresses and their honour, and the wretched are known by their lowIn this same way, the souls of the just and of the ness and poverty.
unjust are equal
till
when
the
day
of Resurrection, in
which the bodies are
born [again] of the earth, their mother, and the souls put on their bodies, as children put on dresses of all kind, then the well-doers will
receive their
reward and dwell
in
light
and the evil-doers
will
be
thrown
into darkness."
Other
theories upheld
by Theodore
in connection
with the time and

last
the order of the events dealing with the day
of
Resurrection and
judgment are expounded at length in question 26. few words would suffice to describe the manuscript which con-
tains the present extracts.
It
collection
and
it
was then
labelled
formerly belonged to Rendel Harris's " Cod. Syr. 146". It is now pre-
the chief
served in the John Rylands Library and consists of mixed contents, among which are (a) an interpretation of the difficult words
found
in
the
Old and
New
Testaments
;
(ft)
a historical
discourse
by Epiphanius on the Prophets (c) a biographical treatise by Eusebius of Caesarea on the Apostles and disciples (d) a small Graeco;
Syriac vocabulary Capita Scientia of Rabban Aphnimaran (Vllth cent.) (/) the extracts from Theodore of which we give a
;
(e) the
translation.
which manuscript is dated in the year of the Seleucids, 86 with A.D. 1 550. The copyist complains of the bad state corresponds
1 1 ,
The
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
of the manuscript
easily detectable errors
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
301
from which he was transcribing, but apart from some
we are glad to say that his lapsus calami have been few and on the whole unimportant. All the above treatises saw the light at a time preceding the Arab The Syriac style used in them is modelled on that of the invasion.
Peshitta,
and a few Greek or Latin words are explained

in
in old Persian
and not
Arabic,
such, for instance, is the case
with Ka.6aipecn<; and
Dux.
The
177 b ) and
of the latter
Persian equivalent of the former is Marzuban (fol. 171 8 )-
Nawinshtang
(fol.
TRANSLATION.
By the strength
terpreter,
1 .
of our
Lord Jesus
Christ,
we begin
to write selected
questions excerpted from the works of the blessed Theodore, the In-
and
briefly arranged.
Is
is
Question,
God
Answer.
goodness and
of
God
good by His nature or by His will ? the source of all good attributes and power
the goodness and justice which

justice.
He possesses
are the
summit
of perfect
subordinated to the order of (worldly) knowledge, because goodness, justice, power, and wisdom are (essenHe is remote from wrong-doing, because He is the tially) His.
(human)
nature, nor
He is is He
not circumscribed by the requirements
Supreme Being capable what He wills without

perfections
of creating
iniquity
wishes and justly judging and since He is above all the im-
what
He
and higher than the intelligence of every created thing, a made man cannot define His maker, nor is a creature able to confine
its
creator within the limits of

is
its
knowledge.
definition
is
In proportion as
His
nature
above
all
beginning, His
a creature with a beginning. As good, men did not perform any good work before they were created, that we may say that they received this favour from the Just One, as a reward of their action.
beyond the capacity of a proof to thee that the Creator is
Because
God
is
good (by His Nature)
He
began with goodness and created man.

2.
Question.
"
What
Are we
is
the meaning and the raison d'etre of the

it
word
God
".
to refer
to things connected with nature or
actions ?
Answer.
There are people who say
that the
meaning
of the
word
God
is
judge.
When,
therefore,
say that
"
God
is
a righteous
302
l

is
there Judge," without reason
reason for
my
saying so
indeed there
is
no name
;
He is thus called
;
maker, because
He makes
creator,
because
He
all
creates
;
has servants
reason of
3.
judge, because He judges ; Lord, because He All-Seer, because He sees everything. This is the
these (adjectives).
Question.
What
is
the extension
and the
and
significance of the
word
of
God?
The word God
refers to nature,
is
Answer.
of the category
names which can be applied

;
to
transformation of their nature

to other natures, such as
3
in this
"
I
made
other natures without essential " " way the name God extends " * I and thee god to Pharaoh,"
From these it is evident that God's have said ye are gods," etc. nature is not removed from Him with the removal of His name to
other natures.
grudging.
Why
Because the Lord of these names has no
Those who received this name have only received it figuraIt is a name which inwithout having been gods by nature. tively volves lordship, and thus it fits in with the attributes of nature and
extends to other natures.
4.
Question.
Is
God
separable from His will, or are
God and
His
will
will
one
Answer.
this respect
God ? God
God
is
God, and His

will
is
will
is
not His nature, nor has

It
any person, because

"
in itself
an
act.
has been said in
desired the descendants of
Noah and Abraham

and
in the
to
be without baptism, but
now He
desires their baptism,
world to come
not baptized
5.
'*.
He
will
not desire the baptism of people
who were
"
Question.
shall
4
It
is
written that the
Angel
said to
Mary,
The
Holy Ghost
but
scend upon thee,"
God
come, and the power of the Most High shall de" and the Apostle said, Christ the power of God," " also called locusts His power, because He said, I sent
;* Christ
you my great power" 7 power of God.

against
1
and
locusts are, therefore, the
Ps.
".
Tii.
12.
The
author
is
probably working on I^VIN

3
rom
"
\*7
to
judge
2 4
Ex.
vii.
i.
1.
Ps. Ixxxii. 6.
of the
Luke
"
1
35.
The
"
in
translator,
under the influence

Le.
Greek
text,
used
the verb
5 7
to
come
i.
masculine instead of feminine as
in the Peshitta.
Cor.
24.
Army
Qoel
ii.
In
crete)
Hebrew and Aramaic the word and "power" (in abstracto).
hail means both
25). "
army ")
in
con-
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
Answer.
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
1
303
Locusts have been called the power of God figuratively Similarly only, and not because they were from the nature of God. has been called "the powers (= armies) of God," and in this Israel
sense
it
is
written,
"The
king of Babylon sent his
and besieged Jerusalem".*
Could he have
sent his nature?
power (= army) No.
When
his
it
is
written,
it
"The
of
came," can
mean
that his nature

its
power (= army) of the King of Egypt came ? No. Was it not called
subjection to
power simply because

"
him
Likewise
of
4
in the
3
following sentence,
He
sent another
one from the King
Ammon
and he was unwilling

of his will
to send his
used to denote subjection to

;
power (= army)," power has been the King its sender and accomplishment
have been called the power
of
locusts, therefore,
God
because they came to accomplish the will of God, in a manner similar " to the expression power of the King," and not because they were from the nature of God, like the Son proceeding from Himself, who
put on our humanity.
6.
"
written,
Question.
"
6
It is
There
shall
it
no man see me and
live,"
why
of
will the
man who
or
sees
Him
die, is
His anger
"
the brightness of His essence
because of the "intensity " 7

?
Answer. It is because of man shall see Him and live

;
the brightness of His essence that no
because created
cannot see the uncreated essence.

tently at the sun of this world,
of the sun ?
7.
and corporeal eyes Lo we cannot look and gaze incan
how
we
then look at the creator
Question.
Why
to
was our Lord born

in the
of a
woman
instead of
fashioning a
body
Himself
same manner
of a
as
He
moulded and
fashioned
Adam, Answer. Our Lord was born
the head of our race ?
woman
;
because
of
men
before as
after
His coming, pronounced unclean the nature
despised the order sanctioned by the Creator

of a
He
to
womanhood, and was born, therefore,

be despised and ab-
woman
to teach
and demonstrate that her members were not un-
clean,
and that the order
He
had made was not
horred, as the Heretics asserted.

1 1
Sam.
xvii.
36, 45.
By
Cf.
an oversight the translator used
Cf. Jer. xxxiii. 2 ; xxxix. I instead of 'Ammon, under

.
Ammon
the influence of the

4
5
I
Greek
1-19;
text.
1
Sam.
x.
Chron. 1-19.
6
Exod.
xxxiii. 20.
Ps. Ixxviii. 49.
Heb.
i.
3.
304
8.

Question.
Why was He born

was born
of
a Virgin without marriage
Answer.
that
He
of a Virgin without marriage to
show
He
was
the Creator
who
created also the
first
Adam
in
without
marriage.
Further,
He
fashioned to Himself a
body
the
womb
without marriage and put it on and came out in order to show that inasmuch as sin entered the world by means of the first virgin, and a
woman was
us
the cause of our death, so also

of a
life
was
to
be given unto
by means
9.
woman.
Question.
Why
?
(was
He
born) of a betrothed and not of an
unbetrothed virgin
Answer.
He was born
of a betrothed virgin in order that

;
it
might
is
be proved that she did not commit adultery trothed is indeed kept under great care, and
(the girl)
who
be-
(in the case) the
testi-
mony
of Joseph is to the effect that she did not commit any adultery, and that he found nothing blameable in her. 10. Question. Why did our Lord appear from the progeny of David and Judah and not from another tribe ?
Answer.
prediction
of
He
" The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a prophet prophecy, from between his feet, until the Christ to whom government belongs " 3 The Another Book says, comes, and Him shall nations expect ".
the prophets
appeared from the tribe of Judah in order that the Jacob said in his might be fulfilled.
King Messiah
]
offer
come out of Judah ".* 1. Question. Why was our Lord circumcised, and why did He " There are Heretics who say If your Lord was sacrifices ?
will
circumcised, circumcise also yourselves ".
Answer.
profit,
Our Lord was

was
in
not circumcised for the sake of a personal

justified
;
and
He
did not offer sacrifices in order to be
the giver of all these

circumcision
was
to proclaim,
by them no need of them. His only aim in His and demonstrate that He was the teach,
Son
of
circumcision
asserted. 12.
1
God, the Maker and the establisher of the Law, and that was not a point excluded from the Law as the Heretics
Question.
Did our Lord
die willingly or forcibly ?
If
He
Note Theodore's doctrine

Cf.
1
of the first
3
2
4
Rom.
v. v.
12.
Chron.
2 (Peshitta)
cf.
and second Adam. Gen. xlix. 10. Testament of Leri, p. 309,

1.
v.
in
Charles'
"Apocrypha," and
also ibid., p. 323, xxiv.
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
died willingly,
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
305
agreed with His murderers, who in this case would not deserve the pain of death, but are all the more to be rewarded
He
because they have accomplished His will. Answer. He did not die forcibly, and
He was
not weaker than
His murderers, who murdered Him because they hated Him and His sender. He died by God's tacit permission, which preserves the freewill of
man.
If
He had
saved Himself from the cross
He would
have
coerced His free-will and required that it should not accomplish His desire. He did not coerce His free-will, but He tacitly permitted
the act of His crucifixion, and, although able to save Himself from
the cross,
He
did not do so in order to safeguard His free-will and
act spontaneously.
1
3.
Question.
Was
the baptism of John a Jewish institution ?
If
they answer in the affirmative, ask them,
"
Why
is
did
He
then bap-
publicans and Jews, and by their

tize
adulteresses, a thing which
forbidden by the
institution,
Law
Further,
if
it
why were not

"
viz.
If they answer, It was Jews baptized by him ? our Lord's [institution]," tell them what John himself made manifest,
"
was a Jewish
"
all
He
that
fire
cometh
after
me,
is
mightier than
I,
and he
this
it
shall
is
bap-
tize
with
it
and with the Holy Ghost 'V

John's baptism
From
evident
that
was
not our Lord's.
Answer.
but
it
was
neither from
Jews nor from

It
it.
Christ,
was an
institution set apart to

sins
be administered only
in the water,
after
repentance from
and
rejection of trespasses.
was
thus not
to the
more than remission

baptism of Christ,
(of sins) to those
who
believed in
As
all
Holy Ghost, and

1
filled
4.
?
Question.
If
who are baptized in it are clad with the with the power of God. The baptism thou hast received, what is it and for
those
what
thou sayest,
"
For the remission of
sins,"
we would have
" then been baptized to no purpose," and if thou sayest, For our puri" I will say, all those who receive it without fication," Therefore,
previous uncleanness,
do not
is,
profit
it is
by
it
".
Answer.
Christ.
4
Baptism
sinner
iii.
as
written, a circumcision
it
made without
if
hands/ and renders those who
receive
A
1
'
partakers of the sufferings of
who
11.
is
baptized, his sins are remitted to him,
Matt.
Col.
Since penitence
ii.
itself
can have the same

4
effect.
iii.
II.
2Cor.
i.
7; Phil.
10.
306

his
he turns away from

"
as
it is
previous
life,
but he
who
has no
sins
and
is
'
baptized, partakes of the sufferings of Christ

written,
and
receives
His mark
Ye
are buried with
Him
is is
live
with
Him
"."
He,
therefore,
who
is
in baptism wherein also ye unclean and is baptized, is

is
is
justified,
and he
who
;
has no sins and

further,
baptized,
baptized,
marked with the

circumcised with
3
sufferings of Christ
he
who
without hands, and becomes a temple to God. the circumcision Those who died without baptism I am speaking of those who lived
prior to the
made
coming
of Christ
for
are not to be blamed, because Christ
had not yet died

tized
;
them
but
now
that
He
they were not even ordered to be baphas come and has been killed, he who re;
fuses to
is
be baptized shows that he

life.
rejects the
baptism of Christ, and
a stranger to His
1
5.
Question.
If
a God-loving
man who had wished
to partake
of the sacrament of
Baptism happens
to die suddenly in a country
where no
priest
is
found,
what
shall
we
say about him,
is
he a Chris-
tian or not ?
Answer.
in his
We say
about such a
life,
man
if
that
if
he had Christianity
his
mind
all
the days of his
and
knowingly and lovingly
soul
was
longing to partake of the sacrament of Baptism, but
happened
to die, not from culpable negligence but
by the will of his Creator

life.
who
shortened his
16.
life,
that
he
is
a Christian and has everlasting

false religions
have usurped the Question. august names of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, and use
Because some
them only symbolically while they are alien to the force of their names, and strangers to the very truth of their symbol, if a Christian man, woman, or baby happens to be nearing his death, and in that locality
where he
is
there
is
4
no believing
priest
to baptize him,
is
he allowed
to follow a heretic
in order to receive
Answer.
even
if
He is
die,
baptism from him or not ? not allowed to receive baptism from such people
because they do not believe in the true religion, and the symbols which they perform are not genuine. If such a one
he should
happens to die, and perseveres in not following them and receiving from them the vain names which they possess, he is an excellent
Christian
;
because he trusted in the truth and believed that the truth
Not
Cf.
1
Peshitta.
Cor.'iii. 16-17.
Col.
ii.
12
cf.
Rom.
vi. 3.
a
4
Note Bar Yulpdna
in the sense of
"
heretic ".
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
of his faith
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
307
would purify him, and because he persevered and did not lend his mind to error, nor turn his intelligence to imposters, he is an
excellent
1
man.
Question.
of our
7.
Why are we baptized once only,

?
*
while
we receive
the
body
Lord many times and continually
Answer.
only, but
2
We are baptized once only because
our Lord died once
it
we perform the symbol of His body many times, because has been given unto us as food of life everlasting and drink of life. Our Lord ordered that it should be prepared and performed on the
till
earth by the faithful and the saints

this reason, as long as
the end of the world.
For
we
are in this world,
we
must not neglect the

of to
food of
life
Christ, in
and the commemoration and the symbol of the passion order that He may be in us and we in Him, according
His
firm promises to us.

1
8.
Question.
What
If
is
Christianity
and
of
what does
ask him,
"
it
consist ?
Of works
or of faith ?
he says
"
of
works
"
What
are
these works ? Are they chastity, holiness, asceticism, fasting, prayer, " If etc. ? Christianity consists of these, among the Heretics also
there are people who are ascetic and abstaining from food, who would then constitute Christianity nay even among pagans there are people who give alms and worship idols, who in this case would also be
;
Christian.
Answer.
faith in
Christianity does not consist of

in
which one believes
God
as an essential being,
good works, but of solid and in the
Son proceeding from Him, as Saviour of mankind who put on our humanity, and in the Holy Spirit, the Paraclete, as consubstantial with God. This is the august Trinity who created the created things from In pronouncing three names we do not believe in three nothing. Gods the Father in His person, the Son in His person, and the
;
Spirit in
It
is,
His
person, are one nature, one
Godhead, and one power.
therefore,
good works, but of the knowledge of God. and of good and pious works.
1
obvious that Christianity does not consist solely of It consists of a solid faith,
9.
Question.
Are
;
all
those
who
love
God
Christian ?
Answer.
1
No
the ancient Patriarchs were God-loving men, but

believes the Eucharist to be only the
Note
that
Theodore
symbol
of
the
body
of Christ.
-Or "He".
308

in
were not counted

1
Christianity, because
it
was not found
in their
days.
20. Question.
Are
there people
who do not know of Christianity

do not know
of
and are Christian
?
;
Answer.
1 .
Yes
the baptized children and babes
Christianity and are Christian. 2 Are there people Question. not what is Christianity ?
;
who are
not Christian
and know
tian
Answer. Yes there are pagans and and know not what is Christianity."
22. Question.
infidels
who
"
are not Chris-
What is
"
the meaning of the

is
name
"
Christianity
It is
Answer.
lated into
1
The name
Christianity
of
Greek
origin.
trans-
Aramaic by Meshihayutha ". " " and Christ Meshlha" True haye
'.
Christians are
"
Meshi-
Christians are, therefore,
obliged to
in loving
know the mysteries of Christianity and make use of them and honouring the Christ who died for them, in order that they may not be unworthy of the salvation to come. 23. Question. What is the meaning of the words " Nazarenes,"
"
Nazarenism," and
"
Answer.
The
" Nazareth ? " " word Nazarene

"
is
of
Hebraic
origin.
The
And there shall come forth a rod out of the prophet Isaiah says, " stem of Jesse and a Neser out of his roots ". 3 Again he says, And the Neser which I have planted, the work of my hands, will be 4 The meaning of Neser is " new ". 5 The prophet did glorified ". " not call the teaching of our Lord by this name because it was novel,"
but because
God was
to clothe
without
called
it
marriage in a
"
Himself with a body from the Virgin

"
novel
way.
in
That
is
why
the prophet
i.e.
"new".
Our Lord was
called
"Nazarene,"
from
Nazareth, because
He
was brought up
is
the Nazareth of Galilee,

is
and Nazareth
of Galilee
called the
interpreted as referring to the
Torah and the

answer
to
"new" of Galilee, which New Testament.
There is here a
There
Is. xi.
question, the
which has been omitted by the
copyist.
here a short and unimportant question. Ms. lx.21 (Peshitta). " That the word -^2 means " new is not warranted by the Hebrew the author may possibly have had in his mind lexicography known to us " new shoot," " young growth," " sprout ".
is
3
"
1.
:>
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
24. Question.
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
"
309
What
"
is
the meaning of the words
Church,"
Bishops" ? " Catholic Church," mean a perfect Answer. The words congregation, that is to say blameless in truth and fulfilling all obliganever applied to a congregation of Heretics, because they are not blameless in the true The word faith, and they do not fulfil the obligations of God's cult. " " " " Catholicos Bishop means bearer of hardships ; as to the word " " "
tions.
"Catholicos," and
The words
"
Catholic,
Church
"
are
it
means
protected
and
perfect," that
is
to say, his
mind
is
pro1
tected from vain thoughts
and
perfect in the obligations of
God's
cult.
25. Question.
Why do we pray in the direction
of the East,
and
not in the direction of North, South, and West, from which are the
'
Prophets, the Apostles, and the Saviour of the
World
?
;
Answer.
God is in height,
depth, East, West, North, and South

;
we space does not circumscribe Him, nor does place confine Him pray in the direction of the East solely in order that our eyes may gaze in the direction of Paradise and that we may remember our first
place which our
the East
is
first father lost by his will. Further, the direction of more noble than the other directions, according to the
testimony of the prophet
who
"
says,
He
I
brought
me
to the gate that
looked toward the East, and behold,

Israel
of
coming from the way of the East, 3 many waters and the earth quaked from His
saw the glory of the God of and his voice was like a noise
glory.
And
fell
upon
4
my
face,
and the glory

is
of the
Lord came
".*
into the
house by the
gate
whose prospect
in
towards the East
26. Question.
Those who
lived in this world in the true faith,
while
faithful,
they were not less perfect than the but perpetrated sinful works and committed criminal and imthe knowledge of
God
pure
1
acts,
such as uncKastity in their mouth, and bad thoughts in their
appears to be deriving eVio7eo7ro<? from ACOTTO? (labour, toil), and Ka0o\iic6<; from o\o<? (whole, complete), or more directly from KaOo\ov. " The sanctuary in all the Christian Churches in Syria and Mesopotamia
looks towards the East,
He
and
all
Christians pray in that direction
even the
so disposed in their graves as to have their faces towards the sunrise. The direction in which people pray has a great importance in the East, and we notice that special legislation has been enacted for the Qiblah in the
dead are
Mohammedan
s 5
Peshitta
jurisprudence, the source of which is Koran II, 136-145. " 4 Shone ". By the way of the gate (Peshitta).
1-14.
Ezek.
xliii.
310

we have
said,
mind, while as
they were unshakable in the true
faith,
what
shall
we
say of such people, and what shall
we
think about them ?
Are they impious, or just ? Will not they enter heaven at all ? Answer. Those who in this world did not hesitate to live in the true faith, but made use of bad works, and so left this world, it is
possible that they might be, for the sake of the honour true faith, set free from the
due to their bad works which they had committed by receiving previously the chastisement due to their bad works. Every work is measured and valued by the All-Seer whose knowledge
;
nothing escapes
neither the sins of the
body
that
after
of
men, nor the odious
speech which comes out of their mouth, nor their thoughts and the
bad designs of their minds escape the measure of their chastisement

ciplinary correction
Him
;
is
why He knows
of
their
also
and
He
has inflicted disworks,
on them according
to the
measure
they will live again, for the sake of the honour of their faith and other
prescriptions
which they have
27. Question.
A man who holds

in
kept.
to the faith and^to the
knowway,
ledge of truth, but conducts himself in this

inclines
world
in a disgraceful
*
towards sorcerers, diviners, or augurs, and consults
outsiders
and
astrologers,
and puts
practice every small or great augury of
demons, what
shall
we
say about such a one, and
how
can
we
praise
him
Answer.
and denied the
is fulfilled,
Those who made

true faith,
it is
us of such
bad works
in this
world,
on them that the word
of the
Apostle
in their
who
"
says,
They
2
profess that they
know God, but

away from
if
works they deny Him ". works towards God, they

world
in their
If
such people turn
their odious
will
be accepted, but
sinful,
bad works, they are
they go out of the and will not receive discip-
linary measures, nor will they enter heaven, but will be thrown into
the torment.
28. Question.
are in the Church, saying,

flutter
1
Since there are "
over the sacrifice

that the
many who object to the priests who The Holy Spirit does not come down and 3 they offer, because there are among them
Note
".
i.
verb shekel with a baith has the sense of "to consult an
augur
3
-Tit.
16.
Eastern Churches believe that the consecratory words of the bread " and the wine of the mass are those contained in the Epiclesis, and not Hoc
est
The
enim corpus
meum ".
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
men who
themselves
steal,
;
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
311
commit adultery, defraud, do violence, and forswear how can the Holy Spirit obey these men and flutter over
offer,
the sacrifice they
while they commit such bad works

in the
"
Answer.
Although there are

true,
is
Church
of
priests sinful
and
false (to their obligations), yet the right
hand
God which
they offer
has been
is
imposed upon their heads is and because the Holy Spirit
and the
it
sacrifice
pure,
flutter
obedient
will
come down and
over the sacrifice they offer, and it will become propitiation to those who receive it. If a priest is false because of his odious conduct, the
baptism which he administers is true because of the (imposition of the) right hand (which he has received), and if his works are sinful, the
sacrifice
which he
offers
is
genuine because of the
Holy
Spirit,
and
It
if
he
sins,
the people will not be punished for his prevarications.
is
not the holy nor

it
is it
the
is
gift
from coming down by their sins has been bestowed by God's grace for the pardon which
it
;
who make the Holy sinners who prevent
Spirit
come down by
their holiness,
who defrauds invokes it, and it comes down who do not defraud an impure man invokes it, a prodigal and it answers him for the sake of those who are pure and it obeys him for the sake of those who hunger for it invokes it, a wretched man invokes it, and it submits to him for the sake of those who thirst for it. It does not come down through the works of the man who invokes it, but through the intercession of those who stand behind the minister who is turning his eyes towards it it does not look at the sins of the man who invokes it, but it takes into consideration the expectations of those who are asking its intercession. If the
of
mankind.
priest
for the sake of those
priest
is
every one
a sinner, his iniquity, is smitten with his a sinful priest

is
like his justice, is
own
sins.
upon Those who
himself alone
assert that the
sacrifice of
so far as to assert to thee,
not holy, assert wrongly. I shall go even and confirm my assertion by an my son,
oath, that
if
hand
if
of priesthood,
I
and
it
shall
receive
is imposed upon Satan there is in him the hand he breaks the sanctified bread and give me of it, from him, and regard it as lacking nothing and as if
it
Simon Cephas had broken things as some people are.

29. Question.
for
me.
Do
not be in doubt about these
Children and babes

sins,
who
quit this
world without
having committed any iniquity and
nor done any good and praiseshall
worthy work, where
shall
we
put them or what
we
say about
312
them
?

Is
Will they go to heaven or to torment ? place which is neither heaven nor torment ? Answer. About which children hast thou asked
of the faithful
there another
The
children
or the children of the unbelievers ?

in
it
because
we
must
separate them
of the faithful,
our answer.
is
If
thou hast asked about the children

is
evident that there
no believer
who
leaves his
child without the sacrament of baptism unless (this child) has been taken
away by
of our
force.
The
in
Lord are
babes who are baptized in the Divine sacrament heaven, and those who are not baptized through
their
the negligence of their parents go also to heaven, because it was not own fault that they had not participated in the holy sacrament
;
they are not, however, as honourable (in heaven) as those

the
who have
mark
of
the holy sacrament, because baptism and

1
Eucharist are
leave the acknowledged there. world in their childhood without having done anything good or bad, iniquitous or godly, it is obvious that these also are in heaven, because
of infidels
As
to the children
who
they have committed no sins, but they have not the honour of the they will not be in baptized, and they are in an intermediary state torment because they have not perpetrated any crime, and they will
;
not be debarred from heaven because they have not sinned, and thus
the grace of
God
will
nowhere be
unjust to them.
Our Lord asserted to Nicodemus saying, " Verily I say unto thee, except a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he And He said to the Jews, cannot enter the Kingdom of God "."
30. Question.
Except ye eat the flesh ye have no life in you 'V
"
of the
Son
can
of
How
we
man, and drink His blood, listen to these words while
the above people were neither baptized nor were they eaters of the flesh and drinkers of the blood of our Lord, and have life in heaven ?
Answer.
have told thee
to listen to the inspired
books with a
discriminating mind.
Our Lord
told these things to those
who volun-
tarily refrained from baptism and from His flesh and blood, and did not tell them to the believers who involuntarily abstained from
;
He
behold to the scribe baptism and from His holy body and blood " who had accepted His word He said, Thou art not far from the "
Kingdom
i
of
God,"
'
and not
affair of
Thou
art the heir of
Gehenna
is
".
Lit.
it
"
is
Because the
imparted
5.
".
baptism and of the Holy

4
Body
xii.
called from
where
-
John
iii.
John TL 53.
Mark
34.
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
3
1 .
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
:
313
accept with reverence all the solutions you gave " Will chilto these questions, and I want to ask one more question babes who quit this world rise in the day of Resurrection at dren and
Question.
the
at
same age as that they had when they departed, or a mature age ?
will they rise
Answer. In the Resurrection the Creator will by His power remove all the defects which the bodies of men had in this world, and
will quicken the bodies blameless
and
"
perfect in form, at the age of
thirty years.
If
somebody says
How
do you know that ?" we
will
"
answer,
Immediately
after the creation of
Adam
(God's) order
was
Further, after the law was given to the Israelites imposed upon him *Y God ordered them that a man of thirty years shall do the work of the
tabernacle
and
of priesthood.
3
Our Lord
also
came
is
to
baptism at the
age
of thirty years.
The
is
Messiah, our Lord,
called the second
from His race and family, because He is and inasmuch as Adam similar to him, and because He paid his debt was created at the age of thirty years, and our Lord came to baptism
Adam,
because
He
at the
age of thirty years, at
any
sickness, fracture,
same age shall we all rise up without There is mutilation, and wounds in our limbs.
this
all
there neither old nor young, but
mankind
all
will rise
up
at the
same
age.
32. Question.
Is
the death of
this
men from God,
or
is
their
death
and
their departure
from
world from other causes
of a diverse
character ?
Answer.
and
there
is
The
death of
all
men may be from God and may

is
also
be from various causes.
There
a natural death, a violent death,
of these four deaths
death by misadventure, and by suicide. Men die by one and depart. The natural death is that which
has been imposed by God upon Adam and all his posterity, because The violent death is that of Abel he transgressed His commandment.
and
of the prophets,
and
of all those
who
are killed
is
the rulers of this world.
The
death by suicide
that of Saul
by the kings and and
his armour-bearer, of Ahithophel, of

tarily
1
Judas and of all those who volunthrow themselves into the sea or take a deadly poison. The
Eastern commentators, as
at the
The
we
shall presently see,
believed that
God
age of thirty years, and that immediately after his creation the order not to eat of the fruit of the tree of knowledge was imposed
created
Adam
upon him.
-
Num.
iv. 3.
Luke
iii.
23.
314

is
death by misadventure
that of a
man who throws

fist,
a stone on another
man
else,
or strikes
him
"
if
violently with his
or hurls at
him something
without
having previously seen him.

a
warned us
that
man
goeth into the
The Law has already forest to hew wood, and the

murderer
is
iron slippeth
and
striketh a
man, that he
die, the
it,
not liable
to death, inasmuch as he did not desire
and did not hate him from

hold at the commemoration
the reason of our holding
yesterday the third day

33. Question.
of the
".'
The Agapae which we

they,
dead what are
and what
is
them
There are people who say that it is in order that the souls of It would be for the same reason that we the dead may receive rest. feed the orphans, clothe the widows and the naked, and give rest to
?
the weary.
Those who utter such things are alien to the sacred Books, and on them is fulfilled the sentence of our Lord who said
Answer.
"
Verily, verily,
If
I
say unto you, they have received their reward
"."
the souls and
spirits of
men
are to-day given

s
the
Agapae which are held
in their
rest, as they say, by honour, what kind of rest will they
The body having remained be given in the day of Resurrection ? under earth, it would only be the soul that would receive a good reward both
is
in this
world and
in the
world
to
come
but the question
not as they assert, because the soul feels neither rest nor unrest apart from the body ; neither the just have joy and happiness before the day
of Resurrection, nor the unjust
have
Resurrection.
ness that they
The souls
of the
fear and fright before the day of dead have no perception, no conscious-
When
may feel, as they say, joys or torments, rest or unrest. the wife of a king and the wife of a beggar are pregnant, the
son of the king has no rest while in the womb, nor has the son of the beggar any unhappiness while in the womb, until both are born, and
for while the son of the king is luxuriously then they are separated placed on the purple, the son of the beggar is thrown on mean stuff
;
and worn-out patches.
In this
same manner the
just
and the
;
sinners
neither the are equal in their deaths, till the day of Resurrection of the just receive the reward of their good works in order that souls
God's promise may not be revoked, nor the

1
souls of
ri. 2.
the sinners are
Deut. xix. 5-6.

then, will
Matt.
be the reason of the day of Resurrection, since the I.e. What, reward has already been awarded and the punishment inflicted ?
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE
IN
FOURTH CENTURY
315
the judgment to come may not be judged and tormented, in order that without object they remain like foetuses in the wombs without know;
ledge, discernment, rest, or unrest.
In the
wombs
the wealthy and the poor, the slaves and the freemen,
;
the kings and the wretched are equal
neither the rich feel any delight
nor the poor any want, but
when
they come to the world, the kings
are distinguished by their dresses and their honour,
and the wretched

souls,
are
known by
and
their
lowness and poverty.

till
In this
same way the

and the
;
of the just
of the unjust are equal
the day of Resurrection in

souls put then the well-
which the bodies are born

on
of the earth their mother,
their bodies, as children put
on dresses
of all kind
in light,
doers will receive their reward and dwell

will
and the evildoers
be thrown into the darkness.
The Agapae,
like light
however, which
we
hold for our departed ones, are
not held in vain, but in order that their sins and small imperfections,
This
we know from the kindness of our Lord, amongst us who does not sin before Him.
swearing and incontinence of the body, may be forgiven them. because there is no one
Behold,
have shown
thee that the soul and the body rest together, and that the soul does
not rest alone, as the feeble-minded have believed.
34. Question.
If
man
is
nominally Christian, while
in his
con-
duct he
is
other things of this kind, and
wicked and perverse, indulging in sorcery, blasphemy, and if after his death Agapae are held at his
commemoration, and on their occasion the poor and the wretched eat and rest, how will he be helped in the day of Resurrection ? Answer. On him will be fulfilled the word of the Apostle, " And
though
I
bestow
all
my
body
it
to
be burned
in the fire,
goods to feed the poor, and though I give my and have not love, I am nothing, and
profit can, therefore,
profiteth
me
nothirig
*V
martyrs and children Since our Lord said to His gather from their own commemorations ? when giving them His body and His blood, " This do in disciples
35.
Question.
What
commemoration (remembrance) of me ". What utility can martyrs and children have for this same commemoration, while they are themselves a commemoration to themselves ?
Answer.
1
It
is
neither our
Lord nor the martyrs who

-
profit
by
Cor.
xiii.
3.
Luke
xxii.
19.
21
316

it
the commemorations held for them, but

[festivals]
is
those
who
hold these
who
of their love to their Lord,
are to be guerdoned in the day of Resurrection on account who is the requiter of their good works,
and
of
the honour
shown
to
His martyrs, who
will
be
their inter-
mediary rewarders, and of that

1
shown
to the children to
whom
heaven
belongs.
36.
of the
Question.
?
Will the world disappear and end before the
rising
dead
will not disappear and end before the rising our Lord will appear first and come with holy men of the dead, but 2 and multitudes of angels, as it is written. When the coming of our
Answer.
The world
Lord has taken
place, then
His
force will compel the nature of the
earth to give back the dead, and the bodies of the men who were buried in it, and there will be for the souls a time of getting ready and If the preparation to enable them to receive their bodies together.
world and
all
that
it
contains
is
to disappear before the rising of the
dead, from where will the dead whose bodies are mixed up in the
earth, rise
up
the rising of
Those who say that the dead are ignorant and

?
the world will disappear before

stupid.
(God)
first
will not destroy
the world before the rising of the dead, but will

to witness the passing
quicken the dead
away of
this
and the
mind
1
destruction of heaven
and
world, the vanishing of the elements, The sun, the moon, and earth.
affliction will
the stars will disappear, and then

of the wicked,
begin to overtake the
and joy that

-
of the just, for ever
and
ever.
xix.
Cf. Matt. xix. 14.
Cf. Matt, xxiv.,
Mark
xiii.,
Luke
BY
DRAGONS AND RAIN GODS. G. ELLIOT SMITH, M A., M.D., F.R.S.

1
AN
men The
adequate account of the development of the dragon-legend would represent the history of the expression of mankind's
aspirations
and
fears during the past fifty centuries
and more.
The search For the dragon was evolved along with civilization itself. to turn back the years from old age and confer the life, boon of immortality, has been the great driving force that compelled
for the elixir of
to build
up the material and the

is
it
intellectual fabric of civilization.
dragon-legend
the history of that search which has been pre:
has grown up and kept pace with the and constant struggle to grasp the unattainable goal of men's desires the story has been constantly growing in complexity, as new incidents
served by popular tradition
;
were drawn within

real
its
scope and confused with old incidents whose

It
has passed through all the phases with which the study of the spreading of rumours or the development of dreams has familiarized students of psychology. The simple
their meaning disand reinterpreted by the rationalizing of incoherent incidents, are given the dramatic form with which the human mind invests all stories that make a strong appeal to its emotions, and then secondarily elaborated
meaning was
forgotten or distorted.
original stories,
which become blended and confused,
torted
with a wealth of circumstantial
detail.
This
is
the history of popular
legends and the development of rumours.
But these phenomena are

in
displayed
state
in
their
most emphatic form

his
dreams."
man
restrains
roving fancies and exercises
waking what Freud has

:
In
his
called a "censorship" over the stream of his thoughts

falls asleep,
1
but
when he
the
"
censor" dozes also
and
free rein
is
given to his un-
An
elaboration of a Lecture delivered in the John Rylands Library
Dreams and Primitive Culture," delivered at the lecture, John Rylands Library on 10 April, 1918, Dr. Rivers has expounded the principles of dream-development.
317
on 8 November, 1916. " " In his
318

make a hotch-potch
to create a fantastic
restrained fancies to lated incidents,
of the
most varied and unrebuilt
up from fragments bound together by the cement of his aspirations and fears. The myth resembles the dream because it has developed without any consistent and effective censorship. The individual who
mosaic
of his actual experience,
tells
and
of his
man
one particular phase of the story may exert the controlling influence mind over the version he narrates but as it is handed on from " "
:
to
man and
generation to generation the
censorship
also
is
con-
stantly changing.
This lack of unity of control implies that the de-
velopment of the myth is not unlike the building-up of a dream-story. But the dragon-myth is vastly more complex than any dream, because
mankind as a whole has taken a hand

the
in the process of
shaping
it
and
been
number
of centuries devoted to this
work
of elaboration has
than the years spent by the average individual in accumulatBut though ing the stuff of which most of his dreams have been made. the myth is enormously complex, so vast a mass of detailed evidence
far greater
concerning every phase and every detail of
its
history has
been preserved,
both in the literature and the folk-lore of the world, that

to submit
it
we
its
are able
of
its
to psychological analysis
and determine the course

every
incident
in
development and the

rambling.
significance
of
tortuous
In instituting these comparisons
between the development of myths

fact that the interpretation
is
and dreams,
of the
should
like to
emphasize the
myth proposed
in
these pages
almost diametrically opposed
to that suggested
by
his
by Freud, and pushed to a reductio more reckless followers, and especially by Jung.
has been described as
ad absurdum
The dragon
employed
in
"
the most venerable symbol
tive motif in
ornamental art and the favourite and most highly decoraIt has been the inspiration of much, if artistic design ".
not most, of the world's great literature in every age and clime, and
the nucleus around which a wealth of ethical symbolism has accumulated
throughout
the
ages.
The dragon-myth
represents
also
the
earliest doctrine or systematic
In the course of
its
theory of astronomy and meteorology. romantic and chequered history the dragon has
been identified with

religion.
But
it
is
it
of divinities, for
all of the gods and all of the demons of every most intimately associated with the earliest stratum has been homologized with each of the members of
the earliest
Trinity,
the
Great
Mother, the
Water God, and
the
DRAGONS AND RAIN GODS

Warrior Sun God, both individually and
collectively.
319
To
add
to the
the dragon- slayer is also represented by the complexities of the stoiy, same deities, either individually or collectively ; and the weapon with
which the hero

his victim, for
it
slays the
is
it
destruction
destroys.
make
dragon is also homologous both with him and animated by him who wields it, and its powers of a symbol of the same power of evil which it itself
Such a
fantastic
paradox of contradictions has supplied the materials
with which the

of
It
fancies of
men
of every race
and
land,
and every
stage
knowledge and ignorance, have been playing

is
for all these centuries.
not surprising, therefore, that an endless series of variations of the story has been evolved, each decked out with topical allusions and But throughout the complex tissue of this distinctive embellishments.
of
highly embroidered fabric the essential threads of the web and woof its foundation can be detected with surprising constancy and regu-
larity.
Within the
limits of
such an account as
this
it is
obvious that
can
deal only with the main threads of the argument and leave the interesting details of the local embellishments until
some other
time.
is
The
of water.
fundamental element in the dragon's powers
the control
Both
in its beneficent
and
destructive aspects water
was
regarded as animated by the dragon,

Osiris or his
who
thus assumed the role of
enemy
Set.
But when the

of the
attributes of the
Water God
evil avatar,
became confused with those
Great Mother, and her

in
the lioness (Sekhet) form of

destructive Tiamat,
Hathor
Egypt, or in Babylonia the

disorder
became the symbol of dragon became identified with her also.

Similarly the third
and chaos, the
member
of the Earliest Trinity also of the
became the
dead king Osiris the living Horus became assimilated with him. When the belief became king more and more insistent that the dead king had acquired the boon of
dragon.
the son
As
and successor
immortality and
the
was
really alive,
the
distinction
between him and
actually living
king
Horus became correspondingly minimized.
This process of assimilation was advanced a further stage when the

king became a god and was thus more closely identified with his father and predecessor. Hence Horus assumed many of the functions of Osiris and amongst them those which in foreign lands contributed to
;
making a dragon
of
the
Water God.
But
if
the
distinction
be-
320

Hathor
(Isis)
tween Horus and Osiris became more and more attenuated with the
lapse of time, the identification with his mother
was more
attri-
complete
butes in
For he took her place and assumed many of her the later versions of the great saga which is the nucleus
still.
I
of all
the literature of mythology

of
refer to the story of
"
The
Destruction
Mankind
".
The
Osiris,
attributes of
these three
members
of
the Trinity,
Hathor,
other
real
ster
and Horus, thus became intimately linked the one with the and in Susa, where the earliest pictorial representation of a
it
dragon developed,
received concrete form (Fig.
as a
mon-
compounded
of the lioness of
eagle) of Horus, but with the
human
Hathor (Sekhet) with the falcon (or attributes and water-controlling

In
powers which
originally belonged to Osiris.
some
parts of Africa
Fio.
"DRAGON"
EARLY REPRESENTATION OF A COMPOUNDED OF THE FOREPART OF AN EAGLE AND THE HINDPART OF A LION (from an
i.
FIG.
THE EARLIEST BABYLONIAN CON2. CEPTION OF THE DRAGON TIAMAT

(from a Cylinder-seal in the British Museum, after L. W. King).
Archaic Cylinder-seal from Susa, after

Jequier).
the earliest
gazelle or antelope of
But
if
"dragon" was nothing more than Hathor's cow or the Horus (Osiris) or of Set. the dragon was compounded of all three deities, who was
the slayer of the evil dragon ?
The story of the dragon-conflict is really a recital of Horus's vendetta against Set, intimately blended and confused with different
'
versions
of
The
Destruction of
Mankind *V
were
The commonplace
an almost
incidents of the originally prosaic stories
distorted into
unrecognizable form, then secondarily elaborated without any attention

to their original meaning, but with a wealth of circumstantial embellish-
ment, in accordance with the usual methods of the

I
human mind
that
have already mentioned. The history of the legend is in fact the it is the oldest and the most widespread, illusmost complete, because
tration of those instinctive
1
tendencies of the
human
spirit to
bridge the
Vide infra,
p.
350
et seq.
32!
in a kind of gaps in its disjointed experience, and to link together mental mosaic the otherwise isolated incidents in the facts of daily life and the rumours and traditions that have been handed down from the
story-teller's predecessors.
In the
"
Destruction of Mankind," which
shall discuss
more
fully
:
in the following
pages (p.
'
350
the later stories
Horus
:
takes his
seq\ Hathor does the mother's place and earns his

et
slaying
in
spurs as the
hence confusion was inevitably introduced between Warrior Sun-god the enemies of Re, the original victims in the legend, and Horus's
traditional enemies,
the followers of Set.
Against the
in
latter
it
was
Osiris himself
who
fought originally
it is
and
many
were
of the non- Egyptian

is
variants of the legend
the rain-god himself

of the Trinity
who
the warrior.
Hence
with
slayer.
all
three
members
also
identified, not
only
the
dragon,
but
with
the
hero
who was
the dragon-
But the weapon used by the latter was also animated by the same In the Saga of the Winged Trinity, and in fact identified with them. Horus assumed the form of the sun equipped with the wings of Disk,
his
own
falcon
and the
fire-spitting uraeus serpents.
Flying
down from
heaven
in this
form he was
at
the
same time the god and the god's
weapon. were now
As
a fiery bolt from heaven he slew the enemies of Re,
who
Set.
identified with his
own
personal
foes, the followers of
Destruction of Manmyth (i.e. the " " was Hathor who was the of Re and descended Eye from heaven to destroy mankind with fire she also was the vulture
But
in the earlier versions of the

it
"
kind "),
(Mut)
and
in the earliest version
she did the slaughter with a knife
or an axe with which she
was
animistically identified.
But Osiris also was the weapon of the flood (for he was the personification
from
heaven.
destruction, both in the

of the river)
form of
and the rain-storms

the
But he
was
also
an instrument
for vanquishing
demon, when
which was
the intoxicating beer or the sedative drink (the potency of due to the indwelling spirit of the god) was the chosen
overcoming the dragon. This, in brief, is the framework of the dragon- story. The early as the hero, armed with the Trinity Trinity as weapon, slays the
of
1
means
Hence
soldiers killed in battle
and women dying
in childbirth receive
special consideration in the exclusive heaven of (Osiris' s)
Horus's Indian and
American
representatives, Indra and Tlaloc.
322
With its illimitable possibilidragon, which again is the same Trinity. ties for dramatic development and fantastic embellishment with incident
and
ethical
story-tellers
symbolism, this theme has provided countless thousands of with the skeleton which they clothed with the flesh
living
of their
stories,
representing
not
the struggle between light

justice
tronomy and meteorology, but all and darkness, heat and
merely the earliest theories of asthe emotional conflicts of daily life,

cold, right
and
injustice,
prosperity
and
adversity,
and wrong, wealth and poverty.

into the
The whole gamut

legend
until
it
of
human
strivings
and emotions wa& drawn
became the
great epic of the
human
spirit
and the main
every age. Fu, writing in the time of the Han Dynasty, enumerates the "nine resemblances" of the dragon. " His horns resemble those of a stag, his head that of a camel, his eyes
theme
that has appealed to the interest of all
mankind
in
An
ancient Chinese philosopher,
Wang
those of a demon, his neck that of a snake, his belly that of a clam, his
scales those of a carp, his
tiger,
claws those of an eagle, his soles those of a But this list includes only a small his ears those of a cow."
'
minority of the menagerie of diverse creatures which at one time or
another have contributed their quota to

potch.
this
truly astounding hotch-
This composite wonder-beast ranges from Western Europe to the
Far East of Asia, and as we shall see, also even across the Pacific to America. Although in the different localities a great number of most
varied ingredients enter into
its
composition, in most places where the

its
dragon occurs the substratum of
anatomy
consists of a serpent or a
crocodile, usually with the scales of a fish for covering,
and the
feet
and wings, and sometimes also the head, of an eagle, and the forelimbs and sometimes the head of a lion.
of anatomical
falcon, or
hawk,
An
association
features of so unnatural
and
arbitrary a nature can only
mean
that all dragons are the progeny of the

it
same ultimate
ancestors.
not merely a case of structural or anatomical similarity, but also of physiological identity, that clinches the proof of the derivais
But
tion
of
this
fantastic
brood
from the same parents.
Wherever
It
the
is found, it displays a special partiality for water. the rivers or seas, dwells in pools or wells, or in the clouds on the tops
dragon
controls
M. W. de
Visser,
"The Dragon
in
gen der Koninklijke Akademie van Afdeeling Letterkunde, Deel XIII, No.
Wetenschappen
China and Japan," Verhandelinte
Amsterdam
2, 1913, p. 70.
Fio. 4.
A MEDIAEVAL PICTURE
OF A CHINESE DRAGON UPON ITS CLOUD
(After the late Professor
W.
Anderson)
Fio.
5.
A CHINKSK DRAGON
de Groot)
(After
FIG.
6.
DRAGON FROM THE ISHTAR GATE OF BABYLON
FIG. 7.
BABYLONIAN WKATHBR GOD

and
is
323
of mountains, regulates the tides, the flow of streams, or the rainfall, associated with thunder
and
it
lightning.
Its
home
is
a mansion
at the
bottom of the
sea,
where
guards vast treasures, usually pearls,

In other instances the dwelling
;
but also gold and precious stones.
is
upon the top

the rain-clouds.
of
a high mountain
It
and the dragon's breath forms
Eating the dragon's " heart enables the diner to acquire the knowledge stored in this organ " so that he can understand the language of birds, and of the mind
in
fact
emits thunder and lightning.
of all the creatures that
have contributed to the making
of a
dragon. It should not be necessary to rebut the numerous attempts that have been made to explain the dragon-myth as a story relating to extinct
monsters.
Such
and
fantastic claims
can be made only by writers

of the
devoid of any knowledge of palaeontology or of the distinctive features

of the dragon
its
history.
But when the Keeper
Egyptian
and Assyrian Antiquities intended to be humorous,

a gigantic
fossil
in the British
1
seriously
snake as
" proof
it is
"
Museum, in a book that is not claims Dr. Andrews' discovery of

of the former existence of
"
the
great serpent-devil
Apep," Those who attempt to
rime to protest.
derive the dragon from such living creatures

or
as lizards like
Draco volans
Moloch horridus
ignore the evidence
of the composite
and unnatural
features of the monsters.
'Whatever be the
origin of
the Northern dragon, the
myths,
when
tials
they
first
became
articulate for us,
show him
to
is
be
in all essen-
a power of evil, guardian of hoards, the greedy withholder of good things from men and the slaying of a dragon is the crowning achievement of heroes of
the
that of the
;
same as
South and East.
He
Siegmund,
Lancelot,
of
the
even of Beowulf, of Sigurd, of Arthur, of Tristram " beau ideal of mediaeval chivalry (Encyclopedia
-
Britannica,
usually a
vol.
viii.,
p.
"
467).
But
if
in
the
West
the dragon
is
power equally emphatically a symbol of beneficence. He is identified with emperors and kings Jie is the son of heaven, the bestower of all bounties, not merely to mankind directly, but also to the earth as well.
is
;
of evil," in the far East
he
Even
1
in our
country his symbolism
is
not always wholly malevolent

1904,
TO!,
i.,
E. A. Wallis Budge,
"The Gods
of the Egyptians,"
p. 11.
-Gould's "Mythical Monsters," 1886.
324
otherwise

if
for
the
moment we
shut our eyes to the history of the
development
of
of
heraldic ornament
dragons would
hardly figure as
the supporters of the arms of the City of London,

of our aristocratic families,
of
of
as the symbol which the Royal House many among Tudor is included. It is only a few years since the Red Dragon Cadwallader was added as an additional badge to the achievement
and
of the Prince of
in the
ties
though a common ensign in war, both East and the West, as an ecclesiastical emblem his opposite quali-
Wales.
"
But,
have remained consistently

is
until
the present day.
Whenever
and
the
his
dragon
works.
fire."
represented,
it
symbolizes the
is
power
of evil, the devil
Hell
in mediaeval art
a dragon with gaping jaws, belching

not always blameless.
And
For
it
in the
East the dragon's reputation
is
figures in
some disreputable
incidents
and does not escape the
sort of
punishment that tradition metes out to his
European
cousins.
THE DRAGON
for
IN
AMERICA AND EASTERN ASIA.

and probably
also even
In the early centuries of the Christian era,
two
or three hundred years earlier
still,
the leaven of the ancient
civilizations of the
Old World was
at
work
in
Mexico, Central America
and Peru.
The most
especially in the area
were brought to bear, from Yucatan to Mexico, were inspired by the

obtrusive influences that
Cambodian and Indonesian modifications of Indian beliefs and practices. The god who was most often depicted upon the ancient Maya and Aztec codices was the Indian rain-god Indra, who in America was
provided with the head of the Indian elephant (i.e. seems to have been confused with the Indian Ganesa) and given other attributes more suggestive of the Dravidian
1
Naga
than his enemy, the
other the
words the character
of the
American god,
Aryan deity. In known as Choc by

is
Maya
people and as Tlaloc by the Aztecs,

Melanesia."
an
interesting
il-
lustration of the effects of such a mixture of cultures as
Dr. Rivers has

in
studied in
Not only does
the
elephant-headed god
America represent a blend of the two great Indian rain-gods which in the Old World are mortal enemies, the one of the other (partly for
Precolumbian Representations of the Elephant in America," Nature, NOT. 25, 1915, p. 340; Dec. 16, 1915, p. 425 and Jan. 27, 1916, p. 593 '"History of Melanesian Society," Cambridge, 1914.
;
"
FIG.
8. RKi'Kont'CTioN OF A PICTURE IN THK MAYA CODKX TROANO REPRESENTING THK RAIN-GOO CHAC TREADING UPON THK SKRPKNT'S HKAD, WHICH is INTERPOSKD HKIWKI'N THK I'ARTH AND Till'. KAIN THK (i()l) IS l'Ol'KIN(i OUT OK A r.nwi.. A RAIN-GOI>I>KSS STANDS ITON THK SKKI-KNT'S TAIL.
Fin. g.
Iliil.
ANOTHKR RKPRKSKNTATION OF THK ELKHHANT-HKADKD
RAIN-OOII.
HE
is
IS
DIM! THfNDKKHOI.TS, CON VKNTIONAI.ISKI) IN A HANU-UKK FORM. CONVKRTKD l\l(i A SAC, HOLDING UP THK RAIN-WATKKS.
TlIK ShRl'l-M
325
the political reason that the Dravidians and Aryans were rival and hostile peoples), but all the traits of each deity, even those depicting
the old
Aryan
conception of their deadly combat, are reproduced in

reveal an ignorance on the part
America under circumstances which

are representing.
of the artists of the significance of the paradoxical contradictions they
But even many incidents

reappear in America.
in the early history of the
Vedic gods, which were due

of the legends,
to arbitrary circumstances in the
scores
of
which might be quoted), in the attributes of the god Soma.
growth one instance (out of the Vedic story Indra assumed many
To
cite
In
America the name

is
of the
is
god
of
rain
and thunder, the Mexican

"pulque
Indra,
Tlaloc, which
generally
oc[tli\ t
translated
of the earth,"
from tla^J\i, "earth," and
"
pulque, a fermented drink (like the Indian drink somd)
made from
" (the elephant-headed rain-god) long-nosed god the non-committal designation "god B," by Schellhas." has been given I reproduce here a remarkable drawing (Fig. 8) from the Codex
the juice of the agave
'V
The
so-called
"
Troano,
in
which
this
god,
whom
the
Maya
people called Chac,
is
shown pouring the rain out of a water-jar (just as the deities of Babylonia and India are often represented), and putting his foot upon the
head
of a serpent, find
who
is
preventing the rain from reaching the earth.
Here we
depicted
with
childlike simplicity
and
directness the
Vedic conception
"
of Indra overcoming the
demon
Vritra.
Stempell
a
4
describes this scene as
"
the elephant- headed god
standing upon the
head
of a serpent
it
3
;
while Seler,
who
claims that god
is
tortoise,
explains
as the serpent forming a footstool for the rain-god.
In the
d' Archeologie Americaine," 1912, p. 319. Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts," Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. iv., 1904. 3 Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Bd. 40, 1908, p. 716. 4 " Die Tierbilder der mexikanischen und der Maya-Handschriften,"
H. Beuchat, "Manuel
"
In the remarkZeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, Bd. 42, 1910, pp. 75 and 77. able series of drawings from Maya and Aztec sources reproduced by Seler in his articles in the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, the Peabody Museum Papers, and his monograph on the Codex Vaticanus, not only is
practically every episode of the dragon-myth of the Old World graphically depicted, but also every phase and incident of the legends from India (and Babylonia, Egypt and the /Egean) that contributed to the building-up of the myth.
326

the
Codex Cortes
same theme
is
truer to the Indian conception of Vritra, as
depicted in another way, which is " " the restrainer (Fig. 9).
'
The
ing
itself
serpent (the
into a sac to hold
the earth.
In
by coilup the rain and so prevent it from reaching the various American codices this episode is depicted in
American
rattlesnake) restrains the water
as great a variety of forms as the
Vedic poets
of India described
is,
when
they sang of the exploits of Indra.
The Maya Chac
in fact, Indra
transferred to the other side of the Pacific
and there only
thinly dis-
guised by a veneer of American stylistic design. But the Aztec god Tlaloc is merely the Chac of the
transferred
to
Mexico.
"
most
common
Maya people Schellhas declares that the "god B," the " universal deity to whom figure in the codices," is a
the most varied elements, natural phenomena, and activities are subject ". " Many authorities consider God B to represent Kukulkan, the
Feathered Serpent, whose Aztec equivalent is Quetzalcoatl. Others him with Itzamna, the Serpent God of the East, or with Chac, identify
the Rain
God
;
of the four quarters
and the equivalent
of Tlaloc of the
Mexicans."
From
the point of view of
its
Indian analogies these confusions are

in India.
peculiarly significant, for the
same phenomena are found
The
dragon
snake and the dragon can be either the rain-god of the East or the
enemy
of the rain-god
slain.
either the dragon-slayer or the evil
who
has to be
The
Indian
word Ndga, which
is
applied to
the beneficent god or king identified with the cobra, can also
mean
double significance the confusion of the deities in America.

this
"elephant," and
In the
probably played a part in
Dresden Codex the elephant- headed god
is
represented in
one place grasping a serpent, in another issuing from a serpent's mouth, and again as an actual serpent (Fig. 10). Turning next to the attributes of these
American gods we
thunder, lightning,
find that they reproduce with
amazing
con-
precision those of Indra.

trolled rain,
Not only were they

and
the divinities
who
vegetation, but they also carried
axes and thunderbolts (Fig. 10) like their homologues in the Old World. Like Indra, Tlaloc was intimately associated with the East and with
the tops of mountains,
where he had a
"
special heaven,
reserved for
Compare Hopkins,
Herbert
J.
"
Religions of India,"
p.
94.
Spinden,
Maya
Art,"
p. 62.
3V
Fig. 10.
A photographic
Codex.
reproduction of the 36th page of the Dresden
Maya
Of
central
the three pictures
in
the
top row one represents the elephant-
headed god Chac with a snake's body

picture represents
to earth.
the lightning
He is pouring out animal carrying fire

shown
in
rain. The down from
heaven
On
in the
the right
Chac
is
human
guise carrying
thunderweapons In the second row a goddess
form
of
burning torches.
sits
in the rain
its
her head
is
prolonged
into that of a bird, holding a fish in
beak.
The
central picture
shows
Chac
third
in his
boat ferrying a
woman
across the water from the East.

conflict
The
illustration
depicts the
familiar
between the vulture and

he
serpent.
In the third
row Chac
is
seen with his axe
in the central picture

;
is
standing in the
he
is
water looking up towards a rain-cloud shown sitting in a hut resting from his labours.
and on the
right
Fir,.
io.
PAOH (THK
36)
OF THK DKHSHKN
MAYA Com-x

warriors
327
who
fell
in battle
and women who died
in childbirth.
As
water-god also
who
the
in life
he presided over the souls of the drowned and those Indra also specialized in suffered from dropsical affections.
of medicine.
of
same branch
In fact,
if
one compares the account

is
Tlaloc's attributes and
achievements, such as
or Professor Seler's
fessor
given in
Mr.
"
Joyce's
Mexican Archaeology"
monograph on the "Codex Vaticanus," with Pro-
Hopkins's summary of Indra's character (" Religions of India ") the identity is so exact, even in the most arbitrary traits and confusions
with other
deities' peculiarities, that
investigator to refuse to
becomes impossible for any serious admit that Tlaloc and Chac are merely Ameriit
can forms of Indra.

of the
its
Even
so fantastic a practice as the representation

l
American rain-god's face as composed of contorted snakes finds analogy in Siam, where in relatively recent times this curious device
still
was
being used by
the god of
artists.
maize belonged to him [Tlaloc], though not altogether by right, for according to one legend he stole it after it had been discovered by other gods concealed in the heart of a Indra also obtained soma from the mountain by similar mountain."
fertility
"
As
means
In the ancient civilization of

deities
America one
of the
was
called the
"
most prominent
Feathered Serpent," in the
Maya
language,
Kukulkan, "
Mother
of
Quiche Gukumatz, Aztec Quetzalcoatl, the Pueblo Waters". Throughout a very extensive part of America
is
the snake, like the Indian Naga,
the
emblem
of rain, clouds,
thunder
of
and
rain
lightning.
;
But
it
is
essentially
and pre-eminently the symbol
and the god
who
controls the rain,
Chac
of the
Mayas, Tlaloc
homologues
of the Aztecs, carried the axe
and the thunderbolt
like his
and prototypes in the Old World. In America also we find reproduced in full, not only the legends of the antagonism between the
Codex Vaticanus," Figs. 299-304. " example, F. W. K. Miiller, Nang," Int. Arch.f. Ethnolog. t 1894, Suppl. zu Bd. vii., Taf. vii., where the mask of Ravana (a late surrogate of Indra in the Ramayanti) reveals a survival of the prototype of
Seler,
"
See, for
the
Joyce, op. ctt. p. 37. For the incident of the stealing of the soma by Garuda, who in this " legend is the representative of Indra, see Hopkins, Religions of India," pp. 360-61.
t
Mexican designs. 3
328

one composite monster, which, as
incident in the
of
1
thunder-bird and the serpent, but also the identification of these two
rivals in
is
have already mentioned,

the
seen in the winged disks, both in the

history
of
Old World and

the
India,
in
fails
New.
Hardly any
thunder-birds
Egyptian falcon or
to
the
in
Babylonia,
pictorial
Greece or
expression
reappear
America and
codices.
find
the
Maya and
Aztec
What makes America

the fact that
it is
such a rich storehouse of historical data
is
;
and
for
world almost from pole centuries the jetsam and flotsam swept on to many
stretched across the
to pole
this
vast
strand has
made
it
museum
of the cultural history of the

lost
much
saved
highly
of
it.
which would have been
for ever
if
Old World, America had not
confused
But a record preserved in this manner is necessarily in a For essentially the same materials reached state.
in manifold forms. The original immigrants into America from North- Eastern Asia such cultural equipment as had brought reached the area east of the Yenesei at the time when Europe was in
America
the Neolithic phase of culture.
coast along the Eastern Asiatic
by the Aleutian route there when more venturesome sailors began to navigate the open seas and exthere was a more or less constant influx ploit Polynesia, for centuries
'-'
Then when ancient mariners began to littoral and make their way to America was a further infiltration of new ideas. But
of customs
which were drawn from Egypt and Babylonia, from the Mediterranean and East Africa, from India and Indonesia, China
and
beliefs,
and Japan, Cambodia and Oceania.

idea,
One and
the
same fundamental
reached
such as the attributes of the serpent as a water-god,

in
America
an
infinite variety of guises,
Egyptian, Babylonian, Indian,

this
Indonesian, Chinese and Japanese,
and from
amazing jumble
built
of
confusion the local priesthood of Central

beliefs
America
up a system of
which
is
distinctively
and the World.
principles of synthetic composition
American, though most of the ingredients were borrowed from the Old
Every possible phase of the early history of the dragon-story and all the ingredients which in the Old World went to the making
1
"
The
Influence of Ancient Egyptian CiYilization in the East and in

Bulletin of the
".
America,"
*
John Rylands Library, 1916,

to
Fig.
4,
"The
Serpent-Bird
Probably from about 300 B.C.
700 A.D.
Fig. II.
A. The
B.
so-called
"
sea-goat
"
of Babylonia, a creature
compounded
of
the antelope and
fish of
Ea.
as the vehicle of
The
to
"
sea-goat
"
Ea
B.C.
or
Marduk.
the Buddhist Rails
after
C
at
a series of varieties of the

circa
maâra from
70 A.D.,
HI,
Buddha Gaya and Mathura,

Survey
of
70
Cunningham
("Archaeological
India,"
Vol.
1873,
Plates
IX and
XXIX). L. The
It
is
matâra as the vehicle of Varuna, after Sir George Birdwood. not difficult to understand how, in the course of the easterly diffusion
of culture, such a picture should
develop into the Chinese Dragon or the
American Elephant-headed God.
Fin.
ii.

of
it
329
in
have been preserved
in
American
pictures
and legends
a be-
wildering variety of forms
and with an amazing luxuriance
of compli-
In America, as in India cated symbolism and picturesque ingenuity. Eastern Asia, the power controlling water was identified both with and
a serpent (which in the New World, as in the Old, was often equipped with such inappropriate and arbitrary appendages, as wings, horns and or confused with an elecrests) and a god, who was either associated
phant.
of
Now
many
of the attributes of these gods, as personifications
the
life-giving
powers
of water,
are identical with those of the
Babylonian god Ea and

warriors
the Egyptian Osiris, and their reputations as

representatives,
with
the respective sons and
Marduk and
Horus.
The
composite animal of Ea- Marduk, the "sea-goat" (the
Capricornus of the Zodiac), was also the vehicle of Varuna in India, whose relationship to Indra was in some respects analogous to that of The Indian "sea-goat" or Makara Ea to Marduk in Babylonia.
1
was
in fact intimately associated
both with Varuna and with Indra.
This monster assumed a great variety of forms, such as the crocodile, the dolphin, the sea-serpent or dragon, or combinations of the heads of
different animals
with a
fish's
body
(Fig.
).
Amongst
these
we
find
far
an elephant-headed form of the makara, which was adopted as

east as Indonesia
I
and as
far
west as Scotland.
2
have already called attention

in
to the part
played by the
makara
in
determining the development of the form of the elephant-headed
god
America.
Another form
of the
is
makara
is
described in the
following American legend, which
interesting also as a mutilated
version of the original dragon- story of the
Old World.
'
1912 Hernandez translated and published a Maya manuscript which had been written out in Spanish characters in the early days
In
called the
For information concerning Ea's " Goat-Fish," which can truly be " Father of Dragons," as well as the prototype of the Indian " " makara, the mermaid, the sea-serpent," the dolphin of Aphrodite," and of most composite sea-monsters, see W. H. Ward's " Seal Cylinders of Western Asia," pp. 382 et seq. and 399 et seq. and especially the detailed reports in de Morgan's Mtmoires (Delegation en Perse). 2 Nature, op. at., supra. 3 Juan Martinez Hernandez, "La Creacion del Mundo segun los Mayas," Paginas Ineditas del MS. De Chumayel, International Congress of Americanists, Proceedings of the XVIII. Session, London, 1912, p.
1
;
164.
330

Americas, but had been overlooked
of the creation,
until
six
It
:
of the conquest of the
years ago.
ing
is
an account
and includes the follow[?
passages
"All
at
once
came
the
water
rain]
;
after
the
heaven was broken up it fell upon away. and they say that Cantul-ti-ku (four gods), the four Baccab, were those who destroyed it. ..." The whole world,' said Ah-uuc-ckek-nale (he who seven times makes fruitful), 'proceeded
carried
dragon was
the
earth
;
The
from the seven bosoms

fruitful
of the earth.'
And
he descended
to
make
Itzam-kab-ain (the female whale with alligator- feet), when he came down from the central angle of the heavenly region" (p.
171).
Hernandez adds
whale Itzam :
this
that
"
the old fishermen of
Yucatan
still
call the
explains the
name
of
of Itzaes^
".
by which the Mayas
were known before the founding
Mayapan
is
The
close analogy to the Indra-story
scribing the coming of the water
"
suggested by the phrase de-
after the
Moreover, the Indian sea-elephant

the
dragon was carried away ". makara, which was confused in
Old World with
the dolphin of Aphrodite,
and was sometimes

"
female whale
the
also regarded as a crocodile, naturally suggests that the
"
with the alligator- feet Indian legend.
was only an American
version of
old
All
this serves,
not only to corroborate the inferences

I
drawn from
the other sources of information which
have already indicated, but
also to suggest that, in addition to borrowing the chief divinities of their
pantheon from India, the

the same mythology.
It
is
1
Maya
people's original
name was
derived from
of considerable interest
and importance
to note that in
in
the
earliest
dated example
of
Maya workmanship
(from Tuxtla,
the
Vera Cruz
of
State of Mexico), for which Spinden assigns a tentative date
an unmistakable elephant figures among the four hierosimilar glyphs which Spinden reproduces (pp. cit., p. 171). is found in the Chinese records of the Early Chow hieroglyphic sign
B.C.,
235
Dynasty (John Ross,

p. 152).
"The
Origin of the Chinese People,"
1916,
The
1
use of the numerals four and seven in the narrative translated

the folk-lore of
From
1
America
have collected
near future.
many
interesting
variants of the Indra story
and other legends (and
artistic
designs) of the
elephant.
hope
to publish these in the

by Hernandez,
ing
as in so
331
is
many
other
American documents,
1
itself,
as
Mrs. Zelia Nuttall has so conclusively demonstrated,
a most
strik-
and conclusive demonstration

Indra was not
of the link with the
Old World.
America,
ex-
the only Indian god

deities,
who was
transferred to
for all the associated
with the characteristic
stories of their
with childlike directness of incident, but ploits,- are also found depicted
amazingly luxuriant
artistic
phantasy, in the
Maya and Aztec
codices.
We
refers to
find scattered throughout the islands of the
Pacific the familiar
stories of
the dragon.
New
One mentioned by the Bishop of Wellington Zealand dragon with jaws like a crocodile's, which
a whale.
It
spouted water
like
lived in
a fresh-water lake.
In the
same number
of the
same Journal
Sir
George Grey
gives extracts
from
a Maori legend of the dragon, which he compares with corresponding

passages from Spenser's
"Faery Queen".
'Their
strict
verbal and
at
first
poetical conformity with the
New
Zealand legends are such as
to lead to the impression either that
and language from the

scribes the
New
Spenser must have stolen his images Zealand poets, or that they must have
"
(p.
acted unfairly by the English bard
362).
The Maori
its
legend delike
dragon as "in
;
size large as
a monstrous whale, in shape

its
a hideous lizard
for in
its
huge head,
all
limbs,
it
tail, its
scales, its
"
tough
skin, its
sharp spines, yes, in
these
resembled a lizard
(p.
364).
Now
the attributes of the Chinese
and Japanese dragon
as the
controller of rain, thunder
and
lightning are identical with those of the
American elephant-headed god. It also is associated with the East and with the tops of mountains. It is identified with the Indian Naga, but the conflict involved in this identification is less obtrusive than it is either
in
America
or in India.
In Dravidian India the rulers

:
are identified with the serpent
but
and the gods among the Aryans, who were
hostile to the Dravidians, the rain-god
is the enemy of the Naga. In becomes more pronounced because Tlaloc (Chac) represents both Indra and his enemy the serpent. The repre-
America
the
confusion
sentation in the codices of his conflict with the serpent

1
is
merely a
tra-
Peabody Museum Papers, 1901. " Shells as Evidence of the MiSee, for example, Wilfrid Jackson's of Early Culture," pp. 50-66. gration 3 " Notes on the Maoris, etc.," Journal of the Ethnological Society,
-
vol.
i.,
1869, P 368.
.
22
332
dition

which the
its
Maya and Aztec

meaning.
scribes followed, apparently without
understanding
In
China and Japan the Indra-episode plays a much

is,
part, for the
dragon which approximates more nearly

Osiris.
It
is
its
like
the Indian
to the
less prominent a beneficent creature, Naga,
Babylonian
Ea
or the Egyptian
not only the controller of water, but the impersonation of

life-giving
:
water and
his
it is identified with the powers emperor, with standard, with the sky, and with all the powers that give, maintain,
and prolong
words,
it is
life
and guard against
all
kinds of danger to
life.
In other
the bringer of good luck, the rejuvenator of mankind, the
giver of immortality.
But if the physiological functions of the dragon of the Far East can thus be assimilated to those of the Indian Naga and the Babylonian and Egyptian Water God, who is also the king, anatomically he is
usually represented in a form
which can only be regarded as the Baby-
lonian composite monster, as a rule stripped of his wings, though not

of his avian feet.
In
America we
in
find
preserved in the legends of the Indians an

description of the Japanese dragon (which
is
accurate
and unmistakable
refutation the
mainly Chinese
origin).
Even Spinden, who "does not
care to
numerous empty theories of ethnic connections dignify by " " between Central America and [and in fact America as a whole] the Old World," makes the following statement (in the course of a
discussion of the
similar monster,
myths
relating to
antlers,
horned snakes
in California)
is
"a
possessing
and sometimes wings,
also very
common
bird.
Algonkin and Iroquois legends, although rare in art As a rule the horned serpent is a water spirit and an enemy of the thunder
in
Among
is
the Pueblo Indians the horned
snake seems to have

lives in
considerable prestige in religious belief.

the sky and
...
It
the water or in
Thus we
with
lonia.
connected with rain or lightning." 1 find stories of a dragon equipped with those distinctive
;
tokens of Chinese origin, the deer's antlers

less specialized
and along with
it
a snake
horns suggesting the Cerastes of Egypt and Baby-
horned viper distantly akin to the Cerastes of the Old " " are so insignificant horns World does occur in California but its
;
as to
make
it
highly improbable that they could
have been
in these
in
any way
responsible
for the obtrusive role

l
played by horns
p. 231.
widespread
Op.
cit. t

American
is
333
stories.
But the proof
of the foreign origin of these stories

,
established by the horned serpent's achievements. " " It lives in the water or the sky like its homologue in the
it
Old
World, and
Cerastes
is
is
"a
water
spirit".
Now
neither the
Cobra nor the

in the
actually a water serpent.
Their achievements
myths
therefore have
real
no possible
relationship with the natural habits of the
snakes.
They
are
purely -ârbitrary attributes which
they have
acquired as the result of a peculiar

incidents.
It is
and
fortuitous series of historical
therefore utterly inconceivable

this
and
in
the highest degree im-
probable that
long chain
of
chance circumstances should
have
happened a second time in America, and have been responsible for the creation of the same bizarre story in reference to one of the rarer
American snakes
vestiges,
of
a localized distribution, whose horns are mere
which no one but a trained
morphologist
is
likely
to
have
noticed or recognized as such.
But the American horned

homologues,
is
serpent, like
of (the
also the
enemy
its Babylonian and Indian thunder bird. Here is a further
corroboration of the transmission to
America
of ideas
which were the

I
chance
result
of certain historical events in the

in this lecture.
Old World, which
have mentioned
In the figure
on page 335
reproduce a remarkable drawing of an
American dragon.
of
If the Algonkin Indians had not preserved legends a winged serpent equipped Jwith deer's antlers, no value could be as:
signed to this sketch
but as
we know
jest.
that this particular tribe retains
the legend of just such a wonder-beast,
we
are justified in treating this
drawing as something more than a

"
Petroglyphs are reported
by Mr. John Criley
as occurring near
Ava, Jackson County, Illinois. The outlines of the characters obdrawn from memory and submitted to Mr. Charles S. Mason, of Toledo, Ohio, through whom they were furnished to the
served by him were
Little reliance can be placed upon the accuracy from the general appearance of the sketches the of such drawing, but originals of which they are copies were probably made by one of the
Bureau
of Ethnology.
middle Algonquin
1
tribes of Indians.
quote "
Mallery, 1888-89,
this and the following paragraphs verbatim from Garrick Picture Writing of the American Indians," 10/// Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology (Smithsonian Institute), p. 78.
334

"The
'
'
rock, as it is generally designated, was referred to by the missionary explorer Marquette in 1675. Its situation was immedi-
Piasa
ately
above the
city of
Alton,
Illinois."
Marquette's remarks are translated by Dr. Francis Parkman as

follows
:
"
On
red
the
flat
face of a high rock
were painted,
in red, black,
and
green, a pair of monsters,

deer,
eyes,
each
like
is
'
as large as a calf, with horns like a

tiger,
a beard
face
;
and a
frightful
expression
of
countenance.
The
something
tail
like that
it
of a
man,
the
body
covered with scales
and the
so long that
passes entirely round
the body, over the head, and between the legs, ending like that of a
fish.'"
Another
"
version,
is
by
Davidson and Struve,

:
of
the discovery of
the petroglyph
as follows
Again they (Joliet and Marquette) were floating on the broad bosom of the unknown stream. Passing the mouth of the Illinois, they
into the shadow of a tall promontory, and with great astonishbeheld the representation of two monsters painted on its lofty ment limestone front. According to Marquette, each of these frightful figures
soon
fell
had the
the
tail
face of a
man, the horns

it
of a deer, the
beard of a
tiger,
and
of a fish so long that

legs.
It
and between the
was an
passed around the body, over the head, object of Indian worship and greatly
impressed the mind of the pious missionary with the necessity of substituting for this monstrous idolatry the worship of the true God."
connected with the foregoing quotation gives the following description of the same rock " Near the mouth of the Piasa creek, on the bluff, there is a smooth
:
A footnote
rock in a cavernous
feet
cleft,
under an overhanging
cliff,
on whose
face
50
from the base, are painted some ancient pictures or hieroglyphics,
of great interest to the curious.
They
are placed in a horizontal line
The paintfrom east to west, representing men, plants and animals. from dampness and storms, are in great part deings, though protected
stroyed,
marred by portions
of the rock
becoming detached and

'
falling
down."
Mr. McAdams, of Alton, Illinois, says, The name Piasa is Indian and signifies, in the Illini, the bird which devours men". He
furnishes a spirited
'
pen-and-ink sketch,
12 by 15 inches
in
size
and
purporting to represent the ancient painting described by Marquette.

On
On
the picture
is
335
inscribed the following in ink

1
"
:
Made by Wm.
and
"
figures.
Dennis, April 3rd,
825
".
The
date
is
in
both
letters
the top of the picture in large letters are the

".
two words,
of
its
FLYING
Gilham
reprois
DRAGON
family of
This
picture,
which has been kept
in the old
Madison county and bears the evidence

Fig. 3.
age,
duced as
He
remarks
"
seen
:
also
publishes
another
representation
with
the
following
One
is
of the
most
satisfactory pictures of the Piasa

'
we
have ever
in
an old German publication

St.
Mississippi Illustrated.
from the Falls of

the year
1
The Valley of the from Nature, by H. Lewis, Eighty Anthony to the Gulf of Mexico,' published about
entitled
illustrations
839 by Arenz
&
Co.,
Dusseldorf,
Germany.
One
of the
FIG.
3.
WM.
" DENNIS'S DRAWING OF THE " FLYING DRAGON DEPICTED ON THE ROCKS AT PIASA, ILLINOIS.
large full- page plates in this
work
gives a fine
view of the
bluff at
It is
Alton,
repreIn
with
the figure of the Piasa on the face of the rock.

artists
sented to have been taken on the spot by

the
from Germany.
...
German
picture there
is
shown
just
behind the rather dim outlines
Part of the ragged crevice, as though of a fracture. bluff's face might have fallen and thus nearly destroyed one of the The whole monsters, for in later years writers speak of but one figure.
face of the bluff
of the second face a
was quarried away

at
in
846-47."
The
close agreement of this account with that of the Chinese
and
Japanese dragon
there
once
arrests attention.
if
are so extraordinary that

is
anatomical peculiarities Pere Marquette's account is trustworthy
The
no longer any room
for
doubt of the Chinese or Japanese derivaIf
tion of this composite creature.
the account
is
not accepted
we
will
be driven, not only
to attribute to the pious seventeenth-centuiy missiongullibility,
ary serious dishonesty or culpable
but also to credit him with
336

Mongolian archaeology.
I
a remarkably precise knowledge of
When
to
Algonkin legends are
recalled,
however,
think
we
are
bound
accept the missionary's account as substantially accurate. Minns claims that representations of the dragon are
unknown
in
China before the
Han
much more
ancient.
But the legend of the dragon is dynasty. The evidence has been given in full by de Visser.
1
He
tells
us that the earliest reference
is
found
in the J 'ih
and shows
"It
that the
dragon was
"
King,
a water animal akin to the snake,
which [used]
is
to sleep in pools during winter
and
arises in the spring ".
good crops when he appears the rice fields (as rain) or in the sky (as dark and yellow clouds), " other words when he makes the rain fertilize the ground (p. 38).
the god of thunder,
brings
In the
who
in
in
is a reference to the dragon as one' of the on the upper garment of the emperor Hwang symbolic figures painted Ti (who according to the Chinese legends, which of course are not
Shu King
there
above reproach, reigned

to the legends,
in
the twenty- seventh 'century B.C.).
In this
ancient literature there are numerous references to the dragon,
and not
merely on garments, banners and metal

short, but
sufficient
but also to representations

tablets.'
2
'
of the
benign monster
The
ancient texts
of
... are
to give us the
main conceptions
regard to the dragon.
In those early days [just as at
Old China with present] he was
the god of water, thunder, clouds, and rain, the harbinger of blessings, and the symbol of holy men. As the emperors are the holy beings on earth, the idea of the dragon being the symbol of Imperial power is
based upon
Confucius
this ancient
conception" (pp.
to the
cit., p.
42).
ascribed to
In the fifth
(i.e.
appendix
Yih King, which has been
three centuries earlier than the

it
by Mr. Minns),
(Earth)
is
is
stated that
"
dynasty mentioned PCien (Heaven) is a horse, Kw'un

is
a
Han
a dragon" The philosopher Hwai Nan Tsze (who died

a cow,
Chen (Thunder)
the origin of
all
(pp. cit., p. 37).

1
22
B.C.) declared
that the
1
dragon
is
creatures, winged, hairy, scaly,
and
Op. cit., pp. 35 et seq. See de Visser, p. 41. 3 There can be no doubt
that the
Chinese dragon
is
the descendant of
the early Babylonian monster, and that the inspiration to create it probably reached Shensi during the third millennium B.C. by the route indicated in
my
"
Incense and Libations
2, p. 239). via Indonesia
Some
(Bull. John Rylands Library, vol. IT., No. centuries later the Indian dragon reached the Far East
his
"
and mingled with
Babylonian cousin
in
Japan and China.

m
337
mailed
He
and he propounded a scheme of evolution (de Visser, p. 65). seems to have tried to explain away the fact that he had never
;
actually witnessed the dragon performing

attributed to
rain assist
fucius also
some
of the remarkable feats

:
"
it
:
Mankind cannot
to a great
see the dragons rise
wind and
them
is
to ascend
height" (pp.
cit., p.
65).
:
Con"
credited with the frankness of a similar confession
As
cannot understand his riding on the wind and clouds to the dragon, and his ascending to the sky. To-day I saw Lao Tsze is he not "
;
we
like the dragon ?
(p. 65).
This does not necessarily mean that these learned men were sceptical of the beliefs which tradition had forged in their minds, but that
the dragon had the
power
of hiding itself in a cloak of invisibility, just
as clouds (in which the Chinese the sky.

that of
The
learned
belief in
these
saw dragons) could be dissipated powers of the dragon was as sincere

in
in
as
men
of
other countries
the beneficent attributes
which
tradition
In the passages
attempting to
had taught them to assign to their particular deities. I have quoted the Chinese scholars were presumably bridge the gap between the ideas inculcated by faith and
the evidence of their senses, in

instance, actuated
much
last
the
same
sort of spirit as,
for
Dean Buckland
Book
century,
when he claimed
that
the glacial deposits of this country afforded evidence in confirmation of
the Deluge described in the
of Genesis. of
The
tiger
and the dragon, the gods

1
stones of the doctrine
wind and water, are the keycalled fung skui, which Professor de Groot has
described in detail.
He describes
where and how
"
it
as a quasi-scientific system, supposed to teach

graves,
men
to build
temples, and dwellings,
in
order that
the dead, the gods,
and the
living
may be
located therein exclusively,

".
or as far as possible, under the auspicious influences of Nature
The
" the chief dragon plays a most important part in this system, being spirit of water and rain, and at the same time representing one of the
four quarters of heaven
(i.e.
the East, called the
Azure Dragon, and

comprises the
their sources
the
first
of the seasons, spring)."

in general,
The word Dragon

them.-'
high grounds
therein or
i
and the water streams which have

through
wind
their
way
Religious System of China," vol. iii., chap, xii., pp. 936-1056. This paragraph is taken almost verbatim from de Visser, o/>. pp. 59 and 60.
ctt.,
338

attributes thus assigned
Blue Dragon, his control of water and streams, his dwelling on high mountains whence they spring, and his association with the East, will be seen to reveal his identity " " of American archaeologists, the with the so-called god B elephantto the
The
headed god
direct parent
It is
Tialoc of the Aztecs,
Ckac
of the
Mayas, whose more

1
was
Indra.
of interest to note that, according to Gerini,
the
word
Xdga
denotes not
only a snake but
also
an elephant.
Both the Chinese
dragon and the Mexican elephant-god are thus linked with the Naga,
who
This
is is
identified
both with Indra himself and Indra' s enemy Vritra. another instance of those remarkable contradictions that one
In the confusion resulting
meets at every step in pursuing the dragon.
from the blending of hostile tribes and diverse cultures the Aryan deity who, both for religious and political reasons, is the enemy of the Nagas
becomes himself
I
identified with a
Naga
fact
have already called that the graphic form

itself
attention
(Nature,
Jan. 27, 1916) to the
of representation of the
American elephant-
headed god was derived from Indonesian

India
the
pictures of the
makara.
In
makara
(see Fig.
1)
is
represented in a great variety

different kinds of dragons.
of forms,
most of which are prototypes of
Hence
dragons
the
is
homology
of
the elephant-headed
further established
and shown
to
god with the other be genetically related to

"
giver of fertilizing rain
the evolution of the protean manifestations of the dragon's form.
The
dragon
in
China
In the
is
"the heavenly
"
(pp. cit., p. 36).
Shu King
the emblematic figures of the

stars,
ancients are given as the sun, the
moon, the
the mountain, the
dragon^ and the variegated animals (pheasants) which are depicted " on the upper sacrificial garment of the Emperor In the (p. 39).
Li Kt
the unicorn, the phoenix, the tortoise,
and the dragon are
called
the four ling (p. 39), which de Visser translates "spiritual beings,"
creatures with enormously strong vital
spirit.
The
is
dragon possesses
the deadly
the most ling of

of the
all
creatures (p. 64).
The
at
tiger
enemy
dragon
(p. 42).
brilliant
The
dragon sheds a
light
night (p. 44), usually from

(p. 45),
his glittering eyes.
He
"
is
the giver of
omens
good and bad,

Eastern
Researches on Ptolemy's Geography Asia," Asiatic Society's Monographs, No. 909, p. 46.
1 , 1 1
G. EL Gerini,
of

rains
339
Heaven and
of a
and
(p.
floods.
The
Earth
58) and
also
dragon-horse is a of river water
vital
:
spirit
of
it
has the
tail
huge
serpent.
The
ecclesiastical
vestments of the Wu-ist priests are
endowed with
the order of the world, to avert unseasonable
magical properties which are considered to enable the wearer to control and calamitous events,
drought, untimely and superabundant rainfall, and eclipses.
dress.
such as
These powers are conferred by the decoration upon the

is
Upon
the back of the chief vestment the representation of a range of mountains
on each side (the right and embroidered as a symbol of the world the billows to represent the fertilizleft) of it a large dragon arises above
:
ing rain.
They
are
surrounded by gold-thread
1
figures representing
clouds and spirals typifying rolling thunder.
A
tells
ball,
sometimes with a
spiral
decoration,
is
commonly
repre-
sented in front of the Chinese dragon.

us that
The
Chinese writer
Koh Hung
some length
the well-
"
a spiral denotes the rolling of thunder from which issues
flash of lightning "."
De
Visser discusses
this
question at
and
refers to Hirth's claim that the

figure,
Chinese triquetrum,
the Japanese
a
i.e.,
known three-comma shaped
mitsu-tomoe, the
this question,
ancient spiral, represents thunder also.
Before discussing
which involves the consideration

thunder- weapon and
its
of the almost
world-wide
belief in
relationship to the spiral ornament, the octopus,
!De Visser, p. 102, and de Groot, vi., p. 1265, Plate XVIII. The " reference to a range of mountains ... as a symbol of the world" recalls the Egyptian representation of the eastern horizon as two hills between
which Hathor or her son arises (see Budge, " Gods of the Egyptians," vol. ii., p. 101 and compare Griffith's "Hieroglyphs," p. 30): the same
;
" Seal Cylinders of conception was adopted in Mesopotamia (see Ward, Western Asia," fig. 412, p. 156) and in the Mediterranean (see Evans, " Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult," pp. 37 et seq.). It is a remarkable
fact that Sir
Arthur Evans, who, upon p. 64 of his memoir, reproduces two " " of the Egyptian horizon drawings supporting the sun's disk, should have failed to recognize in it the prototype of what he calls "the horns of consecration ".
Even
if
the confusion of the
"
horizon
"
with a cow's horns
was very ancient (for the horns of the Divine Cow supporting the moon made this inevitable), this rationalization should not blind us as to the real origin of the idea, which is preserved in the ancient Egyptian, Babylonian, Cretan and Chinese pictures (see Fig. 26, facing p. 88).
1
Visser, p. 103. P. 104, The Chinese triquetrum has a circle in the centre and five or
De
eight
commas.
340

let
the pearl, the swastika and triskele,

of the dragon's ball (see Fig. 12).
us examine further the problem
De
Groot regards the dragon as a thunder-god and

is
therefore, like
Hirth, assumes that the supposed thunder-ball
being belched forth
of a conversation with
in
and not being swallowed by the dragon. But de Visser, as the result Mr. Kramp and the study of a Chinese picture
Blacker's
"Chats on Oriental China" (1908,

is
p. 54), puts
forward
the suggestion that the ball
the
moon
or the pearl-moon which the
The Chinese swallowing, thereby causing the fertilizing rain. " themselves refer to the ball as the which, under the precious pearl," " influence of Buddhism in China, was identified with the pearl that
dragon
is
grants all desires"

i.e.,
'
and
is
under the special protection of the Naga,
the dragon. the ball
Arising out of this de Visser puts the

originally
conundrum
Was
also
Taoism
"
?
pearl,
not
of
Buddhism but
of
In reply to this question
may
call in
attention to the fact that the
germs
of civilization
were
first
planted
J
China by people strongly imthe quintessence of life-giving
bued with the
belief that the pearl

:
was
it
and
prosperity-conferring powers
also
moon, but
was
itself
a particle of
It
was not only identified with the moon- substance which fell as dew
into the gaping oyster.
about pearls water pearls in Turkestan, were responsible for transferring these same and the magical value thus attached to life-giving properties to jade
;
was the very people who held such views and gold who, when searching for alluvial gold and fresh-
jade was
of
the nucleus, so to speak, around

crystallized.
which the
earliest civilization
China was
As we
shall see, in the discussion of the
thunder-weapon
(p.
362),
the luminous pearl, which
was
believed to have fallen from the sky,
was homologized with
the thunderbolt, with the functions of
which
its
own
magical properties were assimilated. Kramp called de Visser's attention
to
the
is
fact that
the Chinese
of the signs
hieroglyphic character for the dragon's ball

for
compounded
jewel and moon, which
is
also given in a Japanese lexicon as
divine pearl, the pearl of the bright moon. " When the clouds approached and covered the moon, the ancient
The Origin of Early Siberian Civilization," Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester being published Literary and Philosophical Society.
1
See on
this
my
"
paper
now
in the
FIG. 12.
PHOTOGRAPH OF A CHINKSK EMBROIDERY IN THE MANCHESTER SCHOOL OK ART REPRESENTING THE DRAGON AND THE ?KARL-MOON SYMHOI.

Chinese
341
may have
more
thought that the dragons had seized and swallowed

"
this pearl,
brilliant
than
all
the pearls of
the sea
(de Visser,
p.
108).
The
difficulty
is,
de Visser
finds in regarding his
own
theory as wholly
spiral
satisfactory
first,
it.
the red colour of the ball,
and secondly, the
explains the colour as possibly an attempt to repattern upon But de Visser seems to have overlooked the present the pearl's lustre.
fact that
He
red and rose-coloured pearls obtained

in
from the conch-shell
were used
'
China and Japan.

is
The
I
spiral
much used
in delineating the sacred pearls of
Bud;
dhism, so that
although
it might have must acknowledge that the
served also to design

spiral of the
those of
Taoism
"
Buddhist pearl goes

1
upward, while the spiral of the dragon is flat (p. 03). De Visser sums up the whole argument in these words These are, however, all mere suppositions. The only
: '
facts
we
and
know
are
the eager attitude of the dragons,

ball
;
ready to
grasp
swallow the
the ideas of the Chinese themselves as to the ball

;
the existence of a kind of sacred "moonbeing the moon or a pearl " the red colour of the ball, its emitting flames and its spiral; pearl
like form.
1
As
the three last facts are in favour of the thunder theory,
should be inclined to prefer the latter. dragons do not belch out the thunder.
Yet
If
I
am
convinced that the

trying to
their
grasp
or
swallow
should immediately accept the theory concerning the thunder-spiral, especially on account of the But I do not see the reason why the god of thunder flames it emits.
should
persecute
facts
the thunder could be explained,
thunder
itself.
Therefore,
take
1
after
having given
I
the
feel
above
that
' :
the reader
'
obliged to say
It
non
may "
(p.
them
into
consideration,
liquet
08).
does not seem to have occurred to the distinguished Dutch scholar, who has so lucidly put the issue before us, that his demonstration of the fact of the ball being the
pearl-moon about
to
be swallowed
by the dragon does not preclude it being also confused with the thunder. Elsewhere in this volume I have referred to the origin of the spiral symbolism and have
it
shown
that
it
became
associated with the pearl before

pearl-association in fact
became the symbol

1
of thunder.
The
was
Wilfrid Jackson, Culture," p. 106.
"
Shells as Eridence of the Migrations of Early
342
one

of the links in
the chain of events which
made
the pearl
1
and the
spirally-coiled
It
arm
of the octopus the sign of thunder.
seems quite clear to
me
that
de Visser's pearl-moon theory
is
the
true interpretation.
spiral,
But when the
painted red, and given

shining
pearl-ball was provided with the flames to represent its power of emitting
by night, the fact of the spiral ornamentation and of the pearl being one of the surrogates of the thunder-weapon was rationalized into an identification of the ball with thunder and the light
light
it
and
was
emitting as
to
lightning.
his
It
is,
of
course, quite irrational

:
for
thunder-god
swallow
own
thunder
but popular interpretations
of subtle symbolism, the true explanation of
which
is
deeply buried
in
the history of the distant past, are rarely logical

irrelevant.
and almost invariably

India after the times
light
In his account of the state of

of the
real
Brahmanism
2
in
two
earlier
Vedas, Professor
Hopkins
throws
upon the
significance of the ball
are varied.
The
in the dragon-symbolism. Old legends over Vritra is now expounded thus Indra, victory
:
"
who
is the sun. Vritra is the moon, who swims into the mouth on the night of the new moon. The sun rises after swalThe lowing him, and the moon is invisible because he is swallowed.
slays Vritra,
sun's
sun vomits out the moon, and the
latter is
then seen in the west, and

In another passage
it is
increases again, to serve the sun as food.
said
that
when
the
moon
is
invisible
he
is
hiding in plants
and waters."
ball.
This seems to clear away any doubt as to the significance of the It is the pearl-moon, which is both swallowed and vomited by
the dragon.
snake takes a more obtrusive part in the Japanese than in the Chinese dragon and it frequently manifests itself as a god of the sea.
old Japanese sea-gods were often female water-snakes. The cultural influences which reached Japan from the south by way of
The
The
Indonesia
many
centuries before the
emphasized the serpent form of

ocean.
coming of Buddhism naturally the dragon and its connexion with the
real
But
the
river-gods,
or
"
water-fathers," were
four-footed
dragons identified with the dragon-kings of Chinese myth, but at the

1
shall discuss this
more
"
fully in
"
The
Birth of Aphrodite ".
Religions of India," p. 197.

same time were
kings of India.
strictly
343
homologous with the Naga Rajas or cobracalled

at
"
"Sea Lord" or "Sea Snake" was also Abundant-Pearl-Prince," who had a magnificent palace
The
Japanese
the
the
bottom
of
sea.
His daughter (" Abundant- Pearl- Princess")
married a youth whom she observed, reflected in the well, sitting on a Ashamed at his presence at her lying-in cassia tree near the castle gate. she was changed into a ani or crocodile (de Visser, p. 39), elsewhere
De Visser gives it as his opinion described as a dragon (makara). that the wani is "an old Japanese dragon, or serpent-shaped sea-god,
and the legend
is
an ancient Japanese
140).
tale, dressed in
is
an Indian garb
the Japanese
influence.
by
later
generations" (p.
He
arguing that
dragon existed long before Japan
came under Indian
But
he ignores the fact that at a very early date both India and China were diversely influenced by Babylonia, the great breeding place of
dragons
;
and, secondly, that Japan

it
was
influenced
by
Indonesia,
and
many through later Indian legends as those relating to the palace under the
castle gate
by the West, for

and the
centuries before the arrival of such

sea, the
cassia tree.
As Aston
also the well
(quoted by de Visser)
that serves as a mirror,
remarks,
all
these incidents
and
"
form a combination not unknown to European folklore". After de Visser had given his own views, he modified
p.
them
(on
141) when he
learned that essentially the same dragon-stories
had been recorded

the light of this
in the
Kei Islands and Minahassa (Celebes).

this
In
new
information
semblance of several features of

striking, that
" he frankly admits that the remyth with the Japanese one is so
is
we may be
sure that the latter
of Indonesian origin."
He
goes further
when he
recognizes that
vaders,
who
in prehistoric times
probably the foreign inconquered Japan, came from Indonesia,

"
(p.
in
"
and brought the myth with them
141 ).
his
The
book
evidence recently
'
The Megalithic brought together by J. Perry " of Indonesia makes it certain that the people of Indonesia in Culture turn got it from the West.
W.
An
old painting reproduced by F.
W.
K.
Miiller,
who
called
de Visser's attention
1
to these interesting stories,
shows Hohodemi (the
"
Mythe der Kei-Insulaner und Verwandtes," Zeitsch.f. Ethnologic^

1893, pp. 533 et seq.
vol. xxv.,
344
youth on the cassia tree who married the princess) returning home mounted on the back of a crocodile, like the Indian Varuna upon the
niakara
The
is
a drawing reproduced by the late Sir George Birdwood. wani or crocodile thus introduced from India, via Indonesia,
in
really the Chinese

refers to
Aston
and
his
and Japanese dragon, as Aston has claimed. Japanese pictures in which the Abundant- Pearl- Prince
daughter are represented with dragon's heads appearing over their human ones, but in the old Indonesian version they maintain their forms as wani or crocodiles.
The
dragon's head appearing over a
human one
to
is
quite an Indian
motive, transferred to
Visser, p.
1
China and from there

I
Korea and Japan (de
42), and,
may
add, also to America.
[Since the foregoing paragraphs have been printed, the Curator of
the Liverpool
series of
Museum
has kindly called

in
my
attention to a remarkable
Maya
remains
the collection under his care, which were
obtained in the course of excavations
made by Mr. T. W.
II.
M.R.C.S., an
his
officer in
the Medical Service of British

of the
1
F. Gann, Honduras (see
account of the excavations in Part
9th Annual Report
of the Bureau of
Among
an
them
is
Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution of Washington). a pottery figure of a wani or makara in the form of
alligator,
Eastern Asia)
sumably meant to represent the spots upon the star-spangled
equipped with diminutive deer's horns (like the dragon of and its skin is studded with circular elevations, pre"
;
Celestial
Stag"
throat.
of the
Aryans
(p.
130).
is
As
in
the Japanese pictures
men-
tioned by Aston, a
It
human head
seen emerging from the creature's

of the
affords a most definite
and convincing demonstration

in the
sources of
American
culture.]
Japanese legends consist of the pearls of flood and ebb obtained from the dragon's palace at the bottom of the sea. By their aid storms and floods could be created to destroy
jewels of flood
The
and ebb
Such stories are the logical enemies or calm to secure safety for friends. result of the identification of pearls with the moon, the influence of which
upon the
tides
was probably one
of the circumstances
which was
re-
sponsible for bringing the
moon
into the circle of the great scientific
theory of the life-giving powers of water.

if
This
in turn
not decisive, part in originating the earliest belief in
played a great, a sky world, or
heaven.
1
See
Fig. 11.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE DRAGON.
The American and
primarily to India,
345
Indonesian
dragons
can
be
referred
back
the Chinese and Japanese
varieties to
India and
Babylonia.
The
channels
to
Europe can be traced through Greek But the cruder dragons of the same ultimate source.
dragons of
Africa are derived either from Egypt, from the /Egean, or from India. All dragons that strictly conform to the conventional idea of what such
a wonder-beast should be can be shown to be sprung from the fertile " " great breeding place of monsters imagination of ancient Sumer, the
(Minns).
But the
countries
is
history of the dragon's evolution

full
and transmission
to other of
of complexities
many
In
episodes,
some
of
and the dragon-myth is made up which were not derived from Babylonia.
;
Egypt we do not find the characteristic dragon and dragonYet all of the ingredients out of which both the monster and story. the legends are compounded have been preserved in Egypt, and in
Hence, perhaps a more primitive and less altered form than elsewhere. does not provide dragons for us to dissect, it does supply us if Egypt with the evidence without which the dragon's evolution would be quite
unintelligible.
Egyptian literature affords a clearer insight into the development of the Great Mother, the Water God, and the Warrior Sun God than
we
can obtain from any other writings of the origin of

deities.
this
fundamental
stratum of
And
in
the three legends
The
Destruction of
Mankind, The
Story of the
it
Winged Disk, and The
Conflict between
Horus and
Babylonian
Set,
literature
has preserved the germs of the great Dragon Saga. has shown us how this raw material was worked
up
into the definite
and
familiar story, as well

to
as
how
the features of
a variety of
India
animals were blended

as
form the composite monster. Europe, have
and Greece, as well

lost in
more
distant parts of Africa,
and Asia, and even America have preserved many

been
the real
details that
home
of the monster.
In the earliest literature that has

clear
come down
to us
from antiquity a
"
account
is
given of
the original attributes of Osiris.
comes, he recognizes his father in thee [Osiris], youthful in thy Fresh Water'." "Thou art indeed the Nile, great on the
*
Horus name of
at
is
fields
the beginning of the seasons
gods and men
live
by the moisture that
346
in thee."
is

He
is
also identified with the inundation of the rivei.

Osiris]
it.
"
It
Unis
He
[the dead king identified with also brings the wind and guides
who
inundates the land."

life
It is
the breath of
which
raises
The wine- press god king from the dead as an Osiris. " conies to Osiris bearing wine- juice and the great god becomes Lord " he is also identified with barley and with of the overflowing wine
the
:
the beer
made from
it.
Certain trees also are personifications of the
rivers
But Osiris was regarded not only as the waters upon earth, the and streams, the moisture in the soil and in the bodies of animals
plants, but also as
and
"
may
thus
of life that are in the sky". with the waters of earth and sky, he even become the sea and the ocean itself. find him addressed
"the waters
As
'
Osiris
was
identified
We
thy name of Great Green thou art round as the Great Circle (Okeanos) lo, lo, thou art (Sea) turned about, thou art round as the circle that encircles the Haunebu
:
Thou
art great, thou
art green, in
(/Egeans)."
This
ligion
series
of interesting extracts
in
from Professor Breasted's

"
"
Re-
and Thought
Ancient Egypt
(pp.
8-26) gives the earliest
Egyptians'
own
in
ideas of the attributes of Osiris.
The
Babylonians
re-
garded Ea
almost precisely the same light and
endowed him with
identical powers.
But there
is
between Osiris and Ea.

that
is,
The
an important and significant difference former was usually represented as a man,
as a
dead
king,
fish,
whereas
Ea was
represented as a
man wearing
fish's
a fish-skin, as a
or as the composite monster with a

of the Indian
body
"
the
and
tail,
which was the prototype
makara and
it
father of dragons".
In attempting to understand the creation of the dragon
is
im-
portant
primarily
to
remember
that,
although
the
the
Osiris
and
Ea were
givers of
regarded
as
personifications of
beneficent
soil
life-giving
water, as the bringers of
fertility to
and the
powers of life and im-
mortality to living creatures, they

forces of water,
in various
were
also identified with the destructive

their welfare
by which men were drowned or ways by storms of sea and wind.
affected
Thus
Osiris or the fish-god
Ea
could destroy mankind.
In other
words the fish-dragon, or the composite monster formed of a fish and an antelope, could represent the destructive forces of wind and water.
Thus even
the malignant dragon can be the
homologue
of
the usually

beneficent gods Osiris
347
and Ea, and
their
Aryan
surrogates
Mazdah
and Varuna.
By
a somewhat analogous
process of archaic rationalization the
sons respectively of Osiris
and Ea, the sun-gods Horus and Marduk,

Although
powers
their outstanding
acquired a similarly confused reputation.
achievements were the overcoming

givers of light, conquering darkness,
of the
of evil, and, as the
their character as warriors
made
them
also a
also
powers
of destruction.
symbol of chaos, and as weird anatomy of the composite Mesopotamian dragon and his more modern bird- footed brood, which ranges from
trusive feature in the
Horus thus became the thunder-bird became the most obfalcon of
The
Western Europe to the Far East That the sun-god derived his
Osiris
of
Asia and America.
functions directly or indirectly from

his
and Hathor
"
the earliest
and increase".
storm,
most primitive attributes, for in sun-temples at Abusir, he appears as the source of life "
is
shown by
said of
Men
him
'Thou
hast
driven
away
the
and hast expelled the
rain,
Horus was
in fact the son of Osiris
and hast broken up the clouds '." and Hathor, from whom he de-
rived his attributes.

scholars pretend,
The
invention of the sun- god
was
not, as
most
an attempt
fertility.
to give direct expression to the fact that the
sun
is
the source of
That
is
a discovery of modern
science.
The sun-god The
acquired his attributes secondarily
(and
for definite historical
reasons) from his parents,
who were
responsible for his birth.

is
quotation from the
Pyramid Texts
that of
of special interest as
an
illustration of
one of the
results of the assimilation of the idea of Osiris
as the controller of water with
a sky-heaven and a sun-god.
The
sun-god's powers are rationalized so as to bring them into conformity with the earliest conception of a god as a power controlling
water.
and
Breasted attempts to interpret the statements concerning the storm rain- clouds as references to the enemies of the sun, who steal the skyi.e.,
god's eye,
of
obscure the sun or moon.

in
The
incident of Horus's loss

is
an eye, which looms so large

"
eyes
is
Egyptian legends,
possibly
more
and
:
closely related to the earliest attempts at explaining eclipses of the sun
and moon, the
"
of
the sky.
little
The
obscuring of the sun

the
moon by
clouds
a matter of
significance to
Egyptian
but the modern Egyptian fellah, and no doubt his predecessors also,
1
Breasted, op.
cit.
p. 11.
23
348

much
concern.
regard eclipses with
Such events
excite great alarm,
for the peasants consider
them as actual combats between the powers

rain
is
of
good and
evil.
Egypt, merely an unwelcome inconvenience, the clouds play a much more

that
In other countries
where
a blessing and not, as
in
In the Rig- Veda the power prominent part in the popular beliefs. holds up the clouds is evil as an elaboration of the ancient
:
Egyptian
the
conception of the sky as a
Divine
Cow,
the Great Mother,
Aryan
Indians regarded the clouds as a herd of cattle which the

in
this respect is
Vedic warrior-god Indra (who
the
Egyptian warrior Horus) stole from the powers of
homologue of the evil and bestowed
upon mankind. and brought rain.
In other words, like
Horus, he broke up the clouds

of
The
this
antithesis
is
between the two aspects
the character of these
ancient deities
most pronounced in the case of the other member of most primitive Trinity, the Great Mother. She was the great
life,
beneficent giver of
that she
but also the controller of
life,
which implies
was
the death-dealer.
But
this evil
aspect of her character
developed only under the stress of a peculiar dilemma in which she was placed. On a famous occasion in the very remote past the great
Giver of Life was summoned to rejuvenate the ageing

elixir
king.
The
only
of
life
that
:
was known
to
the pharmacopoeia of the times
was
human blood
kind
in
but to obtain
this life-blood the
Giver of Life was comof
pelled to slaughter mankind.
She
thus
became the destroyer
man-
her lioness
earliest
avatar
as Sekhet.
The
known
pictorial
representation of the dragon (Fig. 1)
consists of the forepart of the sun-god's falcon or eagle united with
the hindpart of the mother-goddess's lioness.
The
student of
modern
heraldry would not regard
or
of
griffin.
a dragon at all, but merely a gryphon " in spite recent writer on heraldry has complained that,
this as
this
frequent
corrections,
creature
is
persistently confused
in
the
popular mind with the dragon, which
is
even more purely imaginary 'V

is
But the
investigator of the early history of these wonder-beasts
com-
pelled, even at the risk of incurring the herald's censure, to regard the gryphon as one of the earliest known tentative efforts at dragon-making.
But though the

1
fish,
the falcon or eagle, and the composite eagle-lion
G.
W.
Eve,
"
Decorative Heraldry," 1897,
p. 35.

or bad, the serpent
349
monster are early known pictorial representations of the dragon, good
The
but
it is
is probably more ancient still (Fig. 2). form assumed by the power of evil was the serpent important to remember that, as each of the primary deities can
earliest
be a power of either good or can symbolize either aspect.

tion
is
evil,
any
of the animals representing

in
them
Though Hathor
her
cow
manifesta-
cow
usually benevolent and as a lioness a power of destruction, the may become a demon in certain cases and the lioness a kindly
creature.
The
falcon of
Horus
etc.)
(or
its
representatives, eagle,
:
hawk,
so also
woodpecker, dove, redbreast,
may
be either good or bad

fish,
the gazelle (antelope or deer), the crocodile, the
or any of the
menagerie of creatures that enter into the composition of
good or bad
demons.
'
The Nagas
are semi- divine
serpents
which very often assume

in rivers
human shapes and whose

luxury in their magnificent
or lakes.
of being
kings live with their retinues in the utmost
abodes
at the
bottom of the sea or
When
leaving the
Naga world
they are in constant danger
grasped and killed by the gigantic semi-divine birds, the " Garudas, which also change themselves into men (de Visser, p. 7).
"
jewels
The Nagas
;
are depicted in three forms
common
snakes, guarding
;
human
beings with four snakes in their necks
and winged
sea-dragons, the upper part of the

ox-like head,
body human, but with a horned,
the lower part of the "
body
that of a
coiling-dragon.
Here we
find a link
between the snake of ancient India and the four(p. 6),
legged Chinese dragon

himself emitted, like a
himself invisible.
breath.
hidden
in the clouds,
which the dragon
modern
battleship, for the
purpose of rendering
In other words, the rain clouds
were the dragon's
The
fertilizing rain
was
thus in fact the vital essence of the

life.
dragon, being both water and the breath of

'
We find
the
Naga
girls,
king not only in the possession of numberless
jewels and beautiful

natural vision
and hearing.
but also of mighty charms, bestowing superThe palaces of the Naga kings are always
described as extremely splendid, abounding with gold and silver

precious stones,
and
and the Naga women, when appearing

"
in
human
shape,
were
beautiful
beyond description
pond,
(p. 9).
De
that
tree
Visser records the story of an evil

in a
Naga
protecting a big tree
grew
who
failed to emit clouds
and thunder when the
was
cut
down, because he was
neither despised nor
wounded
for
350
his

the support of the stiipa
body became
India, but
and the
tree
became a beam
of the stupa (p. 16).

in
common
This aspect of the Naga as a tree-demon is rare in China and Japan. It seems to be identical
with the
which
is
Mediterranean conception of the pillar of wood or stone, both a representative of the Great Mother and the chief sup1
port of a temple.
In the magnificent city that king

into the sea,
"wishing
trees
that
Yaâhketu saw, when he dived granted every desire" were among

also palaces of precious
the objects that met his vision.

stones
There were
and gardens and
tanks,
and, of course, beautiful maidens (de
Visser, p. 20). In the Far Eastern stories

of the
it
is
interesting to note the
antagonism
dragon
to the tiger,
when we
:
recall that the lioness-form of
Hathor was the prototype of the earliest malevolent dragon. There are five sorts of dragons serpent- dragons lizard-dragons and toad-dragons (de Visser, p. 23). elephant-dragons fish-dragons
;
;
this
de Groot, the blue colour is chosen in China because According colour of the East, from where the rain must come is the this
to
;
"
quarter
all
is
represented by the
Azure Dragon,
the highest in rank the

original
among
sutra
.
the
dragons.
We
is
have seen, however, that
already prescribed to use the blue colour and to face the East.
Indra, the rain-god,
the patron of the East,
and Indra-colour
is
nila
dark blue or rather blue-black, the regular epithet of the rain clouds. If the priest had not to face the East but the West, this would agree with
the fact that the
that in India the
Nagas were
said to live in the western quarter
and
West
corresponds with the blue colour.

"
Facing the
East, however, seems to point to an old rain
ceremony
in
which Indra
was invoked
to raise the blue-black clouds
(de Visser, pp.
30 and 3
).
THE DRAGON MYTH.

important and fundamental legend in the whole history " Destruction of Mankind ". "It mythology is the story of the was discovered, translated, and commented upon by Naville (" La Deof
The most
hommes par les Dieux," in the Transactions of the Biblical Archaology, vol. iv., pp. 1-19, reproducing Society of
struction des
Hay's copies made

1
at the
beginning of [the nineteenth] century

Pillar Cult," pp.
and
Arthur
J.
Evans,
"
Mycenaean Tree and
88 etseq.

"
L' Inscription
III,"
351
le
de
in
la
Destruction
des
hommes dans
viii.,
tombeau de
after-
Ramses
the
Transactions,
vol.
pp.
412-20);
wards published I userif ten, pis.
anew by Herr von Bergmann (Hieroglyphiscke

Ixxv.-lxxxii.,
and pp. 55, 56)
completely translated
by Brugsch {Die neue Weltordnung nach Vernichtung des siindigen Menschengeschlechts nack einer Altagyptischen Ueberlieferung, 1881)
and partly translated by Lauth (A us sEgyptens Vorzeit, pp. 70-81) and by Lefebure (" Une chapitre de la chronique
;
solaire,"
in
the
Zeitschrift
fur
/Egyptische Sprache, 1883, pp.

this story
32, 33) 'V
Important commentaries upon
have been published also
by Brugsch and Gauthier."
As the
really important features of the story consist ot the incoherent
and contradictory details, and it would take up too much space to reproduce the whole legend here, I must refer the reader to Maspero's
account of
in
it
(pp. cit.\ or to the versions given
"
by Erman
in his
in
"
Life
Ancient Egypt
(p.
267, from which

i.,
quote) or
"
Budge
The
Gods
of the Egyptians," vol.
p.
388.
it
Although the
time of Seti
I
story as
we know
B.C.),
it is
was not
written
down
until the
(circa
1300
very old and had been circulating

centuries before that time.
it is
as a popular legend for
more than twenty
The
narrative
itself tells its
own
story because
composed
of
many
contradictory interpretations of the
same
incidents flung together in a
highly confused and incoherent form.

'
The other The Saga of

'The
legends to which
the
shall
"
Winged
of
Disk,"
have constantly to refer are The Feud between Horus and

Isis,"
Set,"
Stealing
Re's
Name by
3
and a
series of
later
variants
1
and confusions
of these stories.
G. Maspero, "The Dawn of Civilization," p. 164. " H. Brugsch, Die Alraune als altagyptische Zauberpflanze," Zeit. and Henri Gauthier, " Le f. SEgypt. Sprache, Bd. 29, 1891, pp. 31-3 nom hieroglyphique de 1'argile rouge d' Elephantine," Revue &gyptologique
"
;
t.
xi, Nos.
3
i.-ii.,
1904,
p. I.
These legends will be found in the works by Maspero, Erman and very useful digest will be Budge, to which I have already referred. found in Donald A. Mackenzie's "Egyptian Myth and Legend". Mr. Mackenzie does not claim to have any first-hand knowledge of the subject, but his exceptionally wide and intimate knowledge of Scottish folk-lore, which has preserved a surprisingly large part of the same legends, has enabled him to present the Egyptian stories with exceptional clearness and
352

The
1
Egyptian legends cannot be fully appreciated unless they are the studied in conjunction with those of Babylonia and Assyria,
mythology For it
flowing in
of Greece, will
all
Persia,
India/ China," Indonesia, and America.
11
be found
that essentially the
same stream
of legends
was
these countries,
and
that the scribes
and
painters have
caught and preserved certain definite phases of this verbal currency. The legends which have thus been preserved are not to be regarded as having been directly derived the one from the other but as collateral
phases of a variety of waves of story spreading out from one centre.
Thus
the comparison of the
whole range
;
of
homologous legends
gaps
in
is
peculiarly instructive
series,
and
useful
because the
in
the Egyptian
for
example, can be
filled
by necessary phases which are

or Greece,
missing in
Egypt
itself,
but are preserved in Babylonia
Persia or India, China or Britain, or even Oceania and America.
The
marized
:
incidents in the Destruction of
Mankind may be
briefly
sum-
As Re
grows old
"
the
men who were
"
begotten of his eye
show
signs of rebellion.
Re
calls
a council of the gods and they advise him
But I refer to his book specially because he is one of sympathetic insight. the few modern writers who has made the attempt to compare the legends Hence the reader of Egypt, Babylonia, Crete, India and Western Europe.
who
is
particularly useful as
unfold
"Indian
1
Myth and Legend," Egyptian Myth and Legend," and Legend," "Myths of Babylonia and Assyria" and Myth " Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe ". See Leonard W. King, "Babylonian Religion," 1899. " Zeus ". For a useful collection of data see A. B. Cook, " 3 Iranian Views of Origins in connexion with Albert J. Carnoy,
:
not familiar with the mythology of these countries will find his books works of reference in following the story I have to " "
Teutonic
vol.
Similar Babylonian Beliefs," Journal of the American Oriental Society, xxxvi., 1916, pp. 300-20; and "The Moral Deities of Iran and India
their Origins,"
4
ft
and
The American Journal of Theology,
vol.
xxi.,
No.
i.,
January, 1917.
" Religions of India ". Hopkins, De Groot, " The Religious System of China".
"Perry, "The Megalithic Culture of Indonesia," Manchester, 1918. 7 H. Beuchat, "Manuel d' Archeologie Americaine," Paris, 1912; " Mexican Archaeology," and especially the memoir by Seler T. A. Joyce, on the "Codex Vaticanus" and his articles in the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic and elsewhere.
*
I.e.
"
the offspring of the Great
Mother
of
gods and men, Hathor, the
Eye
of
Re
".

to
353
. .
"
shoot forth his
'
Eye
that
it
may
slay the evil conspirators.
Let the goddess Hathor descend [from heaven] and the mountains [to which they had fled in fear]."
complied she remarked
kind," and
:
slay the
men on
goddess
As
I
the
"it will be good for

I
me when
slay
subject
".
man-
Re
"
replied,
shall subject
them and
of
2
them
the goddess received the additional
name
Sekhmet from
of
in
the
is
Hence word
repre-
"to subject".
The
destructive
Sekhmet
avatar
Hathor
sented as a fierce lion-headed goddess of the goddess set to
war wading
blood.
For
work
slaughtering
mankind and the land was flooded

least
with blood.
Re became
alarmed and determined to save at
some
remnant
of
ine to obtain
gave
to
For this purpose he sent messengers to Elephanta substance called (CcC in the Egyptian text, which he the god Sektet of Heliopolis to grind up in a mortar.
mankind.
When
this
the slaves
it
had crushed barley

so as to
to
was mixed with
blood-coloured beer was
make it red made to
this
was poured out upon the fields, so resume her task of destruction in the morning she found the
undated and her face was mirrored
fluid
make beer the powdered d'fT like human blood. Enough of fill 7000 jars. At nighttime that when the goddess came to
fields influid.
in the
She drank
of
the
and became
4
intoxicated so
that she
no longer recognized manthe bloodthirsty, terrible earth
kind.
Thus Re saved a remnant of mankind from Hathor. But the god was weary of life on heaven upon the back of the Divine Cow.
There can be no doubt
confused as
it is.
and withdrew
to
as to the
meaning
of this legend, highly
The
king
who was
responsible for introducing irriga-
That is, Hathor, who as the moon is the " Eye of Re". Elsewhere in these pages I have used the more generally adopted " Sekhet ". spelling " 3 Mr. F. LI. Griffith tells me that the translation "flooding the land is erroneous and misleading. Comparison of the whole series of stories, that the amount of blood shed rapidly increased in the however, suggests
1
development
the blood of
of the narrative
at
first
the blood of a single victim

;
then
mankind
then 7000 jars of a substitute for blood
then the
red inundation of the Nile. 4 This verson I have quoted mainly from Erman, op, cit., pp. 267-9,. but with certain alterations which I shall mention later. In another version " of the legend wine replaces the beer and is made out of the blood of
those
who
6.
formerly fought against the gods,"
cf.
Plutarch,
De
Iside (ed.
Parthey)
354
tion

came
ta be himself identified with the life-giving
power
of water.
He
was
the river
prosperity.
failing
it
own vitality was the source Hence when he showed signs that his
:
his
of all fertility
vital
and
powers were
became a
time
logical necessity that
he should be
killed to safeguard
the welfare of his country
and people.
this
The
life,
came when a
comply with
an
king, rich in
power and the enjoyment
of
refused to
custom.
When
he realized that his
virility
was
life,
failing
he consulted the Great Mother, as the source and

elixir
giver of
to obtain
which would rejuvenate him and obviate
the necessity of being killed.

of those times that
life
The
only medicine in the pharmacopoeia
was
believed to be useful in minimizing danger to
was human
to
blood.
Wounds
that gave rise to severe haemorrhage

If
were known
1
produce unconsciousness and death.
the escape of
re-
It is still
the custom in
many
places,
and among them especially the
gions near the headwaters of the Nile itself, to regard the king or rain-maker as the impersonation of the life-giving properties of water and the source
of all fertility.
When
his
own
vitality
as not to endanger the fruitfulness of the is weak in life-giving powers to control
shows signs of failing he is killed, so community by allowing one who

its
destinies.
Much
of the evi-
dence relating to these matters has been collected by Sir James Frazer in "The Dying God," 1911, who quotes from Dr. Seligman the following " " account of the Dinka Osiris " While the mighty spirit Lerpiu is supposed to be embodied in the rain-maker, it is also thought to inhabit a certain hut which serves as a shrine. In front of the hut stands a post to which are fastened the horns of many bullocks that have been sacrificed to Lerpiu and in the hut is a very sacred spear which bears the name of Lerpiu and is said to kept have fallen from heaven six generations ago. As fallen stars are also called Lerpiu, we may suspect that an intimate connexion is supposed to exist be" tween meteorites and the spirit which animates the rain-maker (Frazer, Here then we have a house of the dead inhabited by op. cit., p. 32). Lerpiu, who can also enter the body of the rain-maker and animate him, as well as the ancient spear and the falling stars, which are also animate forms of the same god, who obviously is the homologue of Osiris, and is identified with the spear and the falling stars. In spring when the April moon is a few days old bullocks are sacri" ficed to Lerpiu. Two bullocks are led twice round the shrine and afterwards tied by the rain-maker to the post in front of it. Then the drums beat and the people, old and young, men and women, dance round the shrine and sing, while the beasts are being sacrificed, Lerpiu, our ancestor, we have brought you a sacrifice. Be pleased to cause rain to fall.' The blood of the bullocks is collected in a gourd, boiled in a pot on the fire, and eaten by the old and important people of the clan. The horns of the " animals are attached to the post in front of the shrine (pp. 32 and 33).
: ; '

the blood of
cal to
355
life could produce these results it was not altogether illogiassume that the exhibition of human blood could also add to the
vitality of living
men and
so
"
turn back the years from their old age,"
Pyramid Texts express it. Thus the Great Mother, the giver of life to all mankind, was faced with the dilemma that, to provide the king with the elixir to restore his
as the
youth, she had to slay mankind, to take the

to her
life
she herself had given
own
children.
Thus
she acquired an evil reputation which
was
also
to stick to her throughout her career.
She was not only the

of all blessings
:
beneficent
creator of
all
things
and the bestower
but she
was
a demon of destruction
children.
who
did not hesitate to slaughter even her
own
In course of time the practice of
human
of
sacrifice
was abandoned
of
and
substitutes
were adopted
1
in
place
the
blood
mankind.
Either the blood of cattle,
who by means
of appropriate ceremonies
could be transformed into
human
beings (for the Great
Mother
herself
was
stead
the Divine
;
Cow
and her
offspring cattle),
or red ochre
was used
to colour a liquid
was employed in its which was used ritually
sacrifice. When this phase of culture was reached the goddess provided for the king an elixir of life consisting of beer stained red by means of red ochre, so as to simulate human blood.
to replace the blood of
But such a mixture was doubly potent, for the barley from which the beer was made and the drink itself was supposed to be imbued with
the
life-giving
powers
of
Osiris,
and the blood-colour reinforced
its
therapeutic usefulness.
The
legend
now
begins to
become involved and
confused.
in
For the goddess is making the rejuvenator for the king, who the meantime has died and become deified as Osiris and the beer,
;
which
is
the vehicle of the life-giving powers of Osiris,
to rejuvenate his son
and
successor, the living king
now being used Horus, who in the

is
version that has

1
come down
to us
is
replaced by the sun-god Re.
In Northern Nigeria an official who bore the title of Killer of the Elephant throttled the king "as soon as he showed signs of failing health or The king-elect was afterwards conducted to the centre growing infirmity ".
Elephant, where he was made to lie down was slaughtered and its blood allowed to pour all over his body. Next the ox was flayed, and the remains of the dead king, which had been disembowelled and smoked for seven days over a slow fire, were wrapped up in the hide and dragged along to the place of burial, " where they were interred in a circular pit (Frazer, op. '/., p. 35).
of the town, called
of the
Head
on a bed.
Then
a black ox
356
It is

Re who
is
king and
Mother,
to provide
is growing old him with the elixir of
he asks Hathor, the Great
life.
But comparison with
some
of the legends of other countries suggests that
place previously
occupied by Horus and
has usurped the originally by Osiris, who as

of
Re
the real personification of the life-giving the appropriate person to be slain
power
water
is
obviously
fail.
when
his virility begins
to
Dr.
C. G. Seligman's account of the Dinka rain-maker Lerpiu, which I " have already quoted (p. 3) from Sir James Frazer's Dying God,"
1
suggests that the slain king or
god was
originally Osiris.
The
introduction of
Re
into the story
marks the beginning of the

originally nothing
belief in the sky- world or
heaven.
fertility
Hathor was
and
vitality.
more
per-
than an amulet to enhance

sonified as a
Then
she
was
woman and
moon
identified with a
cow.
But when the view
developed that the
controlled the powers of life-giving in

their life-blood, the
women
and exercised a
was
identified with the
brought into
upon But how was such a conception to be with the view that she was also a cow ? The harmony
moon.
displays an irresistible tendency to unify
its
direct influence
Great Mother
human mind
and
of
its
experience
to bridge the gaps that necessarily exist in

ideas.
broken
series of scraps
knowledge and
impulse
No
break
is
too great to be bridged
by
this
instinctive
to
rationalize the products of
diverse experience.
Hence, early man, having identified the Great Mother both with a cow and the moon, had no compunction in making "the cow jump " The moon then became the over the moon to become the sky. " " " Eye of the sky and the sun necessarily became its other Eye ". But,
as the sun
mined the
the
more important day and gave warmth and light
was
clearly the
"
Eye," seeing that it deterfor man's daily work, it was
more important deity. Therefore Re, at first the Brother- Eye of Hathor, and afterwards her husband, became the supreme sky-deity,
of his Eyes.
and Hathor merely one
When
the
this
" "
stage of theological evolution "
was
reached, the story of
Destruction of
Mankind
was
re-edited,
and Hathor was called
the
tion
Eye
of
Re ".
In the earlier versions she

life
was
called into consulta-
solely as the giver of

knife.
and,
to obtain
the life-blood,
she cut
men's throats with a
But as the Eye of Re she was identified with the fire-spitting uraeus- serpent which the king or god wore on his forehead. She was both the moon and the fiery bolt which shot down from the sky to slay

the enemies of Re.
357
For the men
provide the blood for an elixir

reason for this
who were originally slaughlsred to now became the enemies of Re. The
sacrifice
was
that,
human
having been abandoned and

blood, the story-teller
substitutes provided to replace the
human
was
at
a loss to
know why
and the
the goddess killed mankind.
A reason had to be
men had
rebelled
found
rationalization
adopted was
killed.
that
against the gods
and had
to
be
This interpretation was proof
bably the result of a confusion with the old legend of the fight between
Horus and
Set, the rulers of the
two kingdoms
Egypt.
The
possi-
bility also suggests itself that a
pun made by some
priestly jester
may
have been the

separate stories.
real
factor that led to this mingling of
two
originally
In the "Destruction of
1
Mankind"
the story runs,

:
" udr er set, Behold ye them (set) fleeing into the mountain The enemies were thus identified with the mountain or stone (set) ".
set
according to Budge,
that
Re,
referring to his enemies, said
ma-ten
and with
In
Set, the
enemy
of the gods."
for
determinative for Set.
Egyptian hieroglyphics the symbol "
stone
is
used as the
When
the
Eye
of
Re"
destroyed mankind
and the rebels were thus identified with the followers of Set, they were
regarded as creatures of "stone".
petrified the enemies.
From
Egyptian scribe has arisen " "

Evil
words the Medusa-eye on the part of some ancient pun the world-wide stories of the influence of theIn other
this feeble
Eye
and the
purification of the enemies of the gods."
As
the
name for Isis in Egyptian is Set" it is possible the Power of Evil with the Great Mother may
tated
It
"
that the confusion of also
have been
facili-
by an extension
is
of the
same pun.
important to recognize that the legend of
from the
moon
or the sky in the form of

-first
Hathor descending destroying fire had nothing
whatever to do, in the
instance, with the
phenomena
of lightning
"Gods of the Egyptians," vol. i., p. 392. The eye of the sun-god, which was subsequently
identified with the Uraeus- snake
called the eye of
Horus and
on the forehead of
Re and
of
the Pharaohs, the earthly representatives of Re, finally becoming synonymous with the crown of Lower Egypt, was a mighty goddess, Uto or Buto by " " " name (Alan Gardiner, Article Magic (Egyptian) in Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion and Etkics, p. 268, quoting Sethe.
ôr
"
Indonesia
The Legend of
",
an account of the distribution of this story see E. Sidney Hartland, " " also W. J. Perry, The Megalithic Culture of Perseus
;
358
and
tive

meteorites.
It
was
the result of verbal quibbling after the destruc-
"
goddess came to be identified with the moon, the sky and the Eye of Re". But once the evolution of the story on these lines
it
prepared the way,

destruction exerted
was
the
inevitable that in later times the

fire
by
powers of from the sky should have been identified
with the lightning and meteorites.

"
When the destructive force of the heavens was attributed to the Eye of Re" and the god's enemies were identified with the followers
it
of Set,
was
natural that the traditional
enemy
of Set
who was
also
the
more potent other

rebellious
first
"Eye
of
Re"
should assume his mother's role

in fact take the
of punishing
mankind.
That Horus did

in the story
is
place at
of trivial episodes from the

in
occupied by Hathor " Destruction of

of the
Mankind
king
revealed by the series "

that reappear
of
Winged "Saga was identified with a falcon, (Horus)

(Mut) with him
:
the
Disk".
as
The
!
Lower Egypt
vulture
Hathor was with the
like her,
:
he entered the sun-god's boat and sailed up the river he then mounted up to heaven as a winged disk, i.e. the
his
sun of
Re
equipped with
own
falcon's wings.
The
destructive
force displayed
identification
by Hathor as the Eye

of the
of
Re was
symbolized by her
with Tefnut, the
fire-spitting uraeus-snake.
When Horus
two
fire-
assumed the form

spitting
winged disk he added

Re's enemies.
to his insignia
serpents to destroy
The winged
himself.
fire
disk
was
at
once the instrument

flew)
of destruction
like
and the god
down
from heaven
a bolt of destroying
It swooped (or and killed the
enemies of Re.
1
a confusion with Horus's other fight against the " The original boat of the sky was the crescent moon, which, from its likeness to the earliest form of Nile boat, was regarded as the vessel in which the moon (seen as a faint object upon the crescent), or the goddess who was supposed to be personified in the moon, travelled across the " " But as this boat was obviously part of the waters of the heavens. moon itself, it also was regarded as an animate form of the goddess, the " " Eye of Re ". When the Sun, as the other Eye," assumed the chief " boat," which role, Re was supposed to traverse the heavens in his own was also brought into relationship with the actual boat used in the Osinan
By
"
burial ritual.
dragon in reference to a boat is found in places as far apart as Scandinavia and China. It is the direct outcome of these identifications of the sun and moon with a boat animated
of
The custom
employing the name
"
"
In India the .}fakara, the prototype of the by the respective deities. dragon, was sometimes represented as a boat which was looked upon as the hd\-avatar of Vishnu, Buddha or some other deity.
359
followers of Set, the enemies of Re become identified with Set's army and they are transformed into crocodiles, hippopotami and all the other kinds of creatures whose shapes the enemies of Osiris assume.
In the course of the development of these legends a multitude of
other factors played a part
and gave
rise
to
transformations of
the
meaning
of the incidents.
The goddess originally slaughtered mankind, or perhaps it would be truer to say, made a human sacrifice, to obtain blood to rejuvenate the king. But, as we have seen already, when the sacrifice was no
longer a necessary part of the programme, the incident of the slaughter was not dropped out of the story, but a new explanation of it was
framed.
Instead of simply
making a human
sacrifice,
mankind
as a
whole was destroyed
for rebelling against the gods, the act of rebellion

virility.
it
being murmuring about the king's old age and loss of elixir soon became something more than a rejuvenator
The
trans-
was
formed into the food of the gods, the ambrosia that gave them their Now when immortality, and distinguished them from mere mortals.
the development of the story led to the replacement of the single victim
by the whole of mankind, the blood produced by the wholesale slaughter was so abundant that the fields were flooded by the life-giving elixir.
By
the sacrifice of
men
the soil
was renewed and
refertilized.
When
the blood-coloured beer
was
substituted
for the actual
blood the conideas, be-
ception
cause the beer
was brought into still closer harmony with Egyptian was animated with the life-giving powers
of
Osiris.
But Osiris was the Nile.

identified with the
The blood-coloured
fertilizing fluid
was then
annual inundation of the red-coloured waters of the
come from the First Hence by a familiar psychological process the previous phase of the legend was recast, and by confusion the red ochre (which was used to colour the beer red) was said to have come
Nile.
Now
the Nile waters were supposed to
Cataract at Elephantine.
from Elephantine.
1
This is an instance of the well-known tendency of the human mind to blend numbers of different incidents into one story. An episode of one exbeen transferred to an earlier one, becomes rationalized perience, having in adaptation to its different environment. This process of psychological
transference
of the (f(f,
is
and has no
the explanation of the reference to Elephantine as the source relation to actuality. The naive efforts of Brugsch
and Gauthier
of identifying
to study the natural products of
Elephantine for the purpose
d\f were
therefore wholly misplaced.
360

arrived at the stage where, by a distortion of a series
incident emerges that
of
Thus we have phases, the new
by means
of a
human Hence
sacrifice
the Nile flood can be produced.
By
a further confusion the goddess,

victim.
who
originally did the slaughter,
becomes the
the story
assumed the form
that
by means
of the sacrifice of a beautiful
and
at-
tractive maiden the annual inundation can be produced.
As
the most
potent symbol
of
life-giving
i.e.
it
is
essential
that
the victim
should be
sexually attractive,
ful
that she should
be a virgin and the most beautithe practice of
and desirable
in
the land.
When
human
for the
sacrifice
was
in
abandoned a figure or an animal

practice,
was
1
substituted
maiden
as
ritual
and
in
legends the hero rescued

the dragon.
the maiden,
is
Andromeda was saved from

forces of the
The dragon
the personifi-
cation of the monsters that dwell in the waters as well as the destructive
flood
;
itself.
But the monsters were no other than the
followers of Set
identified
Thus
they were the victims of the slaughter who became with the god's other traditional enemies, the followers of Set. the monster from whom Andromeda is rescued is merely another
!
representative of herself
But the destructive

In the phases
forces of
the
flood
now
enter
it
into
the
pro-
of
gramme. mankind which caused the inundation

the flood
itself
we
have so
far discussed
:
was
the slaughter
it is
but in the next phase
which causes the
destruction, as in the later
Egyptian
the
and the borrowed Sumerian, Babylonian, Hebrew Re's boat becomes the ark world-wide versions.
which was despatched by
enemies of Re.
and
;
in fact
the winged disk
Re
from the boat becomes the dove and the
other birds sent out to spy the land, as the winged
Horus
spied the
Thus the new weapon of the gods we have already noted Hathor's knife and Horus's winged disk, which is the fire from heaven, is the flood. Like the others it can the lightning and the thunderbolt
be
either a beneficent giver of life or a force of destruction.
But the flood also becomes a weapon of another kind.

the earlier incidents of the story represents
One
of
Hathor
in opposition to
killing that
Re.
the
The
goddess becomes so maddened with the zest of
god becomes alarmed and asks her to desist and spare some representaBut she is deaf to entreaties. Hence the god is tives of the race.
1
In Hartland's
"
"
Legend
of Perseus
a collection of variants of this
story will
be found.

said to
361
have sent to Elephantine for the red ochre to make a sedative have already seen that draught to overcome her destructive zeal.
We
this incident
had an
entirely different
meaning
it
was merely intended

wherewith
to
to explain the obtaining of the colouring matter
redden
the sacred beer so as to

It
make
it
resemble blood as an
elixir for
the god.
was brought from Elephantine^ because the red waters of inundation of the Nile were supposed by the Egyptians to come from Elephantine.
'
But according to the story inscribed in Seti l st s tomb, the red ochre was an essential ingredient of the sedative mixture (prepared under
the direction of
Re by
the Sekti
of
Heliopolis) to calm Hathor's
murderous
It
spirit.
has been claimed that the story simply means that the goddess became intoxicated with beer and that she became genially inoffensive
solely as
the effect
of
such inebriation.
But the incident
in
the
Egyptian
story closely
is
which some herb

drink to colour
the
resembles the legends of used specifically as a sedative.
other countries in
In most books
on
Egyptian mythology the word (flfW) for the substance put into the " it is translated mandragora," from its resemblance to
Hebrew word dudaim

"mandrakes"
in
the
Old Testament, which
is
often
clearly
translated
or "love-apples".
But Gauthier has
demonstrated that the Egyptian word does not refer to a vegetable but 2 to a mineral substance, which he translates "red clay" Mr. F. LI. " Griffith tells me, however, that it is red ochre". In any case, man.
drake
I
is
not found at Elephantine (which, however, for the reasons

is
have already given,
a point of no importance so far as the identifica-
tion of the substance
concerned), nor in fact anywhere in Egypt. But if some foreign story of the action of a sedative drug had become blended with and incorporated in the highly complex and composite
is
is
Egyptian legend the narrative would be more intelligible. The mandrake such a sedative as might have been employed to calm the murderous
it is closely allied to hyoscyamus, used in modern medicine precisely for such purposes. I venture to suggest that a folk- tale describing the effect " " of opium or some other has been absorbed into the drowsy syrup legend of the Destruction of Mankind, and has provided the starting
frenzy of a maniacal
woman.
In fact
is
whose
active principle, hyoscin,
point of
1
all
those incidents in the dragon-story in which poison or

I
some
".
In the version
Op.
ctt.,
" hare quoted from Erman he refers to the god Sektet supra.
362

drug plays a
part.
is
sleep- producing
For when Hathor
defies
Re and
continues the destruction, she

presentative Tiamat,
playing the part of her Babylonian re-
and
is
a dragon
who
has to be vanquished by the
drink which the god provides.
The
of
life
red earth which

fertilizer
was pounded
of the soil
in the
mortar to make the

to
elixir
and the
also
came
be regarded as the
to replace those
material out of which the
new
race of
men was 'made
who were destroyed. The god fashioned mankind

of immortality, the story
to the clay
of this earth and, instead of the red
ochre being merely the material to give the blood-colour to the draught became confused actual blood was presented
:
images to give them
life
and
consciousness.
In a later elaboration the remains of the former race of
mankind
were ground up to provide the material out of which their successors were created. This version is a favourite story in Northern Europe,
and has obviously been influenced by an intermediate variant which
finds expression in the Indian legend of the
Churning
of the
Ocean
of
Milk.
Instead of the material for the elixir of the gods being
pounded
churned
by the Sekti of Heliopolis and incidentally becoming a sedative for

Hathor,
it
is
the milk of the Divine
Cow
herself
which
is
to provide the
amrita.
THE THUNDER-WEAPON.
In
the development of the dragon-story
we
have seen that the
instruments of destruction
were
of a
most varied kind.
Each
of the
three primary deities, Hathor, Osiris
and Horus can be a destructive

of all
power
as well as a giver of
life
and
kinds of boons.
Every
for
homologue
or surrogate of these three deities can
become a weapon
dragon-destroying, such as the

1
moon
or the lotus of Hathor, the
water
in dis-
The
history of the
thunder-weapon cannot wholly be ignored
It cussing the dragon-myth because it forms an integral part of the story. was animated both by the dragon and the dragon- slayer. But an adequate
account of the weapon would be so highly inyolved and complex as to be Hence I am reunintelligible without a very large series of illustrations. here only to certain aspects of the subject. ferring Pending the preparation of a monograph upon the thunder-weapon, I may refer the reader to
the works of Blinkenberg, d'Alviella, Ward, Evans and A. B. Cook (to which frequent reference is made in these pages) for material, especially in the form of illustrations, to supplement my brief and unavoidably involved summary.

or the beer of Osiris,
363
the sun or the falcon of Horus.
Hathor used a
flint
knife or
axe
Originally " then she did the execution as the

:
Osiris sent the Re," the moon, the fiery bolt from heaven flood and the intoxicating beer, each of which, like, the knife, destroying
Eye
of
axe and
moon
of
Hathor, were animated by the
deity.
Then Horus
came
as the
winged disk, the falcon, the sun, the lightning and the
thunderbolt.
As
"
any one
like the
literal
of these of
the dragon-story was spread abroad in the world " weapons was confused with any of (or all) the rest.
the
fire- spitting
The Eye
Re was
uraeus- serpent
and
foreign people,
Greeks, Indians and others, gave the Egyptian verbal simile
expression
and converted
it
into
an actual Cyclopean eye planted

fire.
1
in the forehead,
which shot out the destroying

is
The
warrior god of Babylonia
called the bright one,
the sword
light-
or lightning of Ishtar,
who was
herself called
both the sword or
ning of heaven.
In the
/Egean area
also the sons of
Zeus and
the progeny of heaven
may be
axes, stone implements, meteoric stones
and thunderbolts.
In
".
a Swahili tale the hero's
"
weapon
is
a sword like a flash of lightning

of the celestial drink
According
brought
is
to
Bergaigne,' the
myth
soma,
eagle,"
down from heaven by

to that of
is
a bird ordinarily called cj>ena

fire
"
t
parallel
This parallelism
Agni, the celestial even expressly stated
brought by Mataric.van.
hymn
to
Agni and Soma.
Rig Veda, verse 6 of Mataric,van brought the one from heaven,

in the
the eagle brought the other from the celestial mountain.
the eagle
Kuhn admits that the who takes the

Agni
Disk Saga,
in
eagle represents Indra

fire
and Lehmann regards

It
is
as
Agni
himself.
patent that both
Indra and
are in fact merely specialized forms of
Horus
is
of the
Winged
one of which the warrior sun-god

fire.
represented,
is
in the other the living
The
elixir of life of
the Egyptian story
represented by the soma, which by confusion is associated with the in other words, the god Soma is the homologue not only of eagle
:
Osiris, but also of
Horus.
Other
incidents in the
same
original version are confused in

stole the fire
the
Greek
1
story of
in
Prometheus.
is
He
from heaven and brought

"
which issued from the moon (Hathor), i.e. was born of the Great Mother. " /Etos "Religion vedique," i., p. 173, quoted by S. Reinach, ie Prometheus, Revue archt'ologique, 4 serie, tome x., 1917, p. 72. 24
As
Egypt Osiris
described as
"
a ray of light
'
364
it

:
to earth
but, in place of the episode of the elixir,
which
is
adopted
clay
is
in
the Indian story just mentioned, the creation of
men from
accredited
by the Greeks
to the
"flaming one,"
the "fire eagle"
Prometheus.
double axe was the homologue of the winged disk which fell, or rather flew, from heaven as the tangible form of the god. This fire from heaven inevitably came to be identified with the lightning. Ac" many points go to prove that cording to Blinkenberg (pp. cit. p. 19) the double-axe is a representation of the lightning (see Usener, p. 20) ".
t
The
He
"
refers to the design
on the famous gold ring from Mycenae where
the sun, the moon, a double curved line presumably representing the " " the latter is but rainbow, and the double-axe, i.e. the lightning
:
placed lower than the others, probably because it descends from heaven to earth," like Horus when he assumed the form of the winged disk and flew down to earth as a fiery bolt to destroy the enemies
of
Re.
The
recognition
of the
homology
double axe solves a host of

scholars within recent years.
l
the winged disk with the which have puzzled classical problems The form of the double axe on the
of
in
Mycenaean
ring
and the painted sarcophagus from Hagia Triada
Crete (and especially the oblique markings upon the axe) is probably a suggestion of the double series of feathers and the outlines of the inThe position of the axe dividual feathers respectively on the wings.
upon a symbolic
p. 21),
tree
is
not intended, as Blinkenberg claims (pp.

the trees struck
cit. %
:
as
"a
ritual
representation of
2
by lightning"
but
life
is
the familiar scene of the
Mesopotamian
disk.
in
is
culture- area,
the tree of
surmounted by the winged
The
bird poised
logue of the falcon of

the winged disk
itself.
upon the axe Horus it

:
the Cretan picture

in fact a
is
the
homo-
sideration that the falcon
This interpretation is may be replaced by the
second representation of not affected by the coneagle, pigeon,
woodthe
pecker or raven, for these substitutions were repeatedly
made by
ancient priesthoods in flagrant defiance of the proprieties of ornithological homologies.

trusively in
1
The same phenomenon is displayed even more obCentral America and Mexico, where the ancient sculptors
op. cit., Fig. 4, p.
10.
Evans,
William Hayes
Ward, "The Seal Cylinders
of
Western Asia,"
chapter xxxviii.

and
painters represented the bird perched
365
upon the
1
tree of life as a
falcon,
an eagle, a vulture, a
incident of
macaw
or even a turkey.
The
the winged disk descending
to effect
the
sun-
god's purposes upon earth probably represents the earliest record of the
recognition of thunder
and
lightning
manifestations of the god's powers.
and the phenomena of rain as All gods of thunder, lightning, rain

arbitrary graphic representa-
and clouds derive

tion of them,
for us in the
their attributes,
and the
Disk.
from the legend which the Egyptian scribe has preserved
Saga
of the
Winged
is
The
of a
sacred axe of Crete

visible
represented elsewhere as a sword which
became the
impersonation of the deity."
There
is
a Hittite story
sword-handle coming to
in certain
same incident
original in the fact that
Hose and McDougall refer to the life. Sarawak legends and the story is true to the 3 the sword fell from the sun.
;
Sir
Arthur Evans describes as
"
the aniconic image of the
go4" a
as the
stone pillar on which crude pictures of a double axe have been scratched.
These
representations of the axe in fact serve the

in
same purpose
winged disk
Egypt, and, as
we
shall see subsequently, there
was an
actual confusion
The
between the Egyptian symbol and the Cretan axe. obelisk at Abusir was the aniconic representative of the sun-
god Re, or rather, the support of the pyramidal apex, the gilded surface of which reflected the sun's rays and so made manifest the god's presence in the stone.
The
Hittites
seem
:
to
for
sentation of the sun
have substituted the winged disk as a repre4 we find the in a design copied from a seal
Egyptian symbol borne upon the apex of a cone. The transition from this to the great double axe from Hagia Triada in the Candia Museum 5 is a relatively easy one, which was
materially helped,
as
we
shall see,
by
the fact that the winged disk
was
actually homologized with
used by the sun-god for In Dr. Seligman's account of the Dinka rain-maker (supra,
1
an axe or knife as alternative weapons the destruction of mankind.

p.
354)
"Codex Vaticanus, No. 3773," vol. i., p. 77 et seq. Evans, op. at., p. 8. "The Pagan Tribes of Borneo," 1912, vol. ii., p. 137. 4 Evans, op. at., Fig. 8, c, p. 17. " 5 There is an excellent photograph of this in Donald McKenzie's Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe," facing p. 160.
Seler,
366

already seen that the Soudanese Osiris
falling stars.
1
we have
was
identified with a
spear and
According to Dr. Budge

determinative of the
a handle.
word
Egyptian hieroglyph used as the neter, meaning god or spirit, is the axe with
the
it
Mr.
Griffith,
however, interprets
as a roll of yellow cloth
(" Hieroglyphics," p. 46). the place of the god Teshub.

Sir
On
5'
Hittite seals the axe sometimes takes
Arthur Evans endeavours to explain these conceptions by a vague appeal to certain natural phenomena (pp. cit., pp. 20 and 21);
but the identical traditions of widespread peoples are much too arbitrary and specific to be interpreted by any such speculations.
Sanchoniathon's story of Baetylos being the son of Ouranos is merely a poetical way of saying that the sun-god fell to earth in the
form of a stone or a weapon, as a Zeus Kappotas or a Horus in the form of a winged disk, flying down from heaven to destroy the
enemies of Re.
"
The
idea of their [the weapons] flying through the air or falling

their
from heaven, and
supposed power of burning with inner
fire
or
shining in the nighttime,"
Evans claims
(pp. cit. t
was. not primarily suggested, as Sir Arthur p. 21), "by the phenomena associated with
rationalization of the events described in
stories.
meteoric stones," but
was a
the early Egyptian and Babylonian
"
They was the moon

"he
filled
shine at night" because the original

as the
weapon
of destruction
fire," like
Eye
of
Re.
"
They
burn with inward
the Babylonian
Marduk, when
in the fight
with the dragon Tiamat

p. 71),
cause they out by the
his body with burning flame" (King, op. cit., were fire, the fire of the sun and of lightning,
bespat
the
fire
Eye
of
Re.
is
Further evidence in corroboration of these views

fact that in the
provided by the
/Egean area the double-axe replaces the moon between

cit.,
the cow's horns (Evans, op.

In King's
Babylonian Religion" (pp. 70 and 71) we are told how the gods provided Marduk with an invincible weapon in preparation for the combat with the and the ancient scribe himself sets dragon
:
"
Fig. 3, p. 9).
forth a series of
its
homologues
The Gods
i.,
pp. 63 et seq.
See, for example,
Ward,
op. cit., p. 411.

He made He slung
The bow
ready his bow a spear and quiver
. . . . . .
367
He
set the lightning in front of him,
With burning
flame he
filled his
body.
Egyptian writer has put on record further identificaIn the 95th Chapter of the Book of the Dead, the weapons. " deceased is reported to have said I am he who sendeth forth terror
ancient
tions of
:
An
into the
powers knife which is
of rain
in
and thunder.
...
in
have made to
flourish
my
and
the
hand
of
Thoth
the powers of
i.,
rain
thunder" (Budge,
"Gods
p.
414).
The
for
it
identification of the
winged disk with the thunderbolt which

is
emerges so definitely from these homologies
not 'altogether new,

l
was
:
suggested some years ago by
Count d'AIviella
in
these
words
"
in a
On
seeing
some
representations of the Thunderbolt
which
it
recall
remarkable manner the outlines of the
Winged Globe,
may be
if it was not owing to this latter symbol that the Greeks transformed into a winged spindle the Double Trident derived from AsAt any rate the transition, or, if it be preferred, the combination syria.
asked
two symbols is met with in those coins from Northern Africa where Greek art was most deeply impregnated with Phoenician types.
of the
Thus on
Mauretania, figures are found which M. Lajard connected with the Winged Globe, and M. L. Muller calls Thunderbolts, but which are really the result of crossing
coins of
II,
Bocchus
King
of
between these two emblems
".
is
The
direct
thunderbolt, however,
not always, or even commonly, the

It is
representative of
the winged disk.

3
more
often derived
from lightning or some
floral design."
According to Count d'AIviella "the Trident of Siva at times exhibits the form of a lotus calyx depicted in the Egyptian manner ".
at
Perhaps other transformations of the trisula might still be found The same Disk which, when transBoro-Budur [in Java].
. .
"
formed into a most complicated ornament, is sometimes crowned by a which brings us back Trident, is also met with between two serpents
to the origin of the
1
Winged
Circle
the
Globe
of
Egypt with the
Migration of Symbols," pp. 220 and 221. ! Op. at., p. 256. Blinkenberg, op. at., p. 53.
"The
368
"
uraei

(see d'Alviella's
Fig.
158).
"Moreover
this
ornament, beis
tween which and certain forms
of the trisula
the transition
easily
in
traced, commonly surmounts the entrance to the pagodas depicted
the
bas-reliefs
in
exactly the
adorns the
lintel of
the temples in
traces of
same manner as the Winged Globe Egypt and Phoenicia."
Thus we
derived
find
independently from the
a blending of the two homologous designs, lotus and the winged disk, which
acquired the same symbolic significance. The weapon of Poseidon, the so-called "Trident of Neptune," is " sometimes crowned with a trilobate lotus flower, or with three lotus
buds
in
other cases
it
is
depicted in a shape that

cit. t
may
well represent
a fishing spear" (Blinkenberg, op, "
pp. 53 and 54).
Even
if
Jacobsthal's interpretation of the flower as a

for fire
common
Greek symbol
be not accepted, the conventionalization of the

is
trident as a lotus blossom

soil,
quite analogous to the change,

to
on Greek
in opposite
of the Assyrian
thunderweapon
two flowers pointing

symbol of
fire
directions" (p. 54).
But the conception summarily be dismissed.

pillars of
of a flower as a
cannot thus
For
Sir
Arthur Evans has
collected all the
stages in the transformation of
Egyptian palmette
leaflets of
pillars into the
rayed
"
the
Cyprus,
in
which the
the palmette
become converted
calls
(in the
Cypro- Mycenaean
derivatives) into the rays
which he
natural concomitant of divinities of light 'V
underlying motive which makes such a transference easy is the Egyptian conception of Hathor as a sacred lotus from which the sun-
The
god Horus is born. The god of light is identified with the waterand the lotus form of Horus can plant, whether lotus, iris or lily
;
be correlated with
fleur-de-lys type
p. 50).
its
now
" Hellenic surrogate, Apollo Hyakinthos. " takes its place beside the sacred lotus (pp.
The
cit.,
The
trident
and the
fleur-de-lys are thunderweapons because
they represent forms of Horus or his mother. The classical keraunos is still preserved in Tibet
as the dorje,
which
is
identified with Indra's thunderbolt, the
also applied to the
diamond, the
attributes
"
of
king of
vajra? This word is stones," which in turn acthe Great
quired
many
"
of
the
the pearl, another of
Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult," pp. 51 and 52. See Blinkenberg, op. cit. pp. 45-8.
t

Mother's surrogates, which
1
369
is
reputed to have fallen from heaven like
the thunderbolt.
The Tibetan
dorje, like
its
Greek
original,
is
obviously a conven-
tionalized flower, the leaf-design about the base of the corona being
quite clearly defined.
The
influence of the
Winged- Disk Saga

"
is
clearly revealed in such

is
Greek myths
as that relating to Ixion.
Euripides
represented
by
Aristophanes as declaring that
AttkdrtfL the creation devised

of the sun."
The eye
to
mimic the wheel
When we
made
of
read of Zeus in anger binding Ixion to a winged wheel
fire, and sending him spinning through the air, we are merely with a Greek variant of the Egyptian myth in which Re dealing In the Heldespatched Horus as a winged disk to slay his enemies.
lenic version the
sky-god
his ill-treatment of his
angry with the father of the centaurs for father-in-law and his behaviour towards Hera
is
:
and her cloud-manifestation

reveal
but though distorted
all
the incidents
its
their original inspiration in
the Egyptian story and
early
Aryan
of
variants.
It is
remarkable that Mr.
A.
B. Cook,
who compared
especially
the wheel
Ixion with the Egyptian

for
deeper
common
origin
winged of the two myths,
disk (pp. 205-10), did not
look
got
when he
so far as to identify Ixion with the sun-god (p. 211).
Blinkenberg sums up the development of the thunder- weapon thus the old Babylonian representation of the lightning, i.e. two or three zigzag lines representing flames, a tripartite thunder-weapon was
:
"
From
evolved and earned east and west from the ancient seat of
1
civilization.
1 must defer consideration of the part played by certain of the Great Mother's surrogates in the development of the thunder-weapon's symbolism I have in mind and the associated folk-lore. especially the influence of the The former was responsible in part for the use of octopus and the cow.
the spiral as a thunder- symbol

protective
and the
latter
for the beliefs in the special
(see Blinkenberg, op. power /.). thunderstone was placed over the lintel of the cow-shed for the same Until purpose as the winged disk over the door of an Egyptian temple. the relations of the octopus to the dragon have been set forth it is impossible
of thunderstones over
cows
The
adequately to discuss the question of the seven-headed dragon, which ranges " from Scotland to Japan and from Scandinavia to the Zambesi. In The "
Birth of Aphrodite A. B. Cook,
I
shall call attention to the basal factors in its evolution.
"Zeus,"
vol.
i.,
p.
198.
370
Together with the axe (in Western Asia Minor the double-edged, and towards the centre of Asia the single-edged, axe) it became a regular
attribute of the Asiatic thunder-gods.
.
.
The
Indian trisula and the
Greek
triaina are
both
its
descendants"
(p. 57).
Discussing the relationship of the sun-god to thunder, Dr. Rendel " arrows are said to be lightHarris refers to the fact that Apollo's
nings,"
in
and he quotes Pausanias, Apollodorus and Mr. A. B. Cook Both sons of Zeus, Dionysus and substantiation of his statements.
1
Apollo, are
concerned with the production of fire ". According to Hyginus, Typhon was the son of Tartarus and the
:
"
he made war against Jupiter for dominion, and, being struck by lightning, was thrown flaming to the earth, where Mount /Etna
Earth
was placed upon

of
him."
In this curious variant of the story of
the winged
disk, the conflict
Horus with Set
tarus [Osiris]
is merged with the Destruction, for the son of Tarand the Earth [Isis] here is not Horus but his hostile
brother Set.
against
Instead of fighting for Jupiter
(Re)
as
in
Horus
did,
he
is
him.
The
strikes
lightning
(which
is
Horus
the form of the
winged disk)
episode of
Typhon and throws him

is
:
flaming to earth.
The
Mount /Etna
the antithesis of the incident in the Indian
legend of the churning of the ocean

sea
of
Mount Meru
is
upon
the tortoise
avatar
of
Vishnu and
In
is placed in the used to churn the food
immortality for the gods.

is
brought from Elephantine
The
(xii.,
Egyptian story the red ochre with the barley. pounded story told by Hyginus leads up to the vision in Revelations
the
'
7 et
seq.)
There was war

;
in
heaven
Michael and
fought,
his his
in
angels
angels,
fought
against the dragon

not, neither
and the dragon

their place
and
and prevailed
was
found any more
heaven.
the Devil
into
And
the great dragon
was
cast out, that old serpent called

:
and Satan, which deceiveth the whole world the earth, and his angels were cast out with him."
"
he was cast
The Ascent
of
Tartarus ex Terra procreavit Typhonem, immani magnitudine, specieHie que portentosa, cui centum capita draconum ex humeris enata erant.
Olympus,"
p. 32.
JoYcm
Sicilia,
prorocavit,
pectus ejus
fab. 152).
secum de regno centare. Jovis fulmine ardenti Cui cum flagraret, montem /Etnam, qui est in percussit. super eum imposuit; qui ex eo adhuc ardere dicitur" (Hyginus,
si
vellet
371
In the later variants the original significance of the Destruction of
Mankind seems to have been lost sight of. The life-giving Great Mother tends to drop out of the story and her son Horus takes her place.
becomes the warrior-god, but he not only assumes his mother's role but he also adopts her tactics. Just as she attacked Re's enemies in the
capacity of the sky-god's
sun, to
He
"
Eye," so Horus as the other

wings, attacked in
like the
"
which he gave
disk.
the winged
his own falcon's The winged disk,
Eye," the the form of

of
other
"
Eye
Re,"
was
not merely the sky
but also
was
the god
the belief that the

fiery
weapon which shot down to destroy mankind, Horus himself. This early conception involved thunderbolt and lightning represented not merely the
same confusion
It is
weapon but
the actual god.

disk thus exhibits the
of attributes as
The winged
we have
already noticed in Osiris

life-giving
and Hathor.
protective
is
the
:
commonest
it
symbol of
and beneficent
power
yet
is
the
weapon used to slaughter mankind. It as well as the baneful thunder- weapon.
in fact the healing
caduceus
THE
One
of the
DEER.
in
most surprising features of the dragon

the equipment of deer's horns.
China, Japan
and America,
is
In Babylonia both
Ea and Marduk
are intimately associated with
the antelope or gazelle, and the combination of the head of the antelope
(or in other cases the goat) with the
acteristic manifestation of either god.
body
In
of a fish
is
the most char-
Egypt both Osiris and Horus are at times brought into relationship with the gazelle or antelope, but
more
often
it
represents their
enemy
-
Set.
Hence,
in
some
parts of
Africa, especially in the west, the antelope plays the part of the dragon
in Asiatic stories.
1
The cow
of
Hathor (Tiamat) may

In the
represent the
8
dragon
also.
In East Africa the antelope assumes the role of the hero,
and
is
the representative of Horus.
/Egean
area,
Asia Minor
Frobenius,
"The Voice
of Africa," vol.
ii.,
p.
467
inter alia.
"'Op. at., p. 468. 3 J. F. Campbell,
"The
Celtic
Dragon Myth," with the "Geste
of
Fraoch and the Dragon," translated with Introduction by George Henderson, Edinburgh, 191 I, p. 136.
372

deer,
and Europe the antelope, gazelle or the the Great Mother.

1
may be
associated with
In
India the
god Soma's chariot
is
drawn by an
:
antelope.
have already suggested that
Soma
Babylonian Ea, whole evil avatar is another link between the antelope and the
return to the discussion of this point later.
only a specialized form of the the dragon there is thus suggested

is
latter.
The Ea-element
I
explains the fish-scales and the antelope provides the horns.
shall
Vayu or Pavana, the Indian god of the winds, who afterwards became merged with Indra, rides upon an antelope like the Egyptian Soma's attributes also were in large measure taken over by Horus.
Indra.
Hence
in this
complex
tissue of contradictions
we
once more
find the dragon-slayer acquiring the insignia, in this case the antelope,
of his mortal
I
enemy. have already referred to the fact that the early Babylonian deities could also be demons. Tiamat, the dragon whom Marduk fought, was
The dragon merely the malevolent avatar of the Great Mother. his covering of fish-scales from an evil form of Ea. acquired
Hibbert Lectures Professor Sayce claimed that the name of " Ea was expressed by an ideograph which signifies literally the anteIn his
"
"
(p.
lope
280).
Ea was
'
'
called
the antelope of the deep,'

'.
'
the
antelope the creator,'

the animal of
the lusty antelope

fish
:
We should
have expected
not so points
Ea
of
to
have been the
the fact that
it is
to the conclusion that the culture-god of
amalgamation
two
earlier
other the divine fish."
Ea
Southern Babylonia was an one the divine antelope and the deities, " was originally the gcd of the river and
was
also associated with the snake".
Nina was
also both the fish-
goddess and the divinity whose name is interchanged with that of the " Professor Sayce then refers to the curious process of developdeep. ment which transformed the old serpent- goddess, the lady Nina,' into
'
the
embodiment
of all
that
was
hostile to the
powers of heaven
but
after all,
Nina had sprung from the
fish-god of the deep
[who
also
was
For example the red deer occupies the place usually taken by the " Mycenaean Tree and Pillar goddess's lions upon a Cretan gem (Evans, Cult," Fig. 32, p. 56) on the bronze plate from Heddemheim (A. B. " Cook, Zeus," vol. i., pi. xxxiv., and p. 620) Isis is represented standing on a hind Artemis, another avatar of the same Great Mother, was in: :
timately associated with deer.

1
373
both antelope and serpent as well, see p. 282], and Tiamat is herself " the deep in Semitic dress (p. 283). " At times Ea was regarded as a gazelle rather than as an anteThe position of the name in the list of animals shows what lope." " Lnlim, a stag," seems to be a species of animal must be meant.
'
re-duplicated form of the

to
same word.
(p.
Both lulim and elim are
said
asked for enlightenment upon these philological matters, express some doubt as to the antiquity or to the reality of the association of the names of Ea and the word for an
I
be equivalent to sarru, king Certain Assyriologists, from
284).
whom
antelope, gazelle or stag.
But whatever the value
of the linguistic
evidence, the archaeological, at any rate as early as the time of
Ne-
buchadnezzar
I,
brings both
Ea and Marduk
into close association with
a strange creature equipped with the horns of an antelope or gazelle.
The
association with the antelope of the
and Egypt leaves the
reality of the connexion in
homologous deities in India I had no doubt.
hoped
that
Professor Sayce's evidence
would have provided some

But whether or
explanation of the strange association of the antelope.
not the philological data justify the inferences which Professor Sayce
drew from them,

his statement that
there can
be no doubt concerning the correctness Ea was represented both by fish and antelope,
Susa
of
for
in the course of his excavations at

light representations of
J. de Morgan brought to Ea's animal consisting of an antelope's head on
M.
the
body
329)
"
If
of a fish.
He
also
makes the statement
that the ideogram

I
of Ea,
(p.
turahu-aps^l, means "antelope of the sea". "

referred to the fact that this
is
have already
antelope of the sea," the so-
called
goat-fish,"
his claim
identical with the prototype of the dragon.
that the
names
of
Ea meant both
"
"
fish
and an
blem, as
"antelope" were well founded, the pun would have solved this proit has done in the case of many other puzzles in the history
But
Set
if
of early civilization.
this is not
the case, the question

all
is
still
open
for solution.
As
was held
animals, the gazelle

reason.
was
identified
be personified in with the demon of

to
the desert
for this
evil
In her important treatise

tells
on
"
The
Gladys Davis
1
us that
"
Asiatic Dionysos"
Miss
'
in his aspect of
Moon
'
the lord of stars
de Morgan, article on " Koudourrous," Mem. Del. en Perse, t. 7. 1905. Figures on p. 143 and p. 148 see also an earlier article on the same subject in tome i. of the same series.
J.
:
374

has
in
this
Soma
of the
character the antelope as his symbol.
In fact,
'
one
'
names
given to the
moon by
the early Indians
was mriga-piplu
adds:
or marked like an antelope" (p. 202).

Sanskrit
4
Further she
"The
is
name
'
for
the
lunar mansion over which

If
it
Soma
I
presides
mriga-siras
or the deer-headed."
specialization of
be admitted that
Osiris, as
is
Soma
if
is
merely the
Aryan
Ea and
have claimed,
it
Sayce's association of
is
Ea
with the antelope
corroborated, even
"
not explained.
In
China the dragon was sometimes called "the celestial stag (de In Mexico the deer has the same intimate Groot, op. cit., p. 43).
I 1
celestial relations as
it
has
in the
I
Old World
(see Seler, Zeit. f.
Etk-
nologie, Bd. 41,
p.
414).
have already referred to the remarkable

in the Liverpool
Maya deer-crocodile makara The systematic zoology of

of
Museum
(p.
344).
the ancients
was
lacking in the precision
and there are reasons for supposing that the antelope ; could exchange places the one with the other in their divine gazelle roles the deer and the rabbit were also their surrogates. In India a rabbit can take the place of the antelope in playing the part of spotted " what we call the man in the moon". This interpretation is common,
modern
times
and
not only in India, but also in China, and

ancient
is
repeatedly found in the
Mexican codices
just
(Seler, op.
/.).
In the spread of the ideas
we
have
been considering from Babylonia towards the north
we
find
that the deer takes the place of the antelope.
and
god Soma which has been demonstrated by Miss Phrygian Dionysus, Gladys Davis, it is of interest to note that in the service of the Greek god a man was disguised as a stag, slain and eaten.
In view of the close resemblance between the Indian
the
1
Artemis
also,
one
of the
many avatars
of the
Great Mother,
who
was
also related to the

I
moon, was
closely associated with the deer.
have already referred
of the female antelope
case of the gods
Soma
to the fact that in Africa the dragon role be assumed by the cow or buffalo. In the may and Dionysus their association with the antelope
bull.
or deer
may
be extended to the
"
Miss Davis
(pp. cit.) states
that in the
Homa
is
Yasht the deer- headed lunar mansion over which

spoken of as
to thee
the god presides
"
leading the Paurvas,"
i.e.
Pleiades
Mazda
brought
(Homa)
the star-studded
spirit- fashioned
girdle (the belt of

1
Now the Bull- Dionysus Orion) leading the Paurvas. " A. B. Cook, Zeus," vol. i., p. 674.

was
especially associated with the
classical
is
375
Pleiades on ancient gems and in
mythology
a sign of
Haoma (Homa)
which form part of the sign Taurus." The bull or Soma. The belt of the thunder-god
Thor
far as
corroborates the fact of the diffusion of these Babylonian ideas as
Northern Europe.
THE RAM.
The
by
the
close association of the
ram with
horn.
the thunder-god
in
is
probably
related with the fact that the sun-god
Amon
ram with a
distinctive spiral
Egypt was represented This spiral became a dis-
tinctive feature of the
god of thunder throughout the Hellenic and Phoenician worlds and in those parts of Africa which were affected
their influence or directly
by
by Egypt. account of the widespread influence of the ram-headed god of thunder in the Soudan and West Africa has been given by Fro-
An
1
benius.
But the ram also became associated with Agni, the Indian firegod, and the spiral as a head- appendage became the symbol of thunder
throughout China and Japan, and from Asia spread to America where such deities as Tlaloc still retain this distinctive token of their origin
from the Old World.
Europe this association an even more obtrusive part.

In
of the
ram and
its
spiral
horn played
octopus as a surrogate of the Great Mother was primarily responsible for the development of the life-giving attributes of the spiral
motif.
The
But the
close connexion of the
Great Mother with the dragon
and the thunder-weapon prepared the way for the special association of the spiral with thunder, which was confirmed when the ram with its
spiral
horn became the
God
of
Thunder.
THE
The
to that of the
Pic.
relationship of the pig to the
cow and
the stag, for
it
dragon is on the whole analogous can play either a beneficent or

special circumstances
a malevolent part.
But the nature of the
which
gave the pig a peculiar notoriety as an unclean animal are so intimately " associated with the Birth of Aphrodite" that I shall defer the discussion of
them
for
my
lecture
on the history of the goddess.

i.,
Ôp.cit., Tol.
pp. 212-27.
376

CERTAIN INCIDENTS
IN
THE DRAGON MYTH.

which
tradition has peopled
Throughout the greater part
of the area
with dragons, iron is regarded as peculiarly lethal to the monsters. " smiths" who forged This seems to be due to the part played by the which Horus overcame Set and his followers, or in iron weapons with
1
the earlier versions of the legend the metal

the
weapons by means
meteoric
iron
of
which
people of
Upper
Egypt secured
their
historic victory over the
Lower
Egyptians.
But the
association of
with
the
thunderbolt, the traditional

force to the ancient legend
weapon
for destroying dragons,

it
gave added
and made
peculiarly apt as an incident in
the story.
But though the dragon is afraid of iron, he likes precious gems and k'ung-tfing ("The Stone of Darkness") and is fond of roasted
swallows.
The
was
partiality of
dragons
for
swallows was due to the transmission
of a very ancient story of the Great Mother,

identified with the swallow.
who
in the
is
form of
Isis
In China, so ravenous
the monster
for this delicacy, that
anyone
who
has eaten of swallows should avoid
crossing the water,
lest
the dragon
whose home
is
in
the deep should
devour the
traveller to secure the dainty morsel of
swallow.
But those
who
pray
for rain use
swallows to attract the beneficent
deity.
Even
be omens of coming rain in England swallows flying a tale which is about as reliable as the Chinese variant of the same
low are believed
to
ancient legend.
"
The
beautiful
gems remind us
of the Indian dragons
the pearls "
of the sea were, of course, in India as well as
China and Japan, conto
sidered to be in the special possession of the dragon-shaped sea-gods
(de Visser,
p. 69).
The
cultural drift
from West
East along the
southern coast of India

ing for pearls.
was effected mainly by sailors who were searchSharks constituted the special dangers the divers had to
great enterprises
incur in exploiting pearl-beds to obtain the precious "giver of life'.
But
at the time these
were
first
undertaken
in
the
Indian
Ocean
the people dwelling in the neighbourhood of the chief
pearl-beds regarded the sea as the great source of all life-giving virtues and the god who exercised these powers was incarnated in a fish. The
sharks therefore had to be brought into
1
harmony with
rol.
i.,
this
scheme, and
"
Budge,
Gods
of the
Egyptians,"
p.
476.
377
of life-giving they were rationalized as the guardians of the storehouse of the sea. pearls at the bottom I do not propose to discuss at present the diffusion to the East of
the beliefs concerning the shark
and the modifications which they under;
went
the course of these migrations in Melanesia and elsewhere " " I shall have occasion the Birth of Aphrodite but in my lecture upon
in
its
to refer to
spread to the
West and
in
explain
how
the shark's role
was
transferred
to
the dog-fish
terrestrial
the
Mediterranean.
The
dog-fish
then assumed a
form and became simply the dog

of digging
who
plays such a strange part in the magical ceremony
up the
mandrake.
At
present
we
are concerned merely with the shark as the guardian
of the stores of pearls at the
bottom of the
sea.
He
became
identified
with the
Naga and
This
the dragon, and

it
the store of pearls
became a
vast
treasure-house which
to guard.
in
became one
of the chief functions of the
dragon
episode in the wonder-beast's varied career

carries a pearl
has a place
most
of the legends ranging
Sometimes the dragon a reserve of life-giving substance.

influence
from Western Europe to Farthest .Asia. under his tongue or in his chin as
called attention
l
Mr. Donald Mackenzie has

upon the development
to the remarkable
of the
Egyptian
lips.
representation of the child
Dragon Myth of the familiar Horus with a finger touching his
On
some pretence or
such as
other,
many
of the
European dragon -
slaying heroes,
fingers in
Sigurd and the Highland Finn, place their This action is usually rationalized by the their mouths.
statement that the hero burnt his fingers while cooking the slain monster.
THE ETHICAL
So
far in this discussion
I
ASPECT.
have been dealing mainly with the pro-
blems of the dragon's evolution, the attainment of his or her distinctive But during this proanatomical features and physiological attributes. ethical aspect of the dragon's character cess of development a moral and
was
the
also emerging.
Now
that
we
it
have realized the

is
fact of the dragon's
homology with
Egyptian
moon-god
important to
remember
that
one of the primary
functions of this deity,

1
which
later
became
specialized in the
"
Egyptian
Myth and Legend,"
pp.
340
et seq.
378
god Thoth, was the measuring of time and the keeping of records. The moon, in fact, was the controller of accuracy, of truth, and order, and therefore the enemy of falsehood and chaos. The identification
of the
moon with
to exact
Osiris,
who
into a king of the dead, conferred
from a dead king eventually developed upon the great Father of Waters the
power
first
from
men
respect for truth
and
order.
For even
if
at
in
these ideas
it
were only vaguely adumbrated and not expressed
set phrases,
remembered
that the record- keeper
must have been an incentive to good discipline when men and the guardian of law and order
was
also the deity
upon whose tender mercies they would have

Set, the
to rely
in the life after death.
enemy
of Osiris,
who
is
the real proto:
he was type of the evil dragon, was the antithesis of the god of justice the father of falsehood and the symbol of chaos. He was the prototype of Satan, as Osiris was the first definite representative of the Deity of which any record has been preserved.
The
devil, but
history of the evil dragon

it
is
not merely the evolution of the
also affords the explanation of his traditional peculiarities, his
bird-like features, his horns, his red colour, his
wings and cloven hoofs,

distinctive
and
his tail.
They
are
all
of
them the dragon's

In
features
and from time
to time in the history of past ages
we
catch glimpses of
the reality of these identifications.

(Fig. 14) found
in
one
is
of the earliest
woodcuts
a printed book Satan
depicted as a
monk with
phase
the bird's feet of the dragon.

is
most
interesting intermediate
seen in a Chinese water-colour in the John

is
Ry lands Library, in
1
which the thunder-dragon

in the Christian
represented in a form almost exactly re-
producing that of the devil of

Early
era,
European
tradition (Fig.
3.).
when
ancient beliefs in
Egypt became
between Christ
disguised under a thin veneer of Christianity, the story of the conflict
between Horus and Set was converted
into a conflict
and Satan.
relief
M. Clermont-Ganneau
has described an interesting bas-
a hawk-headed St. George, clad in Roman military uniform and mounted on a horse, is slaying a dragon 1 But the Biblical references which is represented by Set's crocodile.
in
the Louvre in which
to
Satan leave no doubt as to

1
his identity
with the dragon,
who
is
Horus et St. George d'apres un bas-relief inedit du Louvre," Revue It is right ArchJologique, Nouvelle Serie, t. xxxii., 1876, p. 1%, pi. xviii. to explain that M. Clermont-Ganneau's interpretation of this relief has not
been accepted by
all
"
scholars.
37?
It?
Fio. 13.
THH GOD OF THUNDRR

1710 Century) in the John Kylands Library)
(From a Chinese drawing
(?
Via. 14.
FROM JOANNKS DE TCRRECREMATA'S " MKDITATIONKS SEU CONTEMPLATIONES ". Rome ; Ulrifh Han, 1467

specifically
379
the old serpent,
mentioned
in the
Book
"
of
Revelations as
"
which
is
the Devil and Satan

devil Set
(xx. 2).
of disorder
The
god
was symbolic
and darkness, while the

light.
Osiris
was
the maintainer of order and the giver of
Although
the moon-god, in the form of Osiris,
Thoth and
just judge,
other deities, thus
came
to acquire the
moral attributes of a
who
regulated the
earth,
movements
of the celestial bodies, controlled

for the
the waters
upon the
and was responsible

ethical
maintenance of order
in the
Universe, the
aspect of his functions
was
in
large measure disguised
Babylonia held with respect to the beneficent water-god Ea, who was the giver " of civilization, order and justice, and Sin, the moon-god, who had " the guide attained a high position in the Babylonian pantheon," as of the stars and the planets, the overseer of the world at night".
material importance of
his duties.
In
similar views
by the were
god of high moral character soon developed." an extremely beneficent deity, he is a king, he is the ruler of men, he produces order and stability, like Shamash and like the Indian
that conception a
44
14
From
He
is
Varuna and
is
Mitra, but besides that, he

like
is
also a judge,
he loosens the
bonds of the imprisoned,

Iranian
Varuna.
. .
.
the symbol of righteousness.
Varuna, Like the Indian Varuna and the
His
light, like that of
Mazdah, he
is
a god of wisdom."
When
these Egyptian
the Aryans, and the Iranian
and Babylonian ideas were borrowed by Mazdah and the Indian Varuna assumed
the r81e of the beneficent deity of the former the material aspect of the functions of the
trusive
;
more ancient
civilizations,
moon-god became less oband there gradually emerged the conception, to which Zarafirst
thushtra
Mazdah
vellous
as
44
gave concrete expression, of the beneficent god Ahura an omniscient protector of morality and creator of mar4<
He is the most- knowing one, and power and knowledge ". the most-seeing one. No one can deceive him. He watches with
is
radiant eyes everything that
Although he has a strong personality he has no anthropomorphic features." He has shed the material aspects which loomed so large in his Egyptian,
Babylonian and
tion of a
earlier
done
in
open or
4<
in secret."
Aryan
prototypes,
and a more ethereal concepbeen described with
God
of the highest ethical qualities has emerged. of this process of transformation has
The whole
deep
insight
and
lucid exposition
by Professor
25
Cumont, from whose im-
380
portant
THE JOHN RYLALDS LIBRARY

and convincing memoir
1
have quoted so
Deity of
freely in the foregoing
paragraphs.
such moral grandeur in" Power evitably emphasized the baseness and the malevolence of the
creation of a beneficent
\
The
of Evil ".
No
longer are the gods merely glorified

evil as
human
beings
who
can work good or
they will
but there
is
now an
all- powerful
God
"
controlling the morals of the universe,

is
and
in opposition to
".
Him
the dragon, the old serpent, which

1
the Devil and Satan
Albert J.fCarnoy,
"
The Moral
Deities of Iran and India and their

vol. xxi.,
Origins," The American Journal of Theology,

p. 58.
No.
1,
Jan. 1917,
THE JEWS
BY
IN
THE "USE OF YORK".

MEMBRE DE L'ECOLE FRANQAISE
ROBERT FAWT1ER.
DE ROME.
AGRG
D'HISTOIRE, ANCIEN
the service for
Good
IN
set of
nine prayers called
Friday, in the Catholic Church, occurs a " orationes sollemnes" ; they are
for
piayers for the Church,

hierarchy,
for the
the Pope,
for the ecclesiastical

:
for the suffering the catechumens, Emperor, for the Jews, for the heathen. sick, the hungry, prisoners and seamen, The following is an example of the ritual used for these prayers
for
[The
priest.]
Oremus, dilectissimi
et
nobis, pro Ecclesia sancta
Dei, ut earn
Deus
Dominus
noster pacificare et custodire
dignetur, toto orbe terrarum subiciens ei principatusetpotestates, detque nobis quietam et tranquillam vitam de gentibus glorifi-
care Deuni patrem ommpotentem.
Oremus.
Levate.
[The deacon.]
Flectamus genua
[The priest] Omnipotens sempiterne Deus, qui gloriam tuam omnibus in Christo gentibus revelasti, custodi opera misericordiae
tuae ut ecclesia tua toto orbe diffusa stabili fide in confessione
tuinominisperseveret, per eumdem \Christum dominum nostrum Jesum Christtim filium tuum qui tecum vivit et regnat in unitate
spiritus sancti
Deus per omnia [The congregation.] Amen.

' :
secida seculorum\
and only in this, the ritual the priest does not say Oremus at the end of the first monidiffers the deacon does not add Flectamus genua and levate, and the tion,
In the prayer for the Jews, however,
congregation does not kneel.

In his excellent note concerning the prayer for the Jews,
1
M. Canet
"
Wickham
romaine
quote according to the use of Sarum. Oxford, 1916, 8vo, p. 110. Legg.
"
in
The Sarum Missal,
ed. J.
-'Louis Canet,
La priere pro judaeis" de la liturgie catholiquc Revue des Etudes Juives, LXI. 1911, pp. 213-21.
381
382

in
has shown that

the ritual
the Primitive Church,

for the
i.e.
before the
IXth
century,
prayer for the Jews as for the others but that, under antisemitic influences, the Church was pressed by the
was the same
people to alter the ritual, the congregation refusing to obey the inM. Canel observes three stages in the evolujunction of the deacon.
tion of the ritual
:
(1)
(2)
(3)
A manuscript of
stage
Oremus andfactawus (till the IXth century). Oremus without flectamus (IXth-XVlth century). Neither Oremus nor flectamus (after XVlth century).
the John Rylands Library shows us that a fourth
may perhaps be added to the three discerned by M. Canet This manuscript {Latin 190] is a codex on vellum of 168 leaves (291 * 199 mm.) formed by the binding together of two manuscripts
1-52) concerns us here. Apart from a few additions in later hands on fo. Ib and fo. 8 a and b, this manuscript is written by one hand in double columns of twenty-one lines, with rubrics and many initials drawn crudely but carefully in red and blue
of
which the
first
only
(fa.
and
in a primitive style.
It is
unfortunately imperfect at the end, but
the part which
we have
fix
contains a most important text of the Missal
according to the use of York."
We
calendar
can
in
easily
the date of the writing.

feast of St.
3
Fa. 2-1 a contain a

is
which the
of
1
Thomas Becket
correctly placed
on the 29th
December.
1
not be before
This gives a terminus a quo which can74, the murdered archbishop having been canonized
1 1
the 23rd of November,

of the
5
73.
As we find
the translation of the
body
same
saint,
written by a decidedly later hand, on the 7th of
July,
1
we
220."
The
can be certain that our manuscript was written before July, strongly marked difference between the writing of the
eod. loc., p. 218.
This manuscript was utilized by Dr. Henderson for his Missa/e ad usunt insignif ecclesiae Eboracensis in Surtees Society, LIX. LX. 1874.
It
It
was at that time the property of Dean (afterwards Bishop) J. Gott of Leeds. was purchased by the John Rylands Library in 1912 through Mr.
8
4
Quaritch.
Latin
The
.
MS. 190, fo. 6. Political History of

MS. 190, fo. 4. Political History of
England, ed.
W.
Hunt and R. L.
Poole,
II.
P 297. * Latin
8
The
England,
t.
III.
p. 19.
THE JEWS
feast
script
IN
THE "USE OF YORK"
383
manu-
and that
of the translation leads us to conclude that our
was
it
written in the very last years of the Xllth century, and thereis
fore that
in fact the oldest

less easily
known copy
of the use of
York.
written
;
We can
gives for St.
identify the place

for
where
it
was
we
have, however, grounds
a reasonable hypothesis.
The
calendar
Hilda's Day, the day of the translation of her body, the

1
25th of August.
tion of this saint
is
manuscript must been preserved, and

versary to
day generally ascribed for the commemorathe 7th of November," we may conclude that our come from a place where the holy body had
the
1
As
for
which therefore the

3
translation
was
the anni-
be commemorated rather than* the real

at
feast of the saint.
This was the case
Whitby Abbey
of
which
St.
Hilda was the
founder, and from which the holy body had been removed to Glastonbury in the time of the Danish invasion to be restored to its original
resting place
4
when
the
Abbey was
practically refounded in the
Xlth
century.
Another
had no
1
point of less weight but
worthy
of attention
5
is
the fact
that this
that All Souls'

feast
Day
is
marked
in the calendar.
We
know
official
recognition in
ford in
222," and
before
220.
But
we we know
England before the Council of Oxhave shown that our manuscript was written
that the celebration of this feast
'
was
in
use in the Cluniac monasteries
a long time before
its
admission in
England and that this admission was due to Cluniac influences. As our manuscript marks this feast in the calendar we may ascribe its
origin to a Cluniac monastery.
Whitby was a Cluniac
house.
We believe,
1
therefore, that
we
are justified in concluding that the
La fin MS.
2
3
L
St.
190, fo. 4. Bibliotheca Hagiographica Latina, I. 583. Cf. J. Burton, Monasticon Eboracense. York,
\
1758,
fol.
pp. 68-85.
1
Charlton, T/ie History of
Vhitby
and Whitby Abbey.

to
It is
and J. C. Atkinson in his introductory chapters de Whiteby in Surtees Society, LX1X. 1879.
York, 779, 4to, the Cartulariunt Abbatiae

interesting to note that
Whitby was the day of Day was appointed on that day by King Henry
Hilda's
at
till
the translation.
II.
The
yearly fair
and was held on the same day
the
4
XVIHth
century.
Burton,
loc. tit., p.
59.
fo.
Latin
MS.
90,
L. Charlton, op. tit., I. 139. Charlton, op. tit., I. 44. " omnium
6.
Commemoratio
fidelium
p.
1
de-
functorum.
"
~
Mansi, Sacrorum conciliorum amflissima Hergenrother and Kaulen, Kirchenlexikon,
collectio,
art.
XXII.
153.
Allerseelen.
384

in
Rylands manuscript was written years of the Xllth century.
Whitby Abbey
in the
very
last
The
manuscript contains the
for the temporal of the year till COstii" which gives us the text of the service
and post-communions the 29th Sunday "post octavas Pentecollects, secrets,
for
Good
Friday.
:
The prayer for the Jews is composed in the following manner Oremus et pro perfidis Judaeis ut Deus et Dominus noster auferat velamen De cordibus eorum ut et ipsi agnoscant Jesuni
Christum Dominum nostrttm. 1 fie Flectamus genua [rubric].
Oremus.
Omnipotens sempiterne Deus qui etiam Judaic am perfidiam a tua misericordia non repellis, exaudi preces nostras quas tibi
pro
illius
populi obcecatione deferimus, ut agnita veritatis tuae
luce quae Christus est a suis tenebris eruantur per eumdem. The rubric has been corrected by the addition in black ink of the " " " word non (which gives Hie non flectamus genua ") in a hand
as to
which
it is
difficult
to say
if
it
is
much
later or
a nearly con:
temporary one.
The rubrics
for the eight other prayers are
Oremus.
Diaconus : Flectamus genua.
Two
either
explanations are possible, and
we must
choose between them
we have
:
a mere scribe's mistake, or our manuscript gives a

1
new
form of the
reasons
(
1
ritual.
accept the second explanation for the following
here writing a very exceptional formula in the middle of a series of similar ones, it is reasonable to suppose that his
)
As
the scribe
is
attention
rectly
would be
attracted
by the difference and that he copied cor-
what was before him.
(2)
Even
is
if
we
accept the correction, the formula used

is
when
the
flectamus
omitted for the Jews
not the one found in our
manu-
phrase script. dicitur Flectamus "
The
*.
we
find in the old
English missals
"
is
Hie non
genua"
or
"
Hie non
die at it r
Flectamus
genua
1
Latin MS. 190, fo. 30 a and b. Missale ad usum insignis Ecclesiae Eboracensis, ed. E. W. HenMissale ad usum percelebris ecclesiae Herfordensis, ed. derson, I. 104.
a
W.
G. Henderson, 1874, 8vo, p. 93. 3 The Sarum Missal, p. 112. M. Canet,

of the earliest English formulas.
op. tit.,
quotes the continental
and some
THE JEWS
(3)
gives
IN
THE "USE OF YORK"

"
385
"
The
"
rubric at the beginning of the
Orationes sollemnes
no
indication of a particular ritual for the prayer for the
says only
tiones 'V
Jews and Post passionem dicat Episcopiis vel sacerdos has orathe use of York,"
3
Contrariwise the later manuscripts of
the manuscript of the use of Hereford,

4
the manuscript of the use of

ritual for the
Sarum, mark the difference between the Jews and that of the others.
I
prayer for the
therefore conclude that the use of
York
for the
Good
Friday
in this
service differed at the
end
of the
Xllth century from the others
particular point.
When
the priest
for,
came
to that part of
the service
where the Jews were prayed
the deacon
was
silent,
but the con-
gregation preserved the truly Christian custom of kneeling for the Jews,
making no difference between them and other men on the day when
Christ died for
If
all.
we
are right, the three stages discerned by
M. Canet
:
must, at
least for the
Church
of
York, be modified as follows
(1) (2)
Oremus and flectamus (till the IXth century). Oremus and kneeling of the congregation but
century).
(after
without flec-
tamus (IXth-XIIIth). (3) Oremus (XHIth-XVIth

(4)
No Oremus
neither
flectamus
XVIth
century).
And we
in the
I
have here another instance
of the preservation of old
customs
English churches.
do not
believe,
however, that
this practice of
kneeling
was
pre-
served a long time after the Xllth century.
The
the
very slight difference

is
between the writing

that
of the corrector
and that end

of
of the scribe
evidence
very
of
short
like
time
after
the
Xllth century the

forgot the gospel of
Church
York,
many others,
in the Iron
Age
forgiveness.
190, fo. 28. Post passionem praelatus, osculato textu, dicat has orationes, stans in dextra parte altaris, sine Dominus vobiscum, et ad unamquamque " " nisi ad earn quae pro Judaeis oratur. illarum dicatur Flectamus genua
2
Latin
MS.
p. 103.
Lecta passione in primis fiat oratio pro Ecclesia Sancta Dei et p. 91 " caetera sequentes per ordinem pronuntiantc Diacono Flectamus genua ".
.
Pro Judaeis tamen non genua

4
flectant.
p.
dicatur
'
Sequantur orationes sollempnes et unamquamque Flectamus genua nisi ad illam quae pro Judaeis orat."
'
110.
"
illarum
SHORT ARTICLES.
AN UNIDENTIFIED PAPYRUS IN THE NEW OXYRHYNCHUS VOLUME.

IN the
editors
new volume (vol. xiii.) of the papyri from Oxyrhynchus, the have given us among the theological papyri what they describe
Pap. 1603.
as
HOMILY CONCERNING WOMEN.
They
the
attribute the
is
that the subject
papyrus to the fifth or sixth century, and say a diatribe, addressed probably to ascetics, against
wiles
female sex, through whom the Evil One is wont to exert his I pointed out to Dr. Grenfell that it was a part of a HomUy
!
on the Decollation of John the Baptist, and

found amongst Chrysostom's
hesitation as to authorship.
that
p.
it
would be
Works
(ed.
Savile,
545) with some
Dr. Grenfell, accordingly, re-edited his
text as below, with the following additional notes.
[]'
]a TOV
Ov/nov
8o[\o<f>oviav
SlO,
ywaiKOS
TO[V <TO<j>(i>Ta.TOV
[So]X[o]/u,&>pa irpos irapaftacriv
8ia yvvaiKos TOV avopia)T[aTov 5 ^vprjcras TV<Xa>o~ 8ia y [VPCUKOS TOVS

viovs HXet TOV te/3cw9 cScu Sta ywcu/co? TOV ovpavov [
OLO)^
l(t>crr)<f>
1
-
oia yvvauKOS TO[V

v
<j
Sia yvvauKos TOV navTO? [KOO-/XOV \vxyov

}(i)avvr)V
a7rTfj.v
TI S[e Xeycu Tff.pi ai'w

KOL
oia yvvauKos TOV? ayXov? [ovpavoOev 8ta
5 yvvjj
yap
0.1/0,18175
ovSevo?
386
SHORT ARTICLES
ov
eviTrjv rt/u,a
irpO(f>r)Tr)V
387
OVK
a>
ov
atSetrat
\KCLKOV KO.KOV
KOLKICTTOV yvVT) T
eav oe KCU TrXovToi'
20
o~v]j>pyovi'Ta
8i(ro~oi>
TO
/ca.Kofi'
a<j)opr)TOV
TO ^(DOV
dOepaTrevTov [TO 6r)piov
1.
Not
rrj]v
TOV Ovptov.
6.
r}Ba(f>[ia-,
MS.
8o[\o<}>ovi too short.
av
e%ep.r)v\
seems too
short.
7-8.
14.
(e&wfe), omitted
MS.
for Travra<j
There seems
[tc]ai>
fj,[ev
to
be no room
vftpi&i after
18.
or possibly,
There
19.
is
:
certainly not
room
for rrj icaicia IT\OVTOI as well.
KCLI
omitted
MSS.
(v.l.
21. aOepatrewTov [TO Orjpiov

7T6UT09
in Sav.),
suits
better
than aOepa-
Both papyrus and
MSS. seem
to suffer
by omissions owing
to
homoioteleuton or homoioarcheion.
To
the foregoing
add the following supplementary remarks.

will
The
passage of
of
pseudo-Chrysostom
be found quoted
ii.
in the
Parallela Sacra
John
of
Damascus
(ed. Lequien,
4
:
).
From
I.
this
we
get the following further rectifications
Trpos
Tf]\>
icara TOV Ovpiov (Par.).

(Par.).
line thus
3.
?rpo? Trapaftaariv [/caTecrrpei/re (Par.).

8a<f)t<Tev
6.
7.
Complete the
13.
TOV ovpavo[8pofj,ov
12,
17.
18.
19.
H\iav
(Par.).
(/caTeySaXe)
ihe clause
is
omitted per incuriam in Par.

T-rj
evatSeiTai (Par.).
tcav T) 7rvi%pa (Par.) without Par. has e\r) for ^xnicatcca
TT\OVTOI.
21. aBepatrevTov TO Otjpiov (Par).

I
omit one or two unimportant variations.
RENDEL HARRIS.
388

FROM MERLIN TO SHAKESPEARE.
ADVENTURES OF AN ENGLISH PROPHECY.
THE
sists
Latin
MS. 210
century.
[R. 39882]
in
the John Rylands Library con-
of three manuscripts written in the
XlVth and bound

set of
together in
the
XVth
It
contains three theological treatises by John
Waldeby, a hermit
of St.
Augustine, a
Exempla
ascribed,
probably erroneously, to Jacques de Vitry, a treatise on the ten capital sins by Robert Grosseteste, and another devotional treatise on the Ten
Commandments.
is
One
of the characteristic features of this manuscript
that, although it consists mainly of Latin texts, a contemporary hand has added some fragments in vernacular on the blank leaves, while in the treatise on the Commandments the text of each commandment is given
in
Latin commentary. Our manuscript is therefore an illustration of the passing of the Latin language and the
English rhyme before
its
revival of English.
" in which an unprophecy known writer laments the times on which he is fallen, and foretells
One
of the English additions
is
"
the confusion of England which shall follow certain signs.
We
print
below a
transcription of this text with a translation into

it
modern
English.
part of
(lines 3-10),
under the
title
of
"
distinctly
B. 24
more modern orthography, is found in the Bodleian Library, where it follows Chaucer's poem on " " Truth and where it is itself ascribed to Chaucer. As such it was
in
1
Prosperity" and with a the MS. Arch. Selden.
printed by R. Morris in his edition of Chaucer in

It is
866
1
(t.
VI.
p.
296).
rejected
by
W. W.
Skeat in his
critical
edition.
But
as far as
we
are able to discover in the absence of that most desirable catalogue
of Initia
take, the
which
we hope some
of this
little
full text
English university will some day underpoem has never been published.
As
of
far as
we
of our fragment
England
its
are able to judge after a short study, the language does not permit us to determine exactly to what part he was probably of the Midlands, author belonged
;
but that
is all
we
will venture to say.
His date may be surmised with

;
more
probability
is
to
be the middle of the fourteenth century
his
prosody
1
a mixture of octosyllabic, decasyllabic, and Alexandrine

ed.
The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer,

t.
I.
W. W.
Skeat,
Ox-
ford, 1894, 8vo,
pp. 46,47.
SHORT ARTICLES
lines
389
arranged
now
in couplets
now
in
quatrains and interrupted by

;
three alliterative lines containing no rhymes

to record the chaotic state of affairs
fitting
measure
in
which
which
his lines lament.
is most hatyd drawl and makylh man ful nakyd, Ry.lt as pouerte cawsyth soburnesse
Whanne
lyf
ys most louyd and deth

his
Deth drawyth
And febelnesse enforsyth contynence, 5 Ryot so prosperite and syknesse

and necligence, powere cawsyt insolence onewr changyt gode Jêwys. hy,~j There is no more perilous pestilense
of vice
Be modure
And And
also
10 Than
hi,! astat ,~>euen
unto shrewys.
Pes makylh plente, plente makyth proyde, Proyde makylh plee, plee makyth pouerte, pouerte makyth pees, As jêrefore grace growyth after gouernawnce. Whenne lordis wol lose har olde lawys
1
And And And
prestis
buth varyynge in har sawys, lecherye is holde solas

*
oppressyon
for
purchas
J?anne shal }'e lond of Albyon be ny,~ lo his confusyon.

:
Translation
death draweth
causeth
When
life is
most loved, and death most hated

all
his shaft
and maketh man
naked.
Even
as poverty
and feebleness enforceth continence, right so be mother of vice and negligence, and prosperity and sickness and high honour changeth good also causeth insolence, power
soberness
servants.
There
is
given unto shrews.
no more perilous pestilence than high estate Peace maketh plenty, plenty maketh pride,
maketh poverty, poverty maketh peace
;
pride maketh
strife, strife
even as grace groweth

old laws,
after governance.
When
lords shall lose their
and
priests shall
vary
in
their
precepts,
held for solace,
and oppression
for purchase,
and lechery is then shall the land of
Albion
This
six lines
little
be nigh to her confusion. poem appears to have had an extensive vogue.

saying,
Its last
became a popular
which
ing forms "
now
as
"
Chaucer's prophecy,"
"
it
:
we find in more or less now as " Merlin's ".
vary-
As
1
Chaucer's prophecy
in the following
appears in the Aldine edition of
Chaucer
8
"
form
In front of lines
The Aldine Edition of the British
Chaucer.
14-17 the scribe has added prophetia. Poets. The Works of Geoffrey London, 1845, 12mo, t. VI. p. 287.
390

Gwan prestis faylin in her sawes And Lordis turnin Goddis lawes
Ageynis
ryt
is
And And
Then
holdin as priry solas robberie as fre purchas Beware thanne of ille

lecherie
schall the
Lond
it
of
Albion
1
Turnin
to confusion
As The
editor states
sumtyme
befelle.
he found
this text
"
on the
flyleaf of
a miscel-
laneous old
MS.
containing the Meditations of St. Anselm, and other
devotional pieces in Latin. The date at the end of the volume, but in a different hand, is M. CCC. LXXXI.". But he does not tell us
what
this
manuscript really
is,
so that from his indications
it is
impossible
to trace
it.
Caxton,
left
in his small
quarto
edition of Chaucer, prints
on the blank
space saying," which with his usual wisdom he does not ascribe to anybody, and in which it is easy to
last leaf
on the
the following
"
recognise a slightly different redaction of our text
Whan feyth failleth in prestes sawes And lordes hestes ar holden for lawes And robbery is holden purchas And lechery is holden solas
Than shal the Lond Be brought to grete
of
Albyon
a
confusioun.
The
gentleman
of Poesie,"
who wrote in and who is generally
589
the
book known as the

4
called
George Puttenham,
in his
Arte was less

same
"
cautious than the illustrious printer,
and inserted
work
it
the
saying in a form again slightly different, but ascribing
with a certain
emphasis to Geoffrey Chaucer

"
Sir Geoffrey
Chaucer, father of our English Poets, hath these

:
verses following the distributor
When faith failes in Preestes sawes, And Lords hestes are holden for lawes, And robberie is tane for purchase, And lechery for solace,
1
eod.
foe.
Ibid.
See The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer,

t.
ed.
W. W.
Skeat.
Oxford, 1894, 8vo,

4
1.
pp. 45-6.
Pofstf, ed.
George Puttenham, The Arte of English

4to.
E. Arber.
London, 1869,
SHORT ARTICLES
Then shall the Realme of Albion Be brought to great confusion."
391
Needless to say that recent Chaucerian scholars do not admit the

authenticity of this piece.
In Puttenham's
own
time, moreover, this saying

illustrious
was
public opinion to a
source, to
perhaps more
and
certainly
attributed by more fabulous
none other than Merlin Ambrosius, Geoffrey of Monmouth's " whose prophesies," first launched in the Xllth century, did prophet, not cease to be reproduced and added to till at least the XVIIth.'"'
For
we
In
these popular
find in Shakespeare's " "
sayings
King Lear among further examples last echo of our XlVth century model.
differs
of
3
Act
III.
Scene
in the
2,
at
the close of the scene the fool speaks a
prophesy which
line
main
from our
text,
but of which the
first
:
and two
Fool.
I'll
of the last are evidently taken

:
from the same source
When priests
speak a prophecy ere I go are more in word than matter ;

;
81
When brewers mar their malt with water When nobles are their tailor's tutors No heretics burn'd, but wenches' suitors When every case in law is right No squire in debt, no poor knight When slanders do not live in tongues,
; ; ; ;
85
Nor
cutpurses
come
till
not to throngs
When usurers And bowds and

Then shall
gold i' th* field, whoris do churches build,
their
90
the realm of Albion

lives to see
Come to great confusion. Then comes the time, who

That going
1
't,
be used with feet. This prophecy Merlin 4 shall make

shall
cit.
for
live
before his time.
95
Of.
-
p.
232.
The Life of Merlin Surnamed Ambrosius, his Prophecies and Predictions Jby Thomas Heywood]. London, 1641, 4to. Nothing similar to our text is to be found among the numerous prophecies referring to
See
times contained in Heywood's work, but we note on page 361 the fol" Many other prophesies have beene disperst abroad under lowing remark It is the name of Merlin ". perhaps needless to add that countless examples of prophecies of Merlin and others were current for centuries in France as in The most famous and unquenchable is perhaps the prophecy England. ascribed to Malachi, which was quoted at the time of the last papal elections. 3 acknowledge with pleasure our debt to Dr. Rendell Harris who called our attention to the Shakespeare text, and thereby, in fact, to all the others. 4 Another reference to Merlin's prophecies appears in Henry IV. Part .Act III. Scene 1, lines 146-53.
all
:
We
392
It

1
appears to be doubtful if this passage is Shakespeare's or an In any case, be it addition or genuine addition made by an actor. for the general public our prophecy thus survives as part of one text,
of the masterpieces of English literature.
In conclusion,
have noted
This
is,
in
observe that, in spite of the variations we the text itself, the rhythm remains exactly the same.
we may
prophecy being a kind of consecrated formula of which the rhythm, perhaps an old magical survival, is an
in fact, very natural, a
essential part.
prophecies is also not difficult to explain. " Do not the signs of the times remain much the same from age to age, and if we are in the mood, may we not, for instance, see at the
persistence of such
The
"
present time
all
the portents from which our mediaeval pessimist spells
such confusion
E. C.
FAWTIER,
D.Litt. (Paris),
Fellow of Somerville College, Oxford.
R
FURTHER
THE
FAWTIER,
Agrtge
(f Histoire
Ancien Membre de [ Ecole fran$aise de Rome.
NOTES ON THE JOHN LIBRARY LATIN MANUSCRIPT

me
to
RYLANDS
No.
15
(ST.
CYPRIAN).
courtesy of the Editor has enabled
add some
interesting
notes on the history of this manuscript.
by Monsieur Emile Rade, sub-librarian shed welcome light on the history of the manuscript during the middle period of last century, and both the Librarian of the John
Those communicated to him of the town of Colmar, have
Ry lands
for his
Library and myself desire to render him our cordial thanks
kind communication.
The Cyprian
library
till
1
79
1 ,
at
manuscript doubtless remained in the Murbach which date it was, along with the other books in
the library, transferred to the

of the nineteenth century
it
-Colmar town
library.
By
the middle
had already somehow come

parish priest of Colmar.
into the posses-
sion of
his
Canon Maimbourg,
to
While
it
was
in
possession,
be
it,
exact, in the year
1846,
Dom
(afterwards
:
Cardinal) Pitra saw

1
and wrote out the following description

to line 81 in the
See the excellent note
Variorum Edition of Shake-
speare, ed.
H. H.
Furness, Vol.
V.
Philadelphia, 1880, 8vo., p. 178-9.
SHORT ARTICLES
S.
393
caractere unciali
in
Codex membr. Cypriani opera. interdum merovingico, saec. circ.

epistolae
vetustissimus,
VIII.
Continentur
eo
ad
diversos,
quarum VII ad Cornelium, ex quibus duae
inscribuntur
litteris
ad Cornelium pseudo-episcopum. 2 opuscula tria intermixta, nempe ad Quirinum libri tres, de ranitate
sententiae
idolorum,
LXXXVII
episc.
In
:
fine
legitur
nota,
ipsiusmet celeberrimi Bartholomaei
subscriptio
orate pro Bartho-
lomaeo abbate Murbacensi.

correctus
;
Textus
nitidus, accurate
manu coaeva
ex
modo
recitata subscriptione const at
hunc librum ad
insignem abbatiae Murbacensis librarian! pertinuisse."
After the death of Canon Maimbourg,

clerk to the tribunal of
his heir,
commerce
the St.
at
Colmar, sold
Henri Chauffeur, the volume and the
other
books
,
including
Oxford
to
Cyprian of the Bodleian Library, From him Libri a Paris bookseller named Duprat.
in
must have bought or stolen our codex. The manuscript is not mentioned
of the
the ninth century catalogue
Murbach library, published by H. Bloch in the Strassburger Festschrift zur 46. Versammlungdeutscher Philologen und Schiil-
mdnner
figures,
(1901),
this.
pp.
257-85.
In
that
list
the Oxford Cyprian
but not
Mr. Mario
in
Esposito, formerly a
member
of the staff of the
John
Rylands Library, has reminded

Heinrich Schenkl's
me that our manuscript is described Bibliotheca Patrum Latinorum Britannica
(5) [1905], pp. 55 f. no. 4819). Schenkl there expresses the opinion that it was the unfrocked Benedictine, Jean Baptiste Mangerard, a prowler among the libraries of
(Wiener Sitzungsberichte, Bd.
CL
the Rhineland about the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century, who altered the Murbach note. On this
celebrated thief of manuscripts the classic treatise
is
of course that of
(pb. 1907) and Rudolf Ehwald in the Bavarian Abhandlungen, Dritte Klasse, Bd. XXIII. (1904), part 2.
Ludwig Traube
A.
SOUTER.
SINN FlN.
"
OURSELVES ALONE."
The
occurrence of the
capitals
now
familiar English
rendering of Sinn
1
Fein, printed in
by way
"
of emphasis, in
'
important to distinguish between this philosophisch-philologische Klasse," as I know to

It
is
Dritte Klasse
cost.
"
and the
my
394

fail
Dublin pamphlet of 1842, cannot

present time.
in reply to
to to
evoke one's
interest at
the
The
letter
title
of the
pamphlet
which we
refer
"
is
:
Facts
addressed by Mr. George Mathews to the Protestant Dissenting Congregations of Strand Street and Eustace Street, a
Dublin.
By
little
member
in
of the congregation of Strand

is
is
Street."
is
To
belief
show
the
manner
which the phrase

'
employed
to
it
necessary to
quote a
of the context.
?
Who
choose our religious

relator, or court
and our pastor

earth, has
It
will
upon any right to interfere with our choice." be noticed that the phrase is used in such a way, besides
;
OURSELVES ALONE
and no
the emphasis of capitalisation, as to suggest

the period.
origin ?
its
current
employment
at
its
Supposing
this
view lo be
are to take
correct, can one discover

it
Accustomed
as
we
merely as a translation of
it is
Sinn Fein,
we do
;
not stop to think whether
a natural English exin

this case,
it
pression or not
ring
but employed as the phrase

it,
is
has a
which
is
not quite English about

in
noticeable here because the
pamphlet
into
is
English.
Almost
of the
instinctively the
mind
translates
it
Latin, and the Latin

?
Vulgate
too.
Can
the source be
found there
We
in Ezra, chap. iv.
venture to suggest that it may. There is a verse 3 (in the Vulgate, Esdras iv. 3) the latter part of
1
which may have been responsible

aedificabimus
Domino Deo
"
currency nostro," rendered in

:
for its
"
Sed nos
the
ipsi soli
Douay Old
to the
Testament
verse, specially appropriate for ecclesiastical such as the dedication of churches, may easily have been purposes responsible for the introduction of the phrase into the religious diction of Ireland, and thence into the common speech of the
1609-10, Lord our God ". This
of
But
we
ourselues alone wil build
country.
in Irish
When
William Bedell prepared
his translation of the Bible

:
(1685), the verse
was
translated thus
,\chc
pnn
"
Nos ipsi soli no -oeAriAm 6 t>on Ci$e<\pnA TM-A IfjvaeU The words are thus rendered, as will be seen, Sinn J?6m in the first Irish Bible.
jrem te ceile "
We have
movement
of
tried to discover a clue to the original source of the
term
as found in the
common
Fein
at
is
idiom of the country.
The
founders of the
in
its
Sinn
may
not have had this verse consciously

for thinking that the
mind, but there
least
ground
phrase has
remoter origin there.
G.
VINE

BY THE EDITOR.
WE
when
are glad to be able to announce the rapidly approaching

realization
of
the
purpose which the Governors of the

in
John Rylands Library had
view
in
December, 1914,
assistance to
the present scheme
was inaugurated
for rendering
the authorities of the University of Louvain in their heavy task of
making good the ruin wrought by the war, by providing them with the nucleus of a new library to replace the famous collection of books
and manuscripts which had been so Germans, some four months earlier.
In
ruthlessly
destroyed by the
January
last,
Belgium having been
freed
from the hateful
presence of the invaders, the University was repatriated, by the return of the authorities to the devastated scene of their former activities and
triumphs, there to reassemble their scattered students, to resume their
accustomed work, and
to take a prominently active
part in the im-
in the educational
mediate business of effecting a transition to a peace footing, as well as and other schemes of reconstruction which were
already taking shape. The Rector of the University (Monsignor P. Ladeuze) writing under date of the 2 1 st September, in the name of his Alma Mater,
at the conclusion of the
.
first
session of
its
revival, refers in
terms of
gratitude
and appreciation
for
to
what has been accomplished by the

with the Executive of the National
Rylands Governors
Committee
in collaboration
University of Louvain,
individual
promoting the resuscitation of the Library of the and with the aid of the many contributors both
and
the
institutional,
who
with great promptitude and generosity

are delighted to learn of the success
responded
to our appeals for help.
From
same source
we
which has attended the University since its reopening. No less than 3200 students have been in attendance, and Monsignor Ladeuze
395
26
396
anticipates a
session this

still
larger
number
of entries at the
opening of the
new
month.
pointed out in a previous report, one of the
first
As we
without one
essentials
in the organization
it
any University has been likened to a garden without flowers, or a purse

is
and equipment
is
of
a library, for
without money.
It
not surprising, therefore, to learn that, in the
absence of
this essential part of
the University's equipment, the
work
is
of the students has been
somewhat hampered.
Fortunately, this
session,
deficiency
which
will
be remedied during the ensuing
since
temporary premises have been secured, to serve as library and reading room, pending the erection of the new library building, and it will be
our privilege to
assist
in
the furnishing of the shelves with a
live,
up-
to-date collection of books
designed to
meet the immediate requirefor
ments of
staff
and
end
students.
To
Louvain
process
this
we
are making arrangements
the despatch
to
in
of the of
first
instalment of the
new
library,
which has been
formation
here
in
Manchester since December,
1914.
This consignment will consist of 5000 volumes, accompanied by a catalogue on cards, and will be followed by others as quickly as they can be made ready for shipment.
It
is
gratifying
to
be able to report that the appeal

in
for further
contributions
which we made
our
last issue,
has met with the same

for help.
encouraging response as our
was accorded
it
to our earlier requests to
In proof of this statement
needs only
publication of
last
report
upwards
of
be pointed out that since the 9000 additional volumes
have been contributed, whereby the total number of volumes actually Even this does not received and registered is increased to 21,000. complete the record, for it does not take into account many other
definite promises of help
which have
still
to materialize,
transit
and
several
consignments of books, at present in course of

parts of the
will
still
from such distant
Empire Bombay, Toronto, and Sydney, which together further swell the total by many thousands of volumes, on
as
behalf of the Governors and the Executive Committee.
This
this in
is
a very substantial beginning for a
new
library,
and
we
take
renewing our thanks to those the formation of such a collection but when
opportunity of
;
who have
it
assisted us
is
compared with
the
library
it
is
quarter of a million of volumes,
intended to replace, comprising as it did at least a it can only be described as the nucleus,

and
it is
397
it
obvious that very

like
much more remains

its
to
be done
if
is
to
approach anything
the equivalent of
of well-wishers
predecessor.
There are a number

proposed
of the
gifts until
who
decided to withhold their
such time as
we
could announce the repatriation
University,
and the
at a
actual re-establishment of the library at
Louvain.
of
This was
;
time
the
Germans
and there
when Belgium was still in the occupation may have been some reason for their
anxiety, although personally, incurable optimists as
we
are,
we
never
had any doubts be glad

In
as to the ultimate issue of events.
There can be no
longer any reason for withholding such contributions, which
we
shall
to receive at the earliest convenience of the prospective donors.

last
making our
appeal
we explained
that whilst keeping in
view
the general character of the library which
we were
anxious that
in
scholarship,
we had in contemplation, should be thoroughly representative of English other words, that its equipment should include the
it
necessary material for research in the history, language, and literature of

this
country together with

to other
the
contributions
which
British scholars
have made
departments of learning.
That appeal has borne

list
excellent fruit, as will be seen from the
accompanying
full sets
of contributors.
Many
societies
have furnished either
of their transactions
and
other publications, or such as were in print and consequently available.
Several of the leading publishers have also rendered most valuable assis-
tance in the building up of the collection on
its
modern
side.
The Honorary
Hull)
in
Secretary of the Irish
forwarding to
Texts Society (Miss Eleanor us on behalf of the Council of that Society, a

"
Keating's
set of their recently issued edition of
History of Ireland,"
took the opportunity of reminding us of the close and friendly connection

that has existed for a long period, but
more
particularly during the
seventeenth century, between Louvain and Ireland.
The communication
otherwise
accessible
in
is
so
full
of interesting information,
in
which
that,
is
not
the
form
which
it
it
is
given,
with
Miss Hull's consent,

readers,
merits.
we
are reproducing
it
for
the benefit of our

it
and
in
order that
may have
the wider publicity which
"
At
a time
when
of
Catholic education
was
in
difficult
to obtain in
Ireland, great
centre.
numbers
Irish
young men found
Louvain an educational
;
Three
in
colleges
flourished there
'
the Irish Dominican

'
College
the street then
known
as
Rue
des Dominicains Irlandais
398

in
'
the Pastoral College

period bore the
;
the
Rue
des Orphelins, which up to a recent

'
name
Collegium Hibernum
cut in stone above
its
more important foundation of the Recollects gateway in the Marche aux Pores, established in 1616 and named after Saint
and the
still
Anthony
"
of
Padua."
of this later college
Within the walls
worked the famous group

Bollandists.
of
scholars
who
might
fitly
be
termed
the Irish
Ward,
Fleming, John Colgan, O'Sheerin, Stephen White, and Luke Wadding contributed to the collection and compilation of the Irish Saints' Lives,
and other
under the
et majoris
religious works,
'
some
of
titles
Trias Thaumaturga
which were published by Colgan and Acta Sanctorum veteris

*
'
Scotiae seu
Hiberniae,' great undertakings
which Colgan's
feeble health did not permit
him
to complete, but
remains in manuscript
Library of
Brussels.
among the Irish collections These were found in Colgan's room and
much more of which now in the Burgundian

re-
moved from Louvain

"In 1608
there
for safety
about the time of the French Revolution."
to Louvain the hunted Earls, Tyrone and and O'Donnell) with their party of nearly one Tyrconnell (O'Neill hundred followers. They were hospitably entertained by the city
came
during the whole winter, O'Neill being lodged in a hostelry known as the Imperial House,' and O'Donnell in another palace close by.
'
contemporary record, written by the Secretary
who accompanied
the Earls in their travels, describes the revels organized for their entertainment at Christmas, and also the unusual event of the spearing of a large salmon through the bridge crossing a branch of the River
Dyle brought up
into the city with the flow of
water consequent on
to
the breaking up of the ice after a severe winter." " On the floor of the Chapel of St. Anthony
inscription
is still
be seen the
on the tomb
of
two
of their party, Rose, wife of Cahil,
After Cahil's death she O'Donnell's brother, and her son Hugh. married the great Owen Roe O'Neill (the Don Eugenic O'Neil
of Spanish
documents) whose early career
in
the Netherlands gave
promise of his warlike nature, and of those powers of organization which he afterwards exercised in his own country.
Michael O'Clery, afterwards one of the Four Masters,' from Donegal to Louvain to assist Hugh Ward in carrying out the literary work on which he had set his heart.
Finally,
'
44
we
recall the visit of
Some
time about
1627
it
was decided by Ward and Colgan
that
399
O'Clery should return to Ireland to collect fresh materials for their The industry he displayed in this expedition is shown, not only use. in the vast mass of material in his beautiful handwriting which forms
the bulk of the Irish collections at Brussels, but in a series of hagiological
'
and
historical
works, of which the most lasting in
its
importance
is
Four Masters,' on which Michael O'Clery and his helpers worked uninterruptedly from January, 1632 to August, 1636, under the shade of the ruined Franciscan Monastery of
the
of the
Annals
It was Donegal, on the shores of Donegal Bay. during the very same period in which O'Clery was working on the Annals in Donegal
that Dr. Geoffrey Keating

of
was
writing in his hiding place in the glens
Aherlow,
'
in
name
to
its
of the
Munster, the legends and history known under the Foras Feasa ar Eirinn,' a copy of which we now give
It
ourselves the pleasure of presenting to Louvain Library.

interest to
may add
know
that the earliest existing
copy
of this history
Louvain, probably by O'Clery himself, and is described as one of the volumes found in the chamber of our Father
carried over to
' '
was
Colgan
preserved
after his
in
death.
is
This manuscript with many others once
Louvain,
now own
in
the collection in the

It
Franciscan
Convent, Merchants* Quay, Dublin.
was
written before
1640,
and therefore
1643."
in
Keating's
lifetime.
O'Clery died at Louvain in
Apparently, Ireland
is
not to be behind in this good work, and has
entered into the generous rivalry of restitution. gather from an " " article which appeared in the Tuam Herald of May interesting
1
We
7th,
that already a
representative committee has been
formed
in
Dublin, under the auspices of the four Archbishops, and the Presidents
of
Maynooth, Dublin, and Cork University Colleges, with some representative laymen to collect money and books for the Louvain Library,
for centuries so closely associated,
with which Ireland was

it is
and
to
which
bound by
so
many
close
ties.
There,
in
the cloisters of Louvain,
countless Irishmen taught

of
and were taught. The College of St. Anthony Padua, already referred to by Miss Hull, owes its foundation to a
"
flos rmindi," Tuam, Florence Conroy, a familiar name by which that learned man was known by his He it was who established the first printing press contemporaries.
distinguished Archbiship of
in
connection with the University, and

their
books that subsequently found
many historical and devotional way into Ireland came from the
400
Louvain

Press.
in
The
establishment of
the school
of
St.
Thomas
Pope
Aquinas
the Superior Institute of Philosophy, was the work of
Leo XIII, and the first to fill that chair was he who is now the most prominent and revered churchman in Europe, the distinguished Cardinal
Mercier.
That
his
great
and good
war,
man who
defence of
people
of the
in this
who
nobly stood up for the bravely faced the cruel arrogance

of
and insolence
Germans, was himself originally a student Louvain, and afterwards Professor of Moral Philosophy.
be glad to receive further offers of books, or contributions in money to meet the expenses incidental to the organization of such a library. Many of the books already contributed have required
shall
We
attention at the
to
hands
of the binders, before they could
be regarded as
be placed upon the shelves of the new library, we should, ready therefore, welcome contributions towards the fund to meet these and
other contingent expenses. In order to obviate any needless duplication of
contributors are requested in the
first
gifts,
would-be
to
instance, to
offer to
be good enough
send
lists
of the
books they are willing to
THE
LIBRARIAN OF
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY, MANCHESTER.

The
following contributions to the
contingent
:
fund have been
received already, and are gratefully acknowledged
George
THOMAS,
Esq., J.P., Manchester
The Right Reverend The Bishop of SALFORD The Rev. J. C. Du BUISSON, St. Deiniols Monsignor Canon J. A. BURKE, Blackburn The ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS H. GASELEE, Esq., London The Misses PASSY, Leamington Spa W. P. TELFER, Esq., Manchester The LOWER MOSELEY STREET SUNDAY SOCIETY
500 550 1000 220 500 026

1
112
RECONSTRUCTION OF LOU VAIN LIBRARY
401
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE NEW LOUVAIN LIBRARY, JANUARY, 1919, TO OCTOBER, 1919.

(The
figures in Brackets represent the
number
of
Volumes.)
(1)
Dr. G. H.
ABBOTT, Sydney,
Australia.
Percy Walter Lewis near Crewe.
ADAMS,
Esq., F.S.A.,
Woore Manor,
(1)
AMPLEFORD COLLEGE, Malton, Yorks. Lord ASHTON of HYDE, London.

Dr G. A. AUDEN, Birmingham. L. Ingham BAKER, Esq., Wayford Manor, Crewkerne.
Robert BLAIR, Esq., F.S.A., South Shields. Mrs. BRADSHAW, London.
J.
(25)
(1)
(41)
(1)
(4)
(20)
(1) (1)
BRISCOE, Esq., Nottingham. The BRITISH DENTAL ASSOCIATION, London.

of
Potter
The BRITISH MINISTRY
INFORMATION.
Propagandist
War
Dr. R. C.
Literature.
(2121)
(1)
(1)
The Rev. Cambridge. J. MacLeod CAMPBELL, Esq., of Saddell, and his mother Mrs. Isabella C. MacLeod CAMPBELL. (In memory of the late Colonel MacLeod CAMPBELL of Saddell, Glen Saddell,
Carradale, Argyll.)
BROWN, Preston. W. J. CALDWELL,
(16)
Miss A. C. E.
CARTHEW,
Kensington.
(6)
(8)
Mrs. A. O. Randell CASH, Davidson's Mains, Midlothian.
The HUMPHREY
CHETHAM
LIBRARY, Manchester.
(Per
H. CROSSLEY, Esq., Librarian.) (106) The Rev. F. G. CHOLMONDELEY, Adlestrop Rectory, Oxon. (6) James CLAYTON, Esq., Windermere. (1) The COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, South
Kensington.
(Per Professor
W. W.
Watts.)
(2)
(1)
CORDER, Esq., North Shields. Mrs. H. Pelham DALE, Seaton, Devon.

Walter
S.
(In
memory
of the late
Rev. T. Pelham DALE.) T. C. DALE, Esq., London.
(33)
(2) (1)
DAVIES, Board of Education, London. The Rev. Arthur DlXON, Denton, Lanes.
Sir Alfred T.
(5)
(8)
Miss DlXON, Cambridge.
The
Trustees
of
Dr.
WILLIAMS' LIBRARY.
Librarian.)
(The
Rev.
(77
in
R. Travers
HERFORD,
72)
402

Professor
R.
L.
DUNBABIN,
Esq.,
the
University
of
Tasmania,
(2)
Hobart.
Hove, Sussex. The Venerable the Archdeacon of DURHAM.

E.
W.
DUPERNEX,
(37)
(I)
Mrs.
M. M. DUST, Ranmoor, Sheffield. F. W. DUST, M.C., who fell

1917.)
(In
at
memory
of
Major
(19 in 28)
Lens,
23rd April,
EASTWICK.
patron,
The
parish
of
Eastwick,
Arthur Salvin
ROWLBY,
Herts., through the Esq., and the rector, the
Rev. Cyril Fanshawe LEWIS, Gilston Rectory, Harlow.
(61)
Miss C. Augusta ECERTON, Tenterden, Kent. (1) The Master and Fellows of EMMANUEL COLLEGE, Cambridge. (771) The Rev. E. EVANS, Cirencester. (14)
Miss Helen
FARQUHAR,
London.
(11)
Mr. and Mrs. FlGAROLA-CANEDA, Cuba, Habana. Walter FLINN, Esq., Fallowfield.
(127)
(1)
The Rev. David Ross FOTHERINGHAM, Charing, Kent. Stephen GASELEE, Esq., Magdalene College, Cambridge. H. T. GERRANS, Esq., Oxford. The Rev. E. H. GODDARD, Clyffe Vicarage, Swindon. Mrs. E. H. GODDARD, Clyffe Vicarage, Swindon. The Master and Fellows of GONVILLE AND CAIUS COLLEGE,
Cambridge.
(10)
(4)
(38)
(40)
(1)
(371)
(5)
GORE, Esq., Carlisle. Henry GUPPY, Esq., the John Rylands Library, Manchester. The Rev. Andrew HALDEN, Inverkeilor, Forfarshire.
Ernest
(10)
(56)
William Dugdale HARLAND, Esq., Withington, Manchester. Caldwell HARPUR, Esq., Alston, Cumberland.
(76)
(3)
HOPKINSON, Esq., Didsbury. The Rev. Canon HEYGATE, Parkstone,

Charles
(26)
Dorset.
(79)
(1)
Mrs. C. Frith
HUDSON,
Milnthorpe.
Miss INGRAM, the Precincts, Peterborough. (In memory of her brother, the Very Rev., William Clavell INGRAM, late Dean of Peterborough, who had made his first classical studies at
Louvain University before going to Cambridge.) Dr. John IRVING, Scarborough.
(63)
(26)
(1)
The Rev. Canon ISMAY, Eckington

Mrs. Fleeming JENKIN, London.
Vicarage, Pershore.
(3)
Lady JENNER,
St.
Bishop's
The Rev. Canon
C.
Waltham. H. W. JOHNS, Sometime Master
(718)
of
Catherine's College, Cambridge.
(130)

Humphrey
Walter
J.
403
(10)
(3)
J.
T. JOHNSON, Esq., Ambergate, Derby.

Junr., Esq., Harrogate.
KAYE,
Miss E. C.
KEN YON,
Ruyton XI Towns, Shrewsbury.

in
(21)
the
KHAKI UNIVERSITY OF CANADA,

Overseas Military Forces
of
connection
with
Canada.
Per Colonel H.
Captain D.
(156)
(I)
M. TORY, of the University of Alberta, and E. CAMERON. Miss M. King, Portinscale, Keswick. Mrs. KNIGHT, Oakridge Lynch, Stroud. The KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS, U.S.A. (Per R.
Esq., London.)
(16)
E.
SHARP,
(32)
(2)
Esq., Longsight, Manchester. John LEES, Esq., Moss Side, Manchester. Lady Constance LESLIE, London.
W. LAN DELLS,
(6) (4)
H. C. LEVIS,
Esq., London.
of
(3)
Mary, Countess
Sir
LOVELACE, Wentworth 'House, of Ralph, 2nd Earl of LOVELACE.) (In memory George W. MACALPINE, J.P., Accrington.
Chelsea.
(212)
(20)
(1)
Sir John Pentland
MAHAFFY, C.V.O.,
Dublin.
The Rev. W.
Buzzard.
S.
MAHONY,
Linslade
Vicarage,
Leighton
(53)
Lieut. -Colonel C. L.
MAYHEW
Wadham
and Arthur
I.
MAYHEW,
Esq.,
C.I.E.
(In
memory
of
of their father, the late
Rev. Anthony
(366)
(70)
(1 )
L MAYHEW,
College, Oxford.)
The Rev. J. M ELLIS, Southport. The Warden and Fellows of MERTON COLLEGE, Oxford. The Masters of the Bench, MIDDLE TEMPLE, London. J. G. MlLNE, Esq., Lower Bourne, Farnham, Surrey. C. A. MONTALTO DE JESUS, Esq., London. Sir Norman MOORE, Bart., London. Dr. William MuiR. Davidson's Mains, Midlothian.
Miss K. H. MULLINS, Hampstead.
E.
(8)
(44)
(2)
(1)
(36)
(In memory of the late W. MULLINS, M.A.) (55) The NATIONAL LIBERAL CLUB, London. (Per R. SANDERSON Esq., Librarian.) (342)
Brevet
Lieut. -Colonel
John
P.
NICHOLSON,
Philadelphia,
U.S.A.
(12)
The Rev. H.
C. T.
L.
OGLE,
Malton, Yorkshire.
(63) (16)
OWEN,
The PARSEE The Misses PASSY, Leamington
Hampstead, London. PUNCHAYET OFFICE, Fort Bombay.

Esq.,
(125)
(82)
Spa.
404

The Rev. C. R. PERRY, Mickfield Rectory, Stowmarket. Charles PETTIWARD, Esq., Finborough Hall, Stowmarket. Miss Isa J. POSTGATE, Stamford Bridge, York. Miss PURSER, Dublin. Wilfrid C. ROBINSON, Esq.,iF.R.Hist.S., Bayswater, London. The Rev. J. T. ROGERS, Little Stoughton Rectory, St. Neots. Captain T. C. ROGERSON, Chapel-en-le-Frith, Derbyshire.
H. Ling ROTH,
Esq., Halifax, Yorks.
(68)
(4) (5)
(8)
(1)
(24)
(3)
(10)
Bath.
The ROYAL MINERAL

KlRBY, Esq., Edwin O. SACHS,
WATER
HOSPITAL,
(Per T.
(11)
(3)
Registrar.)
Esq., London.
SAINT
ANDREWS UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY.
(Per
J.
Maitland
(591)
Committee
ANDERSON, Esq., Librarian.) of the LIBRARY of ST. HUGH'S COLLEGE,
Oxford.
(3)
John SCOTT, Esq., Fulham, London. Miss J. E. SCOTT, Glasgow. Mrs. E. SIMON, Didsbury, Manchester.
Professor
(9)
(36)
(153)
(53)
(1)
(1)
SOCIET^
Messrs.
H. Bompas SMITH, the University of Manchester. DE L'HISTOIRE DES COLONIES FRANCHISES.

SON, Carmarthen.
of the late
(In
W. SPURRELL &
memory
Mrs. STACK.
Rev. T. L. STACK,
New(42)
church Rectory, Kent.) Mrs. Decimus STURGES, Bath.
SWAN, Esq., Dundalk, Ireland. George THOMAS, Esq., J.P., Irlam Hall, Dr. John THOMSON, Edinburgh.
P.
Leslie
(34)
(2)
Manchester.
(1 1)
(24)
(!) (2)
Esq., Great Chart, Kent. Arthur UNDERHILL, Esq., LL.D., London.
A. TOKE,
Harman
J.
Visger, Esq., 27 Park Road, Hale. B. WAINWRIGHT, Esq., Hove, Sussex.
(10)
(29)
The Rev. George WALKER, D.D., Edinburgh.

son,
(Through
his
W.
R.
WALKER,
Esq.)
(213)
(2)
Mrs. Ernest WALLIS, Hampstead, London. Dr. F. R. WALTERS, Farnham, Surrey.
(36) (12)
(8)
Thomas WARBURTON, Esq., Cheetham Hill, Manchester. The Rev. Canon E. W. WATSON, D.D., Christ Church, Oxford.
Dr.
W.
Hale WHITE, London.

I.
(29)
J. Charles WILLIAMSON, Kempton Manor, Bedford (1) M. WlLSON, Clyffe Vicarage, Swindon. (39) (19) John WINDSOR, Esq., Mickle Trafford, near Chester. The Rev. A. D. WOOLLEY, Weston Patrick Rectory, Winchfield. (1)
Mrs.
Anne
Admiral

The ALCUIN CLUB. (The Rev. P. DEARMER, Hon. Secy.) The BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS. (George A. MACMILLAN, Esq., Hon. Secy.) The CANTERBURY AND YORK SOCIETY. (The Rev. F. N.
DAVIS, Hon. Secy.)
405
(32)
(66)
(29)
The CATHOLIC RECORD SOCIETY.

Esq.,
(Joseph S.
HANSOM,
(21)
Esq.,
Hon. Secy.)
The
CHETHAM
Secy.)
SOCIETY.
(C.
W. SUTTON,
Hon.
(155)
The DEVONSHIRE ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND ART. (Maxwell
ADAMS,
Esq.,
Hon. Secy.)
(A. V.
(17)
The ENGLISH ASSOCIATION.

Hon. Secy.)
HOUGHTON,
(R.
Esq.,
(65)
The GAELIC SOCIETY OF INVERNESS.

Esq., Hon. Secy.)
MCEHRLICH,
(10)
The HAKLUYT SOCIETY.

Secy.)
(J.
A.
J.
de VILLIERS, Esq., Hon.

(104)
The HARLEIAN SOCIETY.

Hon. Secy.)
(W. Bruce BANNERMAN,
Esq.,
(54)
(4)
The IRISH TEXTS SOCIETY. (Miss E. HULL, Hon. Secy.) The JAPAN SOCIETY, London. (A. E. BRICE, Esq., Hon.
Secy.)
(13)
The LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY.

(A. L. BRICKHILL, Esq., Hon. Secy.)
(27)
The MANCHESTER LITERARY CLUB.

Esq.,
(Herbert
TAYLOR,
(44)
Esq.,
Hon. Secy.)
(Charles
The MANORIAL SOCIETY.

Registrar.)
GREENWOOD,
(10)
(24)
The POLYNESIAN SOCIETY. (S. Percy SMITH, President.) The ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY. (Miss E. HULL, Hon. Secy.) The ROYAL COLONIAL INSTITUTE. (Evans LEWIN, Esq.,
Librarian.)
(51)
(50)
The ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

Secy.)
(A. R. HINKS, Esq.,

(200)
The ROYAL HISTORICAL SOCIETY.

Secy)
(Miss
CURRAN, Hon.
(118)
(35)
The SELDEN SOCIETY. (H. Stuart MOORE, Esq., .Hon. Secy.) The SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES, Newcastle-on-Tyne. (Robert
BLAIR, Esq., Hon. Secy.)
(57)
The SOCIETY OF FRIENDS.

Secy.)
(Norman PENNEY,
Esq.,
Hon.
(18)
406

The SOMERSET ARCH/EOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. (H. St. G. GRAY, Esq., Secy ) The TEXT AND TRANSLATION SOCIETY. (Per Miss A. C. E.
(66)
GARTH EW,
Hon. Secy.)
Secy.)
(12)
The WILTSHIRE ARCH/EOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HIS-
TORY SOCIETY. (David OWEN, Esq., Hon. The YORKSHIRE ARCH/EOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
LANCASTER, Esq., Hon. Secy.) HEFFER & SONS, Cambridge. The LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY PRESS. Messrs. LONGMANS, GREEN & Co., London.
Messrs.
(56)
(W.
T
(48)
(68)
(11)
(61)
MACLEHOSE & SONS, Glasgow. MACMILLAN & Co., London. The MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY PRESS, Manchester.
Messrs. James
(16)
(55)
Messrs.
(132)
(20)
(6)
Messrs. Messrs.
METHUEN &
CO., London.
Thomas NELSON & SONS, Ltd., Edinburgh. Messrs. James NlSBET & Co., London.
Sir Isaac
(1)
PlTMAN & SONS, Ltd., London. Messrs. SHERRATT & HUGHES, Manchester. The SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE
(15)
(12)
(7)
The Cork Steamship Company

Ghent and Antwerp,
of
for
Limited, with direct steamers to

J.
whom
agents,
Messrs.
T. Fletcher
&
Company,
undertaken
Louvain,
for
Manchester,
act
as
have
of
very generously
the
responsibility for the transportation
new
and
library to
and we are
the
great
greatly indebted to their representative,
Mr. Jebson,
interest
he has taken
in the matter,
for
the ready help
which he has rendered

for
to us in
making the necessary arrangements

In the
shipmentând
in other directions.
name
of the
Committee,
and onjbehalf
of the University authorities,
we
offer to
these gentle-
men most
cordial thanks.
ABERDEEN
THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
MANCHESTER
VOL.
5
LIBRARIAN
DECEMBER,
1919-JULY, 1920
No.

IN
is
MEMORIAM.
we
have to record the death
of Sir
J.P.,
IT George
with profound regret that
Watson Macalpine,
"
seventy-first year of his age,

his residence
LL.D., in the SIR which took place at WATSON

PINE /P
Broad Oak," Accrington, on Sunday,
the 18th of April.

Sir
LL D
-
George Macalpine had been

first
associated with the Library for
nearly twenty years,
as a Representative
Governor appointed
of
in
1901
by the
since
of
Lancashire
and
of
Cheshire
Association
Baptist
Churches,
1912 as one
Council.
of
the Trustees,
and
since
1915 as
Chairman
within a
the
few months
ability
his death,
Throughout these years, and until he had served the institution
with conspicuous
and
untiring devotion.
To
his
those
is
who
enjoyed the privilege of Sir George's friendship,

felt.
death
deeply
For many months he by the loving care of
lived in almost
comhis
plete retirement, sheltered
Lady Macalpine,
of beauty, of
to look to
daughter, and his four sons.
His
life
was
full
power,
and
for
of achievement,
and those who were accustomed
him
guidance and encouragement do not yet realise the loss they have sustained, through the absence of that inspiration and sympathy upon
which they could always count.

Sir
ligious
George was the son

beginning
of a
Baptist minister,
and had
his re-
among
the Scotch Baptists,
whose
of the
strength of conleft their
viction, habits of piety, love of the Bible
and
Church,
mark upon
his character
and
life.
As the years went
broadened, and
his active interest in the
by his sympathies cause of foreign missions

other churches, but he
the religious enterprise into which he threw his energies most abundantly
brought him into
close
touch
with
always spoke of those early years with profound reverence. 27
408

He
was a student widely read and deeply versed in theological teaching, a business man of keen penetration, very wide experience, and unfailing courtesy, with a genius for friendship qualities which
enabled him to wield that subtle and powerful influence which was such a characteristic feature of his public life and work. His sympathies
were
so large as to
embrace the work
of the Baptist
Union,
Missionary Society, the Baptist World Alliance, the recent movement towards Christian Union, that missionary co-operathe
Baptist
tion
British
to
its expression in the Edinburgh Conference, the and Foreign Bible Society, and the John Rylands Library, mention only the most important of the institutions and causes in
which found
which he took so active an

In addition to these
interest.
wider
interests Sir
at
strength to the
Baptist
Church
George was a tower of Accrington, with which for so
many years he identified himself. For upwards of forty years he was the beloved leader of large morning and afternoon Bible-classes, in preparation for which he gave many hours of study every week. The Baptist denomination delighted to do him honour he was the
:
Chairman
elected Missionary Society, Moderator of the Lancashire and Cheshire Association of Baptist
of
the
Baptist
was twice
Churches, and
was
called to the Presidential Chair of the Baptist
in 1910, the year in which he received his knighthood. By death the Baptist Church loses one of its most distinguished laymen, and the missionary cause a statesman of real distinction.
his
It is
Union
impossible to
give
any adequate idea
of the value of Sir
George's services to the missionary enterprise of the Baptist
Church,
buthe was
advocate.
for
many
years the guiding spirit in
its
councils,
and the
missionaries in
the field could not have desired a better friend

interest
and
His
was
inexhaustible as long as health enabled
him
to continue these activities.
He
also
commended
of
its
the enterprise
to the
world by
his
own
to
unfaltering confidence
his evident sense of the privilege of being
one
and enthusiasm, and leaders at home.
In 1911 he
went
at
India, in
see
the
work
close quarters,
company with Miss Macalpine, to a visit which is remembered with

Staff,
gratitude,
not only
by the
with
Indian
the
but
also
also
by the Indian
attended
the
Christians
connected
mission.
He
Philadelphia Congress in the same year, and pression on the representatives present.
made
a profound im-

The
Bible Society had a
409
warm
supporter in Sir George, and his
Biblical scholarship
of the results of his

classes,
was shown in the Harmony of the Gospels, one work of preparation for the members of his Biblein
which he published
of
1905, under the
title
"The Days
of
the
Son
Man
".
In 1907, as
Moderator
of the Lancashire
and Cheshire Association
Baptist Churches, he delivered a memorable address on "The Arrested Progress of the Church," and in 1910, from the Chair of
of
the "
Baptist Union,
he
delivered
to
The
Ministry of the
Church
two addresses on Ministry ( ) " the Church," and (2) The Ministry
:
of the
Church
pression,
World," which made a deep and lasting imnot only upon his hearers, but upon all into whose hands
to the
fell.
the
addresses in their printed form

of his
Also, in
1910, he gave
"
abundant evidence
knowledge
of,
and
interest in the classics,

:
by
of
editing in collaboration
with John Green
Skemp
Interpretations
Horace," by the late William Medley, a volume which abounds with annotations from his pen, revealing great critical insight and
knowledge
himself
of the subject.
Indeed, Sir George
was a man
of very varied
gifts,
who
gave
his
and
his
means
to public service with a single eye to the public

in
good.
great
He
never sought honour for himself, but

qualities inevitably
any company
and shining
The Governors
of the Library,
and the writer mourn
gave him the position of leader. his loss, not

ability,
only as a colleague and counsellor of outstanding administrative
who had
who by
and
rendered to the Library very conspicuous service, and whose wise counsel and kindly spirit will be greatly missed, but also as one,
his qualities of
heart,
had won
their
highest personal esteem
affection.
By
October
the death
last, at
of
Mr. William Carnelley, which took place
in
the advanced age of ninety-eight years,
the Library loses the senior
member of
its
governing body.
CAR NEL-
Mr. Carnelley was one of the original members of the Board of Trustees, and one of the first Governors of the Library, having been appointed to those offices by Mr. Rylands, to whom he had
rendered most valuable assistance in connection with the organisation of the institution, from the time of its inception, and in the erection of
the buildings.
He
also occupied the position of

fifteen years, although,
Vice-Chairman
owing
of the
Council for a period of
to the failure of
410
his strength,

he had not often been seen at the meetings
another serious
of the
Council
during recent years. The Library has sustained
still
loss
through the
death
of the
ingsett,
Right Hon. Lord Cozens- Hardy of Lether- LO RD P.C., who was also one of the original members
appointed by the Founder of which he took a great interest.
of Trustees/
of the
Board
the Trust, in
Lord Cozens- Hardy was a staunch

Nonconformist.
until
Liberal,
Gladstonian, and
He
sat in
Parliament for North Norfolk, from 1886

of the
his
appointment as
Judge
he was made Master of the Rolls.
High Court in 1899. In 1907 In 1914 he was raised to the
He Peerage, and in 1918 he resigned the Mastership of the Rolls. was a faithful adherent of the Congregational Church, and his daughter married the late Rev. C. Silvester Home, who was also an honoured
Trustee of the Library.
Miers, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., the Vice-Chancellor of
Sir
Henry
Manchester University, has been appointed, by the CHANGES Governors, Chairman of the Council, in succession to
the late Sir
and Professor A. S. NELOF George Macalpine has been elected Vice-Chairman. ciL OF THE Peake, M.A., D.D., Mr. J. W. Marsden, J.P., of Blackburn, has been ap;
pointed a Representative Governor, by the Lancashire and Cheshire Association of Baptist Churches, in succession to the late Sir George
Macalpine.
Three
of offering
of the
Governors
of the Library
have received well merited
distinctions during the last

to
few months, and we take this opportunity them our warmest congratulations. Professor A. S.
Peake,
(Oxon.), D.D. (Aberdeen), has had the Degree of Doctor of Divinity conferred upon him, by his "Alma Mater," the
;
M.A.
University of Oxford
The Rev.
J.
H. Roberts, M.A., B.D., who

Maclaren
in of
succeeded the Rev.
Dr. Alexander
the pastorate of
Union Chapel, Manchester, has had

George Jackson, B.A.,
Doctor
of
the
Degree
conferred upon him by the University of St.
Andrews
Doctor of Divinity and the Rev.

;
Didsbury College, has had the Degree of
of Divinity conferred
The
for
it
present year will
upon him by the University of Aberdeen. mark an epoch in the history of the Library,
1
was on
the 6th of October,
899, that
it
was formally dedicated

to
411
public use.
It
is
true that
it
was
not found possible to admit
readers or the public until the 1st of January following,

yet the formal inauguration of the institution took place
THE
LIBITS
on the date mentioned, and during the twenty-one years MA J C that have since elapsed, there has been a steady progression both
efficiency
It
TAINS
in
and
influence.
Mrs. Rylands did not live to see the present fruition of her scheme, which was to dedicate to the memory of her late husband, John Rylands, an institution devoted to the enis
to be regretted that
couragement of learning, placed in the very heart of the had been the scene of his varied activities and triumphs.
city
which
The
stock of books with
which the Library opened, numbering

to
about 70,000 volumes, has
now grown
million, not the least important feature of

scripts
upwards of a quarter of a which are the 0,000 manu1
which have been added from time

in
to time to the original stocfe
Not only
portance,
for
numbers has the

the
collection
grown, but also in im-
many noteworthy collections, acquisition by including the Crawford Manuscripts, there have been added to its shelves many world-famed literary treasures, which have been instrumental
world.
In the
first
of
in
attracting to
the
Library scholars from
all
parts of
the
year of the Library's activity readers were comparatively
few
number, although the public took advantage of the opportunities afforded them on the open afternoons and evenings, by coming in
in
crowds
to inspect the building,
and the
exhibition
which had been
arranged specially for their benefit, with the object of revealing to them
something of the scope and richness of the collection. To-day, during term time especially, it is difficult to find a vacant
seat in the building,
is
and the most
gratifying feature of the
that the readers, almost without exception, are
development engaged on some

is
special piece of original research.
The development
of the resources of the
Library
should
being con-
tinued along lines which hitherto have been productive

of such excellent results,
like
A DEAR'S
ACCESQ lf*\ VI Q
and
in
this
respect
we
renew our acknowledgments of the valuable assistance which we have received from readers, who
to
often in the
course of their investigations have been able to call attention to the

Library's lack of important authorities in their special line of research.
412

will
welcome these helpful suggestions, which prompt and sympathetic attention.
We
always receive
The
and by
additions to the Library during the past year, by purchase

gift,
number 6985 volumes,

gift.
of
which 3532 were acquired by
purchase, and 3453 by
by purchase include a number of rare and inwhich add to the strength of several departments in teresting items, which the Library is already admittedly rich, amongst which the
acquisitions
The
following manuscripts
briefs, patents, wills,
may be mentioned
An
interesting collection of
ments relating
to the
marriage contracts, deeds of gift, and other docuMedici family, from the Medici archives a
;
number
of charters
rolls,
and court
rolls,
including a large collection of court

relating to,
and manor
and other documents
and comprising
;
practically the history of the collections of Sir
Manor
Sir
of
West Horsley
Savile for the
a
John and
large folio
the original "

of
;
Henry
;
History of
Yorkshire," in two
II
;
volumes
wardrobe book
Edward
a fifteenth treasury account book of Charles VI of France a fourteenth century century illuminated chronicle in roll form
chronicle of the
Dukes
of
Normandy and Kings

Richard Rolle
of
of
England
;
two
fifteenth century manuscripts of fifteenth

;
Hampole
a small
century manuscript of the Latin Vulgate Bible on uterine a palimpsest of an Icelandic manuscript of Laws promulgated vellum and a considerable collection of manuin Iceland from 1281 to 1541
;
script
and printed material
relating to
Warren
Hastings, and the East

to
India
Company,
to
mention only a few
of the principal items,
serve as an indication of the character of the accessions which are constantly being
made.
of
The
on
list
donors, which contains

!
proof of the sustained practical interest ii i all sides in the work of the institution.
1/1
The
4 names, furnishes which is evinced

1 1
*
fresh
Two
gifts
vjlrltjl \J THE LIB-
call for special
mention.
first is
a collection of
600
RARY
Sumerian Tablets, probably from

in
Umma,
presented by Mrs. Bedale
memory
of her late husband, the

in
Rev. C. L. Bedale, whose death,
which occurred
chester.
March, 1919, inflicted such a serious loss on ManMr. Bedale was a brilliant student of the late Professor
succeeded as Lecturer
in
Hogg,
whom he
Assyriology at the University
of Manchester,
and was one

who,
of the small and, unfortunately, diminishin
ing group of scholars,
recent years, have been
seeking to

stimulate interest in a field of research
413
which hitherto has been some-
what neglected by the

collection of
ture,
universities of this country.
The
second
is
2122 volumes and pamphlets
of propagandist
war
litera-
Office.
presented by the Ministry of Information of the British Foreign To students of the next generation this collection, a large
section of
which
consists of
pamphlets and broadsides not readily ac-
cessible in the regular channels of supply, will furnish valuable material

for research in the history of the
Great War.
to
The
following
is
list
of
Donors
whom,
in
the
name
of the
Governors,
we
desire to
renew our
grateful thanks for their generous
gifts to the Library during the year 1919.
LIST OF
DONORS TO THE LIBRARY DURING

The Rev. R. T.
Dr. C.
1919.
The Rev. M. Abrahams. Dr. G. H. Abbott.

Mrs. Bedale. Mrs. H.
Herford.
A. Hewavitarne.
Hirtzel, Esq.
H.
Bernard.
Hirschfeld, Esq.
M.
J. S.
H.
The Rev. L. H. Jordan. A. N. Brayshaw, Esq. H. H. Brindley, Esq. R. M. Kerr, Esq. The Right Rev. Dom Paul Cagin, Monsieur Hugues Lamy.
O.S.B.
Lady Helen Carnegie. Miss A. G. Carthew.

E. Colby, Esq.
R. Lawson, Esq. Dr. Leach.

J.
Lees, Esq.
M. Denwood, Esq. The Rev. A. Dixon.

J. J.
H. C. Levis, Esq. The Librarian. D. A. Little, Esq.

Sir J. P.
S.
A. Douglas, Esq. E. H. Dring, Esq.

Esposito, Esq.
Mahaffy.
M.
Maskery, Esq., J.P. The Rev. J. Mellis.

J.
Miss Helen Farquhar. Monsieur R. Fawtier.
Pierpont Morgan, Esq. C. T. Owen, Esq.
G. N. Ford,
Esq., J.P.
A.
Pallis,
Esq.
S. Gaselee, Esq.
Dr. T. R. Glover.
J. Peacock, Esq. Bernard Quaritch Limited.
The Rev.
E.
Hampden-Cook.
L. F. Richardson, Esq.
W.
D. Harland, Esq. Mrs. D. Heaton.

Dr.
J.
W.
The
Sage, Esq.
Right Rev.
The
Bishop of
Rendel Harris.
Salford.
414

L. Trequiz, Esq.
E. F. Tucker, Esq. B.
H.
Schiick, Esq.
W.
Shaw,
Esq., F.S.A.
Lord
Sir
Sheffield.
Mrs.
Edward
J.
Tytus.
O. Skulerud, Esq.
I.
G.
S. Vellonis, Esq.
The
Spielmann. late C. W. Sutton, Esq.
G. P. Walford, Esq.
Humphrey Ward,
Dr. Carl Wessely.
J.
Esq.
Mrs. Temple.
G. Thomas,
Esq., J.P.
Windsor, Esq.
Dr. Paget Toynbee.
Professor E.
M. Wrong.
Aberystwyth.
National Library of Wales.
L' Academic Royale de Belgique.
Admiralty
Office.
American Art Association.

Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
The Brewers
Bruxelles.
Society.
British Foreign Office.
Musees Royaux de Cinquantenaire.
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Carnegie United Kingdom Trust.
Chicago University Press.
The
Classical Association.
Royal Library. Copenhagen. Dodecanesia Delegation at Peace Conference. Marsh's Library. Dublin.
Durham
University.
Edinburgh University.
The The
Frisian Society.
"
E.
J.
W.
Gibb
"
Memorial Trustees.
of Japan.
Habana.
Biblioteca Nacional.
Imperial Government Railways
India Office.
Jewish Historical Society. Lisboa. Academia das Sciencias.
London.
London.
Jews' College.
Royal College
of Physicians.
London.
London.
Royal Colonial Institute. Saint Bride Foundation.

Victoria University.
Manchester.

Mexico.
National University.
of.
415
Michigan, University
Military Order of the Loyal Legion Minnesota University.
of the
United
States.
Newcastle Public Library.
New York
Oxford.
Paris.
Public Library.
Bodleian Library.
Societe de 1'Histoire des Colonies Franchises.
Saint
Andrews
University.
South Australia Museum.

Stockholm.
Royal Library.
Public Library.
Toronto.
Upsala University.
Washington.
Washington.
Library of Congress. Smithsonian Institution.
Washington University.
Wigan
Public Library.
are glad to be able to announce the publication of the eagerly " awaited second volume of the Odes and Psalms of
We
TH O DES
Solomon," which has been edited for the Governors of the OF SOLODr. Rendel Harris and Dr. Alphonse library, by This concluding volume consists of a new translation Mingana.
the
of of of
"
Odes
"
in
English versicles, with brief comments by
way
elucidation,
an exhaustive introduction dealing with the variations
the fragment in the British
Museum, with the original language, the

stylistic
probable epoch of their composition, their unity, the

of their
first
method
of
writer,
the accessory patristic testimonies, a

its
summary
first
the most important criticisms that have appeared since

tion in
1
publica-
909, a complete bibliography of the subject, and a glossary to
the text.
The
price of the
volume
is
one guinea.
Of
the
first
volume,
which
consists of a collotype facsimile of the exact size of the original
Syriac manuscript, now in the possession of the John accompanied by a retranscribed text with an attached
copies
Ry lands
critical
Library,
apparatus,
be obtained at the price of half a guinea from the Manchester University Press, and from Messrs. Longmans, Green
may
still
&Co.
We
congratulate Dr. Harris and his co-editor
upon the completion
416
of this

monumental piece
will
interest
of
work, upon which they have expended so

to learn that Sir
much
It
laborious research during the last three years.
Henry Mainwaring, Peover Hall, Cheshire, has recently de- THE MAINWARING j r posited in the Library, on loan tor an indehmte penod, MANUfor the use of students, his interesting collection of manuBart., late of
readers
.,.,,..
scripts,
lating to the county of Cheshire.
which includes many early charters and other material reThe Mainwaring family had been
diaries,
seated at Peover ever since the Conquest, and had the good fortune
to possess state papers,
household books, and
literary
papers
of
the
seventeenth
century,
besides a vast quantity of deeds

fail
and
evidences relating to their lands, which cannot

the Peover deeds are of
to
be of interest to
students of the history of the period to which they belong.
Many
;
of
the time of
Edward
III,
or earlier,
and
the
about 500 of them are older than the reign of

earliest are
Henry V1I1
some
charters granted in the twelfth century

collection
by the Earls
199-210,
of Chester.
The
was
briefly
described in the Historical
MSS.
in
Commission,
10th Report, Appendix, part 4, pp.
and a temporary manuscript catalogue, prepared by

1895,
is
Mr.
J.
H.
Jeayes,
fuller
deposited in the
Library with the collection.
For the
information of those
to
who may
be interested
the
in
the subject,
we hope
of this
publish in
the next issue of
BULLETIN
hand-list
important collection of documents.
Evidence
of the continued interest in the

of
scheme
for rendering
help to the University

their
Louvain
in
the formation of
LOUVAIN
new
library, J
is
is
to
be found
in the
new
list
of conthis
tlPJ^^ RECONSTRUC-
tributors
which
printed elsewhere in the pages of
number.
was
issued in
Since the publication of the previous list, which December last, we have received upwards of 10,000
volumes, and
new
offers
of help are
still
reaching us almost daily.
The
total
number
of
volumes which
we
have actually received and
registered,
of transit
sity
to us, notably a gift
approaches 40,000, and several consignments are in course of 1200 volumes from the Univer-
of Toronto.
We
have
now
very
little
hesitation in
expressing
the hope that the British contribution will reach a grand total of at
least
50,000 volumes.
gratifying feature of the present report
that already
is
The most
able to
that
we
are
announce
26,336 volumes
of the
new Library

have been transferred
to
their
417
temporary home
in
Louvain, where
for the use of the staff
they have been placed upon the shelves prepared for their reception, and students of the repatriated University.
Several letters of grateful appreciation have been received from
the Rector of the University (Monsignor Ladeuze), from Cardinal
Mercier, and also from Monsieur Stainier, the Administrate ur of the

Bibliotheque Royale de Bruxelles, who is responsible for the direction of the reconstruction of the new Library, in which they refer in terms
of undisguised delight to the character of the
works which
we
have,
with the assistance of

together.
many generous
collaborators, conspired to get
Contributions of books, or of
penses,
money
to
meet the contingent ex-
may
still
Manchester.
to
be sent to the Librarian of the John Rylands Library, In the case of books we would ask prospective donors
in the
first
be good enough,
gifts,
instance, to submit a
list
of their pro-
posed
so as to obviate unnecessary duplication.
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO.
BY
C. H.
HERFORD,
M.A.,
IN
LJtt.D.
PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE MANCHESTER.
THE UNIVERSITY OF
MAZZINI,
the most prophetic figure of the nineteenth century, declared in a famous passage his confidence in the European
mission of his country.
"The Third
Italy," destined
to
be born of the long agony of the struggle with Austria without and the papacy within, was not merely to be a nation, restored to unity
and independence
complex harmony
it
was
to intervene as
an original voice
in
the
its
of
the European
nationalities,
contributing of
own
"
inborn
genius something which
no other could
contribute.
life
We
believe devoutly that Italy has not exhausted her
in
the
world.
elements in the progressive of humanity, and to live with a third life. It is for us development
to begin it."
She is
called to introduce yet
new
Were Mazzini
to return to life to-day,
how
far
would
he regard
his
prophecy as fulfilled ?
would
receive
some severe shocks.

its
indeed, exulting in
great
national unity
Beyond He would find a Third Italy and in its rank and freedom as a
question his lofty idealism
Power, but not more capable than the other nations of evolving, as " Mazzini would have had it, the large internationalism" which is not
;
its indispensable completion and crown than they to interpret national glory in terms of territory, prone and national greatness in terms of wealth.
the antithesis of patriotism, but
not
less
Yet he would have found,
also,
in
the Third Italy, a real rethis
nascence, a genuine rebirth of genius and power, and
individual as to justify in a rare degree the anticipation that

give something vitally her
Italian
1
ways so Italy would

in
own
to the
will
new Europe.
Open any
serious
book to-day, and you
note a kind of intellectual concen-
An
elaboration of the lecture delivered in the John Rylands Library,

418
8 January, 1919.
GABR1ELE D'ANNUNZIO
tration, a girding
trast
419
up of the loins of speech and thought, in striking conwith the loose- tongued volubility of most Italian writing, in verse You note also a new tone or prose, of the mid-nineteenth century.
of critical
was
still
the
mastery and conscious equality. "
Italy
in
the last century

still
the gentle torpor of
woman-people," the pathetic beauty, languid two centuries, and whose intellectual
exceptions,
of the
faintly
after
life
with
some
brilliant isolated
reflected
that of the
more
only
masculine nations north

critically
Alps.
To-day
she
has
not
judgment us, and the judgment she pronounces has again and again been upon one of those which in disposing of old difficulties opens new ways.
Benedetto
Croce,
mastered
all
that
Europe has
to give, she
sits in
who
in
his
critical
review,
the
Critica,
is
bringing intellectual
Europe to his reader's doors, has in his original work subjected the philosophic systems of Europe to a philosophic revision, and has succeeded in a great measure to their authority.
1
thinker less
known, even
to cultivated Italians, Aliotta, has surveyed
in a
book
of extraordinary penetration
and philosophic power, the
"idealistic reaction against science" in the nineteenth century.
And
when we
look to creative literature,
we find
in this
Third
Italy,
together
with a profusion of those fungoid growths of which the modern age has in the West been everywhere prolific, two or three poets, at least,
of great,
even dazzling, genius,

in
for
whom
no predecessor,
in Italy or
elsewhere, had
any
important sense prepared the way.
One
of
these, after pouring forth
poems, dramas, novels, in prodigal abundance for forty years, became the most vociferous, and possibly the most potent, of the forces that drove Italy into the war, and was until lately
the
idol of
the
whole
a
Italian race.
Even
to-day, after the sorry

irritated
collapse of his adventure, the

patient,
his
man
in
whom
florid
Europe,
and im-
sees
only
sort of
Harlequin-Garibaldi, impudent where
predecessor
for
was
sublime,
and
where he was
laconic,
is still,
multitudes of his countrymen, the hero-poet

failing or treacherous
it
who
took the
banner of Italianitd from the
and statesmen, and defended
against the
enemy
youth.
1
within,
with the tenacity of Certainly, one who is beyond

of this paragraph
is
of diplomats without and the enemy maturity and the ardour of

all
hands
rivalry the
most adored
Much
the writer, on
"
The Higher Mind
repeated in substance from an article, by of Italy," in the Mane/tester Guardian,
15
March, 1920.
420
poet, in

who
has fought for Italy with tongue
service,
any country, of our time, and pen and risked his life in her
be called a brilliant impressionist sketch of the talents

the Italian character, reproducing
and whose personality might and failings of

heightened but veracious
some
in
illuminations, others in glaring caricature or paradoxical distortion-
such a man, as a national no

deserves close study.
less
than as a literary force, claims and
me
at
assist
Before entering, however, upon the detail of his life and work, let our imagination of Gabriele d'Annunzio by quoting from
the vivid description given by
Mr. James Bone
of a
meeting with him
Venice
in the
summer
of
1918.
The
;
poet, fifty-six years old,
was
of.
then at
the height of his
renown
Fiume was then unthought
Vienna and dropping leaflets inviting her in aureate imagery to make peace, was on every tongue. The took off their hats as they passed his house on the Grand gondoliers Canal, and he had to register all his letters to prevent their being abHis great
exploit of flying over
stracted as souvenirs.
Mr. Bone was
talking with the airmen at an

:
aerodrome on one
"
of the islands in the lagoons there
Conversation died instantly as an airman, very different from the a rather small, very quick, cleanothers, came hurrying towards us
cut figure, wearing large
wrists turned
smoked
glasses
and white gloves with the
down.
The nose was
rather prominent, complexion
not dark but marked a
little,
the whole profile very clear, making one
think not of a Renaissance Italian but of a type

pression accentuated
close to the head.
face, for all its
more
antique, an im-
by
his rather large, beautifully
The body
and
firmness.
shaped ear, very denied the age that was told in the One's first impression was of a personality
spirit still at full
'
.
of extraordinary swiftness
pressure, remorselessly
. . .
pursuing
its
course
'
in hours of insight willed
The whole
sur-
face of d'Annunzio's personality suggested a rich, hard fineness, like
those unpolished marbles in old Italian churches that gleam delicately
near the base where the worshippers have touched them, but above rise cold and white as from the matrix. There was something
. . .
of the
man
of fashion in the
way
he wore
his gloves,
and
in his gestures,
'
but nothing one could see of the national idol aware of

1
itself."
Manchester Guardian, 12 September, 1918.
GABR1ELE D'ANNUNZIO
I.
421
The
lightly,
soldier-poet-man-of-fashion
in
1
who wore
his fifty-six years thus
was born,
862,
at Pescara, the chief
almost only
town
of
of
the Abruzzi, then one of the wildest

Its valleys,
and rudest provinces
Italy.
descending from the eastern heights of the Apennines to the Adriatic, were inhabited by an almost purely peasant population
a hardy, vigorous race, tenacious of their primitive customs, and
accessible to cultural influences.
little
The Church
enjoyed their fanatical
devotion, but only at the price of tacitly accepting
many immemorial
ritual
pagan usages disguised by an unusually transparent veil of Catholic while the Law occasionally found it expedient to leave a con;
victed murderer (as in the Figlia di
lono)
to
be executed by an angry
Italy's featureless
multitude according to the savage methods their tradition prescribed.
The
little
haven of Pescara
one
of the
few on
traffic
Adriatic coast
was
in
the centre of a coasting
with the yet wilder
its
traffic which like all ancient sea-faring, pursued an atmosphere of superstitious observance, mystical, In the poetic autobiography (" The picturesque, and sometimes cruel. Soul's Journey") which occupies the first Laude (1903), d'Annunzio
Dalmatian seaboard, a
economic aims
sketches vividly his boyhood's
home
in
this
Abruzzan country overthis
looking the sea.

affections,
Of
the persons
who composed
home, of family
we have only momentary retrospective glimpses. hear of the father, long dead, when he wrote, from whom he derived his iron-tempered muscles and of the mother, who gave him his in;
We
satiable ardour of will

like
and
desire.
The
three sisters seem to have been
him
the face of the second
sister
resembled his
own
"
mirrored in
says,
a clear fountain at
their
dawn ".
All that stood between them, he
was
innocence and his passion.
There was,
too,
an old nurse, to
whom in her beautiful old age, when she had retired to a mountain hamlet,
the poet addressed
some tenderly
holds out".
1
beautiful stanzas, contrasting his
stormy career with her idyllic peace as she

flocks
"
spins the wool of her
own own
while the
of
oil
But
most children,
household drama, such as dominates the experience of little seems to have existed for this child. Certainly it
vanishes completely, in the retrospect of the man of forty, beside the drama enacted with prodigious intensity of colour, animation, and
1
Dedication of //
Poema Paradisiaco
(1
892).
422
passion,
by his imperious senses. The contrast is here acute between d'Annunzio and his co-heir of the Carduccian tradition, Pascoli,
whose poignant memories
the energy
44
of childhood, instead of being

it
effaced
by
permeate through and through, giving a autumnal tone" to almost every line he wrote. He spoke in deep
of his sense-life,
<4
profound sensuality" as a gift which had brought him poetic discoveries denied to colder men, and this is no doubt true if by
later life of his
44
"
sensuality
we
understand, as
all
we
ought, that d'Annunzio

that
is
prodi-
gally
endowed with
body
thrills
the senses,
eye and ear

its
feast
life,
on the
that his
glory and the music of the world and live in

lithe
teeming
is
with the zest of motion, that imagery

stuff
the material
of his thinking
sex, so acutely
this
and the and
of
his
speech
and
that the passion of

is
perilously
developed
in him,
just
one element
is
in
prodigal
endowment
artistic
of his entire sense-organism,
which
a main
source of the
splendour of his work.

drinking in
Viaggio we
flails
see the
the simple sights
the rhythmic fall of the on the threshing-floor, the pouring of the whey from the churn, the whirr of the spool in the loom, the scampering of wild ponies with
young boy and sounds of the farm
In the early pages of the with a kind of intoxication
streaming manes over the hillside, or again, out at sea, the gorgeous scarlet or gold sails scudding before the wind, each with its symbolic
sign.
alive;
Even the inanimate world became for his transfiguring senses 44 4< that declared that Pan is it was a lying voice," he cries,
dead".
The mere
contrasts of things,
the individual self-assertion
shown by a
44
tree, for instance, in not being a rock,
produced
in
him an
excitement analogous to that which

"
words,
a lover
of all kinds of
made Rupert Brooke, in his own common things for being just definitely
and unmistakably what they were. So that a conception apparently so 4< thin and abstract as difference" can assume for him the shape and
potency of an alluring divinity Diversity," he " the world I am he who love thee
:
44
44
cries,
the siren of
And
then,
with
adolescence,
came
the
passion
of
sex
for
d'Annunzio no shy and gradual discovery, but a veritable explosion, before which all obstacles, moral and material, vanished into air. He
tells
it
with the frankness of a child of the South, and the self-conscious
importance of an egoist for whom the events of his own physical history could only be fitly described in terms of epic poetry, with its contending
nationalities
and ruined or triumphant
44
kings.
"
flesh
he
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO
"
cries,
self ful.
I
423
gave myself up to thee, as a young beardless king gives himup to the warrior maid who advances in arms, terrible and beautiShe advances victorious, and the people receive her with
rejoicing.
Astonishment
strikes the gentle king,

first this
and
his
hope laughs
at
his fear."
rest of
And
from the
new
passion allies itself
with the
his sense-organism, irradiating
eye and ear and imagination,
power a double power," as Biron says in Loves Labour s Lost, " Thou wast sometimes as the grape pressed by fiery
giving to every
feet,
"
flesh,
seemed
far-off
to feel
sometimes as snow printed with bleeding traces I in thee the winding of trodden roots, and to hear the
;
erotic
The young grinding of the axe upon the whetstone". was already growing towards that observant psychologist of
eroticism
novels.
who
was
pervades so
many
gorgeous but repulsive pages of his

as yet invisibly, to other
He
also growing,
things.
more slowly and

first
and more notable
In the
published poems of the

t
boy
of
eighteen, and the second, Canto Novo two years later, there is not " " much more than the reflexion of this intense and pervading sensuality
meaning above indicated), in a speech moulded upon the and rhythms of Carducci. The great master, then at the height of his fame, had still to do much of his most splendid work. D'Annunzio, who never ceased to revere him, was to become his but the heir added so much of his own to the beprincipal inheritor
(in the large
diction
quest that
he can only at the outset be regarded as
his disciple.
The
elder poet's influence

severity
was
in
and
nobility of style
any case entirely salutary. The classical which distinguished the Rime Nove and
the Odi Barb are from the florid and facile romantic verse of the day, contributed to temper the dangerous luxuriance of d'Annunzio, and to
evoke the powers of self-discipline and tenacious will which lay while Carclucci's exultation in radiance and clarity, his within
;
of life, his symbolic sun-worship and his hatred of all obscurantism and moonlight nebulosity, equally enforced the twilight " " more virile strain in d'Annunzio, the stalk of carle's hemp which, far more truly than in Burns, underlay the voluptuous senses.
noon-day view
when d'Annunzio,
This background of harder and tougher nature was already manifested a few years later, turned to tell in prose some stories
1
Laus Vita, 232

28
f.
424

There is little
;
of his native province.

less of
in the
Novell* diPescara
of love,
luxury or refinement
fanatical
its
and
"
ferocious, the
most ceremonial robes

tells
we see the Abruzzan village folk at feud, women cheering on the men, the Church in " The blandly but helplessly looking on.
of a certain village plan to set the bronze
Idolaters
how
the
men
upon the church altar of another neighbouring village. assemble at night and march through the darkness with the image They on a cart. In the other village the men await them in force, and a
statue of the saint
sailants
savage battle takes place in the church, ending in the rout of the aswith much slaughter, and the ignominious mutilation of the
their
image of
patron
saint.
.terse,
admirably strong and
And all this grim matter is told in a style bold and -sharp in outline, direct and imweak
;
personal in statement, untouched by either delicate feeling or

sentimentality.
D'Annunzio's sensuality
asserts itself
still,
as always
;
now appears here as a Rubens-like joy in intense impressions a copper-coloured storm sky, now a splash of blood, betrays his passion for the crude effects of flame and scarlet, most often where they signify
but
it
death or ruin.
He imagines voluptuously as always,

flesh,
but his voluptuous-
ness here feeds not in the lust of the
but in the lust of
wounds
and death.
you
as
little
When
as
he describes the
;
fighting in the church,
he spares
Homer
made
you are not
stabbed, you are
to see the
told merely that a man was blade shear away the flesh from the
bone.
visible
His men are drawn with the same hard, pungent stroke, and a relish for scars, gnarled features, frayed dress, and all the maimdeformities,
ings
and
due not
to
weakness or decay, but
to battles recent
or long ago, the blows and buffets received in the tug with fortune.
There
is
little
either of
sybarite effeminacy in the
painting of
tall,
old
Giacobbe, for instance, the leader of the insurgents, a
bony man,
with bald crown and long red hairs on nape and temples, two front teeth wanting, which gives him a look of. senile ferocity, a pointed chin
covered with
bristles,
and so
forth.
D* Annunzio was intrinsically

fibre of
his
of the
the peasant folk
was
his,
Abruzzan race the tough hardy and the deep inborn attachment to
;
blood and kin was to produce, twenty years later, his greatest work, as a like attachment lifted Mr. Shaw, almost at the same moment, to
the rare heights of
John
Bull's Other Island.
But much had
to
happen
full
to the
young provincial before he could thus discover to the
the poetry of his province.
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO
II.
425
In the early eighties

circle of
d'Annunzio had come
to
Rome.
The
little
disciple,
young Carduccians in the capital welcomed the poet's brilliant who was soon to outdistance them all in sheer splendour of
literary gift.
More
for his
important, however, than any literary or personal
influence
arily
hard encasing shell of egoism
made him
extraordin-
immune
to the intrusion either of alien genius or of friendship or
love
was the deep impression made upon the young Abruzzan by the splendour, the art glories, and above all the historic import of Rome. " The Abruzzi gave d'Annunzio the sense of race" says an excellent
"
Rome gave him the sense of history'." The magical effect of Rome had hitherto been rendered most vividly in the poetry of other peoples, to whom it was a revelation, or a fulfilment of long
critic,
aspiration, or the
"
city of their soul," in
Goethe's
Roman
Childe Harold, or the Adonais.

tive
Italian,
How overwhelming to
Rome Carducci. The
the sight and living presence of
Elegies, an imaginacould be, may be
is
Englishman who judged from the magnificent Ode of turilled as he stands in the Forum, or by the mossy bastions of our own Roman wall, may faintly apprehend the temper of a citizen of
the
to
"Third Italy" who be once more in living
nobility
newly won from the Popes, Both the continuity with the city of Caesar. and the extravagance of Italian national feeling have their root
felt
his capital,
in this sense of
continuity with antique
Rome, and
this is to
be
re-
membered
most
in estimating the perfervid
Italianita of d'Annunzio, the
striking
example both
it is
of this sublime idealism
and
of the childish
extravagance
able to inspire.
The work
forth novels
of the next years

laid
abounded
in
evidence of the spell
which Rome had

curean and erotic
upon
his sensuous imagination.
He
poured
of epi-
and poetry, charged with an oppressive opulence
detail, but saved those by the clear-cut beauty of the prose, the other by the strokes of bold and splendid imagination. Andrea Sperelli in // Piacere (1889) and Tullio Hermil in
L'Innocente (1892), are virtuosos

luxury,
in
aesthetic as well
as in erotic
and the two

Sperelli
allied varieties of
is artist
hedonism
reflect
and enforce
one another.
and connoisseur,
his
of unlimited resources
and
opportunities,
and neither he nor
mistress could
think love
tolerable in
chambers not hung with precious tapestry and adorned with
426

gift of
sculptured gold and silver vessels, the
queens or cardinals of the

is
too
splendour-loving Renaissance. the native stamina in ;
No
doubt there
irony in the picture
d' Annunzio
tion to the corrupt aspects of the luxury
complete assimilahe describes, and he feels

resists
keenly the contrast between the riotous profusion of the of the new Rome and the heroism and hardships of the
"
new rich men of the

substance,
"
Risorginiento
who had won
it.
The
poetry of this period
is
less
repellent because
is
its
though not definitely larger or deeper,

the magic of
and penetrated by a wonderfully winged and musical speech. His Elegu

sustained
Romane
(1892)
inferior in intellectual force to Goethe's,
a rare case of his emulating another poet are which yet have as lyrics an almost
pedestrian air in comparison with the exquisite dance of the Italian The sonnets of the Isotteo and Chimera (1885-8) show rhythms.
a concentration rare in the later history of the Italian sonnet.
And
any reader
offence
who thinks
d' Annunzio incapable of writing of love without
To
may be invited to try the charming idyll of Isaotta Guttadauro. be sure the scenery and circumstances are sumptuous and opulent
;
as usual.
remote
The simple life and homely persons traditional in idyll are but poetry did not absolutely fly from Tennyson's touch when he turned from his Miller's and Gardener's daughters to put Maud in
a Hall
;
and
neither does she retire from d'Annunzio's Isaotta, in her
noble mansion.
under her
forth.
The lover stands at sunrise in the " high window and summons her in a joyous morning
late
"
hall
garden
It is
autumn, the house
is silent,
song to come but the peacocks perched raucous tones.
on the orange
situation
is
trees hail
the morning in
their
The
that of Herrick's
Herrick
loved
May morning song Corinna, but though jewels and fine dresses not a little, the contrast is
to
piquant between the country simplicity of these Devonshire maids and " Come, my Corinna, men, and the aristocratic luxury of Isaotta.
"
come!
such
Wash,
dress,
be
brief in
praying
bids Herrick; but no

Isaotta will rise from her
in
summary
toilette will serve
the Italian.
will
brocaded bed and her white limbs
gleam
a marble bath, and
her maid pours amber-scented water on them, while the

of the story of
woven
length
figures
Omphale
to
look on from the walls.
At
Isaotta
comes out
on
her vine-wreathed
balcony and
playfully greets
inesser cantore below.

but makes a
She
is
secretly ready,
for terms.
we
see, to
surrender,
show
of standing out
They
will
wander
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO
427
through the autumnal vineyards, and if they find a single cluster still " I will yield to your desire, and you shall be hanging on the poles,
my
lord
".
So they
still.
set out
in the
November morning.
seen.
yards,
lately so loud
with vintage merriment and song,
The vineare now de;
serted
4
Not a cluster is to be What, has subtle Love no power to

and
give
She archly mocks him you eyes ?" They meet

"
What going to their work, and one of them asks him, " " seekest thou, fair sir ? I And he replies seek a treasure".
peasant
women
flight of birds rises suddenly across their path with joyous cries
they
and gaze at each other, pale and silent. Then unhe sees before him a vineyard flaming in full array of purple expectedly " and gold and a flock of birds making a chorus in its midst. lady
take
it
as a sign,
"
Isaotta,
here
is life
cried to her with rapt soul

I
and the chorus
of
songsters cried over our heads.
drew her
to the spot,
and she came

the face she
as swift as
1,
for
held her firmly by the hand.

but
fair
Rosy was
turned
kiss of
away from me,

;
as Blanchemain's
when
"
she took the
Lancelot, her sovran lover, in the forest.

for
Lady,
keep
she
my
gave
pact
you
pluck the
fatal
untouched
cluster.
Then
me
the kiss divine."

HI.
The
above
"
last
word
of
the
early
Isaotta
idyll
sovrumano
rendered
divine,"
was an
symptom
of
a development of formid-
able significance in the prose and poetry of d'Annunzio during " " the next twenty years. had not yet been The Superman
discovered
when he was
for
boy,
first
but the
spirit
to
which sovru-
manitct appeals had from the

for
run in his blood.

energy, even
for
sensation,
strong
effects,
for
His passion ferocity and
cruelty,
was the concomitant

to
its
of a genius that strove to shatter obstacles,

its
to
bend others
will,
and reshape
experience, as the opposite

all its
genius of
Pascoli submissively accepted experience, hearing in
vicissitudes reverberations of the
mournful memories
in
which
his soul
d'Annunzio accordingly, in the early nineties, steeped. discovered the work of Nietzsche, he experienced that liberation
which comes
to every
was
When
the meaning of his
man who meets with a coherent exposition of own blind impulses, and a great new word for his
In Nietzsche
confused and inarticulate aims.
he found a mind more
congenial to him perhaps than any other he had known, more even
428

his,
than that of his master Carducci, but, unlike
congenial mainly to
what was most

admitted the
perilous
and ill-omened
"
in
himself.
He
loftily
German
his equal, a great concession,
and when Nietzsche

of a destroyer,"
died, in 1900, wrote a noble dirge

of
to the
memory
the
Barbara enorme "who

to the vast gates of the d' Annunzio
lifted
up again the serene gods of
Hellas on
Future".
When
wrote these words the Hellenic enthusiasms
nourished by his acute sense of beauty in a nature utterly wanting in the Hellenic poise, had won, partly through Nietzsche's influence, an
ascendancy over his imaginations which render the Superman in Hellenic terms.
symbolised
for
all
made
it
natural
for
him
to
The
serene gods of Hellas
him the calmness of absolute mastery, of complete enemies trampled under foot or flung to the eternal conquests, torments of Erebus. This mood detached him wholly from Shelley
and Byron, and the young Goethe,- who had

the
spirit of
gloried in Prometheus,
man
"
struggling against
;
supreme
deity, baffled
and
finally
overthrowing him
of
he now,
Olympus.
Goethe, adores the serenity of Serene Day, how much fairer Zeus, Father
like the riper
silent
than the chained and howling lapetid seemed in thy eyes the mountain and its vast buttresses fresh with invisible springs."
besides Prometheus,
And
Zeus has another enemy,

cries,
I
Christ
the foe of
beauty, and lord of the herd of " and submission. Zeus, he
slaves with their slave-morality of pity
invoke thee, awaken and bring
on the Morrow
!
heaven thy ploughshare to plough the Night Thou only canst purify Earth from its piled-up filth." are not to look in all this for even so much of definite ethical
!
Make
the
fire of
We
or philosophic content as
we
find in
Nietzsche.
rather
If
Nietzsche
a
was a
the
poet
imagining
in
philosophic
terms
than
philosopher,
all.
d'Annunzio was hardly capable

other hand,
faculty,
of abstract thought at
less
On
Nietzsche could
series of
still
rival
d'Annunzio
in
creative
and the
spirit
by the
of
d'Annunzian characters inspired or touched Nietzschean sounimanita may be set against the
richer intellectual and spiritual substance of

this influence
Zarathustra.
No
doubt
was
not wholly salutary
Nietzsche's heady draught in-
toxicated his brain with visions of colossal

ting
images of
in
equipment,
and ruthless power, begetsupermen and superwomen magnificent in stature and the glory of their flame-like hair, and the crystalline
but wholly unreal and impossible.
beauty
of their speech,
Neverthe-
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO
less,
429
power, conlimits of
there
were fortunate moments when the
vision of
strained
by a
human and moving
story to
work within the
humanity, became a source not of unreal extravagance, but of heroic and sublime truth. And these moments, though few, atoned for much
splendid
futility.
first
The
delle
traces of the
1
"
Superman's ideal appear

three
in
Le Vergini
are
all
Rocce (I896).
The
;
maidens,
princesses,
in
different fashions athirst for the infinite.
herself in absolute devotion
Anatolia
is
Massimilla longs to surrender conscious of boundless creative

of
power knows
infinity
she
would
fain
become the propagator

of
an ideal race
born.
she
that of her substance a

is
Superman may be
Violante's
;
the poet's
power
dreaming himself king of infinite space
in dream she has lived a thousand magnificent lives, moving through all dominations as securely as one treading a well-known path. In the most diverse things she has discovered secret analogies with her
own
form,
and poets have seen
in
her the mystery of Beauty revealed
in mortal flesh after secular ages, across the imperfections of
innumer-
able descendants.
But vague aspirations such as these merely disclosed the temperament to which sovrumanita appeals. For Nietzsche this ideal was not to be dreamed of, but to be fought for, by the ruthless suppression
of all the
"
human
its
"
affections
and weaknesses, within and without,
that stood in
step
overcome humanity was the indispensable way. " te the coming of the Superman. For the Italian, with his vast
his prodigal
To
sensuality,"
endowment
of
"
very
human
"
lusts,
this
was not, it may well be thought, altogether made, more than the kindred saying of Goethe that self -limitation is the any Yet there secret of mastery, was one that he could readily assimilate.
rigorous doctrine
was something
fibre of the
life
in him, as
if it
ing appealed, even
have seen, to which the call to self-makhad not been the price of power. The tenacious
itself in
we
Abruzzan showed
to those
amazing
who know
a capacity for hardy even ascetic only the hothouse atmosphere of his
novels.
in
sumptuous prose and verse was poured forth the absolute seclusion of monastic cells, or in wild peasant houses
of his most
Some
far
from
1
civilization
and only the most iron industry could have
Gargiullo, GabrieU d'Annunzw (1912), to whose account of the poet's sovrumanita, as well as of the grouping of his work in general, the present
essay
is
indebted for
much
suggestion.
430

Hence he can
put into the
of
achieved the enormous value of his work.
mouth
Claudio Cantelmo,
:
in the
Vcrgini, these evidently autoI
biographic words
"after subduing the tumults of youth,

. . .
examined
tract
whether perchance my will could, by choice and exclusion, exa new and seemly work of its own from the elements which life
of
had stored up within me". There is a glimpse here

ethical insight than
a finer psychological and a deeper
we often
find in
d'Annunzio, and
it
might have led
man
of richer spiritual capacity to a loftier poetry than
he was ever
to produce.
But on the whole the clue thus hinted was not followed
up,
and the tough nerve which might have nourished the powerful
supreme artist, often served only to sustain those the ferocious and the grandiose which make dramas like
controlling will of a
enormities of
mere examples of the pathology of genius. In the meantime, novels and poems and dramas poured forth. The later nineties saw the famous novel Fuoco (1900), a picture of prolific
Venetian splendour as gorgeous as that of Rome in Piacere, but touched with the new joy in power and the dramas Sogno dun
;
Gloria and
La Nave
Mattino di Primavera (1897), Gioconda, and Citta Morta(\&9&).
The
last
named, one of the most
original tragedies of our time,

in
may be
of
among the examples of work d'Annunzio's sovrumanith are justified.

counted
strains in him, passion for
life,
which
the audacities
The
fine
and the morbid
cross
and mingle
in its texture,
Hellenism, enthusiasm, perverse erotics, but from them is somehow evolved an
action that reproduces as nearly as a
modern dramatist may the horror
excited in ancient spectators
Nothing indeed could be

the play.
of
less
by the doom of the House of Atreus. Greek than the structure and persons of
Leonardo, a young archaeologist, is excavating in the ruins Mycenae. With him are his sister, Beata Maria, and their friends Alessandro and Anna his wife, a cluster of human flowers, full of " dead city ". But the living charm and sap, transplanted into the
dead
city
is
not merely dead
it is
of the vanished past to control

future.
Its
mouldering
Life, in
ruins
mysteriously fraught with the power and dominate the present and the are the arena of a struggle between
life
Death and
blow.
which death triumphs and
receives the mortal
Leonardo, obsessed with the Oresteia,
visions of terrific blood-stained figures,
is haunted at night by and has no thoughts by day but
of penetrating the secrets of their tombs.
Alessandro,
full of
the joy
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO
of
life,
431
"
him from these preoccupations. 1 hoped he would have come with me and gathered flowers with those fingers of
seeks to detach
which know nothing but stones and dust," and he is drawn to " the one live Beata Maria, herself the very genius of glowing youth, her friend Anna, in this place, where all is dead and thing, says
his
burnt
not,
...
it is
incredible
what
force of
life is in
her
...
if
she
"
were
none
of us could live here,
we should
all die of thirst ".
When
life
Beata Maria speaks, he who hears forgets his pain, and believes that can still be sweet." She herself is devoted to the brother whose
passion seems to estrange

his
him so
far
from what she
loves.
She
shares
Hellenic ardour, and innocently recites Cassandra's prophecy in " the Agamemnon^ with Cassandra's wreath on her golden locks, of an
evil,
intolerable to the nearest kin,
and
irreparable,
preparing in this
;
house ". Anna, struck with mysterious fear, words have been spoken, and foreshadow a
structible virus of the
stops her
real
but the ominous
doom.
Beata Maria,
the unconscious Cassandra, will suffer Cassandra's fate.
The
is
inde-
dead
city will
poison the glory of youth.
The
incestuous passion which desolated the

tinguished in the
seizes
sister.
House
of
Atreus
not ex-
crumbling dust of their tombs.
horrible infection
for his
Leonardo.
In only
He
struggles vainly with
an impure passion
one
way
can
his love
be
purified, a
;
way
grievous for
She must die and he slays her him, and yet more grievous for her. " " the tombs of the dead city which has thus again laid upon among
the living
its
mortal hand.
The
glaring
conclusion outrages our feelings, and betrays d'Annunzio's
deficiency in sympathetic power.

in his
Whatever
pity
we
feel for
Leonardo
miserable plight
the purity of his

death.
passion,
own
Here, as in and the strain
is dispelled by his cynical purchase of emotions at the price of his innocent sister's other cases, d'Annunzio's fundamental want of
of
hard egoism which pervaded the movements
of his brilliant
mind, gravely injured his attempts in tragic poetry.

;
Death was doubtless the only solution but it must be another death " " one that would have saved the of Leonardo's emotions by purity
ending them altogether.
IV.
Yet d'Annunzio,
liable
if
an
egoist,
was an
egoist of imagination,
and
as
such to irrational intrusions of
sympathy
which, without
432
diminishing the vehemence of his egoism, enlarged its scope and enNeither family affections nor friendship riched its ethical substance.
had touched his imagination in this way but the discovery of Rome had taught him something of the pride of citizenship, and more than
;
the nascent pride of nationality.
But
in
the last year of the century

this
he underwent an experience which turned

passion,
nascent emotion into a
an
"
announcer
and the poet himself into a prophet and preacher, in its service, " as he was fond of saying, of the cause and creed of
Italian it a.
He
1
had
as yet seen nothing of
900 he made an
to
extensive tour,
Europe beyond the Alps. In but in no tourist spirit. An Italian

art,
had no need
go abroad for beauty of nature or of d'Annunzio's keen eyes were turned in quite other directions
and
to the
;
and great nations, with their vast resources and their high ambitions he measured their several capacities for success in the conflict which
he,
be impending. He was impressed by the " the extraordinary threatening development of Germany, and by
among
the
first,
saw
to
Everywhere the force of development of race-energy" in England. "All the world nationality was more vehement than ever before.
is
stretched like a
more
death
"
significant
".
:
bow, and never was the saying of Heracleitos The bow is called Bios (life), and its work is
Italy in this universal tension of the national spirit ?
But where was
Where was her strung bow ? How was she preparing to hold her own with the great progressive nations of the North ? D'Annunzio flung down these challenging questions in his eloquent pamphlet,
Delia coscienza nazionale (1900). trouble with Italy did not seem to be
rather appeared to take her
To
the
foreign
observer
the
defective ambition.
She had
new
role as a great
Power
too seriously,
blundering into rash adventures abroad
when
she ought to have been
spreading the elements of civilization at home.
But d'Annunzio had
seen the race for empire in the North, and his call to Italy was the call of an imperialist ; a call for unity of purpose, for concentration of
national wealth
of the Adriatic
and strength
if
in the interest of
a greater
Italy, mistress
not of the Mediterranean.
new phase
of d'Annunzio's career.
voice, the
He
It was the beginning of was henceforth a public
man, whose
most resonant and eloquent then to be heard
in
Italy, counted, as poetic voices so rarely do, in the direction of public
GABR1ELE D'ANNUNZIO
affairs.
433
He
entered Parliament, a proclaimed disciple in policy of
Crispi, the Italian Bismarck.
How
poetry
?
did
these
enlarged
ideals
affect
d'Annunzio's work
in
In part,
as has
been hinted,
disastrously.
The
enlarged
ideals lent themselves with perverse ease, in a
mind already obsessed
with sovrumanita, to a mere megalomania, a rage for bigness, only more mischievous in practice, and nowise better as literature, because
they were conveyed in terms of navies and transmarine dominions.
He
had already
in his fine
series
of
some purpose the naval ambitions

loftier note, suited to the vaster
of his country.
Odi Navali (1893) fanned to He now sounded a
horizons of an Italian Mediterranean.
These, for instance, are some stanzas from the opening

prefixed to his colossal naval tragedy,
hymn
:
or prayer
La Nave
(1908)
Lord,
The
It is
who bringest forth and dost efface ocean-ruling Nations, race by race,
People by Thy grace on the Sea Shall magnify Thy name, who on the Sea Shall glorify Thy name, who on the Sea With myrrh and blood shall sacrifice to Thee
this living
Who
At
Of
all
the altar- prow.
Earth's oceans
make Our
Sea,
O Thou
Amen
But megalomania was not happily the whole result. The older and deeper instincts planted or quickened in d'Annunzio by his earlier
experience
the feeling for race
and
for
historic continuity
blended
to
with the
it,
new and vehement

of vision,
in their turn
passion of nationality,
communicating
something of their human intimacy, and an answering enlargement of range and scope. undergoing If his Italianita, was something more significant than a resonant cry
in
moments
for
more
ships
and
tenderness from the
rooted in the poet's
was because it drew warmth and home sentiment for his Abruzzan province deepwhile the Abruzzan province, in its turn, heart
territory,
it
;
was seen
the
in the larger
Roman
dreams.
setting of the Italian people and but without the distorting nimbus of megalomaniac race, This fortunate harmony found expression chiefly in certain
and grander
poems
of the
first five
years of the
new
century, the golden period of
To these years belong his two most notable attempts to give to Italy a tragic poetry built upon Italian
d'Annunzio's production.
story.
434
In the material for tragic poetry
no country was
richer, but
it
had
been
left to the genius of
foreign dramatists to give world-wide fame

Juliet, Beatrice Cenci,
to the stories of
Romeo and
to
and Torquato Tasso.

Manzoni's
Alfieri, the greatest of Italian tragic poets, had devoted his austere
art
almost
solely
classical
subjects
and
Venetian
Conte di Carmagnola stood almost alone, as a great Italian tragedy on an Italian theme. In the story of Francesca of Rimini, d'Annunzio
found
to his
hand a
native tragic subject of the

Italian or other.
first
order, not yet

it
touched by a tragic poet of genius,
That
had been
made
his
own by
the supreme poet of Italy hardly disturbed d'Annunzio,
deeply as he revered the poet whose words, in the fine phrase of his Dante Ode, clothed Italy like the splendour of day. He was not
going to challenge comparison with Dante's marmoreal brevity.
the poet of Pescara
And
had some
title
to regard this story of the adjacent
Adriatic sea-board of Rimini and Ravenna, as his by right. But the itself has also exerted its moderating control the natural story upon
prodigiosity of his invention, so that in his Francescan tragedy,
possible to recognize a general conformity to traditional technique.
it
is
even possible that Shakespeare's handling of his Italian The ruin of Romeo and Juliet retragedy may have afforded a hint. sults from the feud of the rival houses. The ruin of d'Annunzio's
It is
Francesca and Paolo
is
similarly rooted ultimately in the feud of
Guelf
and
father, a great Guelf captain, has sold her to the lord of Ravenna, as the price of support against the Ghibel lines.
Ghibelline.
Her
is
But when her hand
thus plighted, she has already seen his brother
window, and the seed

up
Paolo, with his feminine beauty and luxuriant locks, pass under her of their passion is sown. Francesca has grown
"a
flower in an iron
soil,"
and love throughout
is
set in
if
a frame
of war.
But she would be no d'Annunzian heroine

call of life
she did not
respond to the
and
light.
When
"
I
about to leave Rimini
on her marriage she

sister
replies to the pleading of her
who
cannot
live
without her,
am
devoted young going, sweet life, where
thou canst not come, to a deep and solitary place, where a great fire burns without fuel ". Fire is d'Annunzio's haunting symbol for
terrible
and splendid
in
things, a
his
cruelty and beauty
own mind and
symbol, too, for the strange union of art, and it does not forecast
here only the Inferno flames in which she will

so lightly before the wind.
In the palace at
move with Paolo Ravenna we see her
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO
among her
ladies, chafing
435
at
her dull seclusion, while the Ghibelline
siege rages without.
Florentine merchant displays his gorgeous

of
scarlet
wares before them, a
feast
and
gold.
Presently Fran-
cesca has climbed to the tower
where her husband's brothers are on

stands ready for use.
guard.
hole.
Bolts and arrows crash against the walls or through the loop-
cauldron of Greek
"
fire
it,
Francesca, to
the horror of the soldiers,
fires
and breaks and
into wild ecstasy at the
"deadly beauty
of this "swift
terrible life".
moment
later
a bolt pierces the curls of Paolo. She thinks he is wounded, and In that embrace he stammers the first word of love. clasps his head.
'They have
undone the
"
art
lost
!
not hit me, but your hands have touched me, and have
soul
within
my
heart
Franc.
"
Lost
is
Thou
Thus, again,
Francesca' s
fate,
like Juliet's,
provoked
by the unrelated feud
of parties without.
sonant entourage thrusts the lovers apart. of the Guelf forces to Florence. Francesca
But presently the same disPaolo is sent as General

in
his
absence reads the

to
Lancelot romance with her

exile, posts
ladies.
But Paolo, unable

to her
endure
his
back
to
Ravenna, and rushes

her
ladies.
chamber, where she

of
has been reading with
The romance
Lancelot
is
lies
;
it is
open on the lectern. where Galeotto
The
is
place where the reading stopped
marked
urging Lancelot's suit upon Ginevra.
They
bend over the book

Pa.
Fr.
together.
!
Let us read a page, Francesca
Look
at that
swarm
of swallows,
!
making a shadow
On the
Pa.
Fr.
bright water
Let us read, Francesca.

glowing like fire ! " Assuredly, " he does not dare, Lady," says Galeotto, Nor will he ask ye anything of love,
And
that sail that is
Pa. (reading).
Being
I
afraid, but
ask in his name, and
if
did not ask, you ought to seek it, seeing You could in no wise win a richer treasure."
And
she says
says,
will
(drawing Francesca gently by the hand) Now do you read what she
And she says " Well I know it, and Fr. (reading). What you command. And Galeotto said Grammercy, lady 1 beg that you will give him
: : ;
Be you Ginerra.
do
Your
love.
."
(she stops.)
436
Pa.
Fr.

Read
further
!
No,
cannot see
The
Pa.
Fr.
words.
Read: "Certainly
"
I
Certainly," she says,

give
I
it
him, but so that He be mine
good "... Paolo, enough. Pa. (reading with a hoarse and tremulous
"
Ana Made
utterly his,
and
all
ill
things
Lady, he
Kiss
voice). says, much thanks ; now in presence " him, for earnest of true love You, you !
my
What
says she
now
What now ?
(/'heir pale faces bend over the book, so that their cheeks almost touch?) She says " Why should Fr. (reading). He beg it of me ? I desire it more
:
Than
you.
."
Pa. (continuing with
stifled voice).
The Knight
Him
(He
by the
dare go no further. chin, and with a long

. . .
They draw apart. And the Queen sees Then she clasps
kiss kisses
His mouth.
Francesca
kisses her in the

reels,
same way.
!
When
their
mouths separate
and falls back on
the cushions).
Francesca Fr. (with hardly audible voice). No, Paolo
The
of
all
sequel
is
too long
drawn
out,
and
is
marred by the duplicity

is
the
persons
concerned.
Malatestino's sleuth-hound cunning
brings about the husband's vengeance, but his strategy
animated only
by
ferocious hatred of the lovers not
by any care for justice.

has
contrivance,
the rough
soldier,
who
wrongs,
lovers'
tries to
chamber door
returns prematurely from the march, " "

:
never suspected and thunders at
By his his own

the
Open, Francesca
The wretched Paolo
slain.
escape through a trapdoor, but is dragged up by the hair to be But Francesca rushes to clasp him, and the husband's sword
pierces her.
Francesca da Rimini, though a
brilliant
drama, with
innumerable beauties of
detail, misses the quality of great tragedy.
the principal characters Francesca alone excites a fitful sympathy, while Paolo's effeminacy provokes a contempt which diminishes our These coward compassion for the woman whose love he has won.
Of
"heroes,"
sisters,
who
leave their mistresses in
mental
peril,
or slay
their
or see their brides borne to execution in their place, seem to
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO
437
haunt the egoist imagination of the poet, to the grievous hurt of his Yet when all is said, Francesco, is one of the most arresting, work.
though dramatically by no means one of the best plays, produced Europe during the first decade of the century.
If
in
the Francesco,
owed much
to the stimulus
and the
control of
a great historic arid literary tradition, the rarer beauty of La Figlia di lorio ( 904) was nourished on a yet more potent influence, the old
1
intimate passion for his
Abruzzan race and home.

d'Annunzio
so
In language the
more moving because

41
in
seldom heard, he dedicated
To
the land of Abruzzi, to
my
Mother, to
in exile, to
my
Father
in his grave, to all

this
my Sisters, my Dead, to
my Brother all my People

to
".
between the Mountains and the Sea,

It
song of the ancient blood
was, indeed, no mere recurrence to the scenes and memories of his
childhood, but a recovery, through them, of the more primitive sensibilities
and sympathies which the complexities
of
an
ultra
modern
culture
this
had obscured or submerged. The shepherds and peasants of " " live and move in an atmosphere fanatically pastoral tragedy
and
beliefs of their Catholicized
ritual of
tense with the customs
no believing poet ever drew the

delicate sympathy, or rendered
pressive
like the
its
rustic
but paganism unreason with more

;
prayers and incantations

is
in
more ex-
and beautiful song.
For the poetry
not exotic or imposed,
The young songs of peasants in opera, it is found and elicited. is drawn into a kind of mystic relationship to Mila di shepherd, Aligi,
Codra, a witch-maiden dreaded and abhorred over the whole countryBut a bride has been chosen for him, and the scene opens with side.
the preparations for her coming.
Aligi's three sisters are seen kneeling the old carved oak chest, choosing her bridal robes, and vying before
with each other in joyous morning carols. drawn across the open door, a crook and a
'
A band of
distaff
scarlet
wool
it,
is
lean against
and
by
the doorpost hangs a
waxen
cross
as a
charm
against evil spells.
The Aligi looks on in dreamy distraction, his thoughts far away. women of the neighbour farms come in procession bearing gifts of corn
in baskets
on
their heads.
An
unknown
girl
follows in their train.
Presently angry cries are heard in the distance.

pursuit of
The
reapers are in
her enter
frightened
hearth,
Mila, whose spells have spoilt their harvest, they have seen The the house and clamour at the door for her surrender.
women
it
tremble, but
Mila has crouched down on the sacred

remove
her,
whence
would be
sacrilege to
and Ornella, the
438
youngest of the sisters, who alone secretly pities Mila, draws the bolts. The storm of menace grows louder, till Aligi, roused from his dreamy
absorption by the taunts of the
suppliant on the hearth.
women,
raises
his
hand
to strike the
Immediately the horror of his sacrilege seizes
him, he implores her pardon on his knees, and thrusts his guilty hand Then he hangs the cross above the door and releases into the flame.
the bolts.
in
The
is
reapers
rush
in,
but
dismay, baring their heads.

not effaced.
In the second Act, Aligi
Aligi has saved his
seeing the cross, "
draw back
Christ,"
sister in
but his guilt
and Mila are
living together, as brother
and
sister, in
a mountain cavern.
He would
marriage
;
fain
go with his flocks to
Rome
ness
is
to seek dissolution of his
but she knows that happi-
not for her, and she will not hurt him with her passionate love.
But
in his
home
they
know
only that the enchantress has carried

;
off
the
son from his mother and his virgin bride

sister, is
Ornella, the compassionate

father,
thrust out of doors,
and now the
who had
returned
home
in Aligi's absence,
only after the reapers had gone, arrives at the mountain cavern and peremptorily summons Mila. She holds him
defiantly at bay.
He is
about to seize her,
when
Aligi appears on the
threshold.
In the great scene
which
follows, the
Roman
authority of
the
Abruzzan
father over the son overpowers for the
moment even
the
lover's devotion.
Not
softened by Aligi's
humble
submission, Lazaro
binds him, flogs him savagely, and turns upon Mila, now wholly in his At the moment when he has seized her, Aligi breaks free, power. rushes upon his father, and kills him. The third act opens with the
mourning
fiercer
for
Lazaro, in long-drawn
lyric dirges.
Then
harsher and
notes are heard,
and
Aligi, deeply penitent,
appears black-
robed and bound, borne by the angry
mob
to bid farewell to his

'
mother
is
before being led to the parricide's death.
To
call
you mother
no
more permitted me, for my mouth is of hell, the mouth that sucked your milk, and learnt from you holy prayers in the fear of God. Why have I harmed you so sorely ? I would fain say, but I will be silent.
O most helpless of
him
veil, to
all
women who have

and
suckled a son,
who have
lift
sung
black
to sleep in the cradle
at the breast,
.
O
.
do not
."
this
see the face of the trembling sinner.

its
The crowd
tries to
comfort her in
drugged wine.
rough way, and the mother gives her son the bowl of Suddenly, confused cries are heard in the rear, and
"
Mila breaks her way impetuously through the throng.
Mother,
GABR1ELE D'ANNUNZIO
sisters,
1
439
bride of Aligi, just people, justice of

guilty.
!
am
declares that "
God, 1 am Mila di Codra. " Give me hearing They call for silence, and Mila Aligi protests Aligi is innocent, and she the murderer.
:
Before
God
!
thou
liest ".
the dreaded enchantress

the flames
who
!
But the crowd eagerly turns its fury upon " To owns her guilt, and the cry goes up
:
To the
"
flames
Aligi protests again, but with growing

;
faintness, as the
till deadening potion masters and confuses his brain at length, when the bonds have been transferred from his limbs to This breaks down her Mila's, he lifts up his hands to curse her.
" a piercing shriek she cries Aligi, Aligi, not thou, " thou canst not, thou must not She is hurried away to the stake, " Mila, Mila, Sister in Jesus, Paradise is only Ornella crying aloud for thee," while Mila herself, now full of the d'Annunzian exultation " Beautiful Flame, Beautiful in glorious ruin, goes to her death crying "
fortitude.
With
Flame
A brief
natural, as
resume such as
this inevitably
brings into
it is
the melodramatic elements of the plot.

it is
Yet
the most
undue emphasis human and

For the
the most beautiful, of d'Annunzio's dramas.
strangest things that
happen
in
it
are no mere projections of the poet's
inspired ferocity or eroticism, as so often elsewhere, but
grounded
in
the real psychology of a primitive countryside, fear, love, hatred,
now
mysteriously mastered by superstitious awe,
now
breaking rebelliously
from
its
control,
now wrought by
its
mystic power to else inexplicable
excesses.
V.
But even the
that
his
finest
dramatic work of d'Annunzio makes clear
La
and
is The greatest moments of fundamentally lyrical. di lorio and Francesco, are uttered in a vein which thrills Figlia
genius
sings
while, on the other hand, these

short cuts or bold assumptions.
to
moments
are often reached

fortunate that
by summary while he continued
And
it is
be allured by drama
giving in particular a very
individual rendering of the tragedy of Phcedra (1909)
d'Annunzio's
most serious and ambitious poetry took the form of a kind of grandiose festival of sustained song, the Laudi (1903 onwards). have
We
already quoted from the picture of his childhood drawn retrospectively But these passages, though not at all merely by the poet of forty.
episodic, in
no
way
disclose the grandiose conception
and design
of the
29
440
Liiudi.

"
Praises," he calls them,
its
"
Praises of the Sky, of the Sea, of
the Earth, of
Heroes."
The
glory of the universe

1
drew a more
majestic chant from the poet of the 23rd Psalm, though in his naive " " " Hebrew way he praised only the Maker of these wonderful
D'Annunzio's "praise" expresses simply the ravishment acute sensibilities in the presence of the loveliness and sublimity
works". Nature and the heroism
of
of
of
man, an emotion Greek rather than Hebraic.
Our
and
poet
if
is
perhaps the
least
Hebraic
of all
modern
poets of genius
his
barbaric violence alienates him almost as completely from

is
the Hellenic temper, he
yet akin to
it
by
his inexhaustible joy in
beauty.
And
in
these years of
the
Landi
Hellas had become
more than ever the determining focus about which his artistic dreams revolved, the magnet to whose lure even the barbarian in him succumbs.
The
prise,
first
book, called
Maia,
after the
mother
poet's spiritual journey to the shrine of that
Hermes, describes the god of energy and enterof
the most magnificent expression of ever fashioned by the chisel, had not long before been virility unearthed at Olympia. It is a journey of discovery, and d'Annunzio
whose Praxitelean image,
radiant
invokes for
it
to seek the experience that lay

turns his
the symbolism of the last voyage of the Dantesque Ulysses " D'Annunzio beyond the sunset ".
east not west, but he, too,
is
prow
the
unknown.
A splendid Proem in
terza-rima
daring peril in the quest of " To the Pleiads and
the Fates," takes us to a rocky promontory
by the Atlantic shore, where, on a flaming pyre, the helm of the wrecked ship of Ulysses is being consumed the fiery consummation which crowns most of d'Annunzio's
careers.
heroic
The modern
venturer, too, must disdain safety, not
like Galileo turning
back into the secure haven, but fronting the pathless
sea of fate with no anchor but his

is
own
valour.
The
sequel does not,
it
true,
is
accord completely with this Ulyssean vision. Symbolic imagery " interwoven, in this spiritual journey," with scenes from an actual
to Greece, leaves
talk
voyage
life,
from a
tourist's
notebook, incidents of steamer-
games and
on board, sketches
of fellow- passengers, the squalor
and vice
of Patras.
Presently the ship reaches Elis, and then, as
we
up
enter the ruins of
Olympia, the great past,
human and
divine, rises
before us.
Pericles,
Alcibiades, Themistocles obliterate the tourist
memories, and the poet holds high colloquy with Zeus, and offers up a prayer, nine hundred lines long, to Hermes a superb exposition of
the future of humanity, as
d'Annunzio hoped
to see
it
wrought by the
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO
genius of Energy
441
future
and Enterprise, Invention and Will, a
domin-
ated by
men
of rocky jaw,
who chew
care like a laurel leaf, pre-
cipitate themselves
on
life,
a significant purposes with Eros (v. 2904). Eros was, indeed, indispensable it might well be thought to a quite satisfying d'Annunzian divinity. Yet in the fine
colloquy with Zeus, which precedes, he touches a deeper note, rare " with him, of desperate and baffled struggle with his own vast " I am at war with many ". He begs Zeus for a sign. sensuality monsters, but the direst are those, ah me, which rise within me from
the depths of
'
and impregnate it relentlessly with their image, for the d'Annunzian Hermes is fused
my
lusts."
Thou
wilt conquer them, replies Zeus,
only
if
thou canst transform them into divine children."

through ethics but through art.
The
solution
lay, for him, not
The
poetry, some
succeeding books, Elettra, Alcione, contain a profusion of of it sounding notes of tenderness or of meditative
which rarely pierce through the metallic clangour of d'Annunzio's grandiose inspirations. The resonant herald of the Third Italy wanders, for instance, among the "Cities of Silence"
reminiscence,
decayed, half-grass grown capitals of vanished dukes and kings and

oldest and grandest of all, with the iron weight of empire, deep heavy 1 driven by shipwreck on the utmost bounds of the world ". So, too, the poet of pitiless virility can sing, in these riper years of childhood,
extinct republics
Ferrara, Pisa, Pistoja

ship's hull,
Ravenna, the
"
if
not with the exquisite tenderness of the ageing Swinburne
his
nearest
kinsman among English poets

touch
like
:
yet
with an
imaginatively
idealizing
that
of
Wordsworth's Ode (which possibly
d'Annunzio knew)
Thou
If If
All the Truths
art ignorant of all, and discernest that the Shadow hides.
thou questiohest Earth, Heaven answers, thou speakest with the waters, the flowers hear.
plenitude of life tremulous in the light murmur
The immense
Is
Of
thy virginal breathing, And man with his fervors and his griefs."
But the old enthusiasms, too, yield moments of noble poetry. Even beyond the "earth" and the "sea" and "sky," it is the "heroes,"
1
Elettra
Cittd del Silenzio.
Alcione
II Fanciiillo.
442
and above

all
Of the sepraised ". " quence of lyrics on the great enterprise of Garibaldi's Thousand,"
the heroes of Italy,
who
are
"
La
Notte di Cabrera, it is enough to say that it is worthy of being put beside Carducci's Ode. After a quarter of a century Garibaldi's was no whit dimmed. On the contrary, Italians who knew how glory
many
gross blots defiled the Italy he
had helped
to win,
saw Garibaldi
as a figure of ideal splendour
morass.
The
bitter
the moving piece

sailor brings his
"
:
and purity on the further side of a foul disillusion of such minds is powerfully painted in
To One of
the
Thousand
to
".
An old
;
Garibaldian
to
broken anchor-cable
the
ship cordwainer
be
mended.
He
looks on, sombre, dejected, silent
but thinking what
he does not
say,
and
hope
his thoughts are like this

is
The
anchor- sheet
of
broken
let it
it
be.
No
Turn
up, go home ! into scourges, cordsman, and halter-nooses Thy bitter twine.
mending.
Give
Vilely supine
lies
A prostitute that every bully uses,

And
in
the Third Italy,
her holy oak-grove's shadow, 1 Pastures her swine.
Rome
But Rome, the eternal City, could only obscure her destiny, not disillusion founded on her moments of self-oblivion, was itself efface it
;
the vainest of illusions.

sance,
That
"
is
the faith of the "
new
Italian
Renaisfatuities,
and d'Annunzio, the
fiercest assailant of
her oblivious
attains his sublimest note of
praise
in the great
Ode which
propheti-
cally arrays
It is
Rome in
her coming glory as the embodied
Power of Man.
based on the legend, told by Ovid, of the ship of the Great Mother, stranded in the Tiber mud, and drawn to shore by the
Vestal Virgin Claudia Quinta. The opening stanzas tell the story the dearth in the city, the Sibylline oracle's counsel to bring the image
Mater Magna, the arrival of her ship in the river, the stranding in the mud, the vain efforts of the entire city to extricate it, until a Vestal Virgin, without an effort draws it to bank. Then the poet
of the
interprets the symbolic story

So,
Rome, our Rome,
in its time
Shall
Shall
come from far-off seas, come from the deep, the Power Wherein alone thou hast hope.
1
Elettra
uno del Mille.
GABRIELE D'ANNUNZIO
So,
443
O Rome, our Rome, in A heroic Maid of thy race

draw Her
vessel
its
hour,
Shall
Not a
within thy walls. immovably stuck
In the slimy bed, not an image in foreign fanes. Shall her pure hand draw to the shore
Once worshipped
But the Power of Man, but the holy Spirit born in the heart
the Peoples in peace and in war, But the glory of Earth in the glow Divine of the human Will That manifests her, and transfigures, By works and deeds beyond number, Of light, and darkness, of love And hatred, of life and death But the beauty of human fate,
;
Of
The
His
fate of
Man who
seeks
divinity in his Creature. Since in thee, as in an imperishable
Power of Man Take form and image ordained

Imprint shall the
In the market-place
and the Senate
To
curb the dishonour of Men.
Rome,
Rome,
in thee only,
hills,
In the circle of thy seven
The myriad human
discords
Shall yet find their vast
and sublime
Thou the new Bread Unity. Shalt give, and speak the new
All
that
Word.
men have
thought,
Dreamed,
Enjoyed,
suffered, achieved,
in the Earth's vast
bound,
So many thoughts, and dreams, So many labours and pangs,
And And And

Shall
joys,
and every
set
right
won
every secret laid bare, every book
open
.
.
In the boundless circuit of Earth.
become
only,
the vesture of thee,
Thee
Rome,
Rome
Thou, goddess, Thou only shall break The new Bread, and speak the new Word
On
this note, the
climax of his boundless national
faith,
we
will
leave d'Annunzio.
We
are apt to think that the tide of humanity
444

its
has ebbed decisively
wherever
in unison,
away from the city of the seven hills, and that sundered streams may be destined finally to flow together
the
Roman Forum, where

be that
spot.
is
the roads of all the world once
met, will not
Yet
a city which can generate magnificent,
even
if
illusory,
dreams
assured of a real potency in
human
affairs
cities
not to be challenged in
its
kind by far greater and wealthier
which the Londoner or the
New
Yorker would never think
of ad-
dressing in these lyrical terms.
Few men
gifts
world so much occasion
endowed as d'Annunzio have given the His greatest resentment and for ridicule. " " lent themselves with fatal ease to abuse his vast sensuality
so splendidly
for
;
and
his iron
nerve sometimes co-operate and enforce one another in
abortions of erotics and ferocity.
But the same
gifts, in
other phases,
style.
become the
of
creative
and controlling elements

But
its
of his
wonderful
His boundless wealth

its
of sensuous images provides the gorgeous texture
ever changing woof.

;
luxury
is
controlled by tenacious
purpose
the sentences, however richly arrayed,
move with complete

but the structure
lucidity of
is
aim
to their goal
the surface
of genius, as
is
pictorial,
Thus this Faun he seems under one aspect marble. compounded with the Quixotic adventurer, as he seems under another, meet in one of the supreme literary artists of the Latin race, a creator
that strikes
far
of
beauty which, however Latin in origin and cast, has the quality home across the boundaries of race, and has already gone
to
make
its
author not
merely
the
protagonist
of
the
Latin
Renaissance, but a European classic
MEMORIAL STATUE
IN
THE BULL RING, KIDDERMINSTER
STORY AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REV. RICHARD BAXTER'S "SAINTS' EVERLASTING

REST".
BY FREDERICK
J.
POWICKE,
M.A., Ph.D.
IN
It
an open space of Kidderminster called the Bull Ring at the centre of the town there is a fine statue of Baxter which
figures
him with
right
hand
pointing, as the inscription says,
and pointing heavenward "the way to the Everlasting Rest"/

uplifted
expresses, in eloquent
purpose of
of
symbolism what was indeed the supreme Baxter's ministry. His mind was filled with the thought
"
pilgrim of Eternity,"
man
1
as a
whose
earthly interests are of ab-
An

inscription runs
12 February, 1919.
"
The whole
Richard Baxter,
Between the years 1641 and 1660. This town was the scene of the labours
of
Richard Baxter
renowned equally
for
his Christian learning and his pastoral fidelity.

In a stormy and divided age he advocated unity and comprehension
"
pointing the
way
to
The
Everlasting Rest ".
Churchmen and nonconformists

united to raise this memorial
A.D. 1875.
author of the Inscription is said to have been Rev. Edward minister of the Unitarian Church, and afterwards founder and editor Parry, It seems to me a model of its kind. The of the Kidderminster Shuttle.
The
statue
was unveiled by Dean
Stanley.
446
solutely

no account save
in their relation to his future destiny.
to teach
man how
to prepare himself for a blessed future
Hence, became his
another way. It shows how there has grown up an instinctive connexion between Baxter and his Not more surely does John Bunyan suggest the Pilgrims first book.
is
absorbing task. But the symbolism
significant
in
Progress than Richard Baxter the Saints' Rest. Bunyan wrote some eighteen other books, and Baxter wrote not fewer than 160 other
books
;
but each owes his

at
be admitted
once that
common fame to one. the common fame of

latter.
No
doubt,
it
has to
the former has been
on a
far larger scale

its
than that of the
Pilgrims Progress
has circulated in
millions,
while the Saints* Rest has never gone
But that is hardly the point. The point is beyond its thousands. that most people when they think of Bunyan think of the Pilgrim's
Progress, and that most people when they think of Baxter think Nor is there any difficulty in accounting for of the Saint* Rest.
this fact
when we remember
that both dealt with the
same theme
;
and that a theme deeply interesting then to a wide public both so treated it (though in very different fashion), as to capture and And their treatment had at least three fascinate the reader's attention.
similar features.
It
was
alike in the perfect sincerity of

;
their faith
and
the intense force of their appeal

life,
it
was
alike in presenting con-
ceptions of
clusively
and the
future,
from the teaching of

of
which professed to be drawn exand it was alike in the Scripture

;
possession
singularly
attractive
style.
e.g.
Bunyan's
style
has
it
often been extolled
by Lord Macaulay,
whose dictum
is
that
ranks with that of the Authorised Version of the Bible
well known.
not But Baxter's English is of much the same quality as Bunyan's Here is what Archbishop Trench, no less pure, clear, and simple.
mean
do
judge, has said of
"
it
:
There
reigns in
Baxter's writings,
;
and
nor
lan-
not least in the Saints Rest, a robust and masculine eloquence

these
want from time
to time, rare
and unsought
felicities of
In regard, indeed, guage which, once heard, can scarcely be forgotten. to the choice of words the book might have been written yesterday.
There
is
hardly one which has become obsolete
hardly one which
has drifted
away from
all
the meaning
it
which
it
has in his writings.
This
may
not be a great matter, but
argues a rare insight, conscious or
unconscious, into
which was
truest, into all
which was
furthest re-
BAXTER'S "SAINTS' EVERLASTING REST"
447
moved from affectation and untruthfulness in the language that, after and we may recognize here more than 200 years, so it should be
;
an element, not to be overlooked, of the abiding popularity Book."

l
of
the
This
is
true,
and
will but
add
that
Baxter did not study style
except to make language as clear a medium of his thoughts as possible. " " nor too much industry I never loved affectation," he says, " about words, nor like the temper of them that do." May I speak
pertinently, piercingly, plainly,
"
He
"
and somewhat properly,

"
is
the best preacher
(or writer)
'
who
:
feels
have enough." what he speaks

I
and then speaks what he
feels."
With
crowd
regard to most of his books he says
"I wrote them
in the
of all
my
other employments, which
would allow me no
;
great
leisure for Polishing
and Exactness, or any Ornament

let
it
so that
scarce
ever wrote one Sheet twice over, nor stayed to

terlinings, but was fain to
make any
first
Blots or In-
go
as
it
was
conceived (R.B.,
Pt.
I,
p. 124).
The Saints Rest he speaks

tion of this
of as
;
an exception.
On the composi-
and was in a position to do so, was written during an enforced leisure of four months. But there can have been no great study of words even in this case, seeing that during the same period he wrote another book Aphorisms of Justification and that the Saints Rest itself ran into a volume
he bestowed more pains
it
because most of
of
800 quarto pages closely printed. Baxter was born in November, 1615, and the first edition of the faints Rest came out in the early weeks of 1650. That is to say, it came out in his thirty-fifth year and had been written, in great part,
;
four or five years before.

it
Thus, what
think
is
not generally realized,
was the product of a young man a young man, moreover, rather weary of life. He relates the occasion of it in his Autobiography Whilst was in health I had not the least thought of writing Books, or of serving God in any more publick way than preaching. But
;<
when
but
was weakened with

at Sir
great bleeding
and
left
solitary in
my
chamber
my
John Cook's in Derbyshire, without any acquaintance about me, and was sentenced to death by the servant
1
Physicians,
began to contemplate more seriously on the Everlasting

1
Companions of the Dei'out Life, p. 89. Saints' Everlasting Rest, Premonition.
448
Rest which
I

apprehended myself
that
.
to
be on the Borders
in
of.
1
And
that
my
thoughts might not scatter too
much
my
meditation
began to
write something on
Sermon, or two
Subject, intending but being continued long in weakness where

better
but the Quantity of a

I
had no books, nor no
employment,
it
followed
it
on
till
it
was
enlarged to the bulk in which
published" (/v'./A, Pt. 1, p. 108). This account of the book, written in or about 664, fifteen years after the time when he thought himself on the point of death, agrees with
is
1
that
which he gave
in
the general "Dedication" of
1649.
When
1691,
he began
to write his sense of
weakness was so extreme that he did
not expect to "survive
two months longer".

mental
toil
Yet he
lived
till
and continued
a sure proof of extraordinary vitality. Still clearer proof might be found in his survival of the unnatural treatment to which, so frequently, he subjected
in strenuous
almost to the end
himself.
The
story of
what he
calls
his
"remedies"
"
is,
indeed, an
illness
amazing record.
at Sir
Thus,
in the present case,
he was overtaken by
in a cold and snowy John Cook's house through exposure " Season ". The cold, together with other things coincident," set his " Nose on bleeding," and he "bled about a quart or two". Then " " what did he do ? He opened four Veins," and used divers other
Remedies
for several
days
".
He
adds, as
we
should expect, that
this
abuse of nature was "to no purpose". So he "gave" himself with the result that while it "stopped" the bleeding, it "so purge"
"A
much weakened"
Pt.
p. 58).
him,
"and
altered" his "complexion that" his
"Acquaintance who came

1,
to visit"
him "scarce knew" him
(/?..#.,
Such was
felt sick
his physical state
unto death.
Then,
too,
when he began the Saints' he was sick in mind as well
Rest.
He
as in body.
Recent experiences had brought him bitter disappointment, and may be said to have dried up his joy in life for the time being. Let us
glance at
Pt.
(
1
these.
1,
1
p.
8) as a preacher at Bridgnorth Baxter
After "about a year and three quarters" (</v./>'., came to Kidderminster
64
"
"
)
that place
which had the

fruits of
"
him
chief est of "

(/V/.,
"
"
his
labours
and yielded
for the
the greatest
comfort
p. 20).
But the outbreak
of Civil
War
interrupted his prosperous labours.
He
was
Parliament, while the people of the town, or at any rate the lowest " " stratum of the people called the Rabble by Baxter were for " " of some outsiders the Rabble assailed him the King. By instigation
BAXTER'S PULPIT, NOW
IN THE POSSESSION OF THE MEETING HOUSB AT KIDDERMINSTER
NEW

as a Puritan
449
and imperilled his life. withdrew and went to Gloucester.

turned.
So, by advice of his friends, he
At
the end of a
month he
re-
Very
soon, however,
his
when
a rumour of the King's approach

stirred the
;
from Shrewsbury, on
for nearly
six years.
way
to
Oxford,
Rabble
to greater
violence than before, he withdrew a second time
and did not return

were
These
years,
In
so
critical
for the nation,
no
less
critical
for
Baxter.
the school of events he learnt

at
what
no books could teach him.

first
While preaching
October,
1642).
Alcester,
on the
Sunday evening
of
his
of his exile, the
cannon could be heard from
the battle
Edgehill
(23
Next morning he
"
and
to
friend the minister of Alcester (Mr. Samuel Clark)

field
rode
the
to
see
"
a thousand dead bodies

it
What was done". They saw it strewn with " and the two exhausted armies facing
;
each other across

fratricidal
a sight which
evoked the conviction that a

in
war
so
horrible
must
end
Cherishing this hope he passed on to month with the Puritan Minister, Mr. Samuel King. Then, the war not being yet over, he removed to the Governor's house, having
few days, or weeks. Coventry, and stayed a

a
promised him and the committee of the town, to preach once a week to the garrison. Going beyond his promise, he preached once a
week
also to the townsfolk
way, weeks ran into While I lived here nothing but the rumour of it reached Coventry. in Peace and Liberty, as Men in a dry House do hear the storms
In this
'
no payment but his lodging and diet. months, and still the war went on though
for
abroad, so did
we
daily hear the
garrison or other,
won
or lost
Siege, the marvellous Sieges of
news of one fight or other, or one the two Newbery Fights, Gloucester Plimouth, Lime, and Taunton ; Sir
Losses, the Loss at
William Wallers Successes and

Slaughter at
Newark,
the
more.
daily
Bolton, the greatest fight of all at York, with abundance So that hearing such sad news on one side or other was our
Work, insomuch that as duly as I wakened in the Morning I expected to hear one come and tell me, Suck a Garrison is won or
The editor of the Saints' Everlasting Rest in " the Ancient and Modern Library of Theological Literature," says the assault upon him was
1
occasioned by his having obtained an order from Parliament to destroy a " " " But Baxter did not obtain It was sent it. " " left the Churchdown," and, thinking it came from Just authority," he warden to do what he thought good ". Nor was this the immediate occasion " " of the Rabble's Fury which drove him away (see A'./>., Pt. I, p. 40).
crucifix in the churchyard, etc.
450
lost, or
Such a Defeat received or given : and do you hear the So miserable were news, was commonly the first word 1 heard.
was the most honourable
Pt.
I,
those bloody days in which he "

kill
that could
most of
his
enemies
(R.B.,
of
p. 46).
1
At
length
came the news
Naseby (June
visit to
5,
1645)
and with
it
was followed by a Naseby His ostenvisit to the Parliamentary Headquarters before Leicester. sible purpose was to discover what he could about two or three old
a great change for Baxter.
field
army but there was something more behind. His deeper purpose was to find out what he could about the religious state For disquieting reports, growing ever more definite, had of the army.
friends in
the
reached him, to the

all
effect that
Cromwell's soldiers were given up to

;
manner
of subversive
notions
and
that
Cromwell himself was
either indifferent, or
even actively sympathetic.
And,
to his horror,
he found
that, for once, report
had
fallen short of the truth.

It
is
There
is
go enough formed a grave resolution. The post of was offered him in his friend Colonel Whalley's regiment chaplain He did so in the and, against his inclination, he decided to accept it.
Baxter, then
no room or need here
to
into details.
to note
that
and
there,
He was sure that if the ministers generally temper of an enthusiast. and kept their due place among the soldiers, had from the first taken they could easily have nipped off the poisonous buds of false doctrine,
one by one, as they appeared.
or else had
if
This
task the ministers

!
had declined
the ministers
soldiers,
grown weary of. Now alas it might be too late. Now, came forward, they might encounter, from the deluded fierce resistance, or, at best, a cold welcome. Truly they had
missed a golden opportunity. He, in his ignorance, had missed it too. But all the more reason why, even at the eleventh hour, he should do
what he
could.
Baxter's courage, whenever duty seemed to call him,
was
1
invincible.
He
took no thought of personal consequences.
And
Baxter
places to which
fighting.
siege of
(11
that of
accompanied Whalley's regiment to most, if not all, of the In this way, he saw much it went during the next two years. He was present at the battle of Langport (10 July, 1645) at the Bridgwater (taken by storm 23 July) at the final assault of Bristol
; ;
September); at the siege of Exeter (surrendered 13 April, 1646); at Oxford (surrendered 24 June, 646) at that of Banbury (for two months before its fall, 9 May, 646) and at that of Worcester (apparently for the greater part of the eleven weeks before its capture on 22 June,
1 ; 1
;
1646).

he had a most naive confidence
the other hand, he
of him,
in his*
451
own powers
of persuasion.
On
was very apt
to overlook
the real difficulties in front

failures
;
and
to underrate his
enemy.
adventure,
Hence, the frequent
which surprised
him
in the course of his

first
many
controversial adventures
and
was probably to himself the " most surprising of all, As soon as I came to the Army Oliver Cromwell coldly bid me welcome, and never spake one word to me
his failure in this, his
more while
titude
was
there."
He
"
discovered the key to Cromwell's atsecretary gave out that there
when he heard
to the
that
his
was a
Reformer come
Army
to undeceive them,
and
to save
Church
Neverthe(R.B., Pt I, p. 52). from day to day, to find out the corruptions of the less, These corruptions, of course, were soldiers," and to counteract them.
and
State, with
some such other Jeers

"
"
he
set himself,
not vices of conduct, but faults of opinion.

shrift in
The
former had short
as
Opinion, however, was free to utter itself And, complains Baxter, what it liked was to utter itself " sometimes for State Democracy and sometimes for Church Democracy
Cromwell's army.
it
liked.
sometimes against forms of Prayer and sometimes against Infant Baptism sometimes against set times of Prayer, and against the tying of
.
ourselves to
any Duty before the Spirit move us and sometimes about Free-grace and Free-will, and all the points of Antinomianisra and Arminianism. But their most frequent and vehement Disputes
;
.
were
for Liberty of
Conscience, as they called

to
it,
i.e.
that the Civil
determine of anything in Matters of Religion, by constraint or restraint, but every man might not only hold but preach, and do, in Matters of Religion, what he pleased that
to
;
Magistrate had nothing
do
the Civil Magistrate hath nothing to
do but with
"
etc.
civil things, to
keep
the peace, and protect the Church's Liberties,

It
(R.B.
Pt.
I,
p. 53).
would not be
It
fair to
say that Baxter's disapproval extended to all these
opinions.
certainly did not in equal degree.
What
;
most provoked
him was the dogmatic ignorance of their advocates and what alarmed him was the threatened danger to law and order in Church and State. His own
creed, political
and
ecclesiastical as well as theological,
though
ter-
not narrow, rested
on
strictly
conversative foundations, and had no
room
rifying
for the revolutionary.

if
To
him, therefore, the outlook
was
the army, or rather the Radicals of the army, got the upper
he was forced to see them getting the upper hand more and more, while his own counteractive endeavours, on the whole, were
hand.
And
452

Indeed,
if
quite fruitless, outside Whalley's regiment.
the last
words he
wrote on his unhappy experiment are to be taken seriously, he was becoming so obnoxious to some of the soldiers that, had he gone on
longer, they
were ready
to
kill
him
"
"
in their fury
(AW.,
Pt.
I,
p. 59).
Such were the conditions under which he wrote the.SVz////.s' J'lrcrla stHe was sick in body and mind. He was life-weary and ing Rest.
;
turned to death as to a friend.

failure.
The work
of others,
His work, he thought, had been a who stood for what he conceived to be
on the way
to failure.
the cause of
God, was
also a failure, or
Eng-
land lay under the judgment of God, and so long as she refused to But Baxter saw no repent of her sins the judgment would remain.
sign of repentance
;
and we, looking back, can
see
why.
most
We
can see
that
what he thought England's
sins were, for the
part, just those
manifestations of angry discontent with things as they
were which ex-
was not
and
and
in
Baxter pressed her striving, her birth-throes, towards a better world. the first man, nor the last, to take fright at such manifestations,
miscall
them
sins.
It
demands a kind
of faith in
human
nature,
God
himself,
which he did not
possess, in order to
be calm and
hopeful amid whirlwinds of change.

faith
;
Baxter neither possessed that
nor understood men,

;
like
Cromwell,
;
who
possessed
it
greatly.
His own faith was strong was free but, at some vital points,
;
clear
it
in certain
ways, was broad and
was
if
it
sore
formulae
to
which he
clung, as
hampered by formulaewere identical with the very
substance of truth.
indeed,
Baxter's mental state, then,
was not
cheerful
was,
somewhat morbid
when he began
to write of the
Saints
Rest.
measure,
tinctures
And
it
this fact is
to his book.
noteworthy because it is really the key, in large Melancholy, born of a sick body and mind,
throughout, and particularly some of
its
more
or
less,
most
characteristic passages.
1.
tressed
Here is " him

:
one, e.g.
the sad
which shows how deeply the war had disand heart- piercing spectacles that mine eyes
!
In this fight, a dear friend fall down have seen in four years' space by me from another, a precious Christian brought home wounded or
;
dead
scarce a moneth, scarce a
week without
the sight or loss of
blood.
filled
Surely there
is
none
of this in heaven.
Our
eyes shall then be
no more, nor our hearts pierced, with such
fights as at
Worcester,
Edghil,
Newbury, Nantwich, Montgomery, Horncastle, York, Naseby, " ." What heart is not wounded to think on Langport, etc.
.
BAXTER'S
"
SAINTS'
l
EVERLASTING REST
'
453
!
Germanic's long desolations
the
learned Universities
!
The
Eng;
Look on flourishing churches there, that now are left desolate land'* four years' blood, a flourishing land almost made ruined
but the
hear
Towns, and Countreys through the Land, and judge whether here be no cause of sorrow Especially look but to the sad effects, and men's spirits grown more out of order,
;
common
voice in most Cities,
when
a most wonderful Reformation by such wonderful means might
have been expected.
And
is
not this cause of astonishing sorrows
Look to Scot/and, look to Ireland, look almost anywhere and tell me what you see. Blessed that approaching day, when our eyes shall benor our ears hear any more such tidingshold no more such sights
;
How
the
the
many hundred Pamphlets are Printed,

calamities ?
full
of almost nothing but
common
news
So
that
it's
become a
gainful trade to divulge
of our Brethren's sufferings.
And
all
the fears for the future

that
that possessed our hearts
were worse than

?
we saw and
fight, etc.
suffered.
the tydings that run from
Edghil fight, of
pale
York
How
many
they
a face did they
make
and
how many
a heart did they
astonish ?
had
Nay, have not many died with the fears of that which if lived they had neither suffered nor seen ? It's said of
Melancthon, that the miseries of the Church made him almost neglect the death of his most beloved children. To think of the Gospel departing, the
souls left
Glory taken from Israel, our Sun-setting at Noon-day, poor willingly dark and destitute, and with great pains and hazard
!
What sad blowing out the light that should guide them to salvation must these be ? To think of Christ removing His Family, thoughts taking away both worship and worshippers, and to leave the land to the
rage of the merciless.
These were sad
thoughts.
Who
;
could then
have taken the Harp in hand, or sung the pleasant Songs of Zion ? But blessed be the Lord who hath frustrated our fears and who will
hasten the rejoycing day
tains
rest
when Zion
shall
be exalted above the

. .
Moun-
be open day and night. Thus from our participation of our Brethren's sufferings.'
and her Gates

"
shall
shall
we
2.
Among the
this
Excellencies of our Rest,"
one
"
:
is
We
1
shall
then Rest from
all
which Baxter enumerates, our sad Divisions and un-
Refers to the Thirty Years'

Pi.
I,
War
(1618-48).
*S.RX.,
chap.
vii.
15.
454

quarrels with one another".
In
Ch ristian-like
the margin
he says:
"This was written upon

the Imprisonment of
all
the
war
in
Scotland, the Death of Mr. Love,"
many more, and an Ordinance for the Sequestring of Ministers that would not go to God on their Errands, in Fasting and
Prayer, or in Thanksgivings for their Successes.
And
an order made to
put out all Ministers from all the cities, Market-Towns, and Garrisons, that Baxter was very angry with Cromsubscribed not their Engagement."
well
and
his party for their
conduct
in
what
;
is
called the
Second
Civil
War.
Cromwell's invasion of Scotland
his stern
suppression of a
which Presbyterians even Presbyterian divines like his call upon the nation to Rev. Christopher Love had a hand observe days of prayer and fasting for the furtherance of his campaign
Royalist plot in
;
and
of thanksgiving for victories like
Dunbar
his
demand
for a de-
claration of loyalty to a regicide
Government
view, almost past forgiveness.
He
of
were crimes, in Baxter's had dreamed of a union between
England and Scotland by means

uniformity, should enjoy
all
which both
lands, without strict
the benefits of the Gospel in a reformed
Church.
"
what sweet
!
idolizing thoughts of our future state

full
had we
in
I
time of wars
What
content did
promise
true
my
soul
when
should enjoy Peace, and and all the ordinances in

the churches,
see the Gospel set up in

purity,
power and
plenty,
and the
Discipline exercised in
and ignorance cured, and
all
persecutions ceased,
and
the
I
the mouths of railers stopped,
who
?
kept
men from
Christ by
is
filling
world with prejudice against
Him
And now where
the Rest that
Even that is my greatest grief from which I expromised myself ? Instead of Peace we have more bloodshed most Content pected
;
and such as
that
is
confessed to be the blood of Saints.

in
The two
nations
were bound
an Oath
of
Union, and where so great a part of

is
the Interest of
contained (in regard of Purity of Doctrine and Worship) are dashing each other in pieces, and the souls of multitudes let out of their bodies by those that look to rejoyce
Christ on earth
with them for ever in Heaven.

"
."
O
!
"
science
1
what a potent instrument
for
Satan
is
a misguided Con-
"
Not, howeTer, in any edition (I think) reused by the author "). Executed on 22 August, 1651.
earlier than the seventh

3
(1658,
ix.
I
S..A'., Pt.
II,
chap.
BAXTER'S "SAINTS* EVERLASTING REST'

"
455
what
the
hellish
things are Ignorance "

!
and Pride
that can bring
men's souls to such a
state as this
"That
proaches
the labor
same men, who would have

miles, to hear
travelled
through re-
many
ill
an able
faithful
minister,
and not think

enemies,
bestowed, should
now become
!
their bitterest
and the most powerful hinderers of the success of their labors, and travel as far to cry them down It makes me almost ready to
which drove us together happy days in a closure of Love (we) who being now dryed at the fire of Liberty and Prosperity are crumbled all into dust by our contentions. But it
say,
sweet,
of persecution,
makes me
of the
seriously,
both to say and to think

in
!
sweet,
is
happy
one God, day Glory one Christ, one Spirit, so we shall have one Judgment, one Heart, one When there shall be no more Church, one Imployment for ever
Rest of the Saints
When,
as there
Circumcision and Uncircumcision,
Jew and
Gentile,
Anabaptist or
Paedo
copal
;
baptist, Brownist, Separatist,
but Christ
is
All and
in All.
Independent, Presbyterian, Episshall not there scruple our
We
communion, nor any of the Ordinances of Divine Worship. There but even those who will not be one for singing and another against it
;
here jarred in discord shall up one melodious Quire."
conjoyn in blessed concord and make ..." Well, the fault may be mine and it
all
may be
theirs
or
more
likely
both mine and
theirs.
But
this
re-
who now look strangely on me, will my joyfully triumph with me in our common Rest." " 3. We shall rest also from all our own personal sufferings " is
joyceth me, that
old friends
:
the
that
title
of another section.
in
is
This
"
may seem
in
live
continual ease,
and abound
all
a small thing to those kind of prosperity".

live
But such
full
not the case of the saints.
"
They
"
a dying
life
as
of sufferings as of
days and hours."
Grief creeps in at our
eyes, at our ears,
our hearts, our
do devour
Buds.
us,
and almost everywhere. It seizeth upon our head, our Spirits, and what part doth escape it ? Fears and darken our Delights, as the Frosts do nip the tender
flesh,
Cares do consume us and feed upon our Spirits, as the Such, at any rate, scorching Sun doth wither the delicate flowers."
has been his
scarce
own
"
case,
who
in
ten
or twelve years' time
have
had a whole day

Pt.
I,
free
from some dolor.
O
I,
the
weary nights
vii.
S.E.R.,
chap.
rii.
13.
hi, Pt.
chap.
14.
30
456
and
less
THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY O the unseverable languishing weakness O days O the tedious nauseous medicines working vapors
! !
the rest!
besides
the daily expectations of worse
And
out,
;
will
it
not be desirable to
Rest from
"
all
these ?
There
be
will
be then no crying
O
sin
my head,
and
flesh
O my Stomack, or
and dust and pain,
O my Sides, or O my Bowels.
will all
left
No, no
little
what would we not give now for behind together. much more for a perfect cure ? how then should we value ease,
freedom
?
If
that perfect
we
are scarce enough to sweeten our crosses
have some mixed comforts here, they or if we have some short

;
and smiling
to
Intermissions,
it is
scarce time
enough
to breathe us in,
and
If one wave prepare our tacklings for the next storm. pass by, and if the night be over, and the day come, yet another succeeds will it soon be night again."
;
'
Such
illustrations
which might be
said,
easily
multiplied
seem
to
warrant what has been

bears clear traces of
its
that
the Saints
Everlasting Rest
If
author's melancholy state of mind.
Baxter
while in a state of inward serenity, no doubt its general would have been the same, but certainly not its prevailoutlines
had written
ing tone.
it,
If,
e.g.,
he had written
it
some fourteen years
later,
when
he composed that self-review (in his Autobiography 2 ) which is the very mirror of a soul chastened and sweetened by experience, I am sure the
tone would have been different.
tions of
I
am
sure, especially, that his

free,
medita-
heaven would have been more

;
here and there, from
brain-sick fancies
and
that his terrific imaginations of hell
would
have been
left
out, or greatly modified.
As
it is,
think
it
might be
possible to demonstrate that the Saints'
to foster that unhealthy attitude to life a characteristic of English piety, even the
Everlasting Rest did much and death which is so marked

truest,
in
the eighteenth
century.
Another
feature of the
book
is
remarkable.
One would
is
expect a
discourse on Rest to be Restful.
But
restfulness
the
last,
and
least,
Of course there are quiet resting-places. impression which it makes. " Almost the whole of chapter viii. in Part III on Further Causes of
Doubting Among Christians" pastures and within the sound of
1
is
still
quiet
resting-place
in
green
waters.
But, speaking generally,
S.E.R., Pt.
I,
chap.
vii.
16.
R.B., Pt.
I,
pp. 130-8.
BAXTER'S "SAINTS' EVERLASTING REST'

one
feels as
if
457
afloat
clear of chafing obstacles.
on a swift and swirling current which never gets One is kept on the stretch and strain from
is
end to end.
And
the reason
to
be found
in his theological position.
His was, however, more of the latter than he knew. is the proof of ) book (published Aphorisms of Justification
l
He He
was
neither a thorough-going Calvinist nor an
avowe d Arminian.
first
this.
Here, the doctrine of imputed righteousness, in the accepted Calvinistic sense, is met by a doctrine of Evangelical Righteousness which virtually
overthrows
it.
Baxter had come to
feel
a horror of Antinomianism,"
and
chief
of that one-sided conception of Divine grace
which made
it
the
mark
in
of a Christian
to leave everything to
God.
There were
many around him who encouraged

even
the
themselves in spiritual laziness, and
moral
human
This led him to lay stress on laxity, by such doctrine. element in salvation especially on those moral claims of
its
the Gospel, to which
grace
But, as often happens in

ascribing
in so
be the strongest incentive. cases of reaction, he went too far. While

to
was meant
many words,
toil
the whole process of salvation to the
prevenient, or efficient, grace of
God, he
so harps
upon the
call for
strenuous and incessant

entirely
that practically
he makes salvation an
human
have often thought motto might well be

"
of
I achievement, and to the end a precarious one. in reading some parts of the book that its " hard it is to enter into the kingdom
:
How
heaven
and have wondered
if
the effect
of
its
perpetual
urgency upon simple Christian souls was not inevitably to encourage a In Part Let me cite one example of my meaning. feeling of despair. " III he has a chapter (vi.) entitled An Exhortation to the Greatest
Seriousness in Seeking Rest," and this
rational considerations to
is
supported by "twenty lively

is
" possible " by ten

1
quicken us to the greatest obligation that
by more very quickening by way

;
then
"
ten
more very quickening
" considerations then " " of question ten finally by

; ;
Published a year before the Saints Everlasting Rest. " " I confess I am an unreconcileable Enemy to their (Antinomian) " and so let them take me. I had as lieve tell them so as hide it. doctrines
2
;
The more
pray
God
to illuminate
me
in these
things, the
more am
ani-
mated against them. more I dislike them.
The more The more

leaf that
I
I
search after the truth in
read their
all,
the vanity of their conceits.
But above
is
my own books the more do see when I do but open the Bible I
I
studies the
can seldom meet with a Faith (1655), p. 5).
not against them
"
(Confession of his
458
more

peculiar to the godly to quicken
them
".
Following
this
is
"
chapter
directing
(vii.)
persuading
in this trial ".
all
men
to try their title to this Rest,
and
them
Further, pound the nature of assurance or certainty of salvation ". " how much, and what, the spirit doth to the producing it he shows
;
"
Hereupon he proceeds to open and ex-
and what Scripture, what Knowledge, what Faith, what Holiness and Evidences, what Conscience and internal sense, and what Reason or Discourse
pages in length, a more exact enquiry into the nature of which is occupied with " and Directions twelve or more concerning the use of sincerity " " and a how far a man may marksjn self-examination Discovery
Last,
do
in the
work ".
comes a chapter, 43
"
In the first section of this chapter he tells the go and not be saved. reader that he himself, as a young Christian, lay in doubt and perand that what he plexity with regard to his sincerity for seven years
;
is
And certainly about to say has been tested in his own experience. he says not a little that is helpful, while the last summarizing paraBut the reader asks Why, graphs are no less wholesome than true.
:
O why,
sensitive
was he not content with

and humble
the
summary
why
did he think
it
necessary to argue and urge the matter in a
way
so sure to harass any
soul that might strive to follow his guidance ?
A
fullest
similar feeling springs
up
after reading in
Part
IV
"
his rules for
meditation.
task
.
To
. .
himself meditation
that ever
had grown
to be
the delight".
men on
53
earth were employed in
He
In the tenth edition.
It is
Thus, the pith

Ill,
of
it all
is in
9. chap. viii. Soul but while it is in Action.
Pt.
in the (less closely printed) fourth edition. the following " Grace is never apparent and sensible to the
:
want
felt,
of
Assurance.
The fire that

and force
it
Therefore, want of Action must needs cause lieth still in the flint is neither seen nor
into
but
when you
smite
.
it
.
Act,
it is
easily discerned.
...
It
is
. Thou now knowest not whether thou have Reso with our graces. why be more in the Acting of these pentance, or Faith, or Love, or Joy and you will easily know it. ... You may go seeking for the Hare or
:
Partridg many hours, and never finde them while they lie close and stir not, but when once the Hare betakes himself to his legs, and the Bird to her
wings, then you
see
them presently.
So long
as the Christian hath his
Graces
Loving ? Or, whether If, therefore, you would be asyou believe in the very Act of Believing ? sured, whether this sacred fire be kindled in your hearts, blow it up get it into a flame and then you will know. Believe till you feel that you do believe and Love till you feel that you Love."
; ;
How
in lively Action, so long, for the most part, in the Act of can you doubt that you love
he
is
assured of them.
God
BAXTER'S "SAINTS* EVERLASTING REST"

would
than
fain, therefore,
it,
459
But
win others
to the use
and enjoyment
Indeed,
its
of
it.
he conceives
its
also, as an imperative duty.
duty rather
I
delight
becomes the burden
of his discourse.
"
Christians,
beseech you, as you take me for your Teacher, and have called me If ever I shall prevail with you hitherto, so hearken to this Doctrin. in anything let me prevail with you in this to set your hearts where
Do you not remember that when be your Teacher, you promised me under your you hands, that you would faithfully and conscionably endeavor the receiving every truth, and obeying every command, which I should from
you expect a Rest and Treasure.
called
me
to
God manifest to you ? I now charge your promise upon never delivered to you a more apparent Truth, nor prest upon you you, a more apparent duty then this." Much that he goes on to say is excellent. Nothing better, as a
;
the Word of
I
But, guide to spiritual self-discipline has, I think, ever been written. suo modo, it is overdone. Whoever might set himself to perform
the duty as
2
Baxter
sets
it
forth could not
fail
to faint
weary.
At
Mr. Giles Firmin, land" (R.B,, Pt.

Baxter screwed Baxter took
that
it it
a later time he came partially to see this. " a worthy minister that had lived in
Ill, p.
and grow For in 670,

1
74), wrote a
book
in
Engwhich he objected that

3
New
"weak
well
ones too high in this duty of meditation". " describes it as a and admitted gentle reproof"
:
was not wholly undeserved. In his reply to Firmin he says " I observed I find, what long ago I found, that I was to blame that no more the weakness and danger of melancholy persons when I first "and that I was not more large in diswrote it" (the Saints Rest) them from taking that to be their work which they cannot do. swading For I believe I have spoken with farre more then ever this Reverend
;
Brother hath done (though he be a Physician)
who have been

work So
it
disabled
:
by Melancholy and
other weakness of brain from this
which
I
made me
add more
to
so oft since give
them such warning"

I
"
(p. 27).
1
now
particularly (lest
should injure any) that
take
(1) not
be the duty
1
of a minister to leave his necessary Study, Preaching,
2. S,E.R., Pt. IV, chap. iii. " See, e.g., Pt. IV, chap. xiii.
The
abstract or
sum
of all for the sake
of the
3
weak,"
I.
of
The Duty of Heavenly Meditation reviewed by R. B. at the invitation Mr. G. Firmin' s Exceptions in his book entitled The Real Christian,
1671.
460
Prayer,
his

etc., for this set
meditation
(2) nor for a magistrate to leave

for
it
;
necessary work
life
of
Government
(3) nor for any

it
;
man
to
in
active
to leave a necessary
duty of
his place for
(4) nor for
any weak persons what they cannot
to stretch their braines
do.
beyond Greatest Duties must be preferred
their
abilitie
;
do
and men
must endeavour prudently according to their capacity and power. And God will have mercy and not sacrifice."
This, of course, does not imply any yielding on Baxter's part as to
the substance of
1
what he had
said
but does qualify
it
with a dose
of
good
sense.
We are
indeed,
to
if
not concerned here with Baxter's theology.
question,
life
his
theology
at
any
rate as regards
its
bearing on the
come
attitude
Our general can any longer interest the modern mind. But it is relevant to note and outlook have so much changed.
its
some
1.
signs of
influence
on
later
developments.
in the
His
reiterated insistence
on man's part
work
of salvation,
especially on the necessity of obedience to the Christian moral and law, had much to do with the rapid decline of Antinomianism " " As regards with the growth of that moralism which took its place.
and
probable that Baxter would have been sorry to own any But as regards the former he knew it and rejoiced. responsibility. "This sect of the Antinomians was so Writing about 1664 he says
the latter,
it is
:
suddenly almost extinct that now they little appear and make no noise among us at all nor have done these many years ". He ascribes its " controversial writings," but I am decline largely to the effect of his
disposed to think that the stringent ethical temper of the Saints Rest For a temper is more infectious than an argument did even more.
;
and, moreover, for the scores
dreds
who who read the Saints' Rest. 2. The same ethical stringency,
free
read the arguments there were hun-
with
its
implied recognition of
in dissolving
man's
power
of choice,
was
of
no small consequence
the current type of Calvinism.
There
are, indeed, places in the
book
where
the language
of
is
Calvinistic
enough
to satisfy the most severe.
The
people
4
God
(he asks)
who
are they ?
They
1
are a small
part of lost
mankinde
whom God
"
bath from
;
Eternity predestinated to this Rest, for the glory of

Firmin wrote
" a
His Mercey
and
weak
Ill,
"
reply
.
which Baxter thought
not worthy of
a rejoinder" (R.B., Pi.
104).

given to his
fully
461
Son
to
be by him
lost
in
a special
manner Redeemed, and

to
this
recovered from their

;
estate,
and advanced
1
higher
Glory
all
which, Christ doth in
due time accomplish, accordingly, by

his preaching took
himself for them, by his Spirit
But the mental attitude

count at
all of
upon them. which inspired
no ac-
such doctrine.
of their fate.
He
If
addressed
men from
real
first
to last as,
this,
somehow, masters
he harboured any
doubt of
is more than meaningless But a ghastly exhibition of make-believe. impertinence. Nay, he had no doubt. His Calvinism was a theory which the logical part
the greater portion of the book

it
it is
a grotesque
is
of
him did not permit him

in
to
deny
in so
many words,
are
but his conscience

real voice
asserted the contrary with irresistible vehemence.
His
may
be heard
tions as
such words as these
"If
we
drawn by
natural opera-
by ropes, like things that have no life, then it is in vain to talk nor do I understand that to be a living of Voluntary and Involuntary creature whose power of Desire is subject to Destiny ". And he
;
supports himself on Clement of Alexandria

us
have learned from the Scripture choose and avoid things by a Free and Absolute power, the Judgment of Faith which cannot be moved or fail us
a cheerful and ready
spirit
who
who had said " But for that God hath given men to
:
let
:
us rest in
manifesting
because
we
have chosen
life
".'"
Here we may
Baxterian
see the position
which earned
for
him the name
of
a position accepted by
many
of the later Puritans, especially
those of the Presbyterian tradition, and through them by a majority of

the eighteenth century Nonconformists as well as
many Churchmen.
Perhaps of most thoughtful Christians

3.
it is
not too
much
to say that
it
approximates to the position
at the present day.
Saints' Rest, strange to say, discloses Baxter as, in no uncertain sense, a Rationalist. Thus, the opening sentences of Pt. Ill,
are these
"
:
The
Whatsoever the Soul

of
of
man
;
doth entertain must make

satisfied,
its
first
entrance at the understanding
which must be
it
first,
of
its
Truth, and secondly

tance.
If
this porter
but the face or

diligent in
name
any admit of anything that bears of Truth and goodness but if it be faithful and
be negligent,
will
it
its
goodness, before
will
find
further admit-
its office,
it
examine
Pt.
I,
strictly
viii.
and search
I.
to the quick.
^S.E.R., '
chap.
ii.
Id., Pt. HI, chap.
12 margin.
462

is
What
is
found deceitful,
it
casteth out, that

it
it
go no further
but what
found to be sincere and currant,
letteth into the very heart,

it,
where
the Will and Affections do with welcome entertain

tion (as
it
and by concoc'
were) incorporate
his
it
into
its
own
substance."
This describes
nothing until
is
it
uniform standpoint.
He
professes to believe
not happy (in the

this
all
"
by
test of Reason, or understanding. He Pt, chap, vi.) until he has established that " " found Rest tried by nine Rules in Philosophy or Reason is " nor is he content to be the most excellent State in general
has passed the

first
(in Pt.
IV), until he has shown,

all
to his
own
satisfaction, that
;
Reason
accords with
Pt.
II,
his single
is
and in he says concerning the practice of meditation aim is to demonstrate the rationality of his thesis, that
Scripture
this,
the
Word
of
God.
It is
true that
Reason, having done

background.
certainly that
on a basis
of external evidence, at
once
retires into the

I
"
I
will believe anything in the

:
world which
know
God
speaks or Revealeth
though the thing
itself
be ever so unreasonable.
that all
is
For
have Reason
revealeth
II).
to believe (or rather to
know)
him
True which
"
God
to
how
improbable so ever to flesh

it
and blood
(Preface
all
Pt.
Hence
became easy
for
to accept,
e.g.
the
and the popular belief in witchcraft. Biblical sancBut still his genuine respect for Reason tion, in each case, was final. was such as could lead him to say "He that hath the best and
Biblical miracles,
:
lightest
Reason, and by consideration maketh the most use of and all sin is ... best Christian and doth God best service
;
it,
is
the
for
want
felt
of right reason
and using
it
by consideration
"."
Accordingly, he
himself free to indulge a drastic criticism of those

for their creed
who
fetched materials
ing
all
from (so-called) authorities outside the Bible. Repudiatsuch authorities, he would require no more from any man than
it
to subscribe the Bible as
stands and as a whole.
"
Two
things
have
set
the
Church on
:
thousand years mentals than ever

"
and been the plagues of it above one (1) Enlarging our Creed and making more fundafire,
God made
(2) composing (and so imposing) our
Creeds and Confessions in our
own words and
phrases.
to ac-
When Men
have learned more manners and humility than

if
cuse God's language as too general and obscure (as

it)
they could
mend
and have more dread

1
of
God and
i.
compassion on themselves, then

'
S.E.K., Pt.
Ill,
chap.
Si.
Pt.
II,
Preface.

to
463
never
make made so
those to be Fundamentals, or certainties, which

;
God
and when they reduce

then,
their Confessions (
) to their
due
extent,
and (2)
to Scripture phrase (that
Dissenters
may
not scruple
subscribing)
and
(1
think) never
'
till
then, shall the
Church have
Peace about Doctrinals."

Socinianism. "
This drew upon him, as

It
it
did upon Chillingworth, a charge of
was,
took
it
indeed,
by
no means the attitude
of
the
orthodox,"
the whole
Bible
who
for a sign of grace to receive
without question
sum
of traditional faith (so far as
Protestant) including the
And the frequency with which Baxter is quoted, as such an attitude, by the theological progressives of the next against
itself.
generation, particularly the Arians,
is
proof of his influence in proissue
moting that rationalistic
movement whose
went
far
beyond what
he intended, or would have approved.

II
We
will
now
in
It
turn
to
1
the book
1
itself.
The
first
edition
was
licensed for publication
on
5 January,
649-50, by Rev. Joseph Caryl,

later editions
or,
and was printed

out change,
London by Rob. White for Thomas Underhil and

bears the
title,
Francis Tyton. "
which
The
Saints Everlasting Rest

in their
its
repeated withof Treatise
God in Glory and Certainty the Misery of those Excellency that lose it, the way to Attain it and Assurance of it and how to live in the continual Forecasts of it, by the help of Medidelightful
the Blessed State of the Saints
enjoyment of
Wherein
is
showed
Written by the Author guishing, when God took him

afterwards
tation. "
for his
off
own
use, in the
time of his lan;
from
all
Publike Imployment
and
Preached
in
his
weekly Lecture
of the
and
of
now
published
in
by Richard Baxter, Teacher Worcestershire" 2

1
Church
Kederminstcr
Saints' Rest,
Pt
II,
Preface.
1
Cor. xv. 19; Col. iii. 2, 3, 4; John .'Then, the texts Ps. Ixxiii. 16; xiv. 19. London, printed for Thomas Under/till and Francis Tyton, and are to be sold at the Blue Anchor and Bible in Paul's Churchyard, near the little North-Door, and at the three Daggers in Fleet Street, in the Inner
Temple Gate, 1650.

tion
is
"
Baxter's copy of the Saints' Rest with his inscrip-
a treasured possession of the Corporation of our
Town.
It
lies
in
464
There
is

a dedication of the whole
"
to
my
'
dearly beloved Friends,
the Inhabitants of the Burrough and Forreign

tender,
parts,
of
Kidderminster
a very
grateful
and candid
its
utterance."
The work
;
consists of four
and each part has

Bt.,
separate dedication
the
first
to Sir
Thomas
Rous,
with the
ten miles East of
Lady Jane Rous his wife, of Rous Lench, about " the second, to my Dearly beloved Worcester
;
Friends, the inhabitants of Bridgnorth, both Magistrates

. . .
"in testimony
I
of
my
unfeigned love to them

the
who
and People were the first "to my
"
to
whom
was
sent to publish
Gospel";
the third
the Inhabitants of the City of Coventry, Dearly beloved Friends both Magistrates and People, especially Coll. John Barker, and Coil-
Thomas Willoughby,
"
of their Garrison
;
late
Governours, with
all
the Officers
and Souldiers
my dearly beloved Friends in the Lord, the inhabitants of the Town of Shrewsbury, both magistrates, " As ministers, and People, as also of the Neighbouring Parts ". a testimony of his Love to his Native Soyl, And to his many Godly
.
the fourth "to
and Faithful Friends there

In
living."
one place
first
"
he
tells
us
how
the
book grew
into four parts.
After
treating of the nature, character,

in
and
excellencies of the
Saints Rest>
the
part,
he reflected that the Saints too

"
" "
different to their great inheritance.
commonly are inHence he went on to write what

to the Delightful
iii.,
became
of
Pt.
IV
"
consisting of a
It
Directory
"
Habit
Contemplation".
begins properly with chap,

"
but to clear
Reproving our Expectations " on Earth," and chap. ii. Reproving our Unwillingness to Die ". Then, when the work seemed complete, it struck him that he had overlooked the most radical cause of indifference to a future life,
premised
chap,
i.
the ground he
of Rest
viz.:
"A
secret,
lurking, unbelief in
its
that he himself
had
and
that his
of
own
oft suffered by "assaults" "in that point"; doubts had ebbed and flowed according to the
"
"
reality".
He
remembered
measure
his faith
in
the divine authority of the Scriptures.

II
So
he proceeded to write Part
which advances reasons
for accepting.
the Mayor's Parlour with the ancient Deeds and Parchments of the Borough, Note by Mr. William F. Baillie, of the preserved in a large Glass Case."
Free Library, Kidderminster. " " is still in use as a term for a Foreign part of the parish which outside the Borough and so to some extent outside its control. If carries with it certain drawbacks it means (or meant) lower rates
!
lies
this
The
Premonition.

The
"
third part
first
465
the Bible as an infallible Revelation (infer alia) of man's immortality.
was added
last
though
in
time for the
first
edition
the four
of
Chapters for the use of sensual and secure

;
sinners,
if
them should happen to read this book the last three for the any to direct and comfort them in affliction, and specially to persuade godly, them to the great duty of helping to save their brethrens' souls the
;
seven middle Chapters for the use both of the

as being of unspeakable
Godly and
the ungodly,
concernment
the
to all ".
is
Thus,
strictly
speaking,
book
not
one book but

Pt.
Ill
four.
Moreover, within each of the four
particularly
there are
on such subjects as the doctrine of All these Justification and Sincerity, and the sufferings of the lost. from his main theme seemed to Baxter to have some imdigressions
to separate Treatises
what amount
portant bearing upon
it
and several
of
them
are, indeed,
among
the
But they constrain one to share most interesting things in the volume. his own regret that he had missed the discipline of a regular University Undue, and not seldom unbounded, discursiveness was training.
always
his chief literary
fault
a fault which the firm hand of some
severe and competent tutor in his early years might have cured, or,
at least, checked.
As it
was, the
fault
grew upon him
increasingly, just
because he appears to have been unconscious of it. Baxter also informs us as to when and where the several parts
were
During the siege of Worcester in the late spring and a happy early summer of 1646, he was quartered at Rous Lench
written.
time, varied
by a brief visit to Kidderminster. Then when his regiment removed into Leicestershire, Staffordshire, and Derbyshire he
it.
went with
Each Thus
1
By
the time he reached Derbyshire winter had
come
its own title-page. the Second Part contain(2) The Saints' Everlasting Rest ing the Proofs of the Truth and certain futurity of our Rest, and
part has
that the Scripture, promising that of God. and
Rest
to us, is the perfect infallible
Word
Uses
Law
(3)
The
Saints' Everlasting Rest the Third Part of the former Doctrine of Rest.
the
containing Several
(4)
The Saints Everlasting Rest
Fourth
Part
containing a
:
by Directory for the getting and keeping of the Heart in Heaven the Diligent Practice of that Excellent unknown Duty of Heavenly Meditation. Being the main thing intended by the Author, in the
writing of this
Book
and
to
which
all
the rest
is
but Subservient.
466
on
;

and "at Melbourne
"
1
in the edge of Derbyshire," the "cold and He fell ill. His wish weather proved too much for him. snowy was to get home (i.e. to Kidderminster) for he was among strangers
:
but weakness forced him to stay,

ever,
fa
the end of
three weeks,
how-
in Leicestershire,
he managed to reach Mr. NowellY" house at Kirby-Mallory " " where with great kindness he was entertained
another three weeks.
By
that time
Lady Rous had heard
of
his
condition and insisted upon his being removed to Rous Lench. Here, " dint of and tenderness," he gradually regained the greatest care by
some
strength
and, after three months,
made
his
way home.
;
As
to
the Saints' Rest, he
Mr. Nowell's Lench and

;
"
;
began bestowed upon

it
at
Sir
it
John Cook's continued it at all the time he could at Rous

at
it
finished
it
shortly
after
Kidderminster."
This
is
Baxter's
own
statement.
finished at
More
precisely,
;
can be said that Parts

that
I, II,
and IV were
Sir
Rous Lench
4
and
8
what he added
at
Kidderminster was a portion of Part
III.
Thomas and Lady Rous

1
breathes
warm
His dedicatory letter to gratitude but no flattery.
Melbourne Hall was the seat of Sir John Coke (Cooke), son of the Sir " John who had been Secretary of State in King James the First's" time. He succeeded his father in 1643 and died at Paris in 1650. descendant, Charlotte Cooke (Coke), -was the mother of Sir Peniston Lambe, Bart., created Baron Melbourne of Kilmore, May, 770 (see Nichol's History of Leicestershire, Vol. Ill, Pt. II, p. 783 ff.). 2 This would be Verney Noel (Nowell) "the second but eldest sunrivson" of William NoeJ (</. 25 March, 1641). He "was advanced in ing " the dignity of a Baronet on 6 July, 660 and died in 669. His younger " brother, Andrew of Congeston, Leicestershire, married a daughter of Sir Rous of Rous Lench ". There was thus a connexion between the Rous and the Noel families which might explain how Lady Rous came to hear of " " Baxter's condition as well as Mr. Nowell's (see Nichol's great kindness History and Antiquities of Leicestershire, Vol. IV, Pt. II, p. 766). 3 know for certain that Part IV came next after Part I (of which he
We
" the former part"). speaks in the Introduction as Further, we learn from a Preface "to the Reader," which stood before the first edition of Part II, that this was written " where he had not the bene" fit of a Library (meaning his own).
Hence
Part IV.
Part
II
was
written at
Rous Lench, and
so,
therefore,
wai
This bears out what Baxter says that " almost all the Book was written " when I had no Book but a Bible and a Concordance (R.B., Pt. I, p. 108).
4
The
ancestral
home
of these Puritan gentlefolk
the
hill
on which Rous
Tillage
is
situated
and
stood near the top of "
is
describedas
ancient,

"
In your house,"
real Friends,
for
467
he
"
says,
I
found an Hospital, a Physician, a Nurse,

is
and
Prayer
still
my
and (which Recovery, and

in
all his
I
more than
I
all)
daily
and importunate
since
followed
"
:
me
abundance.
gratitude
went from you kindnesses have Such behaviour towards a mere

and had
it."
Stranger called for
But he goes on
to
add
this
The
best return
Heavenly be the more diligent and unwearyed, because

;
duty to
can make of your love is in commending your Practice wherein I must entreat you to
as
you may take more
time for
then the poor can do, so have you far stronger temptations to divert you it being extremely difficult for those that have fullness
it
;
of all things here, to place their happiness really in another

set their hearts there as the place of their
life,
and
to
Rest
done by all that will be saved. 19-25; Matt. vi. 21." In one thing Baxter never fell
Study Luke
xii.
which yet must be 16-22, and xvi.
short, viz. sincerity.
So
far
the
first
edition.
1
For the second Baxter wrote what
dated 17 May, 1651. Instead of the Premonition," " to the Reader," which preceded Part II, short address comparatively " he wrote an elaborate essay by way of confuting Unbelievers, Anti-
he called
"a
scripturists,
or establishing "the Orthodox". and Papists" " Some passages which had given offence by touching on the late "" he modified. chapter (the ninth), which he had publike quarrels
;
"
forgotten,"
was added
"
to
Part
II.
Another chapter, the lengthy
one about the
Nature
of Sincerity,"
was added
to
Part
III.
Many
;
slighter alterations
and made, especially in Parts I and II the few quotations from memory, and the Bible, which he had put into in a few instances the margin of the first edition were supplemented
also
were
large,
and
built
round a court" (Nash's
Worcestershire, Vol.
II,
pp. 84,
85).
Lench is said to be a salt-mining term and to mean a shelf of rock. There is a bunch of Lenches in the same district. Sir Thomas was Sheriff of Worcestershire in 1654 (R.B., Pt. I, p. 10). This relates (1) the alterations and additions to the second edition (2) the method of the book (3) some objections which had been made against it
1
"
There
(4) its main design. are several of these, but the chief,
I,
think,
may be found
the
first
in
13 of chap. vii. Pt. are very curious.
where
the changes as
compared with
edition
468
replaced

by a crowd
they
of exact citations
from
'
many
scores of authors."
his
These
vividly evidence
the range
and variety
of
reading.
In
particular,
indicate
a close acquaintance with
the
"
"
Fathers
Cyprian, Tertullian, Augustine, Origen, Clement of Alexandria, a decided preference for Augustine and Clement Athanasius a
; ;
facile
knowledge
of mediaeval
scholastic
writers,
including
;
Thomas
Aquinas, and of the more recent Protestant theologians strangest of an ardent admiration of Seneca whom he quotes at every turn. all, Of pure literature one could hardly expect any trace nor is it
;
probable that
preciated
of his
Baxter ever read much outside theology. But he apGeorge Herbert and closes the whole work with one
several times in the text.
poems besides quoting him
few and
1
After the second edition the changes introduced were, on the whole, An exception J to this is an addition to the eleventh slight.
these he says (Premonition) have added many Marginal quotations, especially of the Ancients which though some may conceive to be useless, and others to be merely for rain ostentation, yet I conceived useful both for the sweetness of the matter (concerning which I refer you to the perusal to me it seemed so in the Reading) as also to free myself from the charge of singularity." I have counted quotations from at least 50 writers. Henry Stubbs " " 1 (" Essay in Defence of the Good Old Cause 659) calls Baxter a Retailer " men's learning and Quoter of Quotations of other and speaks con(p. 43) of Hebrew he knew about as much as he could temptuously of his learning " " " " two or three days' study he wrote false Latine as John acquire by Husse was accused of doing, and if Husse deserved to burn for it so did This last Baxter; and he knew little or nothing of Greek (pp. 17-18, 34). For I notice that he quotes Clement of charge was perhaps near the truth. Alexandria in an English translation, and that when he has occasion to quote " " what Socrates said he does so from Cicero (Apud being near death " Platonem, Cicerone interprete," Pt. II, Preface). Another exception occurs in the fourth edition (1653), Part I, chap. viii.
:
Of
1
"
2.
is inserted a note (of two pages) which begins Reader, understand that since I wrote this I begin to doubt of the soundness of what is expressed in the four next foregoing pages which I am not ashamed to acknowledge, but ashamed that I published it so rashly." He has been brought at least to a partial change of mind and this note is added " to let you know that 1 would not have you take these two leaves as my judgement, and herein to let you see how unsafe is it for Ministers to be too bold and confident in such unsearchable difficulties, and how unsafe for private Christians to build too much on men's judgement in such points, which further knowledge may cause them to retract."
:
Here
"
The
question at issue (whether Regeneration, effectual Vocation, and

chapter of Part
III, first
469
made
at the
end
of the fifth edition
(1654),
and a
at the
further addition to this in the form of an address to the
Reader
inI
end
of the 7th edition (dated

is
I
15 Jan., 1657).
is
The most
In the
one which, teresting change edition, p. 86, Baxter wrote "

I
;
think,
generally known.
st
think Christian, this will be a
more honourable Assembly then
you ever here beheld of before. Surely Brooke and Pirn and
are
and a more happy society than you were ever
Hambden and
White,
etc.,
now members
of a
more knowing,
unerring,
well-ordered, right
ayming, self-denying, unanimous,
honourable, triumphant Senate then this from which they are taken is, or ever Parliament will be. It is
better to be a doorkeeper to that
translated then to have continued here the

is
Assembly whether Twisse, etc., are Moderator of this. That

the Blessed Parliament, and that
"
the true
the only
Parliamentum Beatum,
Church
that cannot erre."
is
"
In all
Impressions of the
1
Book
subsequent to 1659
(i.e. in
the
9th edition
( 662) and onwards) the names of the Lord Brooke, Pirn, " " as changing and Hambden were blotted out, not," says Baxter,
my
judgment
"
of the persons," but as perceiving
"
"
the need
at
away
something which certain

one thing)
is
men
is
"
might stumble
interest to us
;
"of taking *Y For John
Sanctification are all
of
no
but the note well

In
illustrates the writer's careful sincerity,
modesty, and open-mindedness.
the same section there
another long passage against Baptismal Regeneration
which he afterwards omitted.
To
1
the 7th
edition
(1658) and the following
is
prefixed an engraved
hierographic title-page.
He actually omitted the whole of the passage p. 177. But this did not save him from the sort of gentry he had in mind. Writing about 1677 he says: "In June, 1676, Mr. Jane, the Bishop of London's Chaplain, Preaching to the Lord Mayor and Aldermen, turned and My charge was That I had sent his Sermon against Calvin and Me as bad men to Heaven as some that be in Hell, because in my book I had
R.B., Pt.
Ill,
as just quoted.
said that I thought of Heaven with the more pleasure because I should meet there with Peter, Paul, Austin, Chrysostom, Jerom, \Vickliff, Luther,
Zuingline, Calvin, Beza, Bullinger, Zanchy, Parccns, Piscator, Hooper, Bradford, Latimer, Glover, Sanders, Philpot, Reignolds, \Vhitaker. CartBright, Bayne, Bradshaw, Bolton, Ball, Hildersham, Pemble, Twisse, Ames, Preston, Sibbs, Brook, Pirn, Hambden. " Which of these the Man knew to be in Hell I cannot conjecture it's It like those that differed from him in judgment." might have occurred to Baxter that his list, consisting of those with whom he agreed, exposed him to suspicion of a similar onesidedness by its omissions.
:
470

especially
-a
Hampden
Piety,
he retained the profoundest esteem Enemies acknowledged to be most Eminent Friends and
man
"
that
for
Prudence,
and Peaceable Counsels".
have already said that the Saints' Rest could have no chance of
in
becoming popular
edition in
the
same degree
size alone stood in the
way.
Pilgrim s Progress. Yet Pilgrims Progress with its

1
as
Its
1 1
th
1688, ten years after the 1st, is run pretty close by the Saints Rest with its twelve editions before the author's death in 69
1 .
How
seem
tion of
It is
many
1
copies
went
to
an edition
less
is
1
not easy to say
but
it
would
that the
number was not

for the
than
:
500
which means a
circula-
8,000
twelve editions
first
surely a remarkable
phenomenon.
significant that the
eight editions
came out
at the rate almost
of
Puritan
one a year. These years (1650-59) cover the period when the spirit, which the book so powerfully expresses, was in the as-
cendant.
8th, years
The
of
is
9th edition appeared
in
1
662
three years after the

1
Puritan decline.
The
th
dated
67
Oth did not appear till 669. while the 2th, dated 688, seventeen
1 1
The
years later,
marks a very slow
sale.
Evidently the book
was
ceasing
to attract the religious public.
In fact, as
we know,
the religious public
had reached the point of caring but little for religion in Baxter's sense of the word, i.e. in the sense of an inward, spiritual, unworldly life. Religion by 688 had become, largely, another name for ecclesiastical
1
or doctrinal formalism.
The
chilling
regime of Deism had

discredited,
set
in.
Religion as something divine in

thusiasm.
man was
if
and dubbed enat
No
wonder,
therefore,
disgust
was taken
Saints
what would
I
be
felt
as the high-pitched enthusiasm of the

;
Rest.
its
1
can
adduce no concrete proof

plete form, found few,
if
but
should say that the book, in

or at least buyers
com690.'
any, readers
after
infra., note on p. 477. " " went " beyond all success Baxter says (R.B. Pt. I, p. 11 5) that its " of his writings, not excepting his Call to the Unconverted, of the rest " " " in a little more than a year ". which about 20,000 copies were printed
!
See
He
is
referring, of course, to
its
influence, not
its
sale.
Of
its
influence in
in 1 758, cites some ilparticular cases, the Rev. Benjamin Fawcett, writing lustrations from the period previous to that year (see Preface to his edition). Dr. Grosart adds to these the case of the Duke of Wellington whose copy
of the
Saints
Rest was shown
to
him a
to
short time after the
Duke's death,
the great
"
with a corner of a leaf turned
down
mark the place where

Not only
fluence.
of
it
471
in-
its
theme but
it is
its
handling of the theme, tended to

is
kill its
Anyhow,
a fact that there

1
scarcely a traceable mention
between 1690 and
754, by which time the Methodist movement

a state of mind to which the book
it
was in full swing, and had revived was once more congenial. Indeed,
recalled
attention to
it.
man's industry not the
was John Wesley himself who many monuments of that great Among " Christian least marvellous is what he named a
the
Library," consisting of copious extracts from Christian writers ; or, in some cases, complete reprints of particular works. His range of
selection
was
dictated by nothing
life
l
more narrow than the

and
is
fitness of
writing to promote Christian
or faith,
a striking testimony to
Wesley's catholic
taste.
It
sympathy
as well as to his richly cultivated literary
may
serve to remind us that there were
the fervent Evangelist and the ardent Scholar.

to
;
The two
" Christian Library" shows that in him as be incompatible but the in Paul, and many another, fervent religion can be a reasonable service. So it is not surprising that he devoted a volume to Baxter. If you
consult the
first
two John Wesleys, might seem
edition of the Library, extending to
fifty
volumes,
it is
This comprises 442 pages and is all taken from the Saints [including most of the General Dedication, the first six chapters of Pt. I (with the conclusion), the first twelve chapters of Pt. Ill, and
Vol. 37.
Rest
(Annotated List of Baxters Writings, p. 10). Readers of George Eliot may recall her reference in The Mill on the " Floss (chap, xii.) Mrs. Glegg walked across the room to the small bookcase, and took down Baxter's Saints' Everlasting Rest, which she carried It was the book she was accustomed to with her upstairs. lay open before her on special occasions on wet Sunday mornings, or when she heard of a death in the family, or when, as in this case, her quarrel with Mr. Glegg had been set an octave higher than usual." Had its mere presence (like that of the Bible) come to have the effect on some minds of a spiritual stimulant, or sedative ? Apparently Mrs. Glegg did not read it.
left off
Soldier had
'
'
on departing
for
Walmer
" Castle
It is a pleasure to c/.;ote the Following from Wesley's Preface to Samuel " Clark's Lives (Vol. 15 in Christian Library Edition, 1822). 4. Perhaps it be useful as well as agreeable to those who have broken loose from may
that miserable bigotry

to
which
is
too often entailed
observe
how
the same
spirit
upon us from our forefathers, works the same work of grace in men upright
whatever denomination. These, how widely soever they differ How far distant soever they agree in one mind, one temper. are from one another with regard to the circumstances of worship, they all meet in the substance of all true worship the faith that worketh by love."
of heart, of
in opinion, all
31
472
the
first

ten of Pt.
IV
(with conclusions)].
The omissions
are of those
portions
which
to
Wesley might appear
irrelevant, or too personal, or
of transient interest.
From
had the
Saints
a similar standpoint
was made
that abridgment
which has
the Rev.
greatest
vogue
and, indeed, has been the only form of the
Rest known
to
most
people.
It
was made by
of
Benjamin Fawcett, minister

minster at a period
of the
Nonconformist Church
to
Kiddersingle
when
that
Church could claim

in the
be the
historical representative of
Its
Baxter
town. 1758, and

it
preface
is
dated
Kidderminster, 25 December,
of
it
Mr. Fawcett's account

smaller size
I
is
as follows
to
"In reducing
to this
have been veiy desirous
do
justice to the author,
and
at the same time promote the pleasure and profit of the serious reader. And, I hope, these ends are in some measure answered chiefly by
;
dropping
things of a digressive, controversial, or metaphysical nature
together with prefaces,
dedications,
and various
;
allusions
to
some
and particularly by throwing peculiar circumstances of the last age several chapters into one, that the number of them may better correspond with the
size of the
volume
and sometimes by
it
altering
;
the
form, but not the sense, of a period, for the sake of brevity
and when
an obsolete phrase occurred, changing

intelligible.
for
one more common and
work if it had not been suggested and urged by others, and by some very respectable names, of whose learning, judgment, and piety I forbear to avail myI
"
should never have thought of attempting
this
self.
it (if it
However
defective this performance

called labour) has been,
I
may
appear, the labour of
may be
bless
God, one
of the most
1
delightful labours of
1
my
life."
The
first
edition (of date
January,
759) names Salop (Shrewsbury) as the place where it was printed " sold by J. Buckby J. Colton and 1. Eddowes and it was to be
;
land at the Buck in Paternoster

the Corner of Paternoster
Row
T.
Field at the Wheatsheaf,

;
Rose and Crown

1
in the
Row, Cheapside Poultry, London *V
and E. Oilly
at the
is
Kidderminster, as a place of sale, is not mentioned. On the title-page a quotation from Baxter's Preface to Scudder's Christians Daily Walk : " think it of I great Service to the Souls of Men to call them to the Notice and Use of such a Treatise as this, and to bring such old and excellent
writings out of Oblivion and the Dust."
473
The effect of Mr. Fawcett's enterprise was to give the Saints Rest a new lease of life on an extended scale. A 3th edition, issued by W. Baynes, 54 Paternoster Row in 8 4, 1 is a sign of this. Ten
1 1
1
Fawcett's version formed Vol. I of a series entitled " which was published at Edinburgh. It had the distinction of being introduced by an Essay from the pen of
years
later,
1
824,
"
Select Christian Authors
Thomas
Erskine, Esq., advocate
of Linlathen, the saintly
known as Thomas Erskine, layman who did so much to enlighten and

better
his day.
sweeten the Scottish Evangelical mind of

preciative, but
tion
The
of
Essay
is
ap-
of
by no means unqualified in its praise. Free Grace, and dilation on the sufferings
Baxter's limita-
the lost
were
points, especially,
which Erskine, author
of
The Unconditional FreeWhether by

the merit of
;
ness of the Gospel, was sure to
dislike.
Baxter's thoughts, or Erskine's Essay, or both, one cannot say
but the
volume commended
i.e.
itself
so far as to reach a 5th edition in five years,
Then, in that year, a further edition of Fawcett apthe printers and publishers being R. & J. peared in Manchester Gleave, top of Market St., and No. 191 Deansgate. Also, in the
in
1
829.
Fawcett came out from Fisher, Son & editor was Isaac Crewdson, who signs the Jackson, London. " Ardwick, Manchester" and says "he has been induced to preface
same
year, an abridgment of
3
Its
present this
compendium
it
:
to the public, in the
hope
that,
still
being reduced
to a smaller compass,
may
for
find
1
its
it
way
into a
wider
circle."
The hope was

1
fulfilled
by
838
had run
;
into
its
33rd thousand
9th (corrected) 1807 1 1th, 1810. " be corrected," and there is a quotation from W. Wilberforce, M.P., which is called a " Recommendation ". It has no exclusive reference to the Saints Rest, but commends this, and Baxter's
;
Eighth edition, 1803

is
Edition 13
also said to
Practical
Works
edition,
Another
date.
"
generally.
The
corrections
seem
for
to
be
chiefly verbal.
printed for the
Knowledge, and
2
sold at
promoting Religious their depositary, No. 19 Paternoster Row," has no
Book Society
new edition of (Fawcett?) appeared at Romsey, 1816, another at Derby, 1819. (These I have not seen.) " 3 In 1838 the publishers were Harvey & Darton Darton & Clark London and G. Simms and W. Ellerby, Manchester ". " Selections from Jeremy Taylor, Whole Here may be mentioned of Man, Baxter, Lord Bacon, and Clarendon," by Eld ward S. Duty " Plaistow, 30 March, 1840". Bosanquet, Next to Jeremy Taylor, Baxter is given the most space, and the Selections are, I think, all taken from the Saints' Rest.
:
474
and an
1
1

1
But the unabridged Fawcett still held its own and, in 856, found a new publisher in T. Nelson & Sons. Perhaps unless this is the edition which has sold more widely than any other
th edition.
;
we
published by Scott & Webster, Charterhouse " London, in their English Classic Library." Then, in 1866, Square, Wm. Tegg, London, published the original with a preliminary Pt. II is curtailed and the General Essay by John Morison, D.D.
except the one
Dedication omitted
in
otherwise
is
it is
the complete book.
Complete,
about the same degree,

Farran,
the edition, in
Griffith,
Oxenden
&
Welsh,
in
two volumes, published by " their Ancient and Modern
887) ". Less complete is an which the preface is signed This exists in two forms7 August, 1907, Bramhall, Cheshire. one published by E. Grant Richards, London, beautifully printed with 2 a vellum back (brown) and stiff paper (grey) boards the other a
Library of Theological
Literature ( 1
edition
by William Young, B.A.,
of
reprint
by
viii.
the
in
chapter
chapters
"
It omits Religious Tract Society without date. in Part II Part I, chapters i.-vii. the whole of Part III,
;
iv., vii., ix. in

;
Part
IV
also, the
General Dedication
except
one passage
and the long Preface to Part II. " The present edition," says Mr. Young, is unlike any other
the Premonition
;
In the
"
"
advertisement
to this edition
it
is
said
"
:
As
the Editor
seeks no pecuniary emolument from this work, but issues it solely for the sake of promoting the best interests of his fellow-men and, as he believes it may be read with advantage by all classes of the community, he feels bold to
;
solicit
those
who
unite in this
view
to aid in its circulation
anyone
in-
clined to print this

Plates.
work may apply

Boards
Cloth
Is.
to the editor for the use of the stereotype
"
The
prices are
each
for
Is.
3d.
50 copies, Id. each. 10d. ,,100 50 Is. 2d. each,

1
100
Is. Id.
:
French editions
Baxter (Richard). Board.
of
Crewdson appeared
as follows
Le repos
eternel des saints
[CrewdsonJ.
I.
Presbyteriam
Le
repos eternel des saints
Abrege par
Crewdson.
Tar-
duit sur la 5 e edition.
Paris, /./. Risler, 1833, 18mo, pp. 292.
2e
-
edition.
Paris, 1839. 18mo.
[Another
edition.]
An
Toulouse, Sociftt* des Livres Religieux, 1859, 18mo. inset before the first page names the price, 7s. 6d. net.

;
475
and will, it is hoped, fill a place which which has been published kas long been vacant. It has some features which ought to commend it to those who would like to see a great religious classic treated with
same consideration and scrupulous care as any other famous work." Yet it exhibits one or two strange mistakes. Thus,
the
literary
as
if
he
had not seen the

tained three
in
first
edition,
Mr. Young
says that the second con-
Again, he says that the 12th edition with a portrait of the author taken in appear his fifty-fifth year, the fact being, as Dr. Grosart had pointed out, " that this portrait "is sometimes inserted in the 1th edition of 1671
dedications.
to
new
1688 was the
first
(or
1677).
Once more, he
be aware.
says that editions, after the

intervals
12th, con-
tinued to appear at
else
somewhat longer
I
a fact of which no one
seems
to
Besides these English editions

cett's
abridgment with one in Gaelic by the Rev. John Forbes, minister of Sleat, " dated Mansa Slait," 862. But a more interesting edition is one
1
;
in
Welsh by
1
have met with a reprint of Fawthe Rev. Thomas Jones (dated 790)
also,
belonging to the year 1 797, and emanating from J. Chambers Aberdeen. It is a quarto volume, quite distinct from Fawcett's
&
Co.,
;
work
and with a
fairly full
life
of
Baxter, along independent lines, by an

slight omissions
it
anonymous hand. With comparatively whole of the original, 2 and runs to 463
kowever,
Sir
is
includes the
pages.
The
striking feature,
the
list
of subscribers, printed
between the Dedication to
Thomas Rous and Part I. The list covers several pages in double 3 columns and represents close upon a thousand copies. Here and there is an entry like this Mr. Green, Methodist Preacher David
:
;
Howie,
iike
Student
;
Rev.
Mr.
Leith,
Minister,
Towie
Rev.
Mr.
McBean, Alves
Mr. Spence,
Minister, Glenbucket.
Or, an entry
Dundee, ninety-four copies. this, George Miles, But not many required more than one copy and most of the subscribers
Bookseller, in
;
were
1
of the labouring or trading class.
No
one is designated
"
gentle-
Annotated Lists of Baxter 's Writings,

It
p. 10.
;
has the General and Particular Dedications

Pt.
I,
the Premonition.
chaps,
i.-viii.
H,
HI,
*
.-x.
i.-xiv.
IV, the whole, including appendices.
The
price
is
not given.
476

*V
man
Bearing
in
mind the date
within the period
when
( 797), and the fact that it falls a strong evangelical movement was beginning
1
to spread over Scotland,

vival of interest in
under the influence of the Haldanes, 2 this reBaxter is explained. There may be other editions 8
I
unknown
Saints
thing.
to
me, and
in
Rest
have said nothing about the circulation of the the Colonies or Amenca because as yet I know noits
But enough about

full
history has been presented,

is
think, to
warrant the assertion that the book

say that, making
is
not dead.
In fact,
venture to
of
it
allowance for
its
outworn theology, so much
human, or sprang from an experience inspired of God, that it Its theology is not more antiquated than that of cannot wholly die.
richly
the Pilgrim's Progress and
these are alive because of elements in

like
Paradise Lost or Regained ; yet both them which are vital. For a
alive,
reason the Saints Rest
is
although the
vital
elements
may
not be quite the same.
Baxter was an object of
many
slanderous reports
few more so
expense of
his
and one
of these
charged him with growing

it
rich at the
publishers.
Nay,
said that the booksellers in order to

sell
make any
profit out of his books had to
was not content, it was 400 a year at least. The

1
excessive rates ". " " a return of 300 or alleged, with less than
at
them
"
He
in
story
seems
to
have been bruited
first
The variety of occupation is remarkable mason, weaver, tailor, shoemaker, sailmaker, merchant, gardener, butcher, reedmaker, ropemaker, sailor, vintner, hosier, corkcutter, tanner, flaxdresser, blacksmith, sawyer, woolcomber, brewer, clerk, schoolmaster, etc. * James A. Haldane ( 1 768- 1 85 ) began in 1 797 to make extensive " evangelistic tours over Scotland, preaching often to large audiences ".
1
An
edition of Fawcett, printed at
is
dated 1856.
Another
is
Die Ewige Ruhe der Heiligen," was issued at New York (1 840 ?) (I have met with these.) Extracts from the Saints Rest of special sections have been printed at various times (a) "Address to Parents" (.*$ 11-18, Pt. Ill), Birmingham (1855?). " " () The Second Coining of Christ (chap. v. Pt. I), with a brief Preface (and a hymn) by C. H. Spurgeon, 1858.
not
:
"
London, Edinburgh, and.Aô/ York One in German, dated Philadelphia, 1828.
(c)
Pt.
I,
chap,
vii.,
In
"
Fitted to Strengthen the Faith Believer," by Nevins, Baxter
Light in the Valley of Death, or Considerations and Sustain the Mind of the Dying
. .
.
Boston, and R. Erskine, Edinfirst
burgh, 1847. "

(<f)
What
is
Heaven
series of tracts
from Saints' Everlasting Rest, (Nos. 545, 546), R.T.S., 1830?

?
.
. .
"

1658, and in a
Postscript to
his
477
Government and Worship

July,
(of
it
Five Disputations of Church " which the last word is Finitur, 9

It is very interesting statement. calumniators," and is dated 1 1
:
1658") he
"
deals with
in a
intended for
satisfaction to certain
October, 1658.
1.
From
left his
this
it
appears
first
That he That
"
two
Books" {Aphorisms ofJustifica"

to the Booksellers* will".
cation and the Saints Everlasting Rest)

2.
for all
the rest he received no
only every
fifteenth
book
of the
whole
edition.
1
payment in money, but Sometimes the number

it
thus set aside for him
fell
short of
100,
sometimes
amounted
to a
few more.
sufficient
These he took simply

for his
many so many" he "agreed with

Simmons) "to allow
out of his
Is.
as 800.'
But they were inaway. purpose, since he sometimes wanted to give away as " not rich enough to buy Because, therefore, he was
to give
the Bookseller" (his "neighbour" Nevil
6d. a
Ream
(which
is
not a penny a quire)
own gain towards the buying of Bibles and some of the Practical books which he printed? for the poor covenanting with him that he should sell my Controversial Writings as cheap, and my
;
somewhat cheaper then, books are Thus what payment he received was in books for free
Practical Writings
ordinarily sold ".

distribution
his
own,
3.
or those of others.
To this hour I never received for myself one penny of money from them" (the booksellers) "for any of my writings to the best of 4 but if it fell out that my part came to more than my remembrance
;
"
gave
my
friends,
exchanged them
for other
Books".
In short,
he had
any
never taken a penny of direct profit on his
own
account
for
of his books.
!
Surely an exceptional record among authors

"
:
for dis-
interestedness
4.
He
I
concludes
And now
my
censorious
I
slanderer
that
thou mayest have the utmost

to
relief that
can procure thee

sell all
for the time

I
come,
shall
agree with
5
Booksellers to
that
publish at
three farthings a sheet, and to print the price of every book at the
bottom of the title-page

1
".
Taking
for an edition.
-
00
as the average, this
would
indicate
500
3
as the
number
In the case of his
"
Practical Books ".
Italics
mine.
accounts ". Confirmed, he says, by his 5 This in fact was done. Incidentally he names the prices of his books v of the Sainfs Rest) previous to 1658. He also tells the (not, however,
"
478

But the slander lived on.
In
1678
twenty years
later
his
Kidderminster publisher, Baxter puts it, "broke"

old story
Nevil Simmons,
;
became bankrupt or, as and had been driven to failure, it was said,
because Baxter had "taken too
much money for"
his
"books"
"
the fact being, on the contrary, that he
had
the " freely given
Simmons (from time to time) "gains" exceeding 500, "if not above 1000" (R.B., Pi. Ill, p. 182). Hereupon he wrote to an unnamed friend a yet fuller account of his practice in relation to publishers. " as an act of meer kindAmong other welcome items there is this " ness he offered the Saints' Rest to Thomas Underbill and Francis
:
They Tyton (London), leaving the matter of profit to themselves. gave" him "Ten pounds for the first Impression, and Ten pounds
apiece, that
is,
"
The
the
ninth edition
Twenty pounds for every after Impression till 1665." was reached in that year, which means that by then
1
After this he received nothing book had brought him 70. to Mr. Underbill's death, the poverty of his widow, and more, owing
Mr. Tyton's
"
bought, "
losses in
the
fire
of
London (1666).
of the
Henceforth he
purse," every copy gave to any Friend or poor Person that asked it ". what has been noted above viz. his rule of the
out of his
own
book which he
Then he
fifteenth
repeats
for
book
himself before
1658
and adds
1
this:
that,
since the slander of that

of the other fourteen.
year, he had also taken
s.
6d. for every
Ream
With
part of the money, thus accruing, he
families while
he remained
rest
at
Kidderminster
had bought Bibles for poor i.e. for two years, and
had earmarked the
for
;
"charitable uses".
to
The
total
amount
to
came
a
41
to
300
or
400
and increased
(
1
830
after his
removal
London.
1
At
the time of writing
678)
the
whole
of this sum, plus
00
of his wife's
money,
lay in the
hands
of Sir
Robert Viner,
a worthy Friend," to be "settled on a charitable use after" his " death ". Finally, we gather that he did make a little profit latterly, " but only when his Fifteenths" yielded more copies than he needed for his friends, etc. For then he let the bookseller have the remainder
for two-thirds of the selling price.
Thus both he and

had given
the author gained
something.
There
is
a touch of pathos in his last words.

it
He
"
had
in-
herited (he says) a small patrimony but

reader that
it
all
away
to his
him as much as 50 to have twenty quire of his writ" " well transcribed and that (" for some books ") a ing Neighbour-minister" " " has done this tedious work for him free of charge.
costs
"
"

poor kindred
ecclesiastical
;
479
he had been "divested" "15 or 16 years" "of all maintenance "; during these years he had never "re"
ceived
nor,
Wages from
Church
it
or Lecture
his wife's
money was
not
his,
if it
had been, was
"much more
his
pense";
"much
against"
than half" their "yearly ex"Disposition" he was "put to take
Bounty of special particular Friends ". In short, he was a poor man, and rendered poor by his own almost too scrupulous con-
Money
of the
sideration of other people's claims or supposed claims.
well say
"
of all crimes in the

".
world
least
might expected to be accused of
He
Covetousness
Yet he was.
THE WOODPECKER
BY
IN
HUMAN
FORM.
RENDEL HARRIS,
is
M.A., Lirr.D.,
D.THEOL., ETC., HON.
FELLOW OF CLARE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,

now
well
known
that
some
of the stateliest
forms of classical
that
IT
there
religion are reducible to vegetable origins,
and
midway
be-
is
tween the human form divine and the vegetable form divine, often to be traced an intermediate animal form, through which
spirit passed on its way from its vegetable prison to its abode. Olympian might have, perhaps, guessed that Zeus was connected with the thunder, and have placed his home in an original
the emergent
We
oak sanctuary, but who would ever have suspected that after escaping from the thunder-tree he entered into the frame of the thunder-bird, and in particular into the body of a red-headed woodpecker ? As a
matter of fact
we had
hardly realised that there was such a thing as a

all,
European thunder-bird, or any thunder-bird at

imagination of the
North-American
in religious
Indians.
!
And now
except in the poetic the creature

him, or one of
has taken front rank

his
full
ornithology
We see
new
surrogates, on every church tower. of Zeus.
In a
sense, all things are
As
inquire
soon as
we have
recognised the woodpecker, or thunder-bird,

it
as the prototype of the
Greek Zeus,
for
what was the human form

:
into
becomes natural and proper to which it developed among

have the woodpecker with
been seen
in these islands,
Western and Northern nations
we
if
also
us as an object of reverence, not indeed the great black woodpecker, or
Picus martins, which has seldom,
ever,
but the green woodpecker (Gecinus viridis), and one or two smaller varieties. It will be remembered that the green woodpecker was the
variety that
was
personified in Attica under the
name
of
King Keleos
to
(Keleos being the
Greek name
Isles
of the bird).
Even
1
in
the British
there must have been
some tendency
An
1st
on the
April, 1919.
1480
THE WOODPECKER
anthropomorphism
green woodpecker.
of him.
1
IN
HUMAN FORM
we
481
in the case of
a cult so widely diffused as that of the

if
Let us
thought
see, then,
is
can find out what became

in
Our
first
that
we
should look
the direction of
the red-bearded (and presumably red-haired) god

thunder.
tion.
Thor for the human The problem does not, however, admit of so simple a soluFor we remember that there are competing thunder-birds in the
world (woodpeckers, cocks,
Keleos,
etc.)
etc.)
etc.),
classical
and competing thunder-men

thunder-gods
(Zeus,
(Picus,
as
well
In the
as
competing
Hephaestus, Mars,
birds (woodpecker, robin, etc.),
West, too, we have competing thunderand it would be wrong to assume that

It is
Thor
is
the only divine-human form that has sprung from them.

links
even suspected that he has with the woodpecker.

ing
with the robin redbreast rather than

examine, without altogether exclud-
We must
Thor
as a solution, the problem of woodpecker-promotion over a
what
Let us see in wider area than the great northern gods can furnish. What direction we are to look for our identified god or hero.
?
do we know about the woodpecker mythologically

In the
first
place,
we know
;
he
is
linked to the thunder and ha*
charge of the weather
is,
in
is
fact,
the original Weather.
Then we
know
ship
that, as
Thunder, he
In the arts
the patron of one, at

is
least, of a pair of
twin children.
;
he
the inventor of the plough and of the
the original digging- stick (pick, hack)
and the
primitive dugout
From the same being imitated from his action in hollowing out trees. action he became the smith of antiquity, so that a whole clan of
mysterious workers
may borrow
his
name.
He
must have, of course,
a red head, and he must live in a hollow tree.

tion
with bees and with the culture of bees.
He has close connecHe is also the guide of

by which
his
travellers
and hunters and presides over

is
fords.
That
will suffice as a preliminary series of marks to
divinised form
be recognised.
For further study
we may
refer to
have shown elsewhere (see Picus who is also Zeus) that there many personal names derived from the woodpecker, but this does not Quite a number are necessarily prove personification of the woodpecker. Then there is a group of place-names which have become personal names. names like Pike, Pickett, Hack, Hackett, Eccle, Eccles, and the like, which
1
We
are
really are
like.
They correspond to Picus, Keleos, and the even better instance would be such a name as Speakman, well known in the Manchester area, which is definitely woodpecker-man, Speak being here the equivalent to the German Specht, or the Norfolk Spack.
woodpecker names.
An
482

Hephaestus, of Keleos,
Picus and Mars, of
the histories of Zeus, of
Hadad the thunder-god of Northern Syria (whose name under the form Hedad is current to-day as a personal name in Palestine and
Egypt, and
well
in
North Africa,
as the
name
of either bird or smith) as
as to the histories of
twins derived from them.

British
Isles,
We
title
are
now
per-
going to suggest that in the

sonified, for
the woodpecker
was
of
some
of our ancestors,
under the name and
Way-
land Smith.
Wayland Smith
Walter Scott makes
of
is
known
in his
to
most people
from the use which
him
novel of Kenilworth.
You
will re-
member how
Flibbertigibbet undertakes to get Tressilian's horse shod for him, by a smith who lives in an underground cave, and who may You put your money on a stone not be looked upon at his work.
;
retire to
when
the
a convenient distance, turn your back, shut your eyes, and hammering is over, lo ! there is your horse with a new shoe. a wild figure enough, even in Kenilworth, but a
Wayland was
much
To the people he was hardly wilder one in popular imagination. a well-known sanctuary in the Vale of White Horse He had human.
in Berkshire,
and the place
is still
shown with
its
rude stone monuments

is
of
the cult with which he
was regarded.
This
his
principal cultfirst is
centre.
He
comes before us as Wayland Smith, the

is
his real
name, the second
his
calling.
The name
;
occurs in various forms,
Wayland, being, perhaps, the latest it is written Wieland and Wielant, and in other forms which we shall presently meet with. We come
across
him as a
smith,
and
in
particular as a
first
shoe-smith.
It is
do not
know when
shoe-smith
the art of shoeing a horse

history.
arose.
rather
a
to
late
development of human
:
The
smith, at
any
rate,
is
precedes the
the
for
and
it is
hardly likely that
Wayland
it
limited
shoeing of horses.
the very
Indeed,
of
we may
be sure that
in
was not
so
same custom
smith-work carried on
secret,
was known
rise to
over a wider area than horse-shoeing to the ancients, and gave

curious legends.
The dwarf
elves of the North, as
the oldest Wayland's instructors, and they wrought in secret. books of travel in the world is the story of the Wanderings or Circuit of Pytheas, who came round the Mediterranean, went outside
we shall One of
see,
were
the Pillars of Hercules and as far north as the British Isles
and
to
Pytheas
tells us,
that in the Lipari
Isles there
were iron-workers,
whom you
took the
raw
iron for
making a sword or other
gear, deposit-
THE WOODPECKER
ing the
IN
the
HUMAN FORM
morrow
for
483
It
money and coming back on

in
1
your weapon.
seems to be implied
not seen.
the report that the
workmen themselves were
This
is
evidently a case of a
large scale.
We
shall
find out
Wayland Smith establishment on a presently that Wayland could make

if
can get any further in the search for Wayland's centres of operation, whether smithies or other First of all, a few words more with regard to the invisible workshops.
Berkshire sanctuary.
In
swords as well as horse-shoes.
Let us see
we
Brand- Hazlitt's
:
collections
on Faiths
and Folk-lore\ we
find as
follows
P. 621.
"A
very ancient and famous Scandinavian legend,
exist-
ing in a variety of forms,
and apparently transmitted

it
to
England by
Hill, Uffing-
the Saxons,
who had
a version of
very similar to that associated with
the sepulchral
monument
at the foot of the
White Horse
ton, Berkshire,
left
where, as at Osnabriick, an invisible smith shoed horses
on the spot with a piece of money

little in
has very
common
This Saxon myth beyond the name with the Swedish original
for his fee.
myth.
Scott has, in his

notice
is
The
ment
of
Kenilworth, utilised the Berkshire tradition." somewhat inconsistent in proclaiming first the agree-
the Scandinavian legend and the Berkshire story, and then " " declaring that the very similar accounts have very little in common.
We
are directed to further sources of investigation, viz. Teutonic
and
Scandinavian myths of heroes. It is not necessary to assume that the of the famous Wayland are not to be found in England they legends may possibly be more at home in these islands than the first investigators
:
of the folk-lore story imagined.
Suppose
we
turn
now from
ancient
myths
to
modern romance
entitled
will take as our guide
Mr. Kipling
his sister
in his
charming book
is
we Puck
:
of PooKs Hill.
The
following conversation
imagined between
Puck, the lad Dan, and

1
Una.
The
fragment of Pytheas
4,
:
is
Rhodius,
Argonautica, " Hephaestus

7rl
76,
contained in a scholiast's note on Apollonius where he speaks of the "anrils of
TO Be TraXatov eX^yero rov /SovXopfvoi' dpyw cri&rjpov TTi<f>piv ical a\Xo r;#eXe tcaraTTJV avpiov f\.B6vra \ap.ftiii'fiv >; fi<o? 17 ft
<TKvd<rai, Kara/SaXovra fiiaBov KOI TTJV
ravra
<f>rj(ri
Hv0a<;
eV 777?
484
P. 16.

"I met Weland
sleet
?
it
first
on a November afternoon," said
Puck, "in a
" "
Pevensey
Yes, but
storm on Pevensey Level." " Dan pointed south. over the hill, you mean ?
was
I
all
marsh
in those
days, right
up
to
it
Horsebridge
and Hydeneye.
then
when 1 went down to men were burning a village on the Levels, and Weland's image a in the bows big, black, wooden thing with amber beads round its neck
of a black
Brunanburgh saw the pale flame that burning thatch makes, and I Some pirates I think they just have been Peof s look.
was on Beacon
Hill
they called
thirty-two oar galley that they

!
had
just
beached.
Bitter
cold
it
was
There were
were glazed with ice, saw me he began a long chant
hanging from her deck, and the oars and there was ice on Weland's lips. When he
icicles
in his
own
tongue, telling
me how
!
he was
going to rule England, and how I should smell the smoke of his altars I didn't care I'd seen too from Lincolnshire to the Isle of Wight.
many Gods
him
I
charging into
sing himself out while his
Old England to be upset about it. I let men were burning the village, and then
into
said (I don't
"
I
said,
the
know what put it time comes when I
my
shall
Smith of the Gods," meet you plying your trade for

head),
that
"
hire
by the wayside."
Here the important

that altars to
thing to notice
is
Mr. Kipling
recognises
Weland
are to be found from Lincolnshire to the Isle of
Wight, and that the cult was, in his view, imported by Danish or Saxon Mr. Kipling goes on to suggest that the sacrifices to the Smithpirates.
God were
for hair
originally
human,
later
commuted
for horses,
and
later
again
from the mane or
tail
of the horse.
The most
important point
for us is the suggestion
that the cult
was widely
diffused,
which must
mean place-names
recalling
Weland and
is
his art or
monuments.
The
P.
diffusion of the cult
referred to again
his
by Mr. Kipling
:
in
the conversation between

19.
Puck and
I
young
old
friends
"One
evening
heard
Hobden
talking
about
Weland's
"
If
ford."
He
told
you mean old Hobden the hedger, he's only seventy-two. me so himself," said Dan. " He's an intimate friend of
ours."
'
You're quite
right,"
Puck
"
replied.
free
I
meant old Hobden's

charcoal
I
ninth great grandfather.
He
I
was a
hereabouts.
... Of
course
pricked
man and burned up my ears when
heard
THE WOODPECKER
Weland
mentioned, and
I
IN
HUMAN FORM
woods
to the
485
just
scuttled through the
Ford
beyond Bog
Wood
that's
"
yonder
"Why,
for
Willingford Bridge," said Una.
"We
go there
walks
"
It
often, there's a kingfisher there."
was Weland's Ford, was

thick with
then, dear.
the Beacon on the top of a

the hill-side
trace of
hill.
A road led down to from A shocking bad road was, and

it
it
all
oak
forest,
I
with deer
fat
in
it.
There was no
down Weland, His horse had cast from the Beacon Hill under the greenwood tree. a shoe in the clay, and when he came to the Ford he dismounted,
but presently
saw a
old farmer riding
took a penny out of his purse, laid it on a stone, tied the old horse to * Then an oak and called out Smith, smith, here is work for you
'
he
down and went to sleep." The story goes on to relate how Weland, now known as Wayland Smith, shod the horse. Later on we are told how he made a famous sword and covered it with runes.
sat
is
That
also a part of the original legends.
In this charming story

British
Mr. Kipling has worked

folk-lore.
carefully over early
and Scandinavian
He
must have also studied the
In place-names of the country in order to find Weland survivals. he implies that he finds such survivals from Lincolnshire to particular
the Isle of Wight.
One
to
of
them
is
specified, viz.
It
Willingford Bridge
suppose, be assumed,
in
this
derived from an original Weland-ford.
may,
without injustice
special case, that
Mr.
Kipling,
who
has shown his hand
he has been studying such cases as Welland, Willing-
ham and
name
it
the
like,
and reading Weland's name

into his tale
is
in
them.
The instance
;
which he weaves
has
Willingford Bridge
the archaic
;
seems to be a very likely one. The it must be an old name very suggestive
;
ford
replaced, or rather,
supplemented, by
the
modern bridge
just in
If
the same
way
as Stamford Bridge replaces an

I
original Stane-ford.
we
could be quite sure of Willingford,

of cases in
should
point out at once the
number
as
which the ford

such
is
presided
over by the woodpecker
dux
viae
names
as
Pickford
(Warwick),
Hackford (Norf.), Aylesford and
Eaglesford (Kent),
etc., all of
Whittlesford (Cambs.), Ickleford (Herts), Ecclesford,

involve popular appellations of the woodpecker
;
which
and we should then
be able
to say of
Weland
that he
is
(1)
(2)
A smith, A guide and guardian of travellers,
486
just

as
we
Picus who
is
have shown the woodpecker to be, a/so Zeus.

with place-names
lies
in
the
little
book,
The
difficulty
:
in
the certification of their
how often the Domesday Book and the early chartert original forms tell a different tale from the map or the Gazetteer
!
Wallingford very nearly the same as Willingford, and might easily be deduced from the same or nearly the same original. It would be very convincing if we could find antry a similar case.
is
Let us
other Weland-ford to put with our woodpecker-fords.

turn,
When we
:
however, to Johnstone's Place- Nantes

c.
we
find as follows
Wallingford:
893 Chart. Welinga ford. 1006 O.E. Chron. Wea1216 Walinga ford. 1298 Walinford. B73 Walynglingaford. " " " " or Sons of Wealh," or Sons of ford. Ford of the Wealings a Norman spelling in IVm. of the Foreigner ". See Wales. get
We
Poitiers, Guarenford.
It
will
be seen
that in the case of Wallingford, the evidence
is all
If such a name were the real oriagainst an original Weland-ford. ginal, it must have disappeared from common use before A.D. 893. It is
possible,
but not
likely.
Let us take another case which may, perhaps, have occurred to Mr. Kipling in his researches (he is evidently a very close and careful
student of English ground, and the history which

in it).
is
so thickly im-
bedded
a Willingham in Suffolk and another in Cambridgeshire, which might claim kinship with Willingford.
that there
is
PooKs Hill shows

If
we
:
turn to Skeat's
Place-Names of Suffolk we
Willingaharo, D.B. be so, the sense
shall find as
follows
Willingham: Spelt Wilingham, T.N.

which may be the
original form.
Pp. "
is
6,
109,
is
If it
home
enclosure) of the Willings," or

in
"
of the sons of
Willa
".
Willa
(or a
known name. But Willingaham in Cambridgeshire is differently spelt " " D.B. and means home of the Wifelings," or of the sons of Wifel ".
also
So here
ham.
we have no
right to conjecture
is
an
original
Weland-
against Wyvelingham appears to be the spelling of Willingham in Cambridgeshire as late as

1
The Domesday Book
us.
In fact,
750, and Willingham
in Lincolnshire
was
also
Wyvelingham
in
1
1
1.
The
case
1
is
not
much
better with the perplexing Willingtons

p. 25.
and
See Skeat, Place-Names of Cambridgeshire,
THE WOODPECKER
IN
HUMAN FORM
the country.
In his
:
487
work
the
Wellingtons that are scattered up and
down
on the Place-Names of Durham, Mr. C. E. Jackson writes P. 111. There are two places of this name Willington.
in
County
monks.
records.
It
is
One
belonged
impossible
to the
Church, the other to the
almost
to
separate
them
in
the records.
S(ymeon) Twiningtun, Twilingatun.

E(ccles).
Twinlingtum, F(eodarium Pr.

;
Dunelm), Wiflington, Wiflinctun, Wivelinton, Willyngton V(alor), All the forms later than Symeon are from Wyllyngtoune.
the place-name Wifel, found in charters, A.D.

:
thus the meaning of the Wifelesberg which, by the way, has nothing to do with wife, but wifel an arrow.
710 Wiveleshole, 863 " modern name is Wifel's tun,"

it is
the A.S.
Of what was
It
in the
mind
of
Symeon when he wrote
his prefix
can make no guess.

certainly
is
perplexing to find so decided a duality in the name.
Perhaps Symeon's twiling is the German zwilling, in which case we have a definite twin-town. But that will not explain the other
form.
Of
Willington
in
Bedfordshire, Skeat writes for his

:
Place-Names
E.T.,
of Bedfordshire
P. 60.
as follows
Willington,
p.
spelt
Welitone,
D.B.,
Wyliton,
is
Willinton, F.A.,
best
;
50 (1316).
to
".
The D.B.
form
the oldest and
Well answers
"
A.S.
Welig, a willow-tree, the sense was

further in the search for
its
probably
willow- farm
So we do
shrines.
not get very
much
in
What
:
about the Welland River, which has given
Weland name by
it
migration to the
is
Welland Canal
Canada
Johnstone's account of
as follows
Welland
looks like
(river),
(Northants) 921, O. E. Chron. Weolud, which
W.
1
Severn)
of
is
But Welland (Upton on gwaelod, base, bottom. " 196 Weneland, 1297 Wenlond, 1461 Wenelond, Land
Wenna ".
On
the whole,
we have drawn
blank
in
the search for
Weland.
We have
and
found instead Willa, Wifel, Wenna, the arrow, the willow,
but no trace of Weland, unless perhaps at Mr. Kipling's Willingford

at Wallingford.
We will
now
turn to the Teutonic
and Scandinavian mythologies
in order to find out
some more about the mysterious Weland.

32
From
488

that he
Grimm's Teutonic Mythology, we learn

(2) a smith
;
was
a demi-god
(3) a boat-builder
(4) a flying-man, and (5) that he
had twin
children.
P. 376.
"
At
the head of the whole race (of heroes)
is
placed
Vi/kmus, named
after Vulcanus, as the Latin
termination shows, a
who
god, or demi-god, who must have had another German name, and begets with the merwoman a gigantic son Vadi : A.S. Wada,
O.H.G. Wato. ... (He had

"
a son.)
carried through the sea to apprentice
Now
that son,
whom Vadi
him
was Wielant, A.S. Weland, O.N. Volundr ; but in the Vilk-Saga, Velint, master of all Welond, smiths, and wedded to a swan-maiden. " The rightful owner of the boat, which English tradition ascribes to
to those cunning smiths the dwarfs,
. . .
Wada,
Lamed
seems to have been Wieland.
The
Vilk-Saga
tells
how he
timbered a boat out of the trunk of the tree and sailed over seas.
in the
ment, and took his
sinews of his foot, he forged for himself a winged garflight through the air. ... Witiche, the son he had
by Baduhilt, bore a hammer and tongs in his scutcheon in honour of his father during the Middle Ages his memory lasted among smiths,
;
whose workshops were styled Wieland s houses, and perhaps ness was set up or painted outside them."
Here, then,
builder,
'
his like-
we
have a description
of the smith
who
turned ship-
and
it
was
natural to find parallels with Hephaestus, the lame
smith of Olympus, and other mythical Greek artists, such as Daedalus, the flying man. Accordingly, Grimm says that there is an unexpected " in the striking simiconfirmation of the descriptions given in the Saga larity of the Greek fables of Hephaestus, Erichthonius, and Daedalus.
As Weland
weapons
of
offers violence to
Beadohild (O.N. Volundr
to
Boftvildr)
so Hephaestus
lays a snare for

;
Athene, when
she comes to order
him
both Hephaestus and Volundr are punished with

is
lameness, Erichthonius too,
lame, etc."
Grimm
brothers
of the
:
notes further that there were
two sons
of
Wieland
(full)
Wittich and Wittich von deraue.

infer that
From
the coincidence
names we
these are twin brethren (see
Boanerges*
:
chap. xxx.).
We have a
heroic genealogy of the following type
THE WOODPECKER
Vilkin
IN
HUMAN FORM
489
merwoman
Vadi (Wada)
Wieland (Vblundr)
I I
Slagfid
Egil
Wittich
Wittich
We will
'
first
examine
into the story of
how Wieland
learnt to
fly.
of
Voelund requested all sizes. Egil went

like those of
his brother (Egil) to furnish
him with
feathers
into the
woods,
killed all
sorts of
birds,
and
brought the feathers to Voelund.
With them Voelund made

.
.
himself
a great bird of prey. then ascended to the roof of his house, took the wings, preHe said to his brother, pared himself, and at last ascended to the air.
wings
"He
if
you are called upon to shoot at me, you will aim at this bladder, which I have filled with the blood of the sons of King Nidung, and which I have fastened under my left arm. When flying away he confessed to his brother that
he had misdirected him as
to the
mode
of
Voelund flew managing the wings, because he was suspicious of him. to the highest tower, and cried out with all his might for the King up
to
and
come and speak with him. On hearing his voice the King came out Voelund, have you become a bird? What is your prosaid,
' *
'
ject ?
My
;
'
Lord,' replied the smith,

I
/ am
at present bird
and
life.
man
my
me
at once
depart, and you

I
will
never see
me
again
in
your
Nevertheless, before
go,
will
reveal to
you some
secrets.
You
cut
hamstrings to prevent
your daughter,
who
is
from going, and I revenged myself upon You would have deprived with child by me.
me
of the use of
my
I
feet,
and
in
sons,
whose
throat
cut with
my turn, have deprived you of your my own hand but you will find the
I
;
bones
in the vases
garnished with gold and silver with which

table.'
have
ornamented your
peared
in
Having
the
said these words,

said to
the
air.
Then
King
Egil
;
Voelund disaptake your bow and
you miss him, your head shall pay the forfeit. Egil took his bow, shot, and the arrow Voelund under the left arm, so that the blood descended upon struck
shoot at him, the villain
alive
if
' '
must not escape
the earth.
It is
good,'
said
the
King,
Voelund cannot go
far.
490

descended
in
Nevertheless he flew into Seeland,

constructed himself a dwelling."
a wood, where he
back to
North,
Here we have his home in
the hero definitely turned into a bird, and the woods.
appears in question whether Egil is
who
gone His brother Egil is the archer of the Swiss legend as William Tell. It is open to not one of the many names of the woodpecker.
is
The
bird-form assumed by the hero
composite.
skin of
Some
griffin
2
say that his
feather dress
was
like the stripped
off
or a falcon, or
the bird that they call Strauss (? the crested wren).

identification is suggested
No
special
with the woodpecker, but
it is
certainly a
bird-form that
is
assumed.
will
Fragments of the foregoing story

to the
be found
in the
supplement
Heldenbuch
"
as follows
land
Wittich eyn Held. Wittich owesyn Bruder. WieDarnach kam er tzuo Kunig was der zweyer Wittich vatter. Elberich und ward syn gesell. Und war auch ein Schmid in dem
P. xxxviii.
.
.
.
Darnach kam er zuo Konig Hertwick, Berg zuo Gloggen-Sachzen. und by des tochter machet er zwen sune."
This brings out the
details of a smith
to the question of the points
who
has twin sons by a

is
now pass on princess. first shipbuilder. This is one

for, as
We
whether Wieland
the
;
which
first
we set
out to establish
we have shown
as having
in
Boanerges, the
ship made by
our ances-
tors
was
credited to the woodpecker,
of
Japan
been sent down by
who is still regarded by the Ainu God to show them how to make
boats.
Let us then see what the northern hero-legends have to say

:
on
this point "
Wieland
learnt the smith's craft
passed
his apprenticeship
amongst the dwarfs, and having with them, he desired to return again to one
of their horses,
in
Denmark.
to the
So he
killed the dwarfs, stole
which he
loaded with gold and valuables.
At
last
he came
to cross.
for
his journeyings
Weser
was a
sea.
stream, which he
was unable
By
;
this
stream
far
there
great forest
from the
One
tree,
by which he tarried day he climbed on the

felled to the
awhile
it
was not
in
hill
on a river bank, and
espied a large
1
which he
ground, divided
two and
Wayland Smith, from

by
S.
tions
*
W.
the French of Depping and Michael, with addiSinger and the amplified legend by Oehlenschlager. London,
i.
1847,
p. xxiii, sqq.
Hagen, Heldenbuch,
124.
THE WOODPECKER
hollowed
out,
out.
IN
HUMAN FORM
:
491
At
the slender end of the tree, where the leaves broke

tools
he deposited
his
and
his
possessions
where the
tree
was
more spacious he stored himself food and drink, and then crept inside and closed the tree so completely that he was secure against river or
sea.
He closed
little
the aperture in the tree with glasses so that they could
easily
be removed
when
out.
occasion should arise

it
the water could thus

able to
find as
entrance to the tree as
would be
do
if
the tree
were not hollowed
The
tree
was now
it
lying
and by
agitating
it
from within he got
down
to the
by the river bank, bank so that it

sea,
rolled into the stream,
and was carried out
into the
open
and
after
'
about eighteen days' voyaging brought him at last to his own country." The foregoing story is a dramatisation of the making of the first
ship or dug-out
the
story
is
The only thing modern about by the woodpecker. the glass windows. And it does not surprise us that
writers on
mythology have suspected that

of the ship.
we
have here the story of

in
the invention
Accordingly Simrock,
"
his
Deutsche
or his
Mythologie
(ed. 4, p. 228), says definitely that either
Wate
son Wieland was the inventor of the ship.
Ihm
is
selbst
oder seinem
Sohne Wieland
legt die
Sage
he
ein
Boot
bei,
was ihm
to
als
Erfinder der
our ancestors
Schiff-fahrt bezeichnetr
first
Clearly
is
Wieland
be counted as the
shipbuilder, that
is,
the woodpecker to
whom
referred the invention in question.
We
may
then recapitulate our results

of the gods,
Wieland was a smith
who had
twin children,
assumed a bird form, hollowed out the first
ship.
:
Perhaps he had a woodpecker brother
and
if
Mr. Kipling
is
right,
you may
look for him at the river- ford.
To make
I
the identification complete

if
we want
to
know
if
he had a
red-head, or a red-cap, and
he was related to the thunder.
Of
this
have found no trace
the dwarfs
among whom he works wear
blue
caps. parallel with Hephaestus may, perhaps, bring in the lame thunder-god, but these parallels with Hephaestus and Daedalus re-
The
quire further investigation.

1
On
the whole,
we have
i.
sufficient
evidence
Sec Hagen, Nordische Hcldenroman,
76.
492

some
parts of the North, the
is
for concluding that in
woodpecker was
If
personified as Wieland,
which
what we
have
set
out to prove.
We are
Wieland
is
left,
however, with a number
of
unsolved problems.
the woodpecker,
why
name
we no woodpecker-name
that
?
coincides with or reflects the
of the hero or of his father
Wada
How
are
we
to explain the coincidence
between the Vilkin Saga and
the stories of Daedalus and of Vulcanus, including especially the point
which Grimm could not get over, that Vilkin is the same as the Latin Vulcan ? In making the connection between Daedalus the Greek
flying-man, and Volundr the northern flying-man, we have also to take into account the fact that Daedalus was also the artist of the
famous Cretan labyrinth, of which

to Iceland.
of
parallels can
be found
all
the
way
name
These
labyrinths are in Scandinavia

It is
known by
the
Wieland
or Vblundr-houses.
not surprising that people have
suggested that the
whole
of the
at
from the South of Europe land is merely Daedalus in
Wieland legends have been brought a comparatively late date, and that Wie-
disguise.
Then
to explain
there are the coincident lame gods, with variant stories told
how
they
came
to
be lame, from
Homer
onwards.
It
certainly seems, at
first sight,
natural to equate the lame-gods with one

is
another and to infer that there
nothing original about the northern
Smith of the gods.

as
Wieland would be simply Daedalus or Hephaestus the case might require, and his legends would be theirs in a late dress. At this point we pause and reflect. We have not solved Daedalus
by equating Wieland with him.

his
Who
was Daedalus, and what does
name mean
Here
the mythologists are
dumb
or at best only
chattering.
One
tus
;
thing
is
clear that Daedalus

artist
for
he
is
an
in
form than Hephaeswood, and the other is an artist in metal

is
an
earlier
and the carpenter precedes the smith. Does this preclude the fication with Wieland ? Not if Wieland is the woodpecker,
woodpecker
smith
is
identifor the
also
is
a primitive carpenter, and the idea of calling him a
a later derivation from his habit of hammering, and his relation

It is
to the fire-god.
as carpenters, for example, that the
woodpeckers
is
build the air city in the
Birds
of Aristophanes.
Daedalus
nearer to
the woodpecker than Hephaestus is. We cannot and Wieland on account of their labyrinths.
identify
Daedalus
The mazes which
are
found
all
over the
North
of
Europe are
THE WOODPECKER
clearly
IN
HUMAN FORM
:
493
they are a part of a primitive cult of a but at all events, the sky-god, the meaning of which is still obscure is much nearer to the sky-god than either Daedalus or woodpecker
no loans from Crete
Wieland, unless there should be reason Daedalus and Wieland.
to
believe
that he
is
both
As
to
lore fact
lame gods, we remember that the existence of such is a folkof very wide diffusion, even if it has not yet found its true
explanation.
For
instance,
there
is
Heitsi-ibib,
the
the Hottentots, and no doubt ever so
many
more.
lame god of Their genesis, as

in
we
have
said,
is still
obscure.
Here
again,
Wieland can be
the
same group with Vulcan, without being Vulcan. There remains the great point in the apparent equivalence The name Vulcan is supposed to be related Vilkin and Vulcan.
the
of
to
Greek Ft\ya.vos which Hesychius says is a name of Zeus among the Cretans. We remember the equivalence of Zeus and Picus in
and are not surprised to find Felcanos is a bird, perhaps a cock
Crete,
v^Gt^L falcon,
first
that
;
it it
has been suggested that
or
may be
the
same as our
which
is
said
to
mean
a bird with hooked claws, in the
If it is a bird's name, then it may very well be that instance. Vilkin and Vulcan are, both of them, related to that bird, without
any
linguistic or
legendary borrowing.
Now
let
us turn again to
Grimm.
tells
In discussing the hero-form of
Eigil or Egil
the Archer, he
us that
"
according to the Edda,
Volundr had two
brothers, Slagfictr
and
Egill, all three
synir Finna-
konungs, sons of a Finnish King, whereas the saga transplanted to the North from Germany makes its Vilkinus a king of Vilkinaland. Or
waldansunu
can Finna be taken as the gen. of Finni, and identified with Finn Folc? Slagfictr might seem Slagfinnr, but is better explained
as Slagfioctr (flap- wing)."
The
to
difficulty
is
which Grimm notes

It
in referring the
if
Volundr Saga
Finland
is
a real one.
disappears
we
note that the perplexing
word
and
the
Anglo-Saxon Fine,
the woodpecker.
Thus Volundr
all sons of the original King Picus, and may, be regarded as themselves heroes in bird-form. therefore, Egil is easy while Volundr (and to explain on this hypothesis, and so is Slagfictr
his
two brothers are
by implication the related
Wieland)
are seen to belong to the very

to
same
bird ancestry.
We
need not hesitate longer
reckon
Wayland
the Smith as an English woodpecker-hero.
494

Now
let us inquire
whether the supposed woodpecker-hero and It will be his twin children are associated with primitive sanctuaries. remembered that we traced one origin of sanctuary to the taboo which
attaches
itself
to twin children
and
their mother.
Such
sanctuaries are
Africa at the present day, whenever and her brood are expelled from the comthe offending twin-mother
constantly being created in
W.
The usual sanctuary munity that they have terrified and endangered. in the midst of the stream, and it is upon such islands that is an island twin-towns naturally spring up, as an original group is supplemented by
other twin-groups, or by runaway slaves, or evasive debtors, or any people who will risk a taboo in order to get rid of social responsibility
We say
ary.
that this form of social ostracism
is
one
is
of the origins of sanctuof the
No
doubt there are

for
others, but this
one
most common.
example, which Romulus devised at Rome need sanctuary, not be any different from what we can detect in the present day in the
The
Niger region
it is
lawful to suspect that
many
of
the most famous
sanctuaries all over
Europe are due
to a similar cause.
whether Wieland has any connection have with a sanctuary or sanctuaries known to us in England. called the Berkshire monument with which his name is associated a
question arises naturally
The
We
sanctuary, but
we have no
history of the
Umngton monument, and
the
Let us term sanctuary is used loosely and with insufficient precision. is more certain, and see if we can find take a case where sanctuary any
traces of
Wayland
therein.
most venerable and the most certain sanctuary in England is Westminster Abbey from the earliest days it has been a place of
;
The
dread
scribes
it
is
called
"
"
locus terribilis
in
the
of
first
document
that de-
it,
the charter of Offa.

religious regard in the
This sense
terror
developed into a
it
profound
of
resort
still
Middle Ages, and made
the place
;
have
for thieves and runaways, much as in ancient Rome we a Broad Sanctuary at Westminster, and the history of the
full of
Abbey is Dean
instances
in his
Stanley
when it furnished shelter to the fugitive. Memorials of Westminster Abbey attached

from Howell's Perlustration of
to his title-page the following extract
London in 1657 'The Abbey

:
of
Westminster hath been
always the
;
greatest
whereunto sanctuary and rendezvous of devotion of the whole island the situation of the whole place seems to contribute very much, and to
THE WOODPECKER
strike
IN
HUMAN FORM
495
a holy kind of reverence and sweetness of melting piety in the

reverence and melting piety are
:
heart of the beholders."
Well
commonly evolved
out of
primitive taboo
and
it
was
quite true in a sense that the author of the

situation of the place contributes
Perlustration did not intend that the
much
to the
sense of reverence
for
Westminster
original
Abbey
stands on
ground that was once an island. which people commonly interpret as

this is its
Its
name was Thorney,

1
Isle of
Thorns (though
it is
doubt
if
correct meaning).
At
that
all
events,
an island sanctuary,
and
this naturally
where.
in
its
Stanley says of
provokes comparison with island- sanctuaries else"

r
it
the island or peninsula thus enclosed,

spot, derived
its
common with more than one similar

thickets of thorn."
;
name from
He
is
thinking of
is
country
but the point to be noted
that there
Thorney Abbey in the fen is more than one

will
?
similar spot.
coming by the Abbey of Westminster is the Treasury of the early English Kings and when a Prime Minister of England is called First Lord of the Treasury, this is the treasury
say
to that.
What
has
this to
do with Wieland, you
am
In the sanctuary furnished
that his lordship applies
to.
Originally there were

:
here besides
tell
money and war bonds

2
let
us see
many treasures what Dean Stanley can

;
us about them.
To
this
Treasury
:
cherished possessions of the State
were brought the most the Regalia of the Saxon monarchy
"
the Black Rood of St. Margaret (" the Holy Cross of Holyrood ") ; " " Crocis Gneyth the (or Cross of St. Neot) from Wales, deposited
Edward I the sceptre or rod of Moses the Ampulla of Henry IV the sword with which King Athelstane cut through the rock at Dunbar the sword of Way land Smith by which Henry II was knighted ; the sword of Tristan, presented by John the Emperor at Acre the iron gauntlet worn the dagger which wounded Edward by John of France when taken prisoner at Poitiers."
here by
; ; ; ;
;
A very curious and interesting collection of antiquities.

of
This sword
learnt of
Wayland
is
in the legends
as a part of the
:
skill
which he
the dwarf iron-workers in the North
it
it
was covered with runes and was used

at the
was
of
a terrible implement.
II
;
Stanley says
Henry
more exactly
I.e.
i.
of his father, Geoffrey

2
Knighthood and Plantagenet

;
3.
Memorials,
i.
383.
496
it

sent across the
it
was
Channel
to
Rouen,
so that the
young Plantagenet
at
might have
initiation.
as part of his
knightly equipment,
the time of his

:
The
was
Chronicler
it
tells
us that
it
was a very
ancient relic
of
we
may
conjecture that
it
stood next in dignity to the
Rod
Moses with
which
associated.
So here we have Weyland
actually con-
nected with the oldest and greatest of British Sanctuaries, and the
Sanctuary
is
on an
island.
The
proof
is
not final that Westminster

;
is the home of Wayland (or one of his homes) the sword have been brought there as a treasure, as Moses deposited his rod might there instead of leaving it to the Monastery on Mt. Sinai but it is
Abbey
certainly curious that
precisely
at
this
we should The old spot.

events,
turn
up
the
Wayland Smith
relic
tradition of the
;
Abbey was
not be far
that a
pagan temple
in
of
at
:
Diana once stood there

all
we
shall
wrong
the
assuming,
that a heathen
it
sanctuary preceded
sanctuary.
Christian shrine
Note,
we
suspect that
was a twin
The
of the famous
sword
authority for Dean Stanley's statement as to the preservation of Wayland in the Treasury at Westminster will be
found in the Historia Gaufredi Cottiitis Andegavorum by Johannes achus Majoris Monasterii (see Recueil des Historiens, xii. p. 52
proceeds, after describing the bathing, helming, etc., of the
Mon1
it
young
knights, of
whom
"
Geoffrey Plantagenet was the leader, as follows Ad ultimum allatus est ei ensis de thesauro regis, ab antique ibidem signatus, in quo fabricando superlativus Galaunus multa opera et studio
:
desudavit."
Here Galaunus
is
is
the
Norman-French
for
Wayland,
just as
Guarenford
for
Wallingford, which
we were
discussing previously.
NEW
COPTIC MANUSCRIPTS IN THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

BY W.
among
1
E.
CRUM.
number
of important
the large
Greek
INTERSPERSED Rendel Harris recently acquired in Egypt for the papyri, which Dr.
Rylands Library,
course
of Coptic pieces, a mixture of the languages has, for years past, been a foregone conclu-
were a number relatively small of some on vellum, mostly on papyrus. Such

there
to
sion
when
professedly
Greek papyri were

in
be bought
in the
and
in
this
case as elsewhere, a few texts older than either
demotic
script
and some younger
Arabic
lay
rest,
among
the
Greek and Coptic.

at various points
:
The
some
Coptic MSS., with the
were bought
at Cairo, others as far south as
Luxor, others at Ashmunain or
elsewhere in middle Egypt, or in the Fayyum. It has long been recognized that the locality, where a mixed lot of papyri may chance to be on sale, is far from being an indication of original provenance.
This
years,
is
especially true of
it is
and
Ashmunain, a fortiori implied when

attract papyri
the principal mart of recent
the purchase
is
made
in Cairo,
where the dealers

valley.
of such
from the whole length of the Nile

is
therefore the primary guide to the by and the indications thus obtained may be further homes MSS., particularized by help of place (and, to some extent, personal) names
Classification
dialect
incidental in the texts.

fifty odd pieces which seemed likely to repay more found the three southern dialects indeed represented, examination, but those of Achmim and the Fayyum by only one and two fragments
Among
the
I
respectively.
All the
rest
showed a
Sa'idic varying, as
was
to
be ex-
pected, in degree of contamination
and correctness
:
of
orthography.
of the literary
;
Chronologically the collection

the private documents
is
extensive
two or three
fragments can scarcely be younger than the fourth century
some
of
and
1
at least
one
literary text should belong to
V. Bulletin, v. p. 363.
497
498

But the majority seem, as
usual, to date
the ninth or tenth.
from the
sixth to eighth centuries.

1 .
Biblical.
These form,
l
:
of course, the principal
element
in
the
small group
of literary texts.
All the pieces are on vellum.
To name
them
in their usual order
Two
One
small fragments of the
Psalter
2,
4).
from Ecclesiastes, chap, i (2). The former of Fragments from two MSS. of Sirach (6, 7). these, from chap, i, is strangely paged in the inner corners of the leaf,
F and A.
that of the
It
The
second
is
written in a beautiful
little
hand, rivalling
fifth
Turin
century.
probably likewise of the fourth or shows verses from chaps, xviii and xxiii.
of
MS. and
Fragments
Lamentations, chaps,
ii,
iii.
(3).
A scrap from Ezekiel xxix and xxx (9). A very small leaf (4) on which Daniel
cernable, though
it is
xi.
38 and
xii.
are dis-
hard to see
how
all
the intervening passage could
be accommodated on so minute a page. The New Testament is represented by two fragments of Acts one (8), in three columns of an early hand, has verses from chaps, x
:
and
xi
the other ( 1 7) some from chap.

:
xiii.
Two from Romans

version of chaps,
J
one
paged
A,
B, from the
Fayyumic
of the of a
xi, xii, is
in a fine, early
hand, and
may
i,
possibly be-
long to one of the two already

Epistle
;
known MSS.
of this version
is
while the other (32), with verses from chap,
one
number
of scraps unmistakably reminiscent of the
White Monastery.
Corinthians, chap. may be added the remnants of a papyrus 1 lectionary ( 8), showing (on now separate fragments) verses from Acts, chaps, viii-x, Matthew xxvii 63-xxviii 4, a Psalm, and Galatians
fragment
1
(5) of
i.
To
the biblical texts
v.
Traces of early lectionaries on papyrus are very rare." This one may be of the sixth century. 2. Liturgical books are present in the form of some tenth or
19
etc.
eleventh century vellum fragments of an Anaphoral Service again, I one of which (II) shows title suspect, from the White Monastery
1
The numbers
Brit.
Cf.
in
brackets are those given temporarily to this Coptic

ii.
Supplement.
2
3
Mus.
my
Catal. no. 506, and Mitt^. Erzh. Rainer, Theolog. Texts, p. 2.
70.
NEW
and beginning
'
COPTIC MANUSCRIPTS
499
of the
the receiving of the

Cyril
:
Prayer of Thanksgiving (ivyapiaria), after Holy Mysteries, which closes the Liturgy of St.
what
praise or
"What
to
blessing or
. .
what thanksgiving can we

this
repay unto Thee.

attributed
."
In our fragment, however,
"
prayer
is
the
Patriarch
",
doubtless Severus of Antioch, to

this,
whom
elsewhere other prayers, but not

is
are ascribed."
all
Another (33)
complete
the best preserved of

six small
these Coptic
MSS.
Hymn,
on
vellum leaves,
in praise of St.
Menas,
the military martyr, whose picture, on horseback with raised hands The hymn is acrostical, the stanzas (prans), adorns the outer page.
beginning each with a successive

additional
letters
letter of the
Greek alphabet, the

of this type
five
in being ignored. Coptic hymn 3 The present MS. dates indeed Sa'idic is almost an unique survival. from the latest age in which Sa'idic was still a living idiom and our
hymn may owe
its
inspiration
to
the
same
influences
which were
to
produce such compositions as the Bohairic Theotokia? subscrip" tion below the last stanza reads By me (8t' c/toi)), Paleu, son
:
of
Cosma,
5
the carpenter,
attestation
the x//aA/ua>8o9."
of
The
formula
Si' e/Aov,
once the
official
the notary before

to
whom
a deed was
drawn
scribe's
up,
had by now come

5
name,* or even the
artist's,
be merely the introduction to the where a volume is illustrated.' And

is,
here, artless
though the composition
we
are hardly entitled to credit

of our
Paleu with the authorship
as well as
penmanship
hymn.
to the
A second
complete, has
1
small vellum book (34), of later size and date, but not
two hymns, one paraphrasing
Christ's
words
Renaudot (1847), i. 50, Cairo Euchologion (1902), 673. prayer somewhat similarly beginning (but before communion) is in the so-called
Anaphora of
'-'
St.
Matthew
what mind
26; Brightman, Lit. Eastern etc., 144. fragSayce preserves the title of an Anaphora of Severus. 3 One (fragmentary) is printed by Munier, Ann. du Sen:, 1918, 65; another (ditto) by Erman and Junker (y. Lemm, KKS., no. xx, p. 160).
op. cit.,
tongue Renaudot,
of flesh or
the Evangelist (Paris 12920, of man can tell Thy marvels.
"
f.
.
|26)
.
What
."
ment b longing
to Prof.
Both
4
MSS. are quite late. Cf. my Theolog. Texts,

in
also
A. Grohmann
5 6
p. 27 n. for its possible date and authorship Abh. d. Phil. hist. Kl. d. Sack. Akad. xxxiii, iv, p. V. Gardthausen in C. Wessely's Stud-ten, xvii.
1
1 .
too on stelae
7
V. Crum-Steindorff, Kopt. Rechtsurkunden, p. 403, inf. Hall, Coptic and Greek Texts, p. 1 Hyvernat, A Check-List of Coptic MSS. in the Pierpont
: .
It
occurs
Morgan
Library (1919),
pi. ir.
500
disciples
at

Pentecost
;
the other a dialogue between
Him
and the
martyr Victor, son of
Romanus.
Under
this rubric
:
we may
place one of the most interesting of our

of papyrus preserving parts of
MSS.
(47, 48)
two fragments
one
of
those Festal (Heortastical) Letters, annually addressed by the Alex-
andrine patriarch to his suffragans and to the monasteries, of which The text here is Athanasius has left us the best known examples. one side only of the leaf a fact which goes to confirm written upon
1
:
my
previous explanation of
3
three
other
;
fragments, already
in
this
Library,* as parts of similar Letters
for the
two
extant specimens in
Greek
scrolls,
are likewise so written.
Both these Greek Letters are upon

broad columns.
which the
text covers in successive
What
our
new
to
fragments preserve are the remnants of two (or three) of the

scroll.
columns from such a

dating formula, which
Now
the
last of
these columns happens
be also the conclusion of the Letter, and thus

is
we have
the customary
the raison cCttre of each Festal Letter and
which
in the present instance

i.e.
announces Easter as the 27th of Par-
Since the issuing patriarch's name is not premoute, April. It served, we have only the script of our MS. to help us to its date. is written in an upright, rounded uncial (A, M, T in one stroke each), of
22d
the type generally ascribed to about the seventh century. Among the years that had their Easter on 22d April, the most likely alternatives
(upon the first of the fragments), treats of Christ's body before and after the ResurCorinthians ii. 8, with an admonition against 1 rection, quoting
to
text
itself,
seem
me 596
or 675.
The
where
legible
unorthodox
1
distinctions
between the two.
On
Brit.
Mus.
225
A)
of circulating them v. the interesting covering letter, no. 464. letter of Cyril to Shenoute (CSCO., 42, Catal., of a lector as entrusted with one for the bishops but he speaks
the
means
Several fragappears to be accredited to the great archimandrite likewise. ments (titles etc.) of the Letters of Damianus (pb. 605) are to be read upon contemporary ostraca (y. my Coptic Ostraca, no. 18 n.).
2
3
W. Schubart, Altchr. Texte (Berlin, 1910), 55. As regards the title TrpuTOTrpeafivTepos, which Schmidt takes to be that of the addressee of the Berlin Letter, two instances nearer in time to the date there assumed than those cited (p. 91),
are found in the Life ofJohn the Almoner, ed. Gelzer, p. 31, and in Hall,
op. cit., p. 47.
Catal. of Coptic MSS., nos. 81-83. Grenfell and Hunt, Gk. Pap. ii. 163 and C. Schmidt and
Cf. for especial resemblance Brit. Mus. Catal., pi. 9, no. 951 Coptic (Sahidic} Version etc., ed. H. Thompson, frontispiece.
NEW
3.
COPTIC MANUSCRIPTS
Among
these
is
501
Apocrypha
(44)
:
etc.
this collection
part of a vellum leaf
probably the oldest MS. in (ca. 15*12 cm. complete),

cen-
showing very
tury
is
small, square uncials,
much
like the script of the fourth
in
Deuteronomy- Acts papyrus, published by Budge. Further, the text the primitive Achmimic dialect, whereof so little has reached us,
it
and
I
appears to be from a narrative relating to St. Paul. The phrases But had time to decipher are (Recto ?) "... to-day.
:
.
(dXXa) go now down that place, do thou go

he a rd this, he went to
to to
and when
' .
(?) thou hast quitted

(8e)
.
Jerusalem
Now
. .
Damascus in great joy\ ?)

found them
"
.
when Paul had And (be) when he

(?),
was entered
(i^<rrio)
accept(?}
.
in,
.
he
-ing
.
."
(Verso?)
t
Lo
. .
the fast God will

re-
faith (?) for ye are
ye (have?}
ceived
it being (inherited] from your fathers ; that (wore) ye not (?) remain therein as in an iniquitous city (TrdXi?), might but (aXXa) the great treasure without (?) ..."
it,
.
.
These passages do not occur

Perhaps they
than
I
in the
A eta Pauli,
so far as extant.
will
be traced
to their source
by some one more versed

to note
in
apocryphal
literature.
Once more we have
how
:
works, popular in the early centuries of the Egyptian church, and those alone, have preserved to us the remnants of the oldest of Coptic idioms before the later literature had grown familiar, the old dialect had dis-
appeared from
literary use.
A wooden
f]VT)
tablet (11
44 cm.)
bears yet another copy of the

:
Letter of Christ to Abgar, the scribe of which signs himself

vto>
IlauXou arro MeyaXoKTTy/xaT09 row E&>/ni'#iTOU7roXirov

his
vopov, meaning thereby that

this, like
home was
at
Oxyrhynchus.
Whether
the copies of
more portable form, was intended
as an amulet,
may
be doubted.
On
the
a scrap of a paper
MS.
the
(15)
we
discern the
names Paul and

of the legend of
Dionysius, showing
that the text concerns
some form
Areopagite, whereof
Library
already
possesses
Coptic
specimen."
of
Another popular story was that of Eudoxia, the imaginary sister Constantine, and her visit to Jerusalem in search of the holy places.
1
Distortions of the name, almost as strange as this,

lists,
may be
seen in the
town and episcopal

2
Amelineau, Geogr. 561, 569, 573.
CataL, no. 89.
502

it
fragmentary papyrus leaf (20) preserves a passage from

to
corres-
ponding
4.
one
in the
Turin
text.
The two largest are a further addition to Legal Documents. the already voluminous eighth century cartulary from Jeme (Medinet
2
Habfl).
One
(23)
is
the well-known
hand
the lower half of a deed of sale (Tr/mo-is), in of John, son of Lazarus. The other (36) is
part of a similar deed, in
a freely ligatured hand,
much resembling
3
that of that most popular of scribes, Aristophanes, son of John.
But
here the scribe's name, Theodore,
is
visible.
We
upon
have a specimen (30) of a

"
class of
ostraca
and peculiar apparently

Lo, here
to the seventh century.

is
document found usually 4 Each

to thee,
opens with the formula:
God's word
NN."
his
The
writer, a magistrate or other official, generally promises the person
addressed that he
may
return, dwell in his house
and go about
business unmolested, adding
"
neither will
suffer thee to
be wronged
because that thou didst
flee ".
5
In the instances which, like the present
one include these
last
words,
we
have,
think,
to see the official
promises or safe-conducts issued to villagers

other burden.
5. Letters.
largest class.
I
who had
previously ab-
sconded, or were yet in hiding, to avoid taxation, conscription, or some
These, as usual in miscellaneous collections, form our

noticed eighteen,
all
fragmentary, which showed fea-
tures of interest.
They
here
for
that the texts themselves
could not, however, be profitably described Several of are indispensable.'
them were bought at Luxor (24-29) and might have been unearthed in Western Thebes, for their script closely resembles a series of letters,
One may suspect that the story of F. Rossi, / Papiri, i, HI, 36. likewise Constantine's sister, found in Ethiopic (Zotenberg, Catnl. Theodosia, The two names would look almost p. 64, no. 5 1 ), is the same as this one.
1
t
identical in roughly written Arabic.

*
Over 120 deeds
are collected in Crum-Steindorff, Kept. Rechtsur15.

ff.
knnden.
3
Cf. Revillout, Actes,
pi.
V'
my
Ostraca, no. 107
Greek
text
somewhat
similar
is
no.
1032
6
in Brit.
of the verb/><^
ri
1 had not no. 154. recognized the force describing this MS. Berlin Kopt. Urk. i, no. 37 shows an abbot making these promises to a runaway monk. E.g. my Ostraca, no. 1 1 3. 7 By Mr. Guppy's kind permission, I am including two or three of them
Mus. Gk. Pap., iii. Another is Ry lands Catal.,
when
in
my
forthcoming Short Texts from Coptic Papyri etc.
NEW
of about
COPTIC MANUSCRIPTS
to
503
But the names
A.D. 600, known

of
have been found there.
Apollo (the addressee

point to middle,
in
two or
to
three of this group)
rather than
southern Egypt.
Incidental
and Anoup, names
other
;
letters,
such
as
Egypt
as does
one
of the only
Akoui, Naferho, likewise recall middle two place-names which I noted, Poke,
found in another Rylands
MS.
The
other place,
Perwonesh,
is
For, conapparently unknown, but not without significance here. " wolf," it perhaps points to the neightaining as it does the word
bourhood of
improbable.
1
Sifit
and so
hints at a
provenance
for other reasons
not
Catal. no- 255.
Cf. ? Peshgepohe,
Also named on ostraca from Wadi Sarga, Zoega 307, between Derut and Siut.
S. of Siut.
33

REPORT OF PROGRESS. WITH
LIST
OF THE RECENT CONTRIBUTORS.
are glad to be able to announce that the purpose which the Governors of the John Rylands Library had in view, in December, 1914, when the present scheme was inaugurated, has been abundantly
realized,
We
and
it
may
not be out of place again briefly to recall the
circumstances which led
up
to this undertaking,
and
also those
which
have contributed to
its
success.
The scheme grew

give
out of a desire on the part of the Governors to
some
practical expression to their
the authorities of the University of
deep Louvain
feelings of in
sympathy with the grievous loss which

through
the
they had
sustained,
some four months
earlier,
wanton
could
burning of their famous library by the Germans.
This, they
felt,
be best accomplished by means of a gift of books to form the nucleus of a new library to replace the splendid collection of manuscripts and printed books involved in that senseless act.
The
staff
of
was made to one of the members of the exiled Louvain professors, and was gratefully acknowledged by him,
offer of the gift
on behalf
of the University authorities, as the

effectually
first
contribution which
had been
made
to the future library of

in the
Louvain.
occupation of the Germans, so the Governors undertook to house their gift until such time as the
country had been freed from the presence of the invaders, and the University
At
that time
Belgium was
had been
repatriated.
this
Having given
be many
individuals,
undertaking it occurred to them that there must other libraries and learned institutions, as well as private
who would welcome
the opportunity of sharing in such an
expression of
sympathy, and with a view of inviting their co-operation, an announcement was made in the subsequent issue of this BULLETIN
of our willingness to
be responsible
for the
custody of any suitable works
which might be entrusted
to us for the purpose. 50
We
also
announced
505
our intention of preparing a register of the various contributors with an exact description of their gifts, for presentation with the books when
the appropriate time should arrive, to serve as a permanent record of
this
united effort to repair some of the
damage which had been wrought
by the war.
Our appeal met with an immediate and generous response, which has continued unabated throughout the five years that have elapsed
since
it
was
first
made
public.
One
of the
most gratifying features of
the response has been that
all classes of
the community, not only in this
country but in
many
parts of the English-speaking world, as well as in
several of the allied

of
and
neutral countries, have participated in
it.
Many
the gifts partake of the sanctity of a sacrifice, since they consist of
treasured possessions which
through the exercise of
had been acquired by economy and self-denial.

given to the
struggling students
A new impulse
was
movement
in
the early part of together

of
1916, through the action of the British

representatives of the principal libraries
Academy
of
in calling
societies
and learned
the
United Kingdom, under the presidency

the advisability of co-operating in the
of
Viscount Bryce, to consider

of restoring the University
in the formation of
work
Louvain and
its
Library.
This meeting resulted

in the
a National Committee, and

consisting of the following
appointment
:
of a small Executive,
K.C.
Sir
;
K.C.B.
Lord Muir Mackenzie, G.C.B., Sir F. G. Kenyon, Mahaffy, G.B.E., C.V.O. J. Sir A. T. Davies, K.B.E., C.B. Sir A. Hopkinson, K.C.
members
P.
; ; ;
Edmund
House
of
Gosse, Esq., C.B. Hugh Butler, Esq., Librarian of the Sir I. Gollancz, Secretary to the British Academy Lords
; ;
Henry Guppy,
Mackail
Shipley,
;
Esq., Librarian of the John Rylands Library

;
Dr.
J.
M.
R. James, Provost of Eton
C. G. Kekewich,
;
Esq.
;
Dr.
W.
Bodley's F.R.S., Master of Christ's

;
Librarian
Sir
Norman Moore
College,
Dr.
;
Cambridge
;
A. EL H. R.
and Dr. C. T. Hagberg Wright with Lord Muir Tedder, Esq. and the Librarian of the House of Lords as Mackenzie as Chairman,
Honorary Secretary, ment effectively, and
to consider the best
way
of organizing the
move-
to take
whatever steps were considered necessary.

in the
The
House
their
first
meeting of the Executive was held
Library of the
gladly
of Lords,
by
permission of their Lordships,
who
showed
their
sympathy with the movement by allowing this Committee to use House for its meetings, and as its base of operations generally,
506

it
when
was decided
in
to co-operate with the
Governors
Rylands Library
the development of the scheme
John which they had
of the
already inaugurated, and as a result of the personal appeals made by Lord Muir Mackenzie, Sir Alfred Hopkinson, and other members of
the Committee,
who
since
its
formation have taken an active part in
furthering the objects of the scheme, success has been achieved.
As
January
nearly
evidence of this success

last
it
we
have had
the pleasure of
needs only to be stated that since transferring to Louvain
400
cases, containing
the major part of the splendid collection of
no fewer than 30,427 volumes, forming books which has been

Manchester as the outcome
of
gradually accumulated here in
these
combined
discrepancy between these figures and those " " Notes and News may be explained given in the paragraph under the fact that a further consignment of nearly 5000 volumes has been by
efforts.
The
dispatched to Louvain since that note
was
written.
is
Even
this
does
not complete the record, for yet another consignment

tion for shipment, whilst fresh contributions
still
in active prepara-
and
offers of assistance are
almost daily reaching

Further evidence of
us.
this
unflagging interest in our project
is
to
be
found
in the
accompanying
list
of contributors, representing gifts to the
extent of nearly 10,000 volumes
which have reached us
since
the
publication of our previous report, in
December
last.
Amongst
accompanying
the
list
more recent
gifts,
which have come
to
hand
since the
was drawn
up, mention
may be made
of a valuable
collection of general literature, consisting of
1200 volumes, from the

of his wife, the late
University of Toronto, and of another collection of great interest contributed
by Mr. Humphry Ward,

in
in
memory
Mrs.
ago,
Humphry Ward, who

was a
her younger days, some forty years
diligent student of early Spanish literature
and
history,
and
contributed most of the Spanish and West-Gothic biographies to Smith " To do this Mrs. Wace's Dictionary of Christian Biography ".
&
Humphry Ward formed a these, when our scheme was

had been so
close.
small library of old Spanish books, and

first
made
public, she said she
would
like
to give to Louvain, as the old connection
between Spain and Flanders
The
collection includes
many
of the standard
historians, such as Florez,
Mariana, Nicolas Antonio, and Los Rios,
amongst other interesting works, and thus forms a most

tion to the
welcome addi-
new
library, not only
on account of
their intrinsic worth,
507
but by reason of their personal association with one whose works take rank amongst the classics of our literature.
In
one of our
earlier
appeals for help
we
explained that whilst
view the general character of the library which we had in contemplation, we were at the same time anxious that it should be
keeping in
thoroughly representative of English scholarship, in other words, that its equipment should include the necessary materials for research on the
history, language,
and
literature of this country, together
with the con-
tributions
which
British
scholars
have made
to other departments of
learning.
The
attainment of that object has been
made
possible
by the
ready and generous co-operation of many of the learned societies, universities, university presses, and by a number of the leading publishers,
to
whom we
letter
take this opportunity of renewing our thanks.

it
In this connection
may be
permissible to quote a few sentences
from a
received from Prof.
A. van Hoonacker, who,
writing
under date
of the
3rd April
last, refers to the character of our con:
tribution in the following terms
"... The
it is
restoration of our library
is
progressing splendidly,
and
a very gratifying thing to acknowledge for us, the most valuable Our debt of contributions, by far, are those of our English friends.
gratitude towards the
never be forgotten.
special
Our
Rylands Library is very great indeed and can library will be a historical monument in a
"
its
way
it is
going to be for
best part an English library
form some idea of the deep feelings of gratitude and appreciation which our united action has evoked, we venture to reproduce several passages from letters received from the Rector of the University, Monsignor P. Ladeuze. Writing
of enabling readers to
With a view
on the 30th January, soon after the receipt of our first consignment of books, Monsignor Ladeuze expresses himself, on behalf of the University, in
the following significant terms
"...
avez
Les
resultats
que vous avez obtenus sont merveilleux.
Vous
atteint votre but.
Grace a vous nos
professeurs et nos etudiants
ont encore une bibliotheque, et une bibliotheque
utilisable, longtemps Par la richesse de avant que les Allemands aient repare leur crime. ont etc donnes aux livres, par la peine son contenu, par les soins qui
que vous avez

des
fiches,
de dresser un catalogue soigne et une bonne partie votre premier envoi de livres depasse de loin tous ceux que
prise
rec.us jusqu'ici.
nous avons
La
joie
de nos professeurs devant ces beaux
508

;
livres faisait plaisir
j'aurai votilu
que vous en
fussiez temoin.
Et
voici
!
qu'un nouvel envoi nous parvient, encore plus precieux que le premier Les listes que j'ai revues me permettent d'en apprecier toute 1'importance, et en particulier 1'utilite que nous pourrons en retirer tout de suite
pour nos etudes.
meilleur merci."
Du
plus profond
de mon coeur,
je
vous dis
mon
Again, under date of the 23rd

detailed
lists
February, upon receipt of the
of the contents of the cases forming the third consignment,

:
Monsignor Ladeuze writes

"
.
. .
Ce
nouvel envoi va etre reellement
d'une grande
utilite
pour nos professeurs et nos etudiants.

caisse,
La
liste
du contenu de chaque
que
je reôis
en
surabondamment, de formules pour vous exprimer a nouveau notre vive gratitude
et je
meme temps que votre lettre, me le prouve vous demande la permission de ne pas chercher
.
16,390 volumes, choisis, bien ordonnes, en excellent etat

toute
C'est deja
!
une bibliotheque,
et
une bibliotheque
fini,
universitaire
Et vous
voulez bien
me
dire
que ce n'est par

!
qu'au contraire le
fois,
nombre des
dons
tout
s'accroit tous les jours
Encore une
sans formules, merci de
mon
"
coeur
Again, under date of the 22nd May " Je ne sais plus a quelles formules recourir pour vous dire
:
mon
admiration et
ma
gratitude.
je parlais
'
"
II
y a quelques jours, Et
;
M.
le
Professeur
les
Van
la
der Essen
collection
de vos
envois.
la
il
me
repondit
J'ai
vu
debuts de
pendant
guerre
ils
etaient deja magnifiques.

les
Mais
je n'aurais pas
pu soupc,onner
prendre.
.
.'
developpements que cette collection allait Ces paroles se rapportaient aux quatre premiers envois.
alors
Le cinquieme va comme je puis en
encore considerablement augmenter ces richesses,
juger par les indications que vous voulez bien en m'annoncant son arrivee. donner,
me
"...
"
Soyez encore remercie 26,336

!
fois
pour
les
26,336 volumes,
la disposition
tous de choix, que nous vous devons
Les volumes de quatre envois precedents sont deja a

lecteurs,
de nos
"
II
et se trouvent bien etablis
sur
les
rayons de notre
bibliotheque provisoire.
est bien regrettable qu'il
ne
soil
pas encore possible de commencer
a construire notre nouvelle bibliotheque."
Yet
again, under dale of the
23rd July

"... Au moment
jours.
oil
509
je rec.ois votre lettre et
le
catalogue de
votre nouvel envoi, je suis sur le point de m'absenter pour plusieurs
Je veux'cependant vous envoyer tout de suite une rapide mais
tres sincere expression
de
ma
vive gratitude.
Ce
m'est un grand plaisir
de
a tous ceux qui visitent notre Bibliotheque provisoire 1'importance extraordinaire de votre collaboration a I'oeuvre de la
faire connaitre
Nous voici 30,427 fois obliges envers de notre depot. vous Et combien ce nouvel envoi nous sera precieux, la breve La semaine description que vous m'en donnez, le montre eloquemment.
restauration
!
grande reunion annuelle de notre conseil d'administration, presidee par le Cardinal Mercier. Je me ferai un devoir de lui exposer tout ce que nous vous devons."
prochaine aura
lieu la
Monsieur L.
Brussels,
who
Bibliotheque Roy ale, has undertaken the direction of the restoration of the
Stainier,
Administrateur de
la
Louvain Library, and consequently has had the handling and

of our consignments,
direction
when acknowledging
of appreciation.
their safe arrival
employs the
same emphatic terms
On
"
bells
the 6th April he writes as follows

letter of
Your
the 1st April reached us at the time the Easter
were chiming
I
in
happy remembrance
.
of the Saviour's Resurrection,
and
could not refrain from associating their chimes with the joy of the
.
.
resurrection of our library.
"
The
first
three consignments have caused the greatest satisfaction

I
among
the professors, but

is
think they will feel

for consultation.
no
less
the fourth consignment
ready
Such
happy when interesting and
useful sets as the publications of the
Early English Text Society, the
Gibb Memorial Fund, The Royal Asiatic Society, the Gwatkin collection, etc., will enable our masters and students to resume their work
anew."
On the 3rd May "... Above all we

:
congratulate you
;
mission you have instituted
the rapidity
upon the system of transand smoothness of which is
marvellous
to
and we are now considering the application of the system the recuperation in Germany, the beginning of which is now in view."
;
On
latest
the 31st
May,
more
thus
I
"... Once
"
am
able to report the safe arrival of your

.
no, of treasures ! consignment of sixty-three cases of books such collections as the texts of the Manchester University Positively
.
.
510
THE JOHN RYLANpS LIBRARY
Press and of the Clarendon Press at Oxford would be considered
among the most useful collections already shelved in our stores, and I do not doubt of the satisfaction of masters and students when they are enabled to know the Mayhew and Jenner collections, and peruse the
books gathered by such workers.
"In
the case of the publications of the Folk Lore Society
we had
to
which they were contained in order to satisfy the impatient professor who had been waiting its coming since early morning. The Agrippa's Works (a volume which at one time belonged
open the cases in
'
'
'
to the
his parents'
Louvain Library) was received as a Prodigal Son reintegrating home."

cannot conclude
this report
We
without acknowledging our in-
debtedness for the great service which has been rendered by the Cork Steamship Company, Limited, for whom Messrs. J. T. Fletcher
&
Company
Louvain.
of
Manchester
act as agents, in so generously undertaking
the entire responsibility of the transportation of the

four
new
library to
chester
in ManNearly and shipped to Louvain, free of cost a most liberal contribution towards our scheme of restoration. We have also to thank Mr. Jebson,
hundred cases have been collected
the representative of
Messrs. Fletcher, for the great interest he has
taken in the matter, and for the advice and help which he has so
readily given in
making the necessary arrangements
for shipment.
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE NEW LOUVAIN LIBRARY, NOVEMBER, 1919, TO JUNE, 1920.

(The
Mrs.
figures in Brackets represent the
number
of
Volumes.)
(61)
(30)
(3)
ADAM,
Cambridge.
Edulji
Mr. Hormusji
R.
AtLBLESS, Bombay.
ATHERTON,
ESQ., Northenden.
Miss H. ATKINSON, London. Mrs. BARCLAY, Stevenage.
(18)
(131)
K.G., Madres(
1
The
Right Hon. the Earl field Court, Malvern.
BEAUCHAMP,
G. E. BELL,
The
Esq., Birkenhead. BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford.
(1)
(Dr.
A. E. COWLEY,
(1389)
Librarian.)

The BRITISH FOREIGN OFFICE, London.
Esq., Librarian.)
(S.
511
GASELEE,
(756)
(234)
(7)
First instalment
BRITISH
MUSEUM
NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM,
South Kensington.
BROWNE, M.A., Cambridge. Mrs. G. BuXTON, Wootton Bassett. J. B. CARRINGTON, Esq., London.
Captain C.
J.
Professor E. G.
(69)
(3)
P.
CAVE, R.E.,
Petersfield.
(82)
The
HUMPHREY
CHETHAM
LIBRARY,
Manchester
(12)
(H. CROSSLEY, Esq., Librarian.) N. G. CHOLMELEY, Esq., Bude.
(31)
The Master and

Oxford.
Fellows of
(H.
W.
CHRIST CHURCH COLLEGE, BLUNT, Esq., Librarian.)

(
(1)
1
Miss CLARK, Eastbourne.
2)
The CLARK WlLSON, Librarian.) The Rev. C. E. CLARKE, London. The Rev. Canon F. D. CREMER, Seaford. J. C. CROWE, Esq., Manchester. Miss E. CRUDDAS, Humshaugh. E. G. CUNDALL, Esq., London.
Miss CURTIS, Worcester.
R. CUST, Esq., c/o Messrs. Luzac Mrs. A. DAVIES, Chelsea.
UNIVERSITY, Worcester, Mass.
(Dr.
N.
(35)
(1)
(3)
(130)
(1)
(13)
(6)
&
Co., London.
7)
(2) (4)
(2)
R. DAVIES, Esq., Chelsea. Miss DlXON, Cambridge.
The Rev. A. DlXON, Denton.

T.
(25)
WATSON-DUNCAN,
Esq.,
Glasgow.
(351)
(2)
F. C.
ECCLES, Esq., London.
FELLOWS, Poynton. Mr. and Mrs. FlGAROLA-CANEDA, Habana. Dr. FlNLEY, West Malvern.
Dr.
(18)
(310)
(12)
(1)
(1)
T. Fisher UNWIN, Esq., London. Mrs. FORD, Carnforth.

J.
N. FORSYTH,
Esq., Isle of Mull.

Esq., Manchester.
(17)
(1) (1) (9)
M. FRANKENHUIS,
Lady FRAZER, London. S. GASELEE, Esq., London.
512

Mrs. E. GIBSON, Guildford.
Mrs. E. GlNSBURG, Capri, Italy. The Rev. S. E. GLADSTONE, Helsby.
(3)
(4)
(34) (22)
(3)
Miss
J.
GOWAN,
Cullen.
GREGSON, Esq., Liverpool. The GRYPHON CLUB. (Per A. VAN DER PUT, Mrs. A. HAAS, London. J. H. A. HART, Esq., Matlock. Sir T. E. HOLLAND, K.C., Oxford.
E.
Sir Alfred
W.
Esq.)
(2)
(46)
(22)
(I)
(3)
IRWIN, Dublin. R. JAESCHKE, Esq., London.
(7)
The Rev. G. E. JEANS, Isle of Wight. The Rev. Canon C. H. W. JOHNS, Cambridge. A. JOHNSTON, Esq., Woodford. Miss M. KING, Keswick.
Morpeth. The LEEDS PUBLIC LIBRARIES.
Esq.,
(28)
(130)
(9)
(5)
(1)
F.
LAKE,
(T.
W. HAND,
Esq.,
Librarian.)
(110)
(7)
Mrs. LEWIS, Wakefield. Mrs. and Miss LEWIS, S. Godstone.
(52)
The
Treasurer and Masters of the
London.
L.
(A.
F.
BENCH, Lincoln's Inn, ETHERIDGE, Esq., Librarian.)

First instalment (
1
500)
(1)
A. MAGNUS,
Esq., London.
Mrs.
MoYSEY,
Guildford.
(12) (10)
(7) (6) (7)
The Hon. Mrs. MuiR-MACKENZIE, London. S. W. MURRAY, Esq., Cardross.

Miss H. NEAVES, Edinburgh. D. F. O'NEILL, Esq., Macroom, Co. Cork.
Miss R.
OWEN,
Ambleside.
(12)
(1
1
Mrs. OciLVIE, Aberdeen.
I)
The PATENT OFFICE, London.

A. G. PESKETT,
Dr. PICK, Barry.
Sir F.
(22)
Esq.,
and Mrs. PESKETT, Southwold
(42)
(48)
(1)
POLLOCK, London. The PRIVY COUNCIL. (Per

K.C.V.O.)
Sir
A.
W.
FITZROY, K.C.B.,
(6)
(2)
Miss E. PYCROFT, Burley, Brockenhurst.

Miss G. B. RAWLINGS, London. The REFORM CLUB, London. (W. R. B. PRIDEAUX,
Esq., Librarian.
513
(I)
(69)
(4)
The DEAN and CHAPTER, the CATHEDRAL, Ripon. L F. SALZMAN, Esq., Cambridge. Mrs. Rita SEYMOUR, Maidstone.
Lady SIMEON, London. H. C. SMITH, Esq., London. The Right Hon. J. Parker SMITH,
(1)
(82)
(24) (30)
P.C., Edinburgh
(109)
(I)
The Misses SuMNER, Grassmere. M. T. TATHAM, Esq., Abingdon. G. THOMAS, Esq., J.P., Irlam. Lieut.-Col. H. W. ToDHUNTER, Twickenham. Dr. Paget ToYNBEE, Burnham, Bucks.
A.
Dr.
(I)
(49)
(3)
(44) (13)
(2)
VAN DE PUTT, W. WALLACE,
Esq.,
London.
London.
Mrs. WILLIAMS, Bournemouth. The Rev. J. J. WlLLMOTT, Colchester.

Dr.
(5) (3)
A. WILSON, Hampstead. Miss E. M. WISE, Poynton. Messrs. G. BELL & SONS, Ltd.,
(63)
(13)
Publishers,
London
(36)
The BRITISH FIRE PREVENTION COMMITTEE.

HAYLES,
Esq.. Registrar.)
(M. C.
(20)
The BRITISH NUMISMATIC SOCIETY.

SON, Esq., President.)
(H.
W. MORRI(12) Oxford.
The DELEGATES OF THE CLARENDON PRESS,

(H.
W. CHAPMAN,
Esq., Secretary.)
(Sir Israel
(193)
The EARLY ENGLISH TEXTS SOCIETY.

LANCZ, Hon.
Director.)
GOL(262)
(Dr.
The JEWISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. M. EPSTEIN, Hon. Secretary.) Messrs. KEGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co.,
Publishers,
(11)
Ltd.,
London.
(1)
The LANCET OFFICE, London. (Per C. GOOD, Esq.) (126) The MANCHESTER GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. (T. W. SOWERBUTTS, Esq., Secretary.) (36) TRUSTEES of the PARSEE PUNCHAYET FUNDS AND
PROPERTIES, Bombay.
Esq., Secretary.)
(Jivanji Jamshedji
MODI,
(88)
514

The PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Hon.
B.
Secretary.)
(L
C.
WHARTON,
Esq.,
(8)
QUARITCH, Ltd., London. (Per E. H. DRING, Esq.) The ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS. (V. G. PLARR,
Esq., Librarian.)
(98)
(19)
The ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

Esq., Secretary.)
(A. R. HINKS,
(177)
The SUSSEX
ARCH/EOLOGICAL SOCIETY. (W. E. NICHOLSON, Esq., Hon. Secretary.) The UNIVERSITY TUTORIAL PRESS. (W. BRIGGS, Esq., LLD., Principal.) The FOLK LORE SOCIETY. (F. A. MILNE, Esq., Hon.
Secretary.)
of
(36)
(23)
(60)
J.
TRUSTEES
the E.
W.
GIBB MEMORIAL FUND.

(34)
(G. C.
RAYNES, Esq., Secretary.) The IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE, London.
(W.
L.
LLOYD,
Esq., Secretary.)
(Ill)
ABERDEEN: THE UNIVERSITY PRRSS
T>
921 M3J7 v.5
John Kylands Library, Manchester Bulletin
PLEASE
DO NOT REMOVE
FROM
THIS
CARDS OR
SLIPS
POCKET
UNIVERSITY
OF TORONTO
LIBRARY

Bulletin of The John Rylands Library, Volume 5, August 1918 - July 1920.

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Bulletin of The John Rylands Library, Volume 5, August 1918 - July 1920.

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

JINDING LIST JAN

THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY

PUBLISHED FOR THK JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY AT

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

(H. M. MCKECHNIE, Secretary) LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD, MANCHESTER

LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY

THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY

Notes and News

of the Library of the University of

Classified List of Accessions to the Library

Metrical Fragments in III Maccabees

The Origin and Meaning

Three Letters of John Eliot and a

of Lading of the "

Synopsis of Christian Doctrine

Mind and Medicine

List of Abbreviations and Contractions in the

Mediaval Forgers and Forgeries

WILLIAM CARNELLEY.I LORD COZENS HARDY OF LETHERINGSETT,

GERARD N. FORD, J.P. SIR ALFRED HOPKINSON,

GEORGE WATSON MACALP1NE, J.P.. THOMAS THORNHILL SHANN, J.P.

REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNORS.* SIR HENRY A. MIERS,

GERARD N. FORD, J.P. CHARLES HAROLD HERFORD,

GEORGE WATSON MACALPINE,

LORD MAYOR OF MANCHESTER. MAYOR OF SALFORD. WILLIAM VAUDREY, J.P.

CHAIRMAN OF COUNCIL VlCB-CHA 1RMAN

THOMAS GERARD N. FORD, J.P. HENRY GUPPY, M.A.

MIERS, D.Sc., F.R.S. M.A., D.D. T. SHANN, J.P.

GUTHRIE VINE, M.A. RENDEL HARRIS, M.A.,

Representative and Co-optative Governors constitute tb

Honorary Governors are not Members of

RULES AND REGULATIONS OF

THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY.

Persons desirous of being admitted to read

the Library must apply

Librarian, specifying their profession or business,

their place of abode,

and the particular purpose

which they seek

make proper use of the

for their decision.

any Book, Manuscript, or Map.

mark or writing on any Book, Manuscript, or Map

tracing shall be allowed to be

Open Reference Shelves may be consulted without any

on the tables instead of

be had on application to the

RULES AND REGULATIONS

held responsible for such Books, Manuscripts, or remain uncancelled.

all wraps, canes, the Vestibule, and

infringement of these Rules will render the privilege of admission

any time be withdrawn by the Council of

ADMISSION OF THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND VISITORS.

same purpose upon

BULLETIN OF THE JOHN RYLANDS LIBRARY

THE RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LOUVAIN.

Belgium has been freed from the hateful presence

the barbarian invaders,

brutal tyranny has received

deserved, the Belgian people are re-

care of these brave people will be the rebuilding of their

country, once so fair

and prosperous, but during four years ravaged by